39:
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In the following years, the
Ovimbundu completely changed their economy to cash crop production of corn, sold to a rapidly increasing network of Portuguese traders. However, because of their demographic growth, and because significant portions of their lands were appropriated by Europeans for coffee,
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In political terms, the
Angolan parliamentary elections of 2008 reflected an important shift in Ovimbundu loyalty: while most of them had voted UNITA in the previous (1992) election, their majority now voted MPLA - because (after the death of Jonas Savimbi) UNITA had lost much of its credibility,
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Since 2002, considerable efforts at reconstruction have been made - by the government, interested in national reconciliation, but to a large extent by the people themselves, by the churches and by a variety of NGOs. A significant proportion of the "internally displaced" Ovimbundu have returned to
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their places of origin, where traditional forms of social organization have often survived or then been reconstituted. However, larger or smaller
Ovimbundu communities have remained in many cities outside their habitat, so that a significant part of this people is now scattered all over Angola.
221:
populations who drifted in from the North, over the last millennium, and formed local/regional groups which slowly became political units and foci of social identity: M'Balundu, Sele, Wambo, Bieno and others. They developed a sophisticated agriculture, completed by the breeding of small animals
249:, from whom they obtained wax, rubber, honey and ivory. Each trading caravan had a professional leader and diviner. Trade agreements that had linked the independent chiefdoms led to the development of regional specializations, including metalwork and cornmeal production.
291:, were to a large extent destroyed by the MPLA and UNITA respectively, as were a considerable number of villages and much infrastructure (roads, railways, bridges etc.). Many people died, and many others fled to cities either in their own area (
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living in the
Southern part of the Ambundu region. Oliver and Atmore use it for those in the area where the Ndongo Kingdom developed. See R.Oliver and A. Atmore, Medieval Africa 1250-1800, Cambridge University Press, 2001, page
551:
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sisal and other plantations, many
Ovimbundu started to work as paid labour, mainly on European plantations in their own region or in Northwest Angola, but also in Namibian mines.
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and in the coastal strip west of these highlands. As the largest ethnic group in Angola, they make up 38 percent of the country's population. Overwhelmingly the
Ovimbundu follow
237:, in the 16th century. Several of the small "kingdoms" saw their advantage in organising an intense caravan trade between Benguela and peoples of the East, in particular the
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were also an integral part of
Ovimbundu societies. Caravan trading declined with the suppression of the slave trade and, more importantly, the construction of the
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Terms of Trade and Terms of Trust: The
History and Contexts of Pre-colonial Market Production Around the Upper Zambezi and Kasai
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Didier Péclard, "Les incertitudes de la nation en Angola: Aux racines sociales de l'UNITA", Paris: Karthala, 2015
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The
Ovimbundu Under Two Sovereignties: A Study of Social Control and Social Change Among a People of Angola
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Interrelations between economic and social change in rural Africa: the case of the
Ovimbundu of Angola
222:(chicken, goats, swine) as well as of a modicum of cows bought from the farmer-herders to the South (
538:, Rochester/NY: University of Rochester Press, 2000 (A scholarly political history of the Ovimbundu)
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but also because strengthening UNITA was seen as implying the risk of a renewal of armed violence.
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The term Southern Mbundu has also been used for the
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434:References
87:Portuguese
60:12,740,000
704:Afrikaner
699:Norwegian
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305:Lubango
251:Slavery
213:History
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162:Umbundu
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639:Lovale
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614:Chokwe
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345:Civula
340:Citata
301:Luanda
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285:Huambo
247:Mbunda
243:Luvale
241:, the
239:Chokwe
228:Ovambo
195:Angola
150:People
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71:Angola
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726:Zemba
721:Yombe
649:Lunda
634:ǃKung
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624:Himba
396:Notes
375:Wambu
289:Kuito
270:UNITA
219:Bantu
187:Bantu
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644:Lozi
499:ISBN
472:ISBN
370:Viye
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