Oppenheimer security clearance hearing

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Oppenheimer. Teller testified that he considered Oppenheimer loyal, but that "in a great number of cases, I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act – I understand that Dr. Oppenheimer acted – in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated. To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better, and therefore trust more." Asked whether Oppenheimer should be granted a security clearance, Teller said that "if it is a question of wisdom or judgement, as demonstrated by actions since 1945, then I would say one would be wiser not to grant clearance." This led to outrage by many in the scientific community and Teller's ostracism and virtual expulsion from academic science.

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had been opposed to the H-bomb and that his lack of enthusiasm for it had affected the attitude of other scientists, he had not actively discouraged scientists from working on the H-bomb, as had been alleged in Nichols' letter. It found that "there is no evidence that he was a member of the party in the strict sense of the word," and concluded that he is a "loyal citizen". It said that he "had a high degree of discretion, reflecting an unusual ability to keep to himself vital secrets," but that he had "a tendency to be coerced, or at least influenced in conduct, for a period of years."

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to testify at the Oppenheimer hearing because of illness. On April 26, Lawrence suffered a severe colitis attack. The next day, Lawrence called Lewis Strauss and told him that his brother, a doctor, had ordered him to return home and that he would not be testifying. Lawrence suffered with colitis until his death during colostomy surgery, on August 27, 1958. However, an interview transcript in which Lawrence stated that Oppenheimer "should never again have anything to do with the forming of policy" was presented at the hearing, and several other members of Lawrence's

1072: 809:, former executive director of Congress' Joint Atomic Energy Committee. In the letter, Borden stated his opinion "based upon years of study, of the available classified evidence, that more probably than not J. Robert Oppenheimer is an agent of the Soviet Union." The letter was based upon the government's massive investigative dossier on Oppenheimer, a dossier that included, as one author later wrote, "eleven years' minute surveillance of the scientist's life." His office and home had been bugged, his telephone tapped and his mail opened. 1223:, an intellectual and progressive unjustly attacked by warmongering enemies, symbolic of the shift of scientific creativity from academia into the military. Patrick McGrath noted that "Scientists and administrators such as Edward Teller, Lewis Strauss and Ernest Lawrence, with their full-throated militarism and anti-communism pushed American scientists and their institutions toward a nearly complete and subservient devotion to American military interests." Scientists continued to work for the AEC, but they no longer trusted it. 5690: 702: 520: 1092:

is less of a security risk now than he was then, seems to be hardly the procedure to be adopted in a free country." Evans said that his association with Chevalier did not indicate disloyalty, and that he did not hinder development of the H-bomb. Evans said he personally thought that "our failure to clear Dr. Oppenheimer will be a black mark on the escutcheon of our country," and expressed concern about the effect an improper decision might have on the country's scientific development.

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the requirements of the security system," that he was susceptible "to influence which could have serious implications for the security interests of the country," that his attitude toward the H-bomb program raised doubt about whether his future participation "would be consistent with the best interests of security," and that Oppenheimer had been "less than candid in several instances" in his testimony. The majority therefore did not recommend that his security clearance be reinstated.

827:; (c) His wife and younger brother were Communists; (d) He had no close friends except Communists; (e) He had at least one Communist mistress; (f) He belonged only to Communist organizations, apart from professional affiliations; (g) The people whom he recruited into the early wartime Berkeley atom project were exclusively Communists; (h) He had been instrumental in securing recruits for the Communist Party, and (i) He was in frequent contact with Soviet Espionage agents. 5666: 1437:(DOE) – the successor organization to the AEC – vacated the 1954 revocation of Oppenheimer's security clearance. Her statement said Oppenheimer's clearance was revoked "through a flawed process that violated the Commission's own regulations. As time has passed, more evidence has come to light of the bias and unfairness of the process that Dr. Oppenheimer was subjected to while the evidence of his loyalty and love of country have only been further affirmed." 993: 575:

only one person had been approached: his brother Frank. In any case, Groves had considered Oppenheimer too important to the ultimate Allied goals of building atomic bombs and winning the war to oust him over any suspicious behavior. He had ordered on July 20, 1943, that Oppenheimer be given a security clearance "without delay, irrespective of the information which you have concerning Mr. Oppenheimer. He is absolutely essential to the project."

888:, general manager of the AEC. Pending resolution of the charges, Oppenheimer's security clearance was suspended. Oppenheimer told Strauss that some of what was in Nichols' letter was correct, some incorrect. Nichols wrote that he was "not happy with the inclusion of a reference concerning Oppenheimer's opposition to the hydrogen bomb development." He considered that "in spite of his record he is loyal to the United States." 678:(HUAC), where he admitted that he had associations with the Communist Party in the 1930s, and named some of his students as being Communists or closely associated with them. Bohm and Peters eventually left the country, while Lomanitz was forced to work as a laborer. Frank Oppenheimer was fired from his university position, and could not find work in physics for a decade. He and his wife Jackie became cattle ranchers in 5702: 1330:, a senior historian at the Smithsonian Institution, contended, based on newly discovered documentation, that Oppenheimer was a member of the Communist Party. However, Herken did not subscribe to the Borden letter's charge: "I don't think he was a spy. The significance of his being a Communist was that it gave him something he had to hide, and may be one explanation of why he was so quiet after 1954." 579:

Eltenton for information which could be passed to the Soviets. Oppenheimer claimed to have invented the other contacts to conceal the identity of Chevalier, whose identity he believed would be immediately apparent if he named only one contact, but whom he believed to be innocent of any disloyalty. The 1943 fabrication and the shifting nature of his accounts figured prominently in the 1954 inquiry.

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incident indicated that Oppenheimer "is not reliable or trustworthy", and that his misstatements might have represented criminal conduct. He said that Oppenheimer's "obstruction and disregard for security" showed "a consistent disregard of a reasonable security system." The Nichols memorandum was not made public nor provided to Oppenheimer's lawyers, who were not allowed to appear before the AEC.

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United States H-bomb program; (c) He has used his potent influence against every postwar effort to expand capacity for producing A-bomb material; (d) He has used his potent influence against every postwar effort directed at obtaining larger supplies of uranium raw material; and (e) He has used his potent influence against every major postwar effort toward atomic power development, including the

1020:, both members of the Communist Party. The questions probed into Oppenheimer's private life, including his affair with Jean Tatlock, a Communist with whom he stayed the night while he was married. Lansdale had concluded at the time that his interest in Tatlock was romantic rather than political. Nonetheless, this innocuous affair may have played more heavily in the minds of the review panel. 957:

Garrison and his co-counsel were barred from the hearing room for security reasons, leaving Oppenheimer unrepresented, in violation of AEC regulations. During the course of the hearing, Robb repeatedly cross-examined Oppenheimer's witnesses utilizing top-secret documents unavailable to Oppenheimer's attorneys. He often read aloud from those documents, despite their secret status.

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of atomic development as his personal speciality, he was acting under Soviet instructions.) 2. More probably than not, he has since been functioning as an espionage agent; and 3. More probably than not, he has since acted under a Soviet directive in influencing United States military, atomic energy, intelligence, and diplomatic policy.

1349:, Harvey Klehr, and Vassiliev concluded that Oppenheimer never was involved in espionage for the Soviets. Soviet intelligence tried repeatedly to recruit him, but were never successful. Allegations that he had spied for the Soviets are unsupported, and in some instances, contradicted by voluminous KGB and 1295:

magazine literary critic Richard Lacayo, in a 2005 review of two new books about Oppenheimer, said of the hearing: "As an effort to prove that he had been a party member, much less one involved in espionage, the inquest was a failure. Its real purpose was larger, however: to punish the most prominent

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In a few years after World War II, scientists had been regarded as a new class of intellectuals, members of a public-policy priesthood who might legitimately offer expertise not only as scientists but as public philosophers. With Oppenheimer's defrocking, scientists knew that in the future they would

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As outlined in the 3,500-word Nichols letter, the hearing focused on 24 allegations, 23 of which dealt with Oppenheimer's Communist and left-wing affiliations between 1938 and 1946, including his delayed and false reporting of the Chevalier incident to authorities. The twenty-fourth charge related to

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On December 21, 1953, Oppenheimer was told by Lewis Strauss that his security file had been subject to two recent re-evaluations because of new screening criteria, and because a former government official had drawn attention to Oppenheimer's record. Strauss said that his clearance had been suspended,

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1. Between 1939 and mid-1942, more probably than not, J. Robert Oppenheimer was a sufficiently hardened Communist that he either volunteered espionage information to the Soviets or complied with a request for such information. (This includes the possibility that when he singled out the weapons aspect

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2. The evidence indicating that: (a) In May 1942, he either stopped contributing funds to the Communist Party or else made his contributions though a new channel not yet discovered; (b) In April 1943 his name was formally submitted for security clearance; (c) He himself was aware at the time that his

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however, Oppenheimer pushed for smaller "tactical" nuclear weapons that would be more useful against enemy troops in a limited theater conflict and which would be under control of the Army. He also proposed investments in air defense against nuclear attack, which would potentially take resources away

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Most popular depictions of Oppenheimer view his security struggles as a confrontation between right-wing militarists (symbolized by Edward Teller) and left-wing intellectuals (symbolized by Oppenheimer) over the moral question of weapons of mass destruction. Many historians have contested this as an

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that Granholm's report had "glossed over" evidence that Oppenheimer had been a member of the Communist Party. Bernstein said in another article that Granholm had "ignored important parts of the substantial 21st-century scholarship on Oppenheimer and on the Oppenheimer loyalty-security case" and that

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In a brief dissent, Evans argued that Oppenheimer's security clearance should be reinstated. He pointed out that most of the AEC charges had been in the hands of the AEC when it cleared Oppenheimer in 1947, and that "to deny him clearance now for what he was cleared for in 1947, when we must know he

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Oppenheimer's clearance was revoked by a 2–1 vote of the panel. Gray and Morgan voted in favor, Evans against. The board rendered its decision on May 27, 1954, in a 15,000-word letter to Nichols. It found that 20 of the 24 charges were either true or substantially true. The board found that while he

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Edward Teller was opposed to the hearing, feeling it was improper to subject Oppenheimer to a security trial, but was torn by longstanding grievances against him. He was called by Robb to testify against Oppenheimer, and shortly before he appeared Robb showed Teller a dossier of items unfavorable to

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Groves, testifying as a witness for the AEC and against Oppenheimer, reaffirmed his decision to hire Oppenheimer. Groves said that Oppenheimer's refusal to report Chevalier was "the typical American school boy attitude that there is something wicked about telling on a friend." Under questioning from

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One of the key elements in this hearing was Oppenheimer's earliest testimony about Eltenton's approach to various Los Alamos scientists, a story that Oppenheimer confessed he had fabricated to protect his friend Chevalier. Unknown to Oppenheimer, both versions were recorded during his interrogations

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told the AEC commissioners that while thermonuclear weapons could potentially be thousands of times as powerful as fission weapons, as of 1949 there was no design that worked, and no certainty that a practical bomb could be built if there was one. He cautioned that the "Super" would probably require

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connections. He gave that person's name as Eltenton. When pressed on the issue in later interviews at Los Alamos in December 1943 with Groves, who promised to keep the identity of the three men from the FBI, Oppenheimer identified the contact who had approached him as Chevalier, and told Groves that

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magazine described him as "one of the most famous men in the world, one of the most admired, quoted, photographed, consulted, glorified, well-nigh deified as the fabulous and fascinating archetype of a brand new kind of hero, the hero of science and intellect, originator and living symbol of the new

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posits that the remarkable thing about Oppenheimer was that he was ever able to hold a high-level security clearance in the first place, given his past associations and record of evasions, and that he had been given special treatment and protection by the U.S. government to allow him to work in the

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signed a petition in protest of the security board's decision. The petition was delivered to President Eisenhower, the members of the AEC, and the chair of the JCAE. The petition acknowledged that it was up to the government to decide who they wanted as advisors, but said that "it is inexcusable to

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The board found that Oppenheimer's association with Chevalier "is not the kind of thing that our security system permits on the part of one who customarily has access to information of the highest classification", and concluded that "Oppenheimer's continuing conduct reflects a serious disregard for

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Ernest Lawrence was known to dislike political activities, seeing them as a waste of time better spent on scientific research. He did not oppose the investigations of Oppenheimer or others, tending to distance himself from those under investigation rather than supporting them. He said he was unable

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Oppenheimer testified for a total of 27 hours. His demeanor was very different from his previous interrogations, such as his appearance before HUAC. Under cross-examination by Robb, who had access to top-secret information such as surveillance recordings, Oppenheimer was "often anguished, sometimes

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The hearing was not open to the public and initially was not publicized. At the commencement of the hearing, Gray stated the hearing was "strictly confidential", and pledged that no information related to the hearing would be released. Contrary to this assurance, a few weeks after the conclusion of

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The contents of the letter were not new, and some had been known when Oppenheimer was first cleared for atomic war work. Yet that information had not prompted anyone to seek his removal from government service. Despite the lack of significant new evidence, Eisenhower was troubled by any possibility

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3. The evidence indicating that: (a) He was responsible for employing a number of Communists, some of them not technical, at wartime Los Alamos; (b) He selected one such individual to write the official Los Alamos history; (c) He was a vigorous supporter of the H-bomb program until August 6, 1945,

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These dozen or so theoretical physicists surely came under fire for many reasons; with hindsight their troubles appear almost overdetermined. Most were Jewish; several had been active in labor organizing before or during the war; a few had flirted with the Communist Party in their youth; many were

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Oppenheimer was interviewed by the FBI on September 5, 1946. He related the "Chevalier incident", and gave contradictory and equivocating statements, telling government agents that only he had been approached by Chevalier, who at the time had supposedly said that he had a potential conduit through

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The AEC's former general counsel Joseph Volpe had urged Oppenheimer to retain a tough litigator as his attorney; Garrison's demeanor was gentle and cordial, but Robb was adversarial. Garrison voluntarily provided the board and Robb with a list of his witnesses, but Robb refused to extend the same

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Garrison applied for an emergency security clearance prior to the hearing, as one had been granted to Robb, but no clearance was granted during the course of the hearing, which meant that Oppenheimer's attorneys had no access to the secrets that Robb was able to see. On at least three occasions,

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4. The evidence indicating that: (a) He was remarkably instrumental in influencing the military authorities and the Atomic Energy Commission essentially to suspend H-bomb development from mid-1946 through January 31, 1950 (b) He has worked tirelessly, from January 31, 1950, onward to retard the

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The proceedings were initiated after Oppenheimer refused to voluntarily give up his security clearance while working as an atomic weapons consultant for the government, under a contract due to expire at the end of June 1954. Several of his colleagues testified at the hearings. As a result of the

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at the time he was made director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in 1942 and chairman of the influential General Advisory Committee of the AEC in 1947. In this capacity, Oppenheimer became involved in bureaucratic conflict between the Army and Air Force over the types of nuclear weapons the country

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Granholm's order did not say that the charges against him were erroneous, nor did it posthumously restore Oppenheimer's security clearance. Granholm wrote that whether Oppenheimer "ought to have been eligible for access to restricted data is not one that this Department can or should attempt to

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No one can force me to say that you cannot use these isotopes for atomic energy. You can use a shovel for atomic energy, in fact you do. You can use a bottle of beer for atomic energy, in fact you do. But to get some perspective, the fact is that during the war and after the war these materials

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opposed. The decision was rendered 32 hours before Oppenheimer's consultant contract, and with it the need for a clearance, was due to expire. In his majority opinion, Strauss said that Oppenheimer had displayed "fundamental character defects". He said that Oppenheimer "in his associations had

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In a harshly worded memorandum to the AEC on June 12, 1954, Nichols recommended that Oppenheimer's security clearance not be reinstated. In five "security findings", Nichols said that Oppenheimer was "a Communist in every sense except that he did not carry a party card," and that the Chevalier

422:" (thermonuclear) bomb. Oppenheimer told Groves on October 8 that the Manhattan Project needed a dedicated weapons development laboratory. Groves agreed, and after a second meeting with Oppenheimer on a train on October 15, decided that Oppenheimer was the man he needed to head what became the 712:

From 1949 to 1953, Oppenheimer had also found himself in the middle of a controversy over the development of the "Super". In 1949, the Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb. This came as a shock to many Americans, and it fell to Oppenheimer to play a leading role in checking the evidence and

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The loss of his security clearance ended Oppenheimer's role in government and policy. He became an academic exile, cut off from his former career and the world he had helped to create. The reputations of those who had testified against Oppenheimer were tarnished as well, though Oppenheimer's

1520:. Oppenheimer objected to the play, threatening suit and decrying "improvisations which were contrary to history and to the nature of the people involved", including its portrayal of him as viewing the bomb as a "work of the devil". His letter to Kipphardt said, "You may well have forgotten 1050:

and Bush, as well as two former AEC chairmen and three former commissioners. Also testifying on behalf of Oppenheimer was Lansdale, who was involved in the Army's surveillance and investigation of Oppenheimer during the war. Lansdale, a lawyer, was not intimidated by Robb. He testified that

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Over the years, the physicist Fred Ribe, who had organized the 1954 petition, worked towards having the Oppenheimer charges undone, as did other scientists at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. Historians also pressed for revocation to be reversed, without success. Oppenheimer biographers

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pending resolution of a series of charges outlined in a letter, and discussed his resigning his AEC consultancy. Given only a day to decide, and after consulting with his attorneys, Oppenheimer chose not to resign and requested a hearing instead. The charges were outlined in a letter from

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employ the personnel security system as a means of dispensing with the services of a loyal but unwanted consultant." The petition then asserted that "this poorly founded decision ... will make it increasingly difficult to obtain adequate scientific talent in our defense laboratories."

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two-to-one decision of the hearing's three judges, he was stripped of his security clearance one day before his consultant contract was due to expire. The panel found that he was loyal and discreet with atomic secrets, but did not recommend that his security clearance be reinstated.

566:. Oppenheimer rejected the overture, but failed to report it until August 1943, when he volunteered to Manhattan Project security officers that three men at Berkeley had been solicited for nuclear secrets on behalf of the Soviet Union, by a person he did not know who worked for 1441:

answer seventy years later. Security clearance adjudication proceedings necessarily depend on sensitive judgments regarding the credibility of oral testimony and other evidence best evaluated within its own context. Therefore, we will not reconsider the substantive merits of

839:(Hiroshima), on which day he personally urged each senior individual working in this field to desist; and (d) He was an enthusiastic sponsor of the A-bomb program until the war ended, when he immediately and outspokenly advocated the Los Alamos Laboratory be disbanded. 662:

played no significant part, and in my knowledge, no part at all ... My own rating of the importance of isotopes in this broad sense is that they are far less important than electronic devices but far more important than, let us say, vitamins, somewhere in between.

657:(JCAE) over the issue in June 1949. The other four AEC commissioners had opposed Strauss, so he had gone to the JCAE in an attempt to get the decision overturned. The result was a stunning humiliation for the thin-skinned Strauss. Oppenheimer testified that: 236:

being revoked. This marked the end of his formal relationship with the government of the United States and generated considerable controversy regarding whether the treatment of Oppenheimer was fair, or whether it was an expression of anti-communist

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asked Teller whether he favored restoring Oppenheimer's security clearance. Teller appeared to be dumbstruck and unable to find an answer. The question was deleted from the version that was aired, but the news got out and made headlines. President

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essay, and still expect to serve on government advisory boards. The trial thus represented a watershed in the relations of the scientist to the government. The narrowest version of how American scientists should serve their country had triumphed.

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repeatedly exhibited a willful disregard of the normal and proper obligations of security," and that he "has defaulted not once but many times upon the obligations that should and must be willingly borne by citizens in the national service."

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to develop the "Super". Without a workable design, it seemed foolish to divert resources from fission bombs. Nor was there an obvious military need. Despite this, Truman authorized that H-bomb work proceed on January 31, 1950. Teller, Fermi,

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confirming that the explosion had taken place. In response, Strauss recommended that the United States retain nuclear superiority by developing the "Super". This had been under consideration at Los Alamos for several years. Brigadier General

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later observed, Oppenheimer's ordeal signified that the postwar "messianic role of the scientists" was now at an end. Scientists working within the system could not dissent from government policy, as Oppenheimer had done by writing his 1953

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documentation released after the fall of the Soviet Union. In addition, he had several persons removed from the Manhattan Project who had sympathies with the Soviet Union. Jerrold and Leona Schecter for their part conclude that based on

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The letter also pointed out that Oppenheimer had worked against development of the hydrogen bomb, and had worked against postwar atomic energy development, including nuclear power plants and nuclear submarines. The letter concluded:

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noted that Oppenheimer testified about the left-wing behavior of his colleagues and speculated that if his clearance had not been stripped, he would have been remembered as someone who had "named names" to save his own reputation.

1031:. Although his testimony was not pivotal in the decision, many physicists viewed Griggs as the "Judas who had betrayed their god", the brilliant theoretical physicist who led the successful wartime development of the atomic bomb. 961:

courtesy. This gave Robb a clear advantage in his cross-examination of Oppenheimer's witnesses. One observer commented that Robb "did not treat Oppenheimer as a witness in his own case, but as a person charged with high treason."

1136:. Over 80 percent of the scientists in the theoretical division signed the petition, as did about half of the scientists in the laboratory overall. Fear of professional retribution reportedly kept some others from signing it. 1296:

American critic of the U.S. move from atomic weapons to the much more lethal hydrogen bomb." After the hearing, Lacayo said, "Oppenheimer would never again feel comfortable as a public advocate for a sane nuclear policy."

281:. The brief period when scientists were viewed as a "public-policy priesthood" ended; thereafter, they would serve the state only to offer narrow scientific opinions. Scientists working in government were on notice that 1172:, as he had feared he might be, he became an academic exile, cut off from his former career and the world he had helped to create. He gave public lectures, and spent several months of each year on the small island of 1013:, an Army counterintelligence officer, concerning the approach from Chevalier. Asked why he had fabricated a story that three people had been approached for espionage, Oppenheimer responded, "Because I was an idiot." 3367: 3684: 4737: 3750: 1267:. The nomination was unanimously approved by the GAC and AEC, and announced on April 5, 1963. On November 22, the White House confirmed that Kennedy would personally present the award, but he was 4126: 989:

his opposition to the hydrogen bomb. By including the hydrogen bomb, the AEC changed the character of the hearing, by opening up an inquiry into his activities as a postwar government adviser.

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particularly persuasive; he had interrogated Oppenheimer over the Chevalier incident in 1943, and strongly supported him. On August 11, 1947, the AEC unanimously voted to grant Oppenheimer a

504:, both of whom were targets of FBI surveillance and wiretaps. Agents had recorded the license plate of Oppenheimer's car. The FBI noted that Oppenheimer was on the executive committee of the 4620: 4956: 1567:

called it an "angry play and a partisan play" that sided with Oppenheimer but portrayed the scientist as a "tragic fool and genius". Fourteen years later, however, David Edelstein wrote in

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had opened a file on Oppenheimer in March 1941, after he had attended a December 1940 meeting at Chevalier's home that was also attended by the Communist Party's California state secretary

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Thermonuclear strategic weapons, prior to the development of long-range ballistic missiles, would necessarily be delivered by long-range bombers under the control of the relatively new

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said the action did not "go as far as Oppenheimer and his family would have wanted. But it goes pretty far." The action was praised by supporters of the revocation effort, as well as

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tests in May 1951, Oppenheimer acknowledged that the "New Super" was technically feasible. Teller left Los Alamos to help found, with Lawrence, a second weapons laboratory, the

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Despite the promise of confidentiality, the AEC released an edited transcript of the hearing in June 1954, after press publicity of the hearing. The transcript was titled

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of a decade before, and he was surprised on the witness stand with transcripts that he had no chance to review. Under questioning by Robb, he admitted that he had lied to

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the hearing a verbatim transcript of the hearing was released by the AEC. Oppenheimer and Garrison also breached the confidentiality of the hearing by communicating with

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1. The evidence indicating that as of April 1942: (a) He was contributing substantial monthly sums to the Communist Party; (b) His ties with communism had survived the

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In January or February 1943, Chevalier had a brief conversation with Oppenheimer in the kitchen of his home. Chevalier told Oppenheimer that there was a scientist,

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active in other leftwing political organizations after the war. Perhaps most important, however, they had close and long-standing ties with Robert Oppenheimer ...

418:, who became director of the Manhattan Project on September 8, 1942, met Oppenheimer at Berkeley, where Oppenheimer briefed Groves on the work done so far on the " 1501:

in 1959; the Oppenheimer-like protagonist was renamed "Dr. Sebastian Bloch". The translations sold well in France, where he had moved by then, and throughout the

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did testify against Oppenheimer in person. This resulted in later ill-feeling from the scientific community towards Lawrence and other members of his laboratory.

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appointed Oppenheimer to the AEC General Advisory Committee (GAC) on December 10, 1946, so the FBI interviewed two dozen of Oppenheimer's associates, including

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The question of Oppenheimer's past associations with Communist Party organizations would continue to be discussed and explored for many years after his death.

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The official position of the Air Force was to support the suspension of the security clearance, which was given during testimony by its chief scientist,

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Oppenheimer continued to do work for the government. His AEC consultancy, and the Q clearance that went along with it, had most recently been renewed by

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Nobel Prize-winning physicist Roy Glauber and Oppenheimer biographer Priscilla McMillan discuss how J. Robert Oppenheimer changed over the years

3713:"Oppenheimer: Physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer will forever be known as the 'father of the atomic bomb.' At Los Alamos, though, he was much more" 3291: 2681: 540: 433:

made scientists into heroes. Oppenheimer became a celebrity, with his face appearing on front pages of newspapers and the covers of magazines.

1548:. I have not." Of his security hearing, he said: "The whole damn thing was a farce, and these people are trying to make a tragedy out of it." 786:

first test of a hydrogen device. These stances led the Air Force to view Oppenheimer's positions and influence with bitterness and suspicion.

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and Bernard Peters, had been Communists at the time they had worked with him at Berkeley. Oppenheimer was called to testify in front of the

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Strauss, Teller, Borden, and Robb would never escape the public identification of them with the case. In a 1962 television interview,

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Loyalty and security tests spread through the federal government. At these inquiries, federal employees were asked questions such as:

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summed up his opinion about the matter with a quip to a Congressional committee: "In England, Oppenheimer would have been knighted."

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nullified the 1954 decision, saying that it had been the result of a "flawed process" and affirming that Oppenheimer had been loyal.

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The loss of his security clearance ended Oppenheimer's role in government and policy. Although he was not fired from his job at the

908: 430: 369: 75: 3743:"Secretary Granholm Statement on DOE Order Vacating 1954 Atomic Energy Commission Decision In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer" 1379:

joined this effort in 2006, in conjunction with the J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Committee, with the assistance of attorneys at

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On June 29, 1954, the AEC upheld the findings of the Personnel Security Board, with four commissioners voting in favor and one,

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Much of the questioning of Oppenheimer concerned his role in the hiring for Los Alamos of his former students Ross Lomanitz and

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The FBI was willing to furnish Oppenheimer's political enemies with incriminating evidence about Communist ties. These included

4910: 4651:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. 4601:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. 4551:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. 759: 675: 587: 524: 253: 209: 143: 4950: 4643: 2887: 4809: 4715: 4339: 3636: 2689: 1056: 751: 419: 3400: 1573:, "I wish the play were as exciting today as it obviously once was. ... But as journaliam and art it has been superseded by 980:, it did not apply to the AEC. Garrison asked for the opportunity to review the file with the panel, but this was rejected. 653:

to other nations, which Strauss believed had military applications. As GAC chairman, Oppenheimer had been called before the

3430: 1188:

considered the Oppenheimer case "a defeat for American liberalism". Summing up the fallout from the case, they wrote that:

1034:

Many top scientists, as well as government and military figures, testified on Oppenheimer's behalf. Among them were Fermi,

964:

Members of the hearing panel met with Robb prior to the hearing to review the contents of Oppenheimer's FBI file. The 1946

4768:(Spring 2005). "The Atomic Secret in Red Hands? American Suspicions of Theoretical Physicists During the Early Cold War". 4471: 4035: 3515: 3360:"Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks and the Documentation of Soviet Intelligence Operations in the United States, 1930–1950" 649:, an AEC commissioner who resented Oppenheimer for his humiliation before Congress regarding opposition to the export of 4064: 3809: 5722: 3746: 3680: 1541: 1434: 318: 4944: 3595: 2919: 5001: 4900: 4869: 4839: 4747: 4656: 4606: 4556: 4521: 4449: 4419: 4209: 3850: 3554: 1454: 1430: 977: 412: 295: 288:

The fairness of the proceedings has been a subject of controversy, criticized in the acclaimed Oppenheimer biography

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Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller

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Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller

1160:, which became the name the case was often later referenced as. The unredacted transcripts were released in 2014. 1024:

Robb, Groves said that under the security criteria in effect in 1954, he "would not clear Dr. Oppenheimer today".

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near the Washington Monument housing offices of the AEC, and began on April 12, 1954. The AEC was represented by

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Still, Oppenheimer was not well known before the war, and certainly not as renowned as his friend and colleague

5727: 3716: 3478: 2857: 2780: 1468:

said "The evidence overwhelmingly supports the AEC stripping Oppenheimer of his security clearance." Historian

611: 505: 915:, an experienced prosecutor in Washington, and Arthur Rolander, while Oppenheimer's legal team was headed by 3086: 2622: 5608: 3059: 1169: 928: 900: 1414:, the director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory; and by all living past directors of the laboratory. 5576: 820: 3880: 637:. At the first meeting of the GAC on January 3, 1947, Oppenheimer was unanimously elected its chairman. 341:

in the Netherlands. As one of the few American physicists with a deep understanding of the new field of

5732: 5680: 5669: 4969: 3780:"Christopher Nolan's Forthcoming 'Oppenheimer' Movie: A Historian's Questions, Worries, and Challenges" 4149: 2849: 1263:

decided that the time had come to rehabilitate Oppenheimer. Teller nominated Oppenheimer for the 1963

330: 5706: 5694: 5551: 5546: 3301: 1525: 844: 513: 1240:

There is a suspicion in your record that you are in sympathy with the underprivileged. Is that true?

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in Germany (where he had earned his doctorate in physics at the age of 23 under the supervision of

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that culminated in the security hearing. The series was broadcast in the U.S. in 1982. In 2009,

5628: 5525: 5080: 4543: 4186: 2814: 1597: 1569: 1117: 936: 766: 326: 4444:. Berkeley, California: Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California. 3779: 666:

This came on the heels of controversies about whether some of Oppenheimer's students, including

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In a response, Kipphardt offered to make corrections but defended the play, which premiered on

1494:

fictionalized the affair, and his self-exculpating view of the whole preceding history, in the

1460: 1079:, a long-time Oppenheimer adversary, rendered the final verdict denying his security clearance. 396: 3916: 891: 348:

As a theoretical physicist, Oppenheimer had considerable achievements. In a 1930 paper on the

5648: 5473: 5216: 5161: 3814: 1579: 1537: 1244: 793:, the outgoing chairman of the AEC, on June 5, 1953. It would be good through June 30, 1954. 532: 453: 423: 415: 244:

Doubts about Oppenheimer's loyalty dated back to the 1930s, when he was a member of numerous

217: 213: 156: 44: 1387:, both of which believed no legal remedies were possible. Despite the assistance of Senator 1005:

surprisingly inarticulate, frequently apologetic about his past and even self-castigating."

5737: 5458: 5453: 5312: 5186: 4277:"Oppenheimer movie: How accurate is Christopher Nolan's movie about the Manhattan Project?" 4240: 1585: 1407: 1392: 790: 755: 650: 607: 497: 338: 1250:

Have you ever made statements about the "downtrodden masses" and "underprivileged people"?

8: 5317: 5272: 5232: 5055: 4889: 4697: 4329: 4020: 2892: 1521: 1338: 1306: 1301: 1125: 614: 477: 449: 290: 252:

members, including his wife, brother and sister-in-law. These associations were known to

249: 4914: 5382: 5206: 5176: 5116: 4639: 4589: 4539: 4510: 4393: 4069: 4040: 4018:

Seagrave, Sterling (November 9, 1964). "Play About him Draws Protests of Oppenheimer".

3783: 3520: 3263: 2924: 2850:"Order by Energy Secretary vacates decision to revoke Oppenheimer's security clearance" 1623: 1384: 1311: 1264: 1149: 1109: 945: 885: 866:

that the charges might be true, and worried about appearing weak in the environment of

559: 392: 322: 314: 199: 130: 4119:"Suomessa tehtiin Oppenheimerista kertova tv-elokuva jo vuonna 1967: Löytyy Areenasta" 2776: 1071: 953:, who wrote an article on the hearing that appeared on the second day of the hearing. 831:

name had been so submitted and (d) He thereafter repeatedly gave false information to

476:. One of his communist associates was a colleague at the University of California, an 5597: 5586: 5493: 5352: 5347: 5297: 5146: 5141: 5131: 4992: 4920: 4896: 4875: 4865: 4857: 4845: 4835: 4815: 4805: 4785: 4753: 4743: 4721: 4711: 4702: 4662: 4652: 4612: 4602: 4562: 4552: 4527: 4517: 4455: 4445: 4425: 4415: 4409: 4353: 4345: 4335: 4325: 4286: 4245: 4157: 3665: 1619: 1615: 1479:

her order vacating the decision had been "greatly flawed, and fundamentally errant".

1426: 1376: 1357: 1334: 1315: 1278: 1272: 1185: 1035: 916: 806: 630: 548: 485: 469: 465: 461: 408: 342: 298: 278: 225: 161: 5397: 1108:

Among the signers of the petition were a number of well-known physicists, including

5618: 5417: 5402: 5367: 5342: 5196: 5151: 4832:

The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made

4777: 4689: 4385: 4373: 4281: 3921: 3912: 3775: 3550: 2819: 1601: 1552: 1545: 1513: 1491: 1474: 1469: 1449: 1422:

of Vermont, played a key role in moving the action through the federal government.

1346: 1133: 1129: 743: 682:. Their reputations were rehabilitated in 1959, and they founded the San Francisco 618: 481: 3632: 750:

struggled to find a working design, and in February 1951, Ulam and Teller finally

5623: 5463: 5427: 5357: 5292: 5282: 5257: 5156: 5136: 5111: 4827: 4467: 4361: 3991: 3876: 3296: 2959: 1465: 1291: 1260: 1255: 1193:

serve the state only as experts only on narrow scientific issues. As sociologist

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and would undergo gravitational collapse. In 1939, with another of his students,

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required, technical conflict between the scientists over the feasibility of the

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portrays both the security hearing and the Lewis Strauss confirmation hearing.

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Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–1961 Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission

5716: 5581: 5443: 5412: 5392: 5337: 5327: 5237: 5126: 5101: 5045: 4879: 4819: 4789: 4781: 4725: 4566: 4290: 4249: 4161: 3511: 1593: 1419: 1391:

of New Mexico, their effort was rebuffed by two secretaries of energy in the

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included a legal principle known as "the exclusivity of the record" or the "

939:. The hearing lasted through May 6, when Garrison made a closing summation. 701: 426:, despite Oppenheimer's lack of a Nobel Prize or administrative experience. 5638: 5520: 5377: 5322: 5302: 5287: 5191: 5015: 4939: 4924: 4733: 4693: 4616: 4505: 4365: 4210:"'J. Robert Oppenheimer': The Tragic Fall of a Nuclear Pioneer Oppenheimer" 1564: 1400: 1327: 1234: 997: 950: 835:, Manhattan District, and the FBI concerning the 1939 – April 1942 period. 603: 563: 473: 310: 221: 4757: 4739:

Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists

519: 448:

Several of Oppenheimer's associates in the years before World War II were

5468: 5422: 5387: 5362: 5307: 5211: 5201: 5085: 4710:. Translations by Philip Redko and Steven Shabad. Yale University Press. 1574: 1502: 1212: 1194: 1000:

was among the eminent scientists who testified in support of Oppenheimer.

867: 634: 583: 404: 384:, he went further and predicted the existence of what are today known as 361: 238: 233: 229: 1100:

Starting on June 7, 1954, led by physicist Fred Ribe, 494 scientists at

5571: 5515: 5252: 5242: 5171: 4405: 4397: 3440:. Vol. 34, no. 3. Los Alamos Historical Society. p. 11. 3401:"Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy? A Roundtable Discussion | Wilson Center" 1415: 1396: 1380: 1051:

Oppenheimer was not a Communist, and that he was "loyal and discreet".

1039: 1010: 992: 912: 824: 667: 457: 385: 150: 4862:

In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer: The Security Clearance Hearing

3381: 2955:"Total Of 474 Los Alamos Scientists Sign Protests In Oppenheimer Case" 5613: 5479: 5247: 5050: 4331:

American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer

3712: 3670:"Secretarial Order: Vacating 1954 Atomic Energy Commission Decision: 747: 727: 571: 567: 400: 364:

stars. This was followed by one co-written with one of his students,

4961: 4389: 708:, who clashed with Oppenheimer on the H-bomb, testified against him. 5653: 5486: 5020: 4797: 4376:(July 1990). "The Oppenheimer Loyalty-Security Case Reconsidered". 4321: 3591: 1372: 1220: 1181: 783: 679: 368:, in which they demonstrated that there was a limit, the so-called 353: 334: 4349: 388:. It was decades before the significance of this was appreciated. 5643: 5510: 3087:"Oppenheimer, Unredacted: Part II – Reading the Lost Transcripts" 2979: 1216: 778:

from the Air Force's retaliatory strike mission. As chair of the

719: 617:

supplied written statements supporting Oppenheimer. AEC chairman

282: 4187:"American Experience | The Trials of J. Robert Oppenheimer" 3060:"Oppenheimer, Unredacted: Part I – Finding the Lost Transcripts" 2179: 2167: 2155: 2143: 2131: 2119: 2107: 2059: 1583:. Kipphardt's play was also made into a Finnish television film 1580:

The Day After Trinity: J. Robert Oppenheimer and the Atomic Bomb

5029: 4957:

Letter from William Borden to J. Edgar Hoover, November 7, 1953

4703:"Enormous: The KGB Attack on the Anglo-American Atomic Project" 3185: 3173: 3134: 3122: 1512:

The hearing was dramatized in a 1964 play by German playwright

1350: 1208: 321:. The scion of a wealthy New York family, he was a graduate of 3516:"J. Robert Oppenheimer Cleared of 'Black Mark' After 68 Years" 3151: 3149: 3112: 3110: 3108: 2566: 2446: 2422: 2305: 2191: 2035: 2023: 2011: 1972: 1960: 1924: 1912: 1883: 1811: 1763: 1207:

Oppenheimer was seen by many in the scientific community as a

562:, who could transmit information of a technical nature to the 3810:"Oppenheimer wrongly stripped of security clearance, US says" 2888:"282 Los Alamos Scientists Rap AEC Action on Dr. Oppenheimer" 2530: 2410: 2386: 2374: 1989: 1987: 1231: 294:

and dramatized in film and television. On December 16, 2022,

4945:

1982 Audio Interview with Haakon Chevalier by Martin Sherwin

4442:

Reappraising Oppenheimer: Centennial Studies and Reflections

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In a lengthy analysis of the security case published in the

816:

This opinion considers the following factors, among others.

212:(AEC) explored the background, actions, and associations of 5591: 5060: 4236:"The Real History Behind Christopher Nolan's 'Oppenheimer'" 3221: 3161: 3146: 3105: 2350: 1703: 1667: 373: 3847:

statement on the Energy Department's Oppenheimer decision"

3340: 3316: 3039: 2362: 2242: 1984: 1787: 1775: 1275:

instead. Oppenheimer died of cancer on February 18, 1967.

3941: 3328: 3259:"Book Contends Chief of A-Bomb Team was Once a Communist" 3209: 3027: 3015: 3003: 2506: 2494: 2434: 2203: 1948: 1895: 1847: 1835: 1642: 1640: 1342: 27:

1954 United States Atomic Energy Commission investigation

3881:"The Undeserved Rehabilitation of J. Robert Oppenheimer" 2991: 2756: 2744: 2732: 2708: 2682:"Ernest Orlando Lawrence – The Man, His Lab, His Legacy" 2590: 2554: 2542: 2482: 2458: 2329: 1727: 1691: 345:, he was hired by the University of California in 1929. 273:

reputation was later partly rehabilitated by presidents

47:

was probed in a controversial four-week hearing in 1954.

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on May 20, 2009, and based on an extensive analysis of

512:. Shortly thereafter, the FBI added Oppenheimer to its 78:

near the Washington Monument housing offices of the AEC

4036:"Playwright Suggests Corrections to Oppenheimer Drama" 2777:"The petition that sought to clear Oppenheimer's name" 1936: 1871: 1739: 1637: 1095: 754:. After reviewing the design and data gathered by the 722:, which could only be acquired by diverting the AEC's 376:

of stars beyond which they would not remain stable as

5678: 4485:. Washington, DC: National Academies Press: 112–133. 3429:

Snyder, Sharon; Yeamans, Stephanie (September 2015).

3197: 2661: 2649: 1859: 1715: 1657: 1655: 4940:

J. Robert Oppenheimer Personnel Hearings Transcripts

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State Department Panel of Consultants on Disarmament

625:

discussed the matter with Truman's sympathetic aide

4919:. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2963:. Santa Fe, New Mexico. June 13, 1954. p. 14. 2398: 1999: 1679: 1410:, with support from forty-three U.S. senators; and 1362:, Oppenheimer must have been only a "facilitator". 923:. The chairman of the Personnel Security Board was 919:, a prominent New York attorney at the law firm of 878: 4888: 4701: 4509: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3545: 3543: 2317: 2293: 2263: 1652: 3627: 3625: 3623: 2810:"Scientists Send Pro-Oppenheimer Petition to AEC" 5714: 3770: 3768: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3464: 3462: 3364:Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars 2616: 2614: 1243:What were your feelings at that time concerning 1139: 4538: 4466: 3651: 3633:"Efforts to Clear J. Robert Oppenheimer's Name" 3540: 2843: 2841: 2572: 2281:Hearing transcript, p. 837 (corrected, p. 838). 1930: 1918: 1310:classified nuclear area for as long as he did. 4864:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. 4708:Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America 3620: 3252: 3250: 3248: 851:programs as well as industrial power projects. 261:, and personal conflict with AEC commissioner 4977: 4588: 4414:. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. 3869: 3765: 3707: 3705: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3576: 3497: 3459: 3428: 2611: 2185: 2173: 2161: 2149: 2137: 2125: 2113: 2089: 2077: 2065: 1966: 4802:Robert Oppenheimer: A Life Inside the Center 4147: 3735: 3635:. J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Committee. 2838: 2768: 1284: 921:Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison 805:was sent a letter concerning Oppenheimer by 523:The General Advisory Committee (GAC) of the 516:, for arrest in case of national emergency. 472:and Frank's wife Jackie; and his girlfriend 4638: 4320: 3549: 3245: 3227: 3191: 3179: 3167: 3155: 3140: 3128: 3116: 3084: 3057: 2949: 2947: 2428: 2392: 2368: 2311: 2248: 2236: 2224: 2197: 2041: 2029: 2017: 1993: 1978: 1889: 1817: 1793: 1781: 1769: 1733: 1709: 1697: 1673: 4984: 4970: 3702: 3573: 3422: 2885: 2881: 2879: 2804: 2802: 1614:, centering around the security hearing. 935:, chairman of the chemistry department at 216:, the American scientist who directed the 56:April 12 – May 6, 1954 38: 4856: 4372: 4090: 3911: 3774: 3555:"Oppenheimer: Vacated but not Vindicated" 3334: 3322: 3045: 1418:, a senior congressional aide to Senator 4017: 3961:"Oppenheimer: The Story of a Friendship" 3664: 3471:"In the matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer" 2944: 2912: 1070: 991: 890: 782:, Oppenheimer argued for postponing the 700: 518: 431:atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 232:. The hearing resulted in Oppenheimer's 4826: 4116: 3840: 3802: 3596:"Oppenheimer, Nullified and Vindicated" 3468: 3257:Broad, William J. (September 8, 2002). 2967:from the original on September 18, 2023 2900:from the original on September 18, 2023 2876: 2847: 2826:from the original on September 18, 2023 2799: 2774: 2356: 1365: 1271:. The award was presented by President 769:. In projects and study groups such as 14: 5743:United States Atomic Energy Commission 5715: 4916:In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer 4911:United States Atomic Energy Commission 4764: 4676:from the original on December 22, 2015 4504: 4436: 4274: 4062: 3947: 3905: 3672:In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer 3346: 3289: 3085:Wellerstein, Alex (January 16, 2015). 3066:from the original on November 12, 2015 2667: 2655: 2620: 2212: 2101: 2053: 1954: 1906: 1865: 1853: 1841: 1829: 1805: 1757: 1745: 1721: 1685: 1646: 1518:In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer 1507:Oppenheimer: The Story of a Friendship 1443:In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer 1406:The effort gained momentum during the 1158:In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer 760:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 676:House Un-American Activities Committee 429:The end of the war in the wake of the 248:organizations and was associated with 210:United States Atomic Energy Commission 95:In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer 33:Oppenheimer security clearance hearing 4991: 4965: 4886: 4732: 4404: 4233: 3875: 3510: 3256: 3239: 3215: 3203: 3093:from the original on February 6, 2015 3058:Wellerstein, Alex (January 9, 2015). 3033: 3021: 3009: 2997: 2985: 2932:from the original on October 30, 2023 2762: 2750: 2738: 2726: 2714: 2690:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 2596: 2584: 2560: 2548: 2536: 2524: 2512: 2500: 2488: 2476: 2464: 2452: 2440: 2416: 2380: 2335: 2323: 2299: 2269: 1942: 1877: 1661: 1589:("The Case of Oppenheimer") in 1967. 983: 733:Strauss found allies in Lawrence and 488:, and had co-founded a branch of the 484:. The two had met during a rally for 443: 317:had been professor of physics at the 4796: 4576:from the original on October 9, 2022 4516:. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 4207: 4129:from the original on 10 October 2023 4065:"Theater: Drama of Oppenheimer Case" 3929:from the original on August 19, 2023 3893:from the original on August 19, 2023 3857:from the original on August 19, 2023 3822:from the original on August 19, 2023 3790:from the original on August 19, 2023 3723:from the original on August 19, 2023 3639:from the original on August 19, 2023 3608:from the original on August 12, 2023 3590: 3561:from the original on August 19, 2023 3485:from the original on August 22, 2023 3469:Phippen, J. Weston (July 19, 2023). 2920:"500 At Los Alamos Back Oppenheimer" 2886:Burtkhardt, Bernice (June 9, 1954). 2864:from the original on August 19, 2023 2848:Mullane, Laura (December 20, 2022). 2787:from the original on August 19, 2023 2404: 2005: 1577:’s stupendous 1980 documentary film 640: 492:at Berkeley known as Local 349. The 352:, he predicted the existence of the 4492:from the original on August 2, 2023 3995:. November 20, 1964. Archived from 3963:. Kirkus Reviews. August 23, 1965. 3753:from the original on August 9, 2023 1612:The Trials of J. Robert Oppenheimer 1096:Protest by scientists at Los Alamos 24: 5449:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 4626:from the original on July 16, 2017 4297:from the original on July 19, 2023 4256:from the original on July 28, 2023 4208:Ryan, Maureen (January 26, 2009). 3917:"Oppenheimer's 'Hollywood Ending'" 3747:United States Department of Energy 3690:from the original on July 23, 2023 3681:United States Department of Energy 3528:from the original on July 16, 2023 3447:from the original on June 19, 2022 3388:Haynes, Klehr & Vassiliev 2009 2679: 2637:from the original on 23 March 2018 1610:PBS anthology series documentary, 1435:United States Department of Energy 460:had been killed fighting with the 319:University of California, Berkeley 25: 5754: 4933: 4117:Huhtala, Jussi (9 October 2023). 3967:from the original on 22 July 2023 3851:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3841:Bronson, Rachel (July 17, 2023). 3271:from the original on July 1, 2020 2608:Hearing transcript, pp. 266, 267. 1482: 1455:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 978:Federal Communications Commission 399:in 1939 for his invention of the 325:and had studied in Europe at the 296:United States Secretary of Energy 5700: 5688: 5665: 5664: 4268: 4227: 4201: 4179: 4148:O'Connor, John J. (1984-05-13). 4141: 4110: 4084: 4056: 4028: 4011: 3979: 3953: 3834: 3393: 3352: 3283: 3078: 3051: 1102:Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 879:Board composition and procedures 796: 655:Joint Committee on Atomic Energy 452:members. They included his wife 370:Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit 4953:Voices of the Manhattan Project 4947:Voices of the Manhattan Project 4168:from the original on 2023-08-20 4091:Edelstein, Dave (May 4, 1982). 3411:from the original on 2023-09-13 3370:from the original on 2019-04-21 3290:Lacayo, Richard (May 1, 2005). 2673: 2602: 2341: 2284: 2275: 2254: 629:at the White House. They found 490:American Federation of Teachers 356:. A 1938 paper co-written with 4895:. New York: Harper & Row. 4275:Kaplan, Fred (July 19, 2023). 4063:Barnes, Clive (June 7, 1968). 3717:Los Alamos National Laboratory 3479:Los Alamos National Laboratory 3438:Annual Report & Newsletter 2858:Los Alamos National Laboratory 2781:Los Alamos National Laboratory 1604:starred as Oppenheimer in the 1505:. He returned to the topic in 1230:Is it proper to mix White and 996:Nobel Prize–winning physicist 527:(AEC) in 1947; left to right: 506:American Civil Liberties Union 13: 1: 4542:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 4334:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 4313: 4234:Kifer, Andy (July 18, 2023). 4093:"Witness for the persecution" 2775:Jaeggli, Mia (June 2, 2022). 1341:'s notes taken while viewing 1140:Nichols letter and AEC ruling 304: 208:Over four weeks in 1954, the 5609:Oppenheimer security hearing 4834:. New York: William Morrow. 4742:. New York: Harcourt Brace. 4470:; Christie, John M. (1994). 3292:"Books: The Atomic Meltdown" 2988:, pp. 394–398, 400–401. 2928:. June 12, 1954. p. 9. 2347:Hearing transcript, pp. 3–7. 1305:in 1990, Cold War historian 1170:Institute for Advanced Study 1163: 966:Administrative Procedure Act 929:University of North Carolina 901:University of North Carolina 407:, which became known as the 18:Oppenheimer security hearing 7: 2975:– via Newspapers.com. 2908:– via Newspapers.com. 2834:– via Newspapers.com. 2822:. June 9, 1954. p. 2. 2573:Getting & Christie 1994 2290:Hearing transcript, p. 838. 2260:Hearing transcript, p. 837. 1931:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1919:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1269:assassinated later that day 1066: 895:The hearing was chaired by 480:of French literature named 360:explored the properties of 10: 5759: 4592:; Duncan, Francis (1969). 3987:"The Character Speaks Out" 1592:Oppenheimer was played by 873: 825:Soviet attack upon Finland 775:Lincoln Summer Study Group 5723:1954 in the United States 5662: 5552:Bismuth phosphate process 5547:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 5534: 5503: 5436: 5225: 5094: 5008: 4999: 4887:Stern, Philip M. (1969). 3475:National Security Science 2621:Emilie, Haertsch (2016). 2455:, pp. 247, 269, 295. 2186:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 2174:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 2162:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 2150:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 2138:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 2126:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 2114:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 2090:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 2078:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 2066:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 1967:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 1559:in the Oppenheimer role. 1458:, but drew criticism. In 1285:Later analysis of charges 845:nuclear-powered submarine 514:Custodial Detention Index 285:was no longer tolerated. 194: 139: 118: 110: 100: 90: 82: 71: 52: 37: 4782:10.1525/rep.2005.90.1.28 4642:; Holl, Jack M. (1989). 4595:Atomic Shield, 1947–1952 4545:The New World, 1939–1946 4411:The Road from Los Alamos 2539:, pp. 276–277, 285. 2419:, pp. 238, 257–260. 2383:, pp. 373, 607–608. 1630: 1499:The Man Who Would Be God 974:Federal Trade Commission 907:The hearing was held in 812:Borden's letter stated: 588:Atomic Energy Commission 525:Atomic Energy Commission 508:, which it considered a 254:Army Counterintelligence 5629:S-1 Executive Committee 5577:Einstein–Szilard letter 4804:. New York: Doubleday. 3228:Bird & Sherwin 2005 3192:Hewlett & Holl 1989 3180:Bird & Sherwin 2005 3168:Bird & Sherwin 2005 3156:Bird & Sherwin 2005 3141:Bird & Sherwin 2005 3129:Bird & Sherwin 2005 3117:Hewlett & Holl 1989 2815:Lancaster Eagle-Gazette 2429:Bird & Sherwin 2005 2393:Hewlett & Holl 1989 2369:Bird & Sherwin 2005 2312:Bird & Sherwin 2005 2249:Hewlett & Holl 1989 2237:Hewlett & Holl 1989 2225:Hewlett & Holl 1989 2198:Bird & Sherwin 2005 2042:Bird & Sherwin 2005 2030:Bird & Sherwin 2005 2018:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1994:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1979:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1890:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1818:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1794:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1782:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1770:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1734:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1710:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1698:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1674:Bird & Sherwin 2005 1118:Elizabeth Riddle Graves 937:Northwestern University 767:United States Air Force 456:, whose second husband 331:University of Göttingen 327:University of Cambridge 5071:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 4472:"David Tressel Griggs" 3886:The American Spectator 3557:. Nuclearsecrecy.com. 1461:The American Spectator 1425:On December 16, 2022, 1205: 1080: 1001: 904: 863: 853: 709: 699: 664: 555: 397:Nobel Prize in Physics 395:, who was awarded the 5728:J. Robert Oppenheimer 5649:X-10 Graphite Reactor 5604:Nobel Prize laureates 5474:509th Composite Group 3879:(December 20, 2022). 3818:. December 17, 2022. 3815:Associated Press News 3749:. December 16, 2022. 3668:(December 16, 2022). 3666:Granholm, Jennifer M. 3553:(December 21, 2022). 3514:(December 16, 2022). 2623:"Large and in charge" 1190: 1074: 995: 894: 858: 814: 801:On November 7, 1953, 704: 694: 659: 586:that established the 533:J. Robert Oppenheimer 522: 424:Los Alamos Laboratory 416:Leslie R. Groves, Jr. 218:Los Alamos Laboratory 214:J. Robert Oppenheimer 157:J. Robert Oppenheimer 45:J. Robert Oppenheimer 5557:British contribution 5459:Operation Peppermint 5454:Operation Crossroads 5313:Maria Goeppert Mayer 4891:The Oppenheimer Case 4698:Vassiliev, Alexander 4479:Biographical Memoirs 4374:Bernstein, Barton J. 4241:Smithsonian Magazine 3915:(February 6, 2023). 3913:Bernstein, Barton J. 3776:Bernstein, Barton J. 3431:"Collections Report" 3405:www.wilsoncenter.org 3012:, pp. 418, 422. 2696:on November 17, 2015 2515:, pp. 265, 279. 2503:, pp. 228, 234. 2443:, pp. 263, 267. 2359:, pp. 305, 307. 1586:Oppenheimerin tapaus 1488:oversimplification. 1408:Biden administration 1393:Obama administration 1366:AEC action nullified 1057:Radiation Laboratory 909:Temporary Building 3 756:Operation Greenhouse 651:radioactive isotopes 608:Robert Gordon Sproul 535:, Brigadier General 498:William Schneiderman 339:University of Leiden 181:Thomas Alfred Morgan 76:Temporary building 3 5318:George Kistiakowsky 5273:Charles Critchfield 4640:Hewlett, Richard G. 4590:Hewlett, Richard G. 4540:Hewlett, Richard G. 4378:Stanford Law Review 4044:. November 14, 1964 4021:The Washington Post 3349:, pp. 267–272. 3218:, pp. 463–464. 3194:, pp. 111–112. 3182:, pp. 548–547. 3143:, pp. 566–567. 3131:, pp. 560–562. 3089:. Restricted Data. 3062:. Restricted Data. 3036:, pp. 385–389. 3024:, pp. 407–413. 3000:, pp. 412–413. 2893:Albuquerque Journal 2818:. Lancaster, Ohio. 2765:, pp. 380–381. 2753:, pp. 374–374. 2741:, pp. 367–374. 2717:, pp. 337–339. 2599:, pp. 297–298. 2563:, pp. 284–285. 2551:, pp. 282–283. 2491:, pp. 253–254. 2467:, pp. 264–266. 2431:, pp. 536–537. 2338:, pp. 229–230. 2314:, pp. 478–480. 2215:, pp. 252–254. 2200:, pp. 444–446. 2188:, pp. 581–583. 2176:, pp. 544–545. 2164:, pp. 536–537. 2152:, pp. 438–441. 2140:, pp. 406–408. 2128:, pp. 395–399. 2116:, pp. 380–385. 2068:, pp. 364–369. 2044:, pp. 588–589. 2032:, pp. 402–404. 2020:, pp. 396–400. 1981:, pp. 466–470. 1957:, pp. 179–180. 1909:, pp. 177–179. 1892:, pp. 358–359. 1856:, pp. 110–115. 1844:, pp. 160–162. 1820:, pp. 137–138. 1772:, pp. 185–187. 1607:American Experience 1555:in June 1968, with 1470:Barton J. Bernstein 1385:Arnold & Porter 1339:Alexander Vassiliev 1307:Barton J. Bernstein 1302:Stanford Law Review 1126:Nicholas Metropolis 927:, president of the 899:, president of the 615:Robert P. Patterson 602:, Ernest Lawrence, 478:assistant professor 450:Communist Party USA 291:American Prometheus 250:Communist Party USA 34: 5707:Nuclear technology 5695:History of Science 5383:Henry DeWolf Smyth 5162:Robert Oppenheimer 5117:Priscilla Duffield 4858:Polenberg, Richard 4326:Sherwin, Martin J. 4154:The New York Times 4150:"CRITICS' CHOICES" 4097:The Boston Phoenix 4070:The New York Times 4041:The New York Times 3784:Washington Decoded 3521:The New York Times 3264:The New York Times 2925:The New York Times 2395:, pp. 89, 98. 1570:The Boston Phoenix 1312:Cornell University 1265:Enrico Fermi Award 1150:Henry DeWolf Smyth 1110:George Irving Bell 1081: 1002: 984:Scope of testimony 946:The New York Times 905: 886:Kenneth D. Nichols 710: 556: 500:and its treasurer 444:Chevalier incident 393:Ernest O. Lawrence 323:Harvard University 315:Robert Oppenheimer 200:security clearance 198:Revocation of the 131:Kenneth D. Nichols 32: 5733:Manhattan Project 5676: 5675: 5598:Los Alamos Primer 5587:Interim Committee 5542:African Americans 5494:The Great Artiste 5353:Isidor Isaac Rabi 5348:Norman Ramsey Jr. 5147:Franklin Matthias 5086:Heavy water sites 4993:Manhattan Project 4811:978-0-385-50407-2 4717:978-0-300-12390-6 4690:Haynes, John Earl 4341:978-0-375-41202-8 3778:(July 11, 2023). 3745:(Press release). 3551:Wellerstein, Alex 3512:Broad, William J. 3390:, pp. 45–58. 2896:. pp. 1, 4. 2239:, pp. 52–53. 2227:, pp. 47–48. 2104:, pp. 86–87. 1969:, pp. 15–16. 1945:, pp. 59–64. 1880:, pp. 93–94. 1832:, pp. 55–56. 1808:, pp. 51–54. 1760:, pp. 70–71. 1748:, pp. 43–44. 1712:, pp. 89–90. 1676:, pp. 54–61. 1649:, pp. 29–30. 1616:Christopher Nolan 1427:Jennifer Granholm 1377:Martin J. Sherwin 1335:The Wilson Center 1316:Richard Polenberg 1279:Wernher von Braun 1273:Lyndon B. Johnson 1186:Martin J. Sherwin 1036:Isidor Isaac Rabi 917:Lloyd K. Garrison 807:William L. Borden 718:large amounts of 641:Postwar conflicts 631:John Lansdale Jr. 549:Isidor Isaac Rabi 486:Spanish Loyalists 470:Frank Oppenheimer 466:Spanish Civil War 462:Lincoln Battalion 413:Brigadier General 409:Manhattan Project 343:quantum mechanics 299:Jennifer Granholm 279:Lyndon B. Johnson 226:Manhattan Project 206: 205: 162:Lloyd K. Garrison 16:(Redirected from 5750: 5705: 5704: 5703: 5693: 5692: 5691: 5684: 5668: 5667: 5619:Quebec Agreement 5403:John von Neumann 5343:George B. Pegram 5152:Dorothy McKibbin 4986: 4979: 4972: 4963: 4962: 4928: 4906: 4894: 4883: 4853: 4828:Nichols, Kenneth 4823: 4793: 4761: 4729: 4705: 4685: 4683: 4681: 4675: 4650: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4625: 4600: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4575: 4550: 4535: 4515: 4501: 4499: 4497: 4491: 4476: 4468:Getting, Ivan A. 4463: 4433: 4401: 4384:(6): 1383–1484. 4369: 4307: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4272: 4266: 4265: 4263: 4261: 4231: 4225: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4205: 4199: 4198: 4196: 4194: 4183: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4173: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4114: 4108: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4051: 4049: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4015: 4009: 4008: 4006: 4004: 3999:on March 8, 2008 3983: 3977: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3957: 3951: 3945: 3939: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3922:The New York Sun 3909: 3903: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3877:Flynn, Daniel J. 3873: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3862: 3838: 3832: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3806: 3800: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3772: 3763: 3762: 3760: 3758: 3739: 3733: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3709: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3689: 3678: 3662: 3649: 3648: 3646: 3644: 3629: 3618: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3594:(July 7, 2023). 3588: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3547: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3508: 3495: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3466: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3446: 3435: 3426: 3420: 3419: 3417: 3416: 3397: 3391: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3376: 3375: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3338: 3332: 3326: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3300:. 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Dunning 5258:Norris Bradbury 5221: 5207:Stafford Warren 5177:William Purnell 5157:Kenneth Nichols 5137:Ernest Lawrence 5112:James B. Conant 5090: 5004: 4995: 4990: 4936: 4931: 4909: 4903: 4872: 4842: 4812: 4770:Representations 4750: 4718: 4679: 4677: 4673: 4659: 4648: 4629: 4627: 4623: 4609: 4598: 4579: 4577: 4573: 4559: 4548: 4524: 4495: 4493: 4489: 4474: 4452: 4438:Carson, Cathryn 4422: 4390:10.2307/1229016 4342: 4316: 4311: 4310: 4300: 4298: 4273: 4269: 4259: 4257: 4232: 4228: 4218: 4216: 4214:Chicago Tribune 4206: 4202: 4192: 4190: 4185: 4184: 4180: 4171: 4169: 4146: 4142: 4132: 4130: 4115: 4111: 4101: 4099: 4089: 4085: 4075: 4073: 4061: 4057: 4047: 4045: 4034: 4033: 4029: 4016: 4012: 4002: 4000: 3985: 3984: 3980: 3970: 3968: 3959: 3958: 3954: 3946: 3942: 3932: 3930: 3910: 3906: 3896: 3894: 3874: 3870: 3860: 3858: 3839: 3835: 3825: 3823: 3808: 3807: 3803: 3793: 3791: 3773: 3766: 3756: 3754: 3741: 3740: 3736: 3726: 3724: 3711: 3710: 3703: 3693: 3691: 3687: 3676: 3663: 3652: 3642: 3640: 3631: 3630: 3621: 3611: 3609: 3589: 3574: 3564: 3562: 3548: 3541: 3531: 3529: 3509: 3498: 3488: 3486: 3467: 3460: 3450: 3448: 3444: 3433: 3427: 3423: 3414: 3412: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3386: 3382: 3373: 3371: 3358: 3357: 3353: 3345: 3341: 3333: 3329: 3325:, p. 1386. 3321: 3317: 3307: 3305: 3288: 3284: 3274: 3272: 3255: 3246: 3238: 3234: 3226: 3222: 3214: 3210: 3202: 3198: 3190: 3186: 3178: 3174: 3166: 3162: 3154: 3147: 3139: 3135: 3127: 3123: 3115: 3106: 3096: 3094: 3083: 3079: 3069: 3067: 3056: 3052: 3048:, p. xiii. 3044: 3040: 3032: 3028: 3020: 3016: 3008: 3004: 2996: 2992: 2984: 2980: 2970: 2968: 2960:The New Mexican 2953: 2952: 2945: 2935: 2933: 2918: 2917: 2913: 2903: 2901: 2884: 2877: 2867: 2865: 2846: 2839: 2829: 2827: 2808: 2807: 2800: 2790: 2788: 2773: 2769: 2761: 2757: 2749: 2745: 2737: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2713: 2709: 2699: 2697: 2678: 2674: 2666: 2662: 2654: 2650: 2640: 2638: 2619: 2612: 2607: 2603: 2595: 2591: 2583: 2579: 2571: 2567: 2559: 2555: 2547: 2543: 2535: 2531: 2527:, pp. 280. 2523: 2519: 2511: 2507: 2499: 2495: 2487: 2483: 2475: 2471: 2463: 2459: 2451: 2447: 2439: 2435: 2427: 2423: 2415: 2411: 2403: 2399: 2391: 2387: 2379: 2375: 2367: 2363: 2355: 2351: 2346: 2342: 2334: 2330: 2322: 2318: 2310: 2306: 2298: 2294: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2276: 2268: 2264: 2259: 2255: 2247: 2243: 2235: 2231: 2223: 2219: 2211: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2184: 2180: 2172: 2168: 2160: 2156: 2148: 2144: 2136: 2132: 2124: 2120: 2112: 2108: 2100: 2096: 2088: 2084: 2076: 2072: 2064: 2060: 2052: 2048: 2040: 2036: 2028: 2024: 2016: 2012: 2004: 2000: 1992: 1985: 1977: 1973: 1965: 1961: 1953: 1949: 1941: 1937: 1929: 1925: 1917: 1913: 1905: 1896: 1888: 1884: 1876: 1872: 1864: 1860: 1852: 1848: 1840: 1836: 1828: 1824: 1816: 1812: 1804: 1800: 1792: 1788: 1780: 1776: 1768: 1764: 1756: 1752: 1744: 1740: 1732: 1728: 1720: 1716: 1708: 1704: 1696: 1692: 1684: 1680: 1672: 1668: 1660: 1653: 1645: 1638: 1633: 1563:theater critic 1485: 1466:Daniel J. Flynn 1368: 1287: 1261:John F. Kennedy 1256:Eric F. Goldman 1200:Foreign Affairs 1166: 1142: 1114:Alvin C. Graves 1098: 1069: 1048:James B. Conant 1029:David T. Griggs 1018:Joseph Weinberg 986: 881: 876: 803:J. Edgar Hoover 799: 715:James McCormack 643: 596:Harry S. Truman 560:George Eltenton 553:Roger S. Warner 537:James McCormack 529:James B. Conant 510:communist front 446: 382:Hartland Snyder 307: 275:John F. Kennedy 246:Communist front 228:to develop the 224:as part of the 190: 167: 135: 63: 59: 57: 48: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5756: 5746: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5710: 5709: 5697: 5674: 5673: 5663: 5660: 5659: 5657: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5567:Chicago Pile-1 5564: 5562:Calutron Girls 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5538: 5536: 5535:Related topics 5532: 5531: 5529: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5497: 5490: 5483: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5440: 5438: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5398:Stanisław Ulam 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5333:Edwin McMillan 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5278:Harry Daghlian 5275: 5270: 5268:John Cockcroft 5265: 5263:James Chadwick 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5235: 5229: 5227: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5187:Charles Thomas 5184: 5182:Frank Spedding 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5142:James Marshall 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5122:Thomas Farrell 5119: 5114: 5109: 5107:Arthur Compton 5104: 5098: 5096: 5095:Administrators 5092: 5091: 5089: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5023: 5018: 5012: 5010: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4989: 4988: 4981: 4974: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4954: 4948: 4942: 4935: 4934:External links 4932: 4930: 4929: 4907: 4901: 4884: 4870: 4854: 4840: 4824: 4810: 4794: 4762: 4748: 4730: 4716: 4686: 4657: 4636: 4607: 4586: 4557: 4536: 4522: 4502: 4464: 4450: 4434: 4420: 4402: 4370: 4340: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4309: 4308: 4267: 4226: 4200: 4178: 4140: 4125:(in Finnish). 4109: 4083: 4055: 4027: 4010: 3978: 3952: 3940: 3904: 3868: 3833: 3801: 3764: 3734: 3701: 3650: 3619: 3601:The New Yorker 3572: 3539: 3496: 3458: 3421: 3392: 3380: 3351: 3339: 3337:, p. xxi. 3335:Polenberg 2002 3327: 3323:Bernstein 1990 3315: 3304:on May 2, 2005 3282: 3244: 3232: 3230:, p. 587. 3220: 3208: 3206:, p. 472. 3196: 3184: 3172: 3170:, p. 549. 3160: 3158:, p. 550. 3145: 3133: 3121: 3119:, p. 110. 3104: 3077: 3050: 3046:Polenberg 2002 3038: 3026: 3014: 3002: 2990: 2978: 2943: 2911: 2875: 2854:Discover: News 2837: 2798: 2767: 2755: 2743: 2731: 2729:, p. 339. 2719: 2707: 2680:Yarris, Lynn. 2672: 2670:, p. 328. 2660: 2658:, p. 291. 2648: 2610: 2601: 2589: 2587:, p. 297. 2577: 2575:, p. 123. 2565: 2553: 2541: 2529: 2517: 2505: 2493: 2481: 2479:, p. 322. 2469: 2457: 2445: 2433: 2421: 2409: 2407:, p. 650. 2397: 2385: 2373: 2371:, p. 498. 2361: 2349: 2340: 2328: 2316: 2304: 2292: 2283: 2274: 2262: 2253: 2251:, p. 105. 2241: 2229: 2217: 2202: 2190: 2178: 2166: 2154: 2142: 2130: 2118: 2106: 2094: 2092:, p. 372. 2082: 2080:, p. 373. 2070: 2058: 2046: 2034: 2022: 2010: 2008:, p. 539. 1998: 1996:, p. 401. 1983: 1971: 1959: 1947: 1935: 1933:, p. 648. 1923: 1921:, p. 501. 1911: 1894: 1882: 1870: 1868:, p. 102. 1858: 1846: 1834: 1822: 1810: 1798: 1796:, p. 556. 1786: 1784:, p. 323. 1774: 1762: 1750: 1738: 1726: 1714: 1702: 1690: 1678: 1666: 1651: 1635: 1634: 1632: 1629: 1598:BBC miniseries 1561:New York Times 1557:Joseph Wiseman 1484: 1483:Dramatizations 1481: 1367: 1364: 1286: 1283: 1252: 1251: 1248: 1241: 1238: 1165: 1162: 1141: 1138: 1097: 1094: 1068: 1065: 1044:John J. McCloy 985: 982: 970:blank pad rule 880: 877: 875: 872: 833:General Groves 798: 795: 642: 639: 627:Clark Clifford 570:, and who had 545:John H. Manley 468:; his brother 445: 442: 366:George Volkoff 350:Dirac equation 306: 303: 204: 203: 202:of Oppenheimer 196: 192: 191: 189: 188: 183: 178: 171: 166: 165: 159: 154: 147: 141: 137: 136: 134: 133: 128: 122: 120: 116: 115: 112: 108: 107: 102: 98: 97: 92: 88: 87: 84: 80: 79: 73: 69: 68: 54: 50: 49: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5755: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5720: 5718: 5708: 5698: 5696: 5686: 5685: 5682: 5671: 5661: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5599: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5582:Franck Report 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5533: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5508: 5506: 5502: 5496: 5495: 5491: 5489: 5488: 5484: 5482: 5481: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5444:Alsos Mission 5442: 5441: 5439: 5435: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5418:Robert Wilson 5416: 5414: 5413:Eugene Wigner 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5393:Edward Teller 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5368:Glenn Seaborg 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5338:Mark Oliphant 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5328:Willard Libby 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5238:Robert Bacher 5236: 5234: 5231: 5230: 5228: 5224: 5218: 5217:Roscoe Wilson 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5132:John Lansdale 5130: 5128: 5127:Leslie Groves 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5102:Vannevar Bush 5100: 5099: 5097: 5093: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5031: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5013: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4998: 4994: 4987: 4982: 4980: 4975: 4973: 4968: 4967: 4964: 4958: 4955: 4952: 4949: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4917: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4902:0-246-64035-9 4898: 4893: 4892: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4871:0-8014-8661-0 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4841:0-688-06910-X 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4776:(90): 28–60. 4775: 4771: 4767: 4766:Kaiser, David 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4749:0-15-614150-7 4745: 4741: 4740: 4735: 4734:Jungk, Robert 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4713: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4695: 4694:Klehr, Harvey 4691: 4687: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4658:0-520-06018-0 4654: 4647: 4646: 4641: 4637: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4608:0-520-07187-5 4604: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4558:0-520-07186-7 4554: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4523:0-8050-6588-1 4519: 4514: 4513: 4507: 4506:Herken, Gregg 4503: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4451:0-9672617-3-2 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4421:0-88318-707-8 4417: 4413: 4412: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4333: 4332: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4318: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4283: 4278: 4271: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4242: 4237: 4230: 4215: 4211: 4204: 4188: 4182: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4144: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4113: 4098: 4094: 4087: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4059: 4043: 4042: 4037: 4031: 4024:. p. B8. 4023: 4022: 4014: 3998: 3994: 3993: 3988: 3982: 3966: 3962: 3956: 3949: 3944: 3928: 3924: 3923: 3918: 3914: 3908: 3892: 3888: 3887: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3846: 3837: 3821: 3817: 3816: 3811: 3805: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3771: 3769: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3738: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3708: 3706: 3686: 3682: 3675: 3673: 3667: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3638: 3634: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3607: 3603: 3602: 3597: 3593: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3546: 3544: 3527: 3523: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3465: 3463: 3443: 3439: 3432: 3425: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3396: 3389: 3384: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3355: 3348: 3343: 3336: 3331: 3324: 3319: 3303: 3299: 3298: 3293: 3286: 3270: 3266: 3265: 3260: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3242:, p. 27. 3241: 3236: 3229: 3224: 3217: 3212: 3205: 3200: 3193: 3188: 3181: 3176: 3169: 3164: 3157: 3152: 3150: 3142: 3137: 3130: 3125: 3118: 3113: 3111: 3109: 3092: 3088: 3081: 3065: 3061: 3054: 3047: 3042: 3035: 3030: 3023: 3018: 3011: 3006: 2999: 2994: 2987: 2982: 2966: 2962: 2961: 2956: 2950: 2948: 2931: 2927: 2926: 2921: 2915: 2899: 2895: 2894: 2889: 2882: 2880: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2844: 2842: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2816: 2811: 2805: 2803: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2771: 2764: 2759: 2752: 2747: 2740: 2735: 2728: 2723: 2716: 2711: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2676: 2669: 2664: 2657: 2652: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2627:Distillations 2624: 2617: 2615: 2605: 2598: 2593: 2586: 2581: 2574: 2569: 2562: 2557: 2550: 2545: 2538: 2533: 2526: 2521: 2514: 2509: 2502: 2497: 2490: 2485: 2478: 2473: 2466: 2461: 2454: 2449: 2442: 2437: 2430: 2425: 2418: 2413: 2406: 2401: 2394: 2389: 2382: 2377: 2370: 2365: 2358: 2353: 2344: 2337: 2332: 2325: 2320: 2313: 2308: 2301: 2296: 2287: 2278: 2271: 2266: 2257: 2250: 2245: 2238: 2233: 2226: 2221: 2214: 2209: 2207: 2199: 2194: 2187: 2182: 2175: 2170: 2163: 2158: 2151: 2146: 2139: 2134: 2127: 2122: 2115: 2110: 2103: 2098: 2091: 2086: 2079: 2074: 2067: 2062: 2056:, p. 29. 2055: 2050: 2043: 2038: 2031: 2026: 2019: 2014: 2007: 2002: 1995: 1990: 1988: 1980: 1975: 1968: 1963: 1956: 1951: 1944: 1939: 1932: 1927: 1920: 1915: 1908: 1903: 1901: 1899: 1891: 1886: 1879: 1874: 1867: 1862: 1855: 1850: 1843: 1838: 1831: 1826: 1819: 1814: 1807: 1802: 1795: 1790: 1783: 1778: 1771: 1766: 1759: 1754: 1747: 1742: 1736:, p. 86. 1735: 1730: 1723: 1718: 1711: 1706: 1700:, p. 82. 1699: 1694: 1688:, p. 11. 1687: 1682: 1675: 1670: 1664:, p. 12. 1663: 1658: 1656: 1648: 1643: 1641: 1636: 1628: 1626: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1608: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1594:Sam Waterston 1590: 1588: 1587: 1582: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1571: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1549: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1480: 1477: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1462: 1457: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1444: 1438: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1423: 1421: 1420:Patrick Leahy 1417: 1413: 1409: 1404: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1389:Jeff Bingaman 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1363: 1361: 1359: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1320: 1317: 1313: 1308: 1304: 1303: 1297: 1294: 1293: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1249: 1246: 1245:race equality 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1229: 1228: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1204: 1201: 1196: 1189: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1161: 1159: 1154: 1151: 1146: 1137: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1122:David L. Hill 1119: 1115: 1111: 1106: 1103: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1078: 1077:Lewis Strauss 1075:AEC chairman 1073: 1064: 1060: 1058: 1052: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1025: 1021: 1019: 1014: 1012: 1006: 999: 994: 990: 981: 979: 975: 971: 967: 962: 958: 954: 952: 948: 947: 940: 938: 934: 933:Ward V. Evans 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 902: 898: 893: 889: 887: 871: 869: 862: 857: 852: 850: 846: 840: 836: 834: 828: 826: 822: 817: 813: 810: 808: 804: 797:Borden letter 794: 792: 787: 785: 781: 776: 772: 771:Project Vista 768: 763: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 740: 739:crash program 736: 735:Edward Teller 731: 729: 725: 721: 716: 707: 706:Edward Teller 703: 698: 693: 691: 687: 685: 684:Exploratorium 681: 677: 673: 672:Ross Lomanitz 669: 663: 658: 656: 652: 648: 647:Lewis Strauss 638: 636: 632: 628: 624: 623:Vannevar Bush 620: 616: 613: 610:. 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Evans 184: 182: 179: 176: 173: 172: 170: 163: 160: 158: 155: 152: 149: 148: 145: 142: 138: 132: 129: 127: 126:Lewis Strauss 124: 123: 121: 117: 113: 109: 106: 103: 99: 96: 93: 91:Also known as 89: 85: 81: 77: 74: 70: 55: 51: 46: 41: 36: 30: 19: 5654:Y-12 Project 5639:Smyth Report 5634:S-50 Project 5596: 5592:K-25 Project 5521:Pumpkin bomb 5492: 5485: 5478: 5408:John Wheeler 5378:Louis Slotin 5373:Emilio Segrè 5323:George Koval 5303:James Franck 5288:Enrico Fermi 5233:Luis Alvarez 5192:Paul Tibbets 5167:Deak Parsons 4915: 4890: 4861: 4831: 4801: 4773: 4769: 4738: 4707: 4680:December 14, 4678:. Retrieved 4644: 4628:. Retrieved 4594: 4578:. Retrieved 4544: 4511: 4494:. Retrieved 4482: 4478: 4441: 4410: 4381: 4377: 4330: 4299:. Retrieved 4280: 4270: 4258:. Retrieved 4239: 4229: 4219:14 September 4217:. Retrieved 4213: 4203: 4193:December 14, 4191:. Retrieved 4181: 4170:. Retrieved 4153: 4143: 4131:. Retrieved 4122: 4112: 4100:. Retrieved 4096: 4086: 4074:. Retrieved 4068: 4058: 4046:. 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