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made, Strauss was one of an increasingly large coalition of military and government figures, and a few scientists, who strongly felt that development of the new weapon was essential to U.S. security in the face of a hostile, nuclear-capable, ideological enemy. Thus, in the absence of
Strauss's action, the same decision almost surely would have been reached. In any case, when the decision was announced, Strauss, considering that he had accomplished as much as he could in his role as commissioner, submitted his resignation that same day. Within the administration, there was some consideration given to Strauss being named chairman of the AEC to replace the departing Lilienthal, but Strauss was considered too polarizing a figure. The last day for Strauss during this first stint of his on the commission was April 15, 1950.
1630:
1423:" program, which Eisenhower announced in December 1953. Strauss was now one of the best-known advocates of atomic energy for many purposes. In part, he celebrated the promise of peaceful use of atomic energy as part of a conscious effort to divert attention away from the dangers of nuclear warfare. Nevertheless, Strauss, like Eisenhower, did sincerely believe in and hope for the potential of peaceful uses. In 1955 Strauss helped arrange the U.S. participation in the first international conference on peaceful uses of atomic energy, held in Geneva. Strauss held Soviet capabilities in high regard, saying after the conference that "in the realm of pure science the Soviets had astonished us by their achievements ... could be described in no sense as technically backward."
1966:
8362:
8057:
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1936:
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Oppenheimer was their first ranked. Strauss, a conservative
Republican, had little in common with Oppenheimer, a liberal who had had Communist associations. Oppenheimer subsequently was a leading opponent of moving ahead with the hydrogen bomb and proposed a national security strategy based on atomic weapons and continental defense; Strauss wanted the development of thermonuclear weapons and a doctrine of deterrence. Oppenheimer supported a policy of openness regarding the numbers and capabilities of the atomic weapons in America's arsenal; Strauss believed that such unilateral frankness would benefit no one but Soviet military planners.
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1220:
789:
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purposes was a risk to U.S. security, from which the scientists on the GAC developed a poor image of
Strauss. Then during a public hearing in 1949, Oppenheimer had given a mocking answer to a point Strauss had raised on the subject, a humiliation that Strauss did not forget. Strauss was also offended that Oppenheimer had engaged in adulterous relations. And Strauss did not like that Oppenheimer had seemingly left his Jewish heritage behind, whereas Strauss had become successful β despite the anti-Semitic environment of Washington β while still maintaining his prominent roles in Jewish organizations and his Temple Emanu-El presidency.
33:
1316:
605:
1857:, effective November 13, 1958. However, Senate opposition to his nomination was as strong as a renewed AEC term. This was surprising, given the high level of experience Strauss had, the relative lack of prominence of the Commerce post compared to some other cabinet positions and the tradition of the Senate deferring to presidents to choose the cabinet heads they wanted. Indeed, at the time the previous thirteen nominees for this Cabinet position had won Senate confirmation in an average of eight days. Due to a long-running feud between the two, Senator
1838:
1239:, a long-time friend for whom Strauss earlier had provided contacts in the business world (and who had subsequently helped Strauss get his active duty assignment). In their initial discussion about the appointment, Strauss noted to the New Deal-supporting Truman that "I am a black Hoover Republican." Truman said that was of no matter, since the commission was intended to be non-political. Strauss, who briefly had returned to work at Kuhn Loeb after the war, now exited the firm altogether in order to comply with AEC regulations.
966:
Coordinating
Foundation, that would be set up to effectively pay Germany an immense ransom in exchange for their allowing Jews to emigrate; that too did not happen. Strauss received many individual requests for help, but often was unable to. Decades later, Strauss wrote in his memoir: "The years from 1933 to the outbreak of World War II will ever be a nightmare to me, and the puny efforts I made to alleviate the tragedies were utter failures, save in a few individual casesβpitifully few."
1427:
1484:, a Japanese fishing vessel. The AEC initially tried to keep the contamination secret, and then tried to minimize the health dangers of fallout. Voices began to be heard advocating for a ban or limitation on atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. Strauss himself downplayed dangers from fallout and insisted that it was vital that a program of atmospheric blasts proceed unhindered; internally within the administration, Strauss was dismissive of the matter and even speculated that the
1511:
1569:. Once that body was in place, Eisenhower began to directly receive a broader selection of scientific information; Strauss lost his ability to control scientists' access to the president and his influence within the administration began to recede. While Strauss had maintained his hostility towards Anglo-American cooperation on nuclear matters since becoming AEC chairman, Sputnik gave impetus to renewed cooperation on this front. Strauss visited Prime Minister
1558:, who had been chosen by Eisenhower to lead an effort on disarmanent policy, focused on making nonprofileration a key goal of the United States, including proposals to halt not just to testing but also the continued expansion of the U.S. fissionable material stockpile. Eisenhower was at least partially receptive to the proposals, but Strauss argued that nuclear materials production could not be stopped yet and that testing could never be halted completely.
1873:
Strauss's claim, a letter that
Anderson promptly leaked to the press. Strauss attempted to reach Truman through an intermediary to rescue the situation but was rebuffed and felt bitter at the lack of support. A group of scientists who were still upset over the role Strauss had played in the Oppenheimer hearings lobbied against confirmation, playing upon the pronunciation of their target's name by calling themselves the Last Straws Committee. Physicist
1703:, Strauss collaborated and aided Borden in making the allegations against Oppenheimer. This action set into motion a chain of events. On December 3, 1953, Eisenhower, after consulting with Strauss and others, ordered a "blank wall" between Oppenheimer and all areas of government. On December 21, Strauss told Oppenheimer that his security clearance had been suspended, pending resolution of a series of charges outlined in a letter from
1044:; these changes took hold by the following year. Strauss organized a morale-boosting effort to award "E for Excellence" awards to plants doing a good job of making war materials. The program proved popular and helped the United States ramp up production quickly in case it entered the war; by the end of 1941 the Bureau of Ordnance had given the "E" to 94 different defense contractors. It was adopted across all services in 1942 as the
1332:, then known as "the Super". Strauss urged for the United States to move immediately to develop it, writing to his fellow commissioners on October 5 that "the time has come for a quantum jump in our planning ... we should make an intensive effort to get ahead with the super." In particular, Strauss was unswayed by moral arguments against going forward, seeing no real difference between using it and the atomic bomb or the
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hydrogen bomb project had been unreasonably stalled, both before Truman's decision and after, by a small group of
American scientists working against the national interest; also that Strauss was one of the heroes who had overcome this cabal's efforts. Young points to circumstantial archival evidence that Strauss was behind both publications and may well have given classified information to the book authors involved (
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June 29, 1954, the AEC upheld the findings of the
Personnel Security Board, by a 4β1 decision, with Strauss writing the majority opinion. In that opinion, Strauss stressed Oppenheimer's "defects of character", "falsehoods, evasions and misrepresentations", and past associations with Communists and people close to Communists as the primary reasons for his determination. He did not comment on Oppenheimer's loyalty.
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dangers of Bravo fallout to the islanders of the atolls, insisting in his 1962 memoirs that they had been under "continuous and competent medical supervision" and that follow-up tests showed them to be in "excellent health their blood counts were approximately normal". Others in the AEC were equally cavalier. In fact, AEC scientists had seen the islanders as a valuable laboratory case of human exposure. The
591:. In order to help out, Strauss decided to work as a traveling shoe salesman for his father's company. In his spare time, Strauss studied his Jewish heritage. He was quite successful in his sales efforts; over the next three years, he saved $ 20,000 (equivalent to $ 476,000 in 2023): enough money to cover college tuition now that the scholarship offer was no longer in effect.
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defense laboratories." Strauss responded by first sending a letter to the petitioners saying that they were not trying to quash the expression of professional opinions – "We certainly do not want 'yes men' in the employ of the Atomic Energy
Commission" – and followed that with a July 1954 visit to the laboratory to try to mollify the scientists. An editorial in
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White House). Strauss's suspicions increased further with the discovery that in 1948 and 1949 Oppenheimer had tried to stop the long-range airborne detection system that
Strauss had championed and that had worked in discovering the Soviet Union's first atomic weapon test. At first Strauss moved cautiously, even heading off an attack on Oppenheimer by Senator
1079:, which kept scientific research of naval matters under control of the Navy rather than civilian or academic organizations. Strauss's contributions were recognized by the Navy and by 1945 he was serving on the Army-Navy Munitions Board, a role that concluded by the following year. He was also on the Naval Reserve Policy Board starting in 1946.
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owlishβfaced Mr. Strauss puzzled most observers. He was, on the one hand, a sociable person who enjoyed dinner parties and who was adept at prestidigitation; and, on the other hand, he gave the impression of intellectual arrogance. He could be warm-hearted yet seem at times like a stuffed shirt. He could make friends yet create antagonisms.
862:. Over several years, Strauss engaged in activities designed to strengthen the Republican Party in Virginia and the South overall. He also was committed to protecting the reputation of President Hoover; in 1930, on behalf of the White House, he conspired with two naval intelligence officers to illegally break into the office of a
1275:: that the Soviet Union was determined on a course of world domination. As such, he believed in having a more powerful nuclear force than the Soviets and in maintaining secrecy about U.S. nuclear activities. This extended to allies: Among the commissioners, he was the most skeptical about the value of the
1768:β head of the successor organization to the AEC β vacated the 1954 revocation of Oppenheimer's security clearance. Her decision was not based on revisiting the merits of the case against Oppenheimer, but rather on the flawed processes in the hearings that had violated the AEC's own regulations. Historian
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The successor agency to the AEC later ruled that the hearing was "a flawed process that violated the
Commission's own regulations." The loss of his security clearance ended Oppenheimer's role in government and policy. Oppenheimer returned to his directorship at the Institute of Advanced Studies, but
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to initiate surveillance to track Oppenheimer's movements. The director readily did so; the tracking uncovered no evidence of disloyalty but that Oppenheimer had lied to Strauss about his reason for taking a trip to Washington (Oppenheimer met a journalist but had told Strauss that he had visited the
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in Pennsylvania; it would eventually go on-line in 1957. While Shippingport was a joint government-commercial collaboration, Strauss advocated for private industry taking on the development of nuclear power plants on its own. Strauss made public remarks in 1954 predicting that atomic power would make
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Strauss's mother died of cancer in 1935, and his father of the same disease in 1937. That and his early interest in physics led Strauss to establish a fund in their names, the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund, for physics research that could lead to better radiation treatment for cancer patients.
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in 1989. President Eisenhower, who had invested both personal and professional capital in the nomination of Strauss, spoke of the Senate action in bitter terms, saying that "I am losing a truly valuable associate in the business of government. ... it is the American people who are the losers through
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In the wake of the AEC decision, public opinion and most scientists were firmly against Strauss. Nearly 500 of the scientists at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory signed a petition saying "this poorly founded decision ... will make it increasingly difficult to obtain adequate scientific talent in our
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At the conclusion of the hearings, Oppenheimer's clearance was revoked by a 2β1 vote of the board. They unanimously cleared Oppenheimer of disloyalty, but a majority found that 20 of the 24 charges were either true or substantially true and that Oppenheimer would represent a security risk. Then on
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In addition, Strauss disliked Oppenheimer on a variety of personal grounds. Starting in 1947, Strauss had been in a dispute with the General Advisory Committee (GAC) of senior atomic scientists, which Oppenheimer chaired and which reported to the AEC, over whether exporting radioisotopes for medical
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banning atmospheric tests would not be arrived at until 1963, and the U.S. government engaged in a series of reevaluations of the health of the islanders, and relocation and economic packages to compensate them, over the next several decades. Strauss and others in the AEC were also dismissive of the
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Once there, Strauss became one of the first commissioners to speak in dissent from existing policy. In the first two years, there were a dozen instances, most having to do with information-security matters, in which Strauss was in a 1β4 minority on the commission; in the process, he increasingly was
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that would legislatively allow the entry of 20,000 German refugee children into the United States. Long allied with both Hoover and Taft, he asked each of them to support the bill. Hoover did, but Taft did not, telling Strauss, "With millions of people out of work, I can't see the logic of admitting
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tale. As one historian has written, Strauss's business success was the residue of "luck, pluck, hard work, and good contacts". Strauss's biographer reaches a similar conclusion: "Strauss reached the top because of his ability, ambition, choices of the right firm and the right wife, and the good luck
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In 2023, Bernstein stated that evidence developed in the prior two decades that Oppenheimer had been a secret member of the Communist Party partially vindicated Strauss. "Strauss was devious, thin-skinned, mean-spirited, and even vicious in helping to do in Robert Oppenheimer. But on some important
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has identified archival evidence which suggests to some degree that Strauss was in collusion with Borden, the former congressional staff member whose letter had triggered the Oppenheimer security hearing. McMillan also argues that following that letter, Strauss was likely behind Eisenhower's "blank
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The tie between Herbert Hoover and Strauss remained strong throughout the years; in 1962 Hoover wrote in a letter to Strauss: "Of all the men who have come into my orbit in life, you are the one who has my greatest affections, and I will not try to specify the many reasons, evidences or occasions."
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During and after the Senate hearings, McGee charged Strauss with "a brazen attempt to hoodwink" the committee. Strauss also overstated his role in the development of the H-bomb, implying that he had convinced Truman to support it. Truman was annoyed by this and sent a letter to Anderson undermining
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was unusual for a member of the reserve, and as such, he liked being addressed as "Admiral Strauss", even though use of the honorific perturbed some regular officers, who considered him a civilian. By this time, Strauss had taken advantage of his ties in both Washington and Wall Street to enter the
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Earlier during the war, Strauss was promoted to commander, then by November 1943 was a captain. He rose in rank and influence due to a combination of his intelligence, personal energy, and ability to find favor in higher places. Strauss's rigid manner managed to make enemies during the war as well,
936:. He first made his concern known in early 1933, writing to President Hoover during the final weeks of Hoover's time in office. Strauss attended a London conference of concerned Jews later that year on behalf of the American Jewish Committee, but the conference fell apart over the issue of Zionism.
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chair completed at the end of June 1958. Eisenhower wanted to reappoint him, but Strauss feared the Senate would reject or at least subject him to ferocious questioning. Besides the Oppenheimer affair, he had clashed with Senate Democrats on several major issues, including his autocratic nature as
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Internal debate ensued over the next several years within the Eisenhower administration over the possibility of an atmospheric test ban with the Soviet Union, with some in favor of trying to arrange one, but Strauss was always one of those implacably opposed. Strauss would continue to minimize the
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in order to bring the matter to President Truman directly. It was as a consequence of this meeting that Truman first learned (when Souers informed him) that such a thing as a hydrogen bomb could exist. In a memorandum urging development of the Super that he sent to President Truman on November 25,
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Strauss was known for his psychological rigidity; one of his fellow commissioners reportedly said, "If you disagree with Lewis about anything, he assumes you're just a fool at first. But if you go on disagreeing with him, he concludes you must be a traitor." Strauss was increasingly unhappy in his
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Strauss's misgivings about Oppenheimer went beyond dislike and disagreement. He had become aware of Oppenheimer's former Communist affiliations before World War II and had begun to think that Oppenheimer might even be a Soviet spy. For instance, Strauss was suspicious of Oppenheimer's tendency to
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was part of a Communist scheme. However, Strauss also contributed to public fears when, during a March 1954 press conference, he made an impromptu remark that a single Soviet H-bomb could destroy the New York metropolitan area. The remark captured the immense destructiveness of the H-bomb and was
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On January 31, 1950, Truman announced his decision to go forward with hydrogen-bomb development. A few narratives, including ones promoted by Strauss and that of Strauss's biographer, have placed Strauss as having had a central role in Truman's decision. However, by the time that the decision was
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Strauss succeeded in Washington's social and political circles despite that environment being notoriously anti-Semitic at the time. Indeed, experiences with anti-Semitism may have contributed to the outsider perspective and fractious personality that became evident during his later career. He was
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Strauss was active in Kuhn Loeb until 1941, although he resented restrictions imposed on investment banking by regulators in the Roosevelt administration and derived less enjoyment from the business. Nonetheless, in his role as an investment banker Strauss had become vastly wealthy, and given his
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studied the historiography of H-bomb development and scrutinized the role that Strauss played in trying to form that history to his benefit. In particular, Young looked at the publication during 1953 and 1954 of a popular magazine article and book that promoted a highly distorted notion that the
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report in 1953 to ascertain the impact of radioactive fallout, generated from repeated nuclear detonations of greater and greater yield, on the world's population. The British asked the AEC for the report, but Strauss resisted giving them anything more than a heavily redacted version, leading to
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For about a dozen years at the outset of the atomic age Lewis Strauss, an urbane but sometimes thorny former banker with a gifted amateur's knowledge of physics, was a key figure in the shaping of United States thermonuclear policy. ... In the years of his mightiest influence in Washington, the
2035:, with Strauss frequently being cast in the role of villain. This was an image that would persist in both the near term and the long term. Strauss had his defenders as well, who saw the hero and villain roles as being reversed. Such polarized assessments followed Strauss for much of his career.
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Strauss received a number of honorary degrees during his lifetime; indeed his advocates during the Secretary of Commerce confirmation hearings gave twenty-three as the number of colleges and universities that had awarded him such honors. These include, among others, an Honorary LL.D. from the
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in lieu of a third award was given in 1947, for his work during and after the war as a special assistant to the Navy secretary and on joint ArmyβNavy industrial mobilization boards. Finally in 1959 he received a Gold Star in lieu of a fourth award, this time for his work on atomic energy as it
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approaching, congressional Democrats looked for issues on which they could demonstrate their institutional strength in opposition to Eisenhower. On June 19, 1959, just after midnight, the Strauss nomination failed by a vote 46β49. Voting for Strauss were 15 Democrats and 31 Republicans, voting
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cover story calling it "one of the biggest, bitterest, and in many ways most unseemly confirmation fights in Senate history". In preparation for the floor debate on the nomination, the Democratic majority's main argument against the nomination was that Strauss's statements before the committee
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in supporting the establishment of a refugee state in Africa as a safe haven for all persecuted people, not just Jews, and pledged ten percent of his wealth towards it. This effort too failed to materialize. Still another scheme that involved Strauss concerned an international corporation, the
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in August 1949, a WB-29 flight did, in fact, find evidence of the test. While Strauss was not the only person who had been urging long-range detection capabilities, it was largely due to his efforts that the United States was able to discover that the Soviet Union had become a nuclear power.
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After the war, Strauss was the Navy's representative on the Interdepartmental Committee on Atomic Energy. Strauss recommended a test of the atomic bomb against a number of modern warships, which he thought would refute the idea that the atomic bomb made the Navy obsolete. His recommendation
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at Princeton, presented Oppenheimer with the institute's offer to be its director. Strauss, who as one writer notes was a man of high intelligence and financial skills if not higher education, had also been considered for the job; he was the institute's faculty's fifth-ranked choice, while
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state that Strauss's decision to publish the transcript of the Oppenheimer security hearing even though witnesses had been promised their testimony would remain secret, rebounded against him in the long run, as the transcript showed how the hearing had taken the form of an inquisition.
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claimed Strauss "pronounced his own name 'Straws' to make himself sound less Jewish". Strauss, however, had been prominent in Jewish causes and organizations throughout his life, and this charge was implausible. Indeed, Strauss's papers take up seventy-six boxes in the archives of the
1943:
The Commerce defeat effectively ended Strauss's government career. The numerous enemies that Strauss had made during his career took some pleasure from the turn of events. Strauss himself was hurt by the rejection and, never fully getting over it, tended to brood over events past.
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At the start of his 1962 memoir, Strauss states his belief that "the right to live in the social order established is so priceless a privilege that no sacrifice to preserve it is too great." This sentiment became the basis of the title of, and the interpretative framework for,
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Strauss, who was still on the board of trustees there, attempted to have him dismissed. However, in October 1954, the board voted to keep Oppenheimer on. In the years that followed, Strauss still hoped to remove Oppenheimer, but never got the votes on the board he needed.
1596:(and years later would help Bergmann get a visiting fellowship in the United States). While Strauss's thoughts on the Israeli effort to develop nuclear weapons are not documented, his wife later said that he would have been in favor of Israel being able to defend itself.
753:. By 1926 his yearly compensation from the firm had reached $ 75,000 (equivalent to $ 1,291,000 in 2023) and by the next year, $ 120,000 (equivalent to $ 2,105,000 in 2023). Subsequently, Strauss arranged the firm's financing for steel companies such as
2243:, for which he had assisted in the planning and raising funds. In 1955, Strauss received a silver plaque from the Men's Club of Temple Emanu-El for "distinguished service"; President Eisenhower sent a message to the ceremony saying the honor was well-deserved.
1718:. Strauss had access to the FBI's information on Oppenheimer, including his conversations with his lawyers, which was used to prepare counterarguments against those lawyers in advance. Strauss was not present at the hearings, instead reading daily transcripts.
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in August 1949 came earlier than expected by Americans, and, over the next several months, there was an intense debate within the U.S. government, military, and scientific communities regarding whether to proceed with development of the far more powerful
669:(JDC) to relieve the suffering of Jewish refugees, who were often neglected by other bodies. Strauss acted as a liaison between Hoover's organization and JDC workers in a number of Central and Eastern European countries. Getting news in April 1919 of the
1641:, and was one of the most respected figures in atomic science, briefing the President and the National Security Council on several occasions. Oppenheimer's AEC consultancy, and the clearance that went with it, had just been renewed for another year by
624:. Accordingly, Strauss took the train to Washington, D.C., and talked his way into serving without pay as an assistant to Hoover. (Strauss and his biographer differ on whether this happened in February or May 1917, but the latter seems more likely.)
1707:, general manager of the AEC. Rather than resign, Oppenheimer requested a hearing. Upon Strauss's request, FBI director Hoover ordered full surveillance on Oppenheimer and his attorneys, including tapping of phones; these wiretaps were illegal.
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Strauss had no further direct involvement with atomic energy developments during the war. Indeed, he was frustrated by Harvey Hollister Bundy, his colleague from the Food Administration days, who kept Strauss away from information regarding the
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to which the United States, Britain, and Canada agreed in January 1948 that provided for limited sharing of technical information between the three nations (and that already was a stricter set of guidelines than those established by President
929:. He did not view Jews as belonging to a nation or a race; he considered himself an American of Jewish religion, and consequently he advocated for the rights of Jews to live as equal and integral citizens of the nations in which they resided.
2088:'s 1984 authorized biography of Strauss. In it, Pfau criticizes Strauss's conduct in the Oppenheimer affair, but presents it as the acts of a man with integrity who felt compelled to do what was necessary to protect the nation. Historian
1697:, the former executive director of the United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, wrote a letter to the FBI alleging that "more probably than not J. Robert Oppenheimer is an agent of the Soviet Union." According to the book
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disagrees with this approach, saying that the framework is too generous and that Pfau errs in "seeing Strauss as a man of great integrity (Strauss's own claim) rather than as a man who used such claims to conceal sleazy behavior."
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and demanded a fair investigation, but Strauss saw Paderewski as an anti-Semite who believed that all Jews were Bolsheviks and all Bolsheviks were Jews. After a while, the situation for Jews in Poland did (temporarily) improve.
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Strauss returned to the United States and started at Kuhn Loeb in 1919. As a result, he never did attend college, a fact that may have led to the perfectionist and defensive personality traits that he exhibited later in life.
1881:, was one of several scientists who testified before the Commerce Committee against Strauss's nomination, saying that "most of the scientists in this country would prefer to see Mr. Strauss completely out of the Government".
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aircraft equipped with radiological tests could run regular "sniffer" flights to monitor the upper atmosphere and detect any atomic tests by the Soviet Union. Other people in government and science, including physicists
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After sixteen days of hearings the Senate Commerce Committee recommended Strauss's confirmation to the full Senate by a vote of 9β8. By now the struggle was in the forefront of the national political news, with a
525:, held in April and May 1954 before an AEC Personnel Security Board, in which Oppenheimer's security clearance was revoked. As a result, Strauss often has been regarded as a villain in American history. President
2192:, a civilian honor, by President Eisenhower. The award was for "exceptional meritorious service" in the interest of the national security in his efforts towards both military and peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
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and was active in making his opinion known on various matters. These included his dissatisfaction with the speed at which research and development into actually making a working hydrogen device was taking place.
1554:, Strauss was skeptical that attempts to prevent it would accomplish anything, and Strauss and the AEC also doubted that the problem was as severe as some others in the administration maintained. During 1956,
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631:. Strauss worked well and soon was promoted to Hoover's private secretary and confidant. In that position he made powerful contacts that would serve him later on. One such contact he made was with attorney
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Kuhn Loeb's major customers were railroads, and by the mid-1920s, Strauss was helping to arrange financing for new railroad terminal buildings in Cincinnati and Richmond and for the reorganizations of the
6681:
Nomination of Lewis L. Strauss: Hearings, Eighty-sixth Congress, First Session, on the Nomination of Lewis L. Strauss to be Secretary of Commerce. March 17β18, April 21, 23, 28β30, May 1, 4β8, 11, 13β14,
1997:. He helped arrange a no-interest loan to fund a congregation building for the Los Alamos Jewish Center. He lived on a 2,000-acre (800 ha) farm, where he engaged in cattle breeding and raised prized
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included semi-truths and outright falsehoods and that under tough questioning Strauss tended towards ambiguous responses and engaging in petty arguments. Despite an overwhelming Democratic majority, the
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1167:. Strauss talked to scientists who had left Nazi Germany and learned about atom-related experiments that had taken place there. Szilard kept him up to date on developments in the area, such as the
1377:. The relationship with the Rockefeller brothers would last until 1953. However, Strauss felt that the brothers treated him as a second-class asset and, in turn, he felt no loyalty towards them.
1296:, of the dangers of sharing atomic information with Britain, and, after Dewey lost, Strauss tried to convince President Truman of the same. Following the revelations about the British physicist
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and Strauss had embarked on discussions about the idea without informing his fellow commissioners. The plan itself was controversial and eventually became a losing issue for Republicans in the
2053:; the executive director of that organization has remarked that, "I'm not gonna say he is a member of more Jewish organizations than any historical figure I've ever seen, but he's up there."
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1949, the pious Strauss expressed no doubt about what the Soviets would do, writing that "a government of atheists is not likely to be dissuaded from producing the weapon on 'moral' grounds."
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One of Strauss's first actions on the AEC was to urge his fellow commissioners to set up the capability to monitor foreign atomic activity via atmospheric testing. In particular, he saw that
561:, and he grew up and attended public schools there. At the age of ten, he lost much of the vision in his right eye in a rock fight, which later disqualified him from normal military service.
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featured Strauss twice. The first was in 1953 when he was AEC chair and the nuclear arms race was underway, and the second was in 1959 during his Secretary of Commerce confirmation process.
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977:, after having previously been chair of the temple's finance committee. He had first joined the board of trustees of the temple in 1929, when the congregation was absorbing the merger of
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post-war establishment in the capital. He also was learning how to get things accomplished in Washington via unofficial back channels, something at which he would become quite adept.
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416:; January 31, 1896 – January 21, 1974) was an American government official, businessman, philanthropist, and naval officer. He was one of the original members of the
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When Eisenhower offered Strauss the AEC chairmanship, Strauss named one condition: Oppenheimer would be excluded from all classified atomic work. Oppenheimer held a highest-level
1361:, where his charter was to participate in decisions regarding projects, financing, and investing. For them, he assisted in the founding of, and served on the first board for, the
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magazine's review said they "may now remind readers of many real accomplishments before they were obscured by political rows." The book sold well, spending fifteen weeks on the
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proud of his Southern upbringing as well as his religion, and insisted his name be pronounced in Virginia fashion as "straws" rather than with the usual German pronunciation.
733:, another partner at Kuhn Loeb, who interviewed Strauss in Paris and offered him a job. In so doing, Strauss turned down an offer to become comptroller for the newly forming
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1978:. He also remained on good terms with President Eisenhower and for several years in the 1960s Eisenhower and Strauss advocated construction of a nuclear-powered, regional
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During 1941, Strauss recommended actions to improve inspectors' abilities and consolidate field inspections into one General Inspectors' Office that was independent of
650:, headquartered in Paris, and Strauss joined him there once more as his private secretary. Acting on behalf of a nearly destitute diplomatic representative of Finland,
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1927:
this sad episode." Strauss sent a letter of resignation from his recess appointment as Commerce Secretary on June 23, a resignation that took effect on June 30, 1959.
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Strauss had stated to an interviewer in late 1954, "For the first time in my life, I have enemies." By the end of the 1950s, Strauss had garnered the reputation, as a
498:. During his stint as chairman of the AEC, Strauss urged the development of peaceful uses of atomic energy, and he predicted that atomic power would make electricity "
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stated that the suspension of the security clearance was unnecessary: "he is a consultant, and if you don't want to consult the guy, you don't consult him, period."
910:. He was active in the Jewish Agricultural Society, for whom by 1941 he was honorary president. By 1938 he was also active in the Palestine Development Council, the
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Strauss was involved in finding the site and industry partners for the start of construction, in 1954, of the first dedicated U.S. atomic electric power plant, the
1231:(AEC). In October 1946, in advance of the commission actually coming into being, Strauss was named by President Truman as one of the first five Commissioners, with
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Oppenheimer was thus stripped of his clearance: one day before it would have expired, and seven months after it had been suspended on the orders of the president.
1736:, the former director of the Manhattan Project, testified that under the stricter security criteria in effect in 1954, he "would not clear Dr. Oppenheimer today".
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and others in the U.S. intelligence community. Instead, in February 1941, he was called to active duty, and was assigned as a Staff Assistant to the Chief at the
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by the Navy in September 1944 for his work on Navy requirements regarding contract termination and disposal of surplus property. At the war's end he received an
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1156:. Szilard persuaded Strauss to support him and Brasch in building a "surge generator". Strauss ultimately provided tens of thousands of dollars to this venture.
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In January 1953, President Eisenhower named Strauss as presidential atomic energy advisor. Then in July 1953, Eisenhower named Strauss as chairman of the AEC.
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1982:
facility in the Middle East that would benefit both Israel and its Arab neighbors but the plan never found sufficient Congressional support to move forward.
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During this time, Strauss continued to take an interest in atomic affairs; as did other former members of the AEC, he had a consulting arrangement with the
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881:. He shared this antipathy with Hoover, who increasingly adopted an ideologically conservative, anti-New Deal viewpoint in the years following his defeat.
1455:. Indeed, on the run-up to a 1958 Geneva conference on atomic power, Strauss offered substantial funding to three laboratories for fusion power research.
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featured in headlines in newspapers across the United States. This statement was heard overseas as well and served to add to what UK Minister of Defence
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in New York. Born in 1903, she was the daughter of Jerome J. Hanauer, who was one of the Kuhn Loeb partners. She was a New York native who had attended
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conspirators, Strauss pressed the case to Hoover that a forceful response must be made to the Polish government. Hoover spoke to Polish Prime Minister
1308:
in the British Cabinet, Strauss argued that the Modus Vivendi should be suspended completely, but no other commissioner wanted to go to that extreme.
677:, in which 35 Jews meeting to discuss the distribution of American relief aid were summarily executed by the Polish Army in the belief that they were
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2038:
Even such matters as the unusual, Southern-based pronunciation of his surname could be perceived as a puzzling artificiality. In a 1997 essay in the
1187:. At the end of the war, when the first atomic bombs were ready for use, Strauss advocated to Forrestal dropping one on a symbolic target, such as a
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1667:. Strauss was not alone in having his doubts; a number of other officials in Washington also suspected that Oppenheimer might be a security risk.
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1048:, and over the course of the war over 4,000 of them were granted. (Strauss's biographer has depicted Strauss as also helping to investigate the
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and was a skilled equestrian and potter. The couple had two sons, one of whom did not survive early childhood. While in New York, they lived on
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the previous year; however, only a month after Oppenheimer made his proclamation, in August 1953, the Soviet Union declared that it had tested
1614:
during the Manhattan Project and who, after the war, became a celebrated public figure and remained in influential positions in atomic energy.
906:
A proudly religious man, Strauss became a leader in Jewish causes and organizations. In 1933 he was a member of the executive committee of the
573:
467:
and several other Jewish organizations in the 1930s, Strauss made several attempts to change U.S. policy in order to accept more refugees from
1732:
had had with him about passing nuclear secrets to the Soviets. He also admitted that he had stayed with Chevalier only the previous December.
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8023:
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1530:... and the following day hold the press conference at which Strauss says a single H-bomb could destroy the entire New York metropolitan area
1443:". Regarded as fanciful even at the time, the quote is now seen as damaging to the industry's credibility. Strauss was possibly referring to
1099:. A proposed promotion for Strauss in 1944 to rear admiral did not happen at the time due to a variety of factors, including that President
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2228:
1784:
President Eisenhower lays the cornerstone of the new AEC building in Germantown, Maryland, in 1957 as AEC chairman Strauss (right) observes
1199:. In subsequent years Strauss would say in interviews, "I did my best to prevent it. The Japanese were defeated before the bomb was used."
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on his behalf, but Hoover failed to gain significant support. Strauss again worked for the this-time-successful campaign of Hoover in the
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position, but President Truman indicated satisfaction with Strauss's work and the minority stances that he was taking on the commission.
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1975:
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1962:
for non-fiction and rising as high as number five on that list. The general view of historians is that the memoirs were self-serving.
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Oppenheimer, however, admitted that he had previously lied to a military counterintelligence officer about a conversation his friend
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that some opponents of the Super were advocating as an alternative. When Strauss was rebuffed by the other commissioners, he went to
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emigrants from Germany and Austria who came to the United States in the 1830s and 1840s and settled in Virginia. His family moved to
2689:
Wentling, Sonja P. (September 2000). "'The Engineer and the Shtadlanim': Herbert Hoover and American Jewish non-Zionists, 1917β28".
1710:
The hearing was held in April and May 1954, before an AEC Personnel Security Board. Strauss selected the three-man board, headed by
8766:
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Strauss (center-left in rear) and Oppenheimer (alongside him, center-right in rear) in a group of scientists and engineers, c. 1953
1227:
In 1947, the United States transferred control of atomic research from the U.S. Army to civilian authority under the newly created
6325:"Secretary Granholm Statement on DOE Order Vacating 1954 Atomic Energy Commission Decision In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer"
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others." The bill had considerable popular support, but eventually failed to move forward in Congress due to opposition from the
588:
729:, and Harriet Loewentstein, a JDC European head who was an accountant at the bank. In addition Hoover had introduced Strauss to
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2478:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press.
2197:
1990:
1789:
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At the hearing, many top scientists, as well as government and military figures, testified on Oppenheimer's behalf. Physicist
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490:, Strauss emphasized the need to protect U.S. atomic secrets and to monitor and stay ahead of atomic developments within the
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Decades after his death, historians continue to examine Strauss's records and actions. Scholar of the early Cold War period
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For his European relief work during and after World War I, Strauss was decorated by six nations. These honors included the
2017:
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that he believed the Soviets were "about four years behind" in nuclear weapons development. The United States had exploded
1610:
During his terms as an AEC commissioner, Strauss became hostile to Oppenheimer, the physicist who had been director of the
1002:
955:
256:
1392:, Strauss originally supported Robert A. Taft, his friend from the Hoover days, for the Republican Party nomination. Once
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began overseas, he volunteered for active duty. He wanted to go into intelligence but was blocked, reportedly because the
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1956:
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1679:, due to Strauss's belief that any case that McCarthy might make would be premature and lack a solid basis of evidence.
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of New Mexico took up the cause of preventing Strauss's confirmation by the Senate. Anderson found an ally in Senator
973:, the largest such in New York City, for a decade, from 1938 to 1948. He was named to the presidency to replace Judge
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1969:
Handwritten text of eulogy read by Strauss over NBC television following the death of former President Hoover in 1964
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420:(AEC) in 1946 and he served as the commission's chair in the 1950s. Strauss was a major figure in the development of
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1994:
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2012:. His funeral was held in New York at Temple Emanu-El and there was also a memorial service held in the capital at
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to start out at a prosperous time." Due to his lack of higher education, Strauss has also been characterized as an
843:
621:
448:
356:
266:
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8635:
4235:, chs. 6 and 13, which do not mention Strauss even though Strauss is mentioned in other contexts within the book.
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Strauss had involvements in the New York City community. In particular, he was on the board of directors of the
463:
during the 1920s and 1930s, where he amassed considerable wealth. As a member of the executive committee of the
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2013:
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By the time he finally graduated from high school, his family's business had experienced a downturn during the
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765:. He became a full partner in 1929, at which point he was making a million dollars a year, and he endured the
32:
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2668:
2626:
859:
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1965:
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5001:. The Springer Series on Demographic Methods and Population Analysis. New York: Springer. pp. 23, 25.
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disabused him of any romantic illusions about the glory of warfare. Similarly, his exposure to effects of
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Strauss receiving the Medal of Freedom from President Eisenhower in 1958, with his wife Alice by his side
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but Strauss did not think it would suit him. Eisenhower also asked if Strauss would consider succeeding
8804:
7271:"Christopher Nolan's Forthcoming 'Oppenheimer' Movie: A Historian's Questions, Worries, and Challenges"
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In September 1953, Strauss, hoping to uncover evidence of Oppenheimer's disloyalty, asked FBI director
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secured the nomination, however, Strauss contributed substantial monies towards Eisenhower's campaign.
1305:
1301:
1045:
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Eisenhower signing a modification of the Atomic Energy Act in 1954; Strauss is seated on the far right
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but was unsuccessful. He also came to know and fund some of the research of refugee nuclear physicist
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2060:, found him bland and courteous in one session but prickly and temperamental in a second session. As
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to give a message from Eisenhower to this effect, and subsequent talks and hearings resulted in the
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during the war and coordinate development of the very secret and highly successful anti-aircraft
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mattersβin even somewhat suspecting Oppenheimerβs political pastβStrauss was not unreasonable."
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resulted in a prolonged, public political battle in 1959 where Strauss was not confirmed by the
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2056:
Strauss's personality was not simply categorized; a mid-1950s interviewer, political scientist
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was not able to accomplish much of its agenda since the President had immense popularity and a
1664:
1333:
946:
945:
attacks on Jews in Germany, Strauss attempted to persuade prominent Republicans to support the
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Strauss had grown up in Virginia, in a culture that venerated Southern military heroes of the "
632:
577:
7296:
7051:"National Register of Historic Places: Hebrew Cemetery Richmond, Virginia: Continuation Sheet"
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2008:
for three years, Strauss died of it on January 21, 1974, at his home, the Brandy Rock Farm in
1056:; however histories of these efforts do not indicate that Strauss played a significant role.)
8680:
8572:
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1811:
magazine profile put it, of being "one of the nation's ablest and thorniest public figures".
1797:. That contract involved a supply of electrical power in Tennessee without going through the
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1281:
1252:
1236:
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5865:"PolitiFact β MovieFact: 'Oppenheimer' sticks close to historic record, with some liberties"
1714:. He also picked the person who would lead the case against Oppenheimer, the trial attorney
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Despite his medical disqualification for regular military duty, Strauss applied to join the
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68:
7818:
Annotated bibliography for Lewis Strauss from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
1903:
against him were 47 Democrats and 2 Republicans. The nays included future U.S. presidents
1107:
event in 1932, and blocked the move. Roosevelt's death changed matters, as his successor,
8:
8440:
8123:
8078:
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7936:
7899:
7846:
Dwight D. Eisenhower, Remarks on Presentation of the Medal of Freedom to Lewis L. Strauss
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2395:
2089:
2057:
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1467:
1366:
1259:, argued that the radiological approach would not work, but Strauss and the newly formed
1247:
1235:
as the chairman. Strauss had been recommended for a position on the body by Vice Admiral
1232:
1029:, where he helped organize and manage Navy munitions work. Strauss and his wife moved to
926:
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follower in New York who was thought to hold documents that would be damaging to Hoover.
722:
564:
Having developed an amateur's knowledge from reading textbooks, Strauss planned to study
503:
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7845:
612:
Strauss's mother encouraged him to perform public or humanitarian service. It was 1917;
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American food administrators in 1918: Hoover is on the far left, Strauss third from left
584:
in his senior year made him unable to take final exams or graduate with his classmates.
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2150:. He received a similar medal from Poland. Per a biographical account presented in the
2032:
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1823:
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1440:
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in May 1944, he employed Strauss as his special assistant. In conjunction with Senator
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558:
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in lieu of a second such award, for his work in coordinating procurement processes. A
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8655:
8578:
8465:
8188:
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8036:
6855:"Dwight D. Eisenhower, Letter Accepting Resignation of Secretary of Commerce Strauss"
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2754:
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2653:
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2589:
2582:; Schwartz, Stephen I. (1998). "Victims of the Bomb". In Schwartz, Stephen I. (ed.).
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2508:
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2411:
2401:
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Strauss served on boards of directors for several corporations, one of which was the
2122:
1939:
Strauss speaking at the dedication of the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library in 1962
1919:
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2023:
Alice Hanauer Strauss lived until 2004, when she died at age 101 in Brandy Station.
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imminent, Eisenhower announced the choice on October 24. Strauss took office via a
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2838:. Wilmington, Delaware. United Press International. January 22, 1974. p. 33.
2184:
benefited the Navy as a source of power and ship propulsion. He also received the
1985:
During his retirement Strauss devoted time to philanthropic activities and to the
1580:
As AEC chairman, Strauss was informed regarding U.S. intelligence findings on the
8862:
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Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 86th Congress, First Session
6959:
6948:
2746:
2579:
2448:
The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938β1945
2332:"A Slap at the 'Hidden-Hand Presidency': The Senate and the Lewis Strauss Affair"
2172:
1904:
1807:
1753:
1676:
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downplay Soviet capabilities. In 1953, Oppenheimer stated in the July edition of
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in 1919, as manifested in the PolishβSoviet War, led to a powerful and lifelong
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6784:"Ike Bitterly Raps Senate on Rejection: 'People Are Losers' in Strauss Refusal"
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Strauss (left) along with Senators Brien McMahon and John Bricker in early 1950
1149:
1137:
1111:, had no negative feelings about Strauss. In July 1945 Strauss was promoted to
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in 1925, becoming effective 1926, and he received an officer's commission as a
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Atoms for Peace and War, 1953β1961 Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission
2347:
2239:, a research building there was named after him. He was a founding trustee of
1516:
Eisenhower and Strauss discuss what happened with Castle Bravo, March 1954 ...
1140:, who was working on producing artificial radioactive material with bursts of
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without significant financial damage. With the firm he helped bring to market
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2005:
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1419:, his view and the administration's goals both evolved, and he endorsed the "
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Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb
2546:
2493:
2415:
1426:
1300:'s espionage for the Soviet Union and the appointment of the former Marxist
8749:
8643:
8243:
7972:
7755:"Oscars 2024: Robert Downey Jr. Wins Best Supporting Actor for Oppenheimer"
6952:
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2585:
Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons since 1940
2045:
1979:
1645:, the outgoing chairman of the AEC; it would extend through June 30, 1954.
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1448:
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7027:. White Plains, New York. Associated Press. January 22, 1974. p. 2A.
2702:
2556:"The Fourth Country Problem: Eisenhower's Nuclear Nonproliferation Policy"
1772:
states that Strauss had been a major culprit in those process violations.
549:, the son of Rosa (nΓ©e Lichtenstein) and Lewis Strauss, a successful shoe
8314:
8268:
8258:
8163:
7925:
7829:
3390:
Wentling, "Herbert Hoover and American Jewish non-Zionists", pp. 385β387.
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Wentling, "Herbert Hoover and American Jewish non-Zionists", pp. 384β385.
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1998:
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The American bomb in Britain: US Air Forces' strategic presence, 1946β64
2731:"The Hydrogen Bomb, Lewis L. Strauss and the Writing of Nuclear History"
2710:
2571:
1223:
The five original commissioners of the AEC in 1947; Strauss is rightmost
1083:
including significant disputes with E. N. Toland, chief counsel for the
8253:
7332:. Vol. 105. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1959. p. 11186.
7181:
5572:
The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy
2555:
2528:
The Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer and the Birth of the Modern Arms Race
2379:
1923:
1715:
1408:
Strauss (left) taking the oath of office as chairman of the AEC in 1953
1064:
895:
693:", but a tour he took in summer 1918 to the devastated battlefields of
6971:
Wentling, "Herbert Hoover and American Jewish non-Zionists", p. 378n2.
4574:
The Color of Truth: McGeorge Bundy and William Bundy: Brothers in Arms
1175:. In February 1940, Szilard asked him to fund the acquisition of some
486:
As a founding commissioner with the AEC during the early years of the
9020:
Rejected or withdrawn nominees to the United States Executive Cabinet
8774:
8755:
8223:
7830:
Guide to the Papers of Admiral Lewis Lichtenstein Strauss (1896β1974)
6482:"Secretarial Order: Vacating 1954 Atomic Energy Commission Decision:
2726:
2397:
American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer
2097:
2001:. A book he was working on about Herbert Hoover was never completed.
796:
On March 5, 1923, Strauss married Alice Hanauer in a ceremony at the
702:
678:
550:
483:
in managing and rewarding plants engaged in production of munitions.
3399:
Wentling, "Herbert Hoover and American Jewish non-Zionists", p. 389.
3372:
Wentling, "Herbert Hoover and American Jewish non-Zionists", p. 382.
2948:"Well-known West Virginia Jews: Politicians & Elected Officials"
2428:
Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years
2371:
7194:
Young, "Strauss and the Writing of Nuclear History", pp. 3, 5, 6β7.
7056:. U.S. Department of the Interior. March 22, 2006. pp. 15β16.
2588:. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. pp. 395β432.
2387:
2118:
1656:
1272:
1037:. She served as an operating room nurse's aide during this period.
1013:
was prejudiced against Jews and because Strauss's contributions to
878:
665:
Besides the U.S. food relief organization, Strauss worked with the
654:, whom he met in Paris, Strauss persuaded Hoover to urge President
620:
had become a symbol of humanitarian altruism by way of heading the
487:
2504:
Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939β1956
1357:
Beginning in June 1950, Strauss became a financial adviser to the
502:". At the same time, he downplayed the possible health effects of
7921:
6447:. Santa Fe. July 18, 1954. p. 14 – via Newspapers.com.
2233:
Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases
1757:
newspaper nicknamed Strauss's efforts as "Operation Butter-Up".
1172:
922:
565:
7609:"Lewis Strauss Honored by Temple Emanu-el; Lauded by Eisenhower"
1493:
termed a "panic" over the subject. The AEC had commissioned the
1148:, who saw in this work a possible means to developing an atomic
1115:. Then in November 1945, after the war, Strauss was promoted to
1103:
had disliked Strauss for years, going back to an incident at an
5931:"At the core of 'Oppenheimer,' a debate about how to be Jewish"
5378:
Maddock, "The Fourth Country Problem", pp. 556, 566n29, 566n30.
4019:"At the core of 'Oppenheimer,' a debate about how to be Jewish"
1176:
7168:
Cuff, Robert D. (December 20, 1985). "Review: Lewis Strauss".
6460:"J. Robert Oppenheimer Cleared of 'Black Mark' After 68 Years"
2950:. West Virginia Jewish History & Genealogy. Archived from
2114:
wall" directive to separate Oppenheimer from nuclear secrets.
6327:(Press release). U.S. Department of Energy. December 16, 2022
4836:
Young, "Strauss and the Writing of Nuclear History", pp. 8β9.
2358:(Spring 1986). "Sacrifices and Decisions: Lewis L. Strauss".
1660:
1324:
1264:
1141:
398:
2304:
Unsuccessful nominations to the Cabinet of the United States
1916:
a Cabinet appointee had failed to be confirmed by the Senate
1914:
It marked only the eighth instance in U.S. history in which
1179:, but Strauss refused, as he had already spent a large sum.
479:
and rose to the rank of rear admiral due to his work in the
8975:
Jewish American members of the Cabinet of the United States
5476:
Makhijani and Schwartz, "Victims of the Bomb", pp. 417β420.
5339:
Makhijani and Schwartz, "Victims of the Bomb", pp. 416β417.
4967:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy. p. 27.
2607:. Charlottesville, Virginia: University Press of Virginia.
869:
During the 1930s, following Hoover's re-election defeat by
494:. Accordingly, he was a strong proponent of developing the
475:. During World War II, Strauss served as an officer in the
459:
after that. Strauss then worked as an investment banker at
7780:
Lewis L. Strauss Papers at the Hoover Presidential Library
7618:. Jewish Telegraphic Agency. January 20, 1955. p. 6.
5307:(2nd ed.). New York: AIP Press/Springer. p. 32.
4625:
Admiral Nimitz: The Commander of the Pacific Ocean Theater
4520:. Jewish Telegraphic Agency. January 23, 1974. p. 3.
4406:
Young, "Strauss and the Writing of Nuclear History", p. 5.
3887:
Young, "Strauss and the Writing of Nuclear History", p. 3.
2930:
Young, "Strauss and the Writing of Nuclear History", p. 4.
1415:
While Strauss had initially opposed Eisenhower's push for
1292:, Strauss tried to convince the Republican Party nominee,
1152:. Szilard already had foreseen that this could lead to an
8742:
Administrator of the Federal Civil Defense Administration
8014:
5507:
Maddock, "The Fourth Country Problem", pp. 557–558.
5442:
Makhijani and Schwartz, "Victims of the Bomb", p. 417n47.
3305:"Man in the News: Overseer of the Atom: Lewis L. Strauss"
2267:
1018:
712:
554:
8767:
Director of the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization
721:, a JDC leader who was a partner in the investment bank
576:, which would have entitled him to a scholarship to the
4511:"Lewis L. Strauss, Former AEC Chairman, Dead at Age 77"
2451:. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
2319:(Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1962).
1382:
United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy
885:
humble original circumstances he has been considered a
8950:
Chairmen of the United States Atomic Energy Commission
6416:"The petition that sought to clear Oppenheimer's name"
5369:
Makhijani and Schwartz, "Victims of the Bomb", p. 417.
3223:
Baker, "A Slap at the 'Hidden-Hand Presidency'", p. 3.
2171:
Strauss, then with the rank of captain, was awarded a
2044:
commenting on the Oppenheimer matter, literary critic
1974:
Strauss assisted in the organizing of support for the
1869:, which had jurisdiction over Strauss's confirmation.
1033:, where they lived in an apartment at the prestigious
1001:
intelligence officer. He remained in the reserve as a
7812:, blog entry at the Herbert Hoover Library and Museum
7724:
Dazzles With Its Epic Story of a Complicated Patriot"
6685:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1959. p. 430.
4301:. Associated Press. October 29, 1946. pp. 1, 7.
2156:, he was also awarded the Grand Officer level of the
831:
and the American Children's Fund. He was a member of
410:
401:
389:
7298:
Virginians of Distinguished Service of the World War
5677:
5675:
5575:. New York: Random House. pp. 54β55, 85β86, 91.
5399:
5397:
5304:
Nuclear Energy: Principles, Practices, and Prospects
4329:. Vol. 1. Group Research Inc. 1962. p. 4.
3896:
Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", pp. 109, 110.
3814:
Hoover: An Extraordinary Life in Extraordinary Times
2673:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
2605:
No Sacrifice Too Great: The Life of Lewis L. Strauss
1399:
1371:
sale and leasing back of real estate associated with
395:
392:
7290:
7288:
6861:. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. June 27, 1959
6815:"Did JFK Oppose Lewis Strauss' Cabinet Nomination?"
6061:
Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", pp. 116β117.
4919:
Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", pp. 112β114.
3937:
3935:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3066:. Associated Press. January 22, 1974. p. 13A.
2188:. On July 14, 1958, Strauss was presented with the
1845:Finally, Eisenhower proposed nominating Strauss as
1830:but Strauss did not want to preempt Undersecretary
1775:
925:and opposed the establishment of a Jewish state in
386:
3489:"Lewis Strauss (1958β1959): Secretary of Commerce"
2144:First Class Commander of the White Rose of Finland
1214:
858:, and was a member from Virginia that year of the
8985:Military personnel from Charleston, West Virginia
7154:
7152:
6894:
6892:
6069:
6067:
5784:
5782:
5672:
5450:
5448:
5394:
3495:. Miller Center of Public Affairs. Archived from
2507:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
2020:along with more than sixty other family members.
1543:dangers Americans faced who were downwind of the
1271:Strauss believed in a fundamental premise of the
1203:contributed to the decision to hold the mid-1946
961:At the same time, Strauss joined with Hoover and
751:Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad
8886:
7285:
6906:
6904:
6409:
6407:
5905:"What's Fact and What's Fiction in Oppenheimer?"
5349:
5347:
5345:
5283:
5281:
3957:
3955:
3953:
3951:
3932:
3557:
3493:American President: An Online Reference Resource
3233:
3231:
3229:
2868:"Who's To Blame In AEC Storm? Davis Sifts Facts"
1365:. He was also involved in the negotiations with
1144:. Brasch's work was based on previous work with
1136:The fund supported the refugee German physicist
1130:
616:was continuing to devastate parts of Europe and
7798:Lewis L. Strauss Papers, Scope and Content Note
6940:See entries at the Hawes Publications site for
6503:
6470:
6018:
6016:
5485:Maddock, "The Fourth Country Problem", pp. 553.
5365:
5363:
5260:"'Too Cheap to Meter': A History of the Phrase"
4576:. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 181.
4256:
4254:
3854:
3852:
3850:
3848:
3846:
1682:
517:Strauss was the driving force behind physicist
8717:Director of the Office of Defense Mobilization
7158:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 108.
7149:
6898:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 120.
6889:
6778:
6776:
6774:
6064:
5788:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 115.
5779:
5669:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 116.
5663:
5597:
5595:
5454:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 118.
5445:
5070:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 114.
4995:"Beginnings of the Modern Population Movement"
4957:
4897:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 112.
4660:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 106.
4060:
4058:
4056:
4054:
4052:
3961:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 110.
3776:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 107.
3716:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3237:Bernstein, "Sacrifices and Decisions", p. 109.
2793:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
1458:Following the unexpectedly large blast of the
850:; Strauss campaigned for him and attended the
8945:Businesspeople from Charleston, West Virginia
8300:
8000:
7907:
6901:
6790:. United Press International. June 19, 1959.
6734:Baker, "A Slap at the 'Hidden-Hand Presidency
6626:Baker, "A Slap at the 'Hidden-Hand Presidency
6545:Baker, "A Slap at the 'Hidden-Hand Presidency
6451:
6404:
5766:
5342:
5278:
4268:. Associated Press. July 7, 1945. p. 8.
4233:U. S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in World War II
4207:U. S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in World War II
4194:U. S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in World War II
4175:
4173:
4171:
4163:U. S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in World War II
4144:
4142:
3948:
3908:
3906:
3904:
3902:
3644:
3642:
3640:
3638:
3636:
3634:
3603:
3601:
3516:
3514:
3459:
3457:
3226:
2670:U. S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in World War II
1263:continued regardless. Several days after the
717:At the JDC, Strauss came to the attention of
7384:
7382:
7301:. Richmond: State of Virginia. p. 198.
7075:
6878:
6876:
6829:"Cabinet Nomination Defeated: June 19, 1959"
6596:
6594:
6317:
6098:
6096:
6013:
5888:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5626:
5624:
5360:
5040:
5038:
4712:
4710:
4708:
4251:
4012:
4010:
4008:
4006:
3843:
3679:
3677:
3675:
3576:"Paid Notice: Deaths Strauss, Alice Hanauer"
3258:
3256:
3134:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3118:
1793:AEC chair and his secretive handling of the
667:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee
8590:Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare
6771:
6509:
6435:
6433:
5592:
5135:
5133:
5093:
5091:
5089:
4793:
4791:
4505:
4503:
4326:Directory β Associations, Institutions, Etc
4295:"Truman Names Civilian Atomic Energy Board"
4289:
4287:
4049:
3707:
3282:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3116:
3114:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3015:
3013:
3011:
3009:
3007:
3005:
2971:
2969:
2768:. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
1466:, there was international concern over the
901:
166:November 12, 1946 β April 15, 1950
9010:Politicians from Charleston, West Virginia
8930:American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
8307:
8293:
8007:
7993:
7914:
7900:
7697:"Oppenheimer (1980): Full Cast & Crew"
4668:
4666:
4402:
4400:
4168:
4139:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4122:
4108:
4106:
4104:
3899:
3883:
3881:
3631:
3598:
3511:
3454:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3200:
3198:
3196:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2861:
2859:
2857:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2667:Rowland, Buford; Boyd, William B. (1953).
2235:in New York. Due to donations made to the
2064:'s front-page obituary of Strauss for the
1976:Barry Goldwater 1964 presidential campaign
1599:
1498:frustration on the part of Prime Minister
1325:first atomic-bomb test by the Soviet Union
1288:of the Manhattan Project era). During the
1265:first atomic bomb test by the Soviet Union
932:Strauss fully recognized the brutality of
60:November 13, 1958 β June 30, 1959
31:
16:American governmental official (1896β1974)
8955:Eisenhower administration cabinet members
7848:, at The American Presidency Project site
7379:
7355:
7353:
7351:
7268:
6873:
6591:
6512:"Oppenheimer: Vacated but not Vindicated"
6093:
5621:
5035:
4961:A History of the Atomic Energy Commission
4705:
4023:J. The Jewish News of Northern California
4003:
3672:
3483:
3481:
3479:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3253:
3054:
3052:
3050:
3048:
3046:
2926:
2924:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2649:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
2200:in 1944, a Doctor of Humane Letters from
1922:in 1925, and would be the last one until
1011:Director of Naval Intelligence, U.S. Navy
958:, and other immigration restrictionists.
875:United States presidential election, 1932
856:United States presidential election, 1928
848:United States presidential election, 1920
639:, a counsel for the Food Administration.
9015:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
8935:American people of German-Jewish descent
7840:Full text of "too cheap to meter" speech
7717:
7388:
7322:
7320:
6821:
6728:
6633:
6620:
6539:
6476:
6430:
5928:
5300:
5130:
5086:
4953:
4951:
4788:
4500:
4284:
3175:
3140:"The Administration: The Strauss Affair"
3095:
3060:"Adm. Lewis Strauss, 77, dead of cancer"
2966:
2162:
2031:The Oppenheimer matter quickly became a
1964:
1934:
1836:
1779:
1628:
1425:
1403:
1314:
1218:
792:Strauss and his wife Alice, c. 1923β1926
787:
603:
7842:, at Nuclear Regulatory Commission site
7567:. VCU Medical Center. Winter 2010β2011.
7457:from the original on September 20, 2020
6962:, its last. Retrieved November 1, 2020.
6510:Wellerstein, Alex (December 21, 2022).
6458:Broad, William J. (December 16, 2022).
6413:
5257:
4992:
4663:
4397:
4119:
4101:
3878:
3685:"L. L. Strauss to Aid the Rockefellers"
3217:
3193:
3022:"Lewis Strauss Dies; Ex-Head of A.E.C."
3019:
2982:
2854:
2815:
2292:Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor
2212:in 1957, and a Doctor of Science from
1091:, chair of that committee; and Admiral
877:, Strauss was a strong opponent of the
9040:Writers from Charleston, West Virginia
8887:
8698:Director of the Mutual Security Agency
7923:United States Atomic Energy Commission
7810:"Lewis Strauss and Robert Oppenheimer"
7651:from the original on February 19, 2020
7487:from the original on February 25, 2021
7391:"J. A. McCone Sworn in as Head of AEC"
7348:
7269:Bernstein, Barton J. (July 11, 2023).
6951:, its first week on the list, through
6484:In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer
5929:Wilensky, David A.M. (July 19, 2023).
5562:
5262:. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
4622:
4016:
3650:"Kuhn, Loeb Partner Called Up By Navy"
3470:
3162:
3043:
2942:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2921:
2903:
2208:in 1956, a Doctor of Science from the
2198:Jewish Theological Seminary of America
1991:Jewish Theological Seminary of America
1689:Oppenheimer security clearance hearing
1567:President's Science Advisory Committee
916:Union of American Hebrew Congregations
747:Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad
713:Investment banker, marriage and family
418:United States Atomic Energy Commission
154:United States Atomic Energy Commission
101:United States Atomic Energy Commission
9030:United States secretaries of commerce
8990:People from Culpeper County, Virginia
8960:George Washington University trustees
8786:Chair of the Atomic Energy Commission
8627:
8334:
8288:
8016:United States Secretaries of Commerce
7988:
7895:
7752:
7718:Zacharek, Stephanie (July 19, 2023).
7545:from the original on October 28, 2020
7513:from the original on October 25, 2020
7367:from the original on January 18, 2021
7317:
7294:
7094:from the original on November 6, 2020
7081:
6812:
6697:"The Administration: The Inquisition"
6457:
5902:
5568:
5230:
4948:
4436:from the original on October 21, 2020
3811:
3315:from the original on October 13, 2020
3150:from the original on January 26, 2021
2865:
2677:
2140:Chevalier, Belgian Order of Leopold I
1663:, which U.S. sensors identified as a
1565:of 1957 led Eisenhower to create the
1075:of Virginia, Strauss established the
1017:had aroused suspicion on the part of
646:, Hoover became head of the post-war
113:July 2, 1953 β June 30, 1958
8905:20th-century American businesspeople
8636:Director of the Bureau of the Budget
7167:
6835:from the original on August 15, 2020
4571:
3609:"Navy Rewards Work of Lewis Strauss"
3535:"Miss Hanauer Weds Lewis L. Strauss"
2330:Baker, Richard Allan (Spring 1987).
2133:
1462:thermonuclear test of March 1954 at
1352:
1050:notorious failures of U.S. torpedoes
956:Daughters of the American Revolution
7870:United States Secretary of Commerce
7589:from the original on March 16, 2022
7431:from the original on March 16, 2022
7401:from the original on March 16, 2022
7336:from the original on March 16, 2022
7305:from the original on March 16, 2022
7137:from the original on March 16, 2022
7082:Kazin, Alfred (November 30, 1997).
6794:from the original on March 16, 2022
5862:
5321:from the original on August 4, 2020
5239:from the original on March 13, 2012
5023:from the original on March 16, 2022
4333:from the original on March 16, 2022
4305:from the original on March 16, 2022
4089:from the original on March 16, 2022
3732:from the original on March 16, 2022
3695:from the original on March 16, 2022
3660:from the original on March 16, 2022
3619:from the original on March 16, 2022
3586:from the original on March 16, 2022
3545:from the original on March 16, 2022
3031:from the original on March 16, 2022
3020:Whitman, Alden (January 22, 1974).
2933:
1851:1958 United States Senate elections
1814:Eisenhower offered him the post of
1617:In 1947, Strauss, a trustee of the
1575:1958 USβUK Mutual Defence Agreement
1470:experienced by residents of nearby
1207:tests, the first since the war, at
1159:Through Szilard, Strauss met other
852:1920 Republican National Convention
529:'s nomination of Strauss to become
48:United States Secretary of Commerce
13:
7834:American Jewish Historical Society
7786:Strauss, Lewis L.: Papers, 1914β74
7734:from the original on July 20, 2023
7677:from the original on March 2, 2021
7645:"Lewis L. Strauss β Sep. 21, 1953"
7625:from the original on July 26, 2020
7451:"President F. L. Hovde and others"
7421:"Jewish Seminary Holds Graduation"
7389:Crowther, Rodney (July 15, 1958).
7233:, pp. 173, 175β176, 301n9, 301n13.
7127:"Alfred Kazin Clutches at Strauss"
7063:from the original on July 25, 2020
7031:from the original on July 24, 2020
6922:from the original on March 2, 2021
6912:"Books: The Rewards of Doggedness"
6759:from the original on March 2, 2021
5266:from the original on June 15, 2017
5231:Brown, M. J. (December 14, 2016).
4974:from the original on April 5, 2019
4627:. St. Martin's. pp. 194β196.
4527:from the original on July 26, 2020
4272:from the original on March 5, 2021
4231:See for example Rowland and Boyd,
3070:from the original on July 24, 2020
2878:from the original on July 27, 2020
2842:from the original on July 25, 2020
2051:American Jewish Historical Society
1290:U.S. presidential election of 1948
837:New York State Chamber of Commerce
827:and was also on the boards of the
660:Finland's independence from Russia
434:nuclear power in the United States
14:
9066:
8915:20th-century American politicians
8830:White House Deputy Chief of Staff
8628:
8024:Secretaries of Commerce and Labor
7773:
7579:"College Honors Lewis L. Strauss"
7533:"Past Honorary Degree Recipients"
5863:Tuquero, Jon Greenberg, Loreben.
4085:. December 17, 1929. p. 23.
3722:"Lehman Retires As Emanu-El Head"
2832:"Ex-AEC chief Lewis Strauss dies"
1879:Federation of American Scientists
1766:United States Secretary of Energy
1436:Shippingport Atomic Power Station
1400:Atomic Energy Commission chairman
971:Congregation Emanu-El of New York
629:United States Food Administration
443:, Strauss became an assistant to
9025:United States Navy rear admirals
8910:20th-century American memoirists
8673:Ambassador to the United Nations
8360:
8055:
7746:
7711:
7689:
7663:
7637:
7601:
7585:. November 3, 1967. p. 24.
7571:
7557:
7525:
7499:
7469:
7443:
7427:. October 23, 1944. p. 30.
7413:
7295:Davis, Authur Lyle, ed. (1923).
7262:
7249:
7236:
7223:
7210:
7197:
7188:
7161:
7119:
7106:
7043:
7013:
7000:
6987:
6974:
6965:
6934:
6847:
6806:
6741:
6715:
6689:
6659:
6646:
6607:
6578:
6565:
6552:
6526:
6418:. Los Alamos National Laboratory
6391:
6378:
6365:
6352:
6339:
6304:
6291:
6278:
6265:
6252:
6239:
6226:
6213:
6200:
6187:
6174:
6161:
6148:
6135:
6122:
6109:
6080:
6055:
6042:
6029:
6000:
5987:
5974:
5961:
5948:
5922:
5896:
5856:
5843:
5830:
5817:
5804:
5791:
5753:
5740:
5727:
5714:
5701:
5688:
5650:
5637:
5608:
5579:
5549:
5536:
5523:
5510:
5501:
5488:
5479:
5470:
5457:
5436:
5423:
5410:
5381:
5372:
5333:
5294:
5258:Wellock, Thomas (June 3, 2016).
5251:
5224:
5211:
5198:
5185:
5172:
5159:
5146:
5117:
5104:
5073:
5064:
5051:
4986:
4935:
4922:
4913:
4900:
4891:
4878:
4865:
4852:
4839:
4830:
4817:
4804:
4775:
4762:
4749:
4736:
4723:
3615:. September 8, 1944. p. 7.
2866:Davis, Forrest (June 14, 1954).
2652:. New York: Simon and Schuster.
2631:. New York: Simon and Schuster.
2206:Carnegie Institute of Technology
2186:Navy Distinguished Service Medal
1918:and it was the first time since
1849:and Strauss concurred. With the
1776:Secretary of Commerce nomination
1523:
1509:
1085:House Committee on Naval Affairs
622:Commission for Relief in Belgium
449:Commission for Relief in Belgium
382:
7671:"Lewis Strauss β June 15, 1959"
7483:. September 1956. p. 2ff.
6859:The American Presidency Project
6813:Liles, Jordan (July 31, 2023).
4692:
4679:
4654:
4641:
4616:
4603:
4590:
4565:
4552:
4539:
4487:
4474:
4461:
4448:
4422:
4409:
4384:
4371:
4358:
4345:
4317:
4238:
4225:
4212:
4199:
4186:
4155:
4071:
4036:
4017:Grisar, P. J. (July 19, 2023).
3990:
3977:
3964:
3919:
3890:
3865:
3830:
3805:
3792:
3779:
3770:
3757:
3744:
3527:
3441:
3428:
3415:
3402:
3393:
3384:
3375:
3366:
3353:
3340:
3327:
3269:
3240:
3082:
2323:
2231:in Virginia, as well as of the
2204:in 1948, a Doctor of Laws from
1590:Israel Atomic Energy Commission
1451:, rather the commonly-believed
1390:1952 U.S. presidential election
1215:Atomic Energy Commission member
988:
842:Hoover was a candidate for the
9000:People from Richmond, Virginia
7753:Weiss, Josh (March 10, 2014).
7088:The New York Times Book Review
4432:. Atomic Heritage Foundation.
2890:
2560:Presidential Studies Quarterly
2554:Maddock, Shane (Summer 1998).
2014:Washington Hebrew Congregation
1995:Alliance IsraΓ©lite Universelle
1947:Strauss published his memoir,
1930:
1790:Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)
1657:the first thermonuclear device
1447:, a secret program to develop
829:American Relief Administration
825:Metropolitan Opera Association
648:American Relief Administration
599:
457:American Relief Administration
1:
8855:White House Cabinet Secretary
7363:. The Hall of Valor Project.
7244:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
7231:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
7021:"Lewis Strauss is dead at 77"
6995:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
6953:the week of November 11, 1962
6414:Jaeggli, Mia (June 2, 2022).
6373:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
6299:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
6195:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
6143:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
6037:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
5903:Jones, Nate (July 25, 2023).
5722:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
5696:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
5683:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
5658:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
5589:, pp. 118, 204, 280, 308β310.
5531:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
5141:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
5081:Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer
4079:"Judge Lehman Heads Emanu-El"
3728:. April 7, 1938. p. 16.
3691:. June 23, 1950. p. 36.
3541:. March 6, 1923. p. 21.
2808:
2684:. New York: Harper & Row.
2628:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
2400:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
2336:Congress & the Presidency
2229:historically black university
1877:, the former chairman of the
1592:and a key early force in the
1131:Introduction to atomic energy
860:Republican National Committee
644:Armistice of 11 November 1918
540:
9005:People from Washington, D.C.
5750:, pp. 131β132, 140, 145β146.
5235:. Canadian Nuclear Society.
4958:Buck, Alice L. (July 1983).
3656:. March 4, 1941. p. 7.
3311:. March 8, 1956. p. 8.
2747:10.1080/01402390.2012.726924
2735:Journal of Strategic Studies
2221:United States Rubber Company
2202:Case Institute of Technology
1803:1954 U.S. midterm elections.
1683:Oppenheimer security hearing
1619:Institute for Advanced Study
1169:discovery of nuclear fission
939:Following the November 1938
833:American Bankers Association
506:such as that experienced by
7:
8965:Hampton University trustees
8925:American investment bankers
8335:
7409:– via Newspapers.com.
7039:– via Newspapers.com.
6749:"The Congress: Sharp Image"
6491:. U.S. Department of Energy
5007:10.1007/978-1-4757-9906-4_2
4394:, pp. 44β45, 70, 74β75, 82.
4313:– via Newspapers.com.
4280:– via Newspapers.com.
3816:. Knopf. pp. 556β557.
3078:– via Newspapers.com.
2886:– via Newspapers.com.
2850:– via Newspapers.com.
2523:McMillan, Priscilla Johnson
2445:Feingold, Henry L. (1970).
2309:
2297:
2257:
2237:Medical College of Virginia
2148:Chevalier, Star of Roumania
1892:86th United States Congress
627:Hoover became chief of the
357:Distinguished Service Medal
10:
9071:
8805:White House Chief of Staff
8358:
7803:September 7, 2010, at the
5569:Hersh, Seymour M. (1991).
4262:"Truman Names New Admiral"
2430:. New York: Random House.
2223:. He was a trustee of the
2111:Priscilla Johnson McMillan
2041:New York Times Book Review
1816:White House Chief of Staff
1799:Tennessee Valley Authority
1686:
1603:
1550:Regarding the prospect of
1449:power from hydrogen fusion
1306:Secretary of State for War
821:Metropolitan Opera Company
531:U.S. secretary of commerce
523:security clearance hearing
378:Lewis Lichtenstein Strauss
216:Lewis Lichtenstein Strauss
8853:
8828:
8803:
8784:
8765:
8740:
8715:
8696:
8671:
8634:
8623:
8588:
8563:
8538:
8519:
8496:Secretary of the Interior
8494:
8475:
8450:
8419:
8396:Secretary of the Treasury
8394:
8369:
8341:
8330:
8064:
8053:
8022:
7932:
7880:
7867:
7859:
7854:
6942:the week of July 29, 1962
6788:Madera Daily News-Tribune
4999:Curbing Population Growth
4560:Making of the Atomic Bomb
4547:Making of the Atomic Bomb
4495:Making of the Atomic Bomb
4482:Making of the Atomic Bomb
4469:Making of the Atomic Bomb
4456:Making of the Atomic Bomb
4299:The Meriden Daily Journal
2678:Stern, Philip M. (1969).
2348:10.1080/07343468709507964
2026:
1987:American Jewish Committee
1867:Senate Commerce Committee
1834:, who was a good friend.
1661:its own fusion-based bomb
1338:National Security Council
1097:Chief of Naval Operations
969:Strauss was president of
908:American Jewish Committee
767:Wall Street Crash of 1929
594:
574:John Marshall High School
568:. He was on track to be
547:Charleston, West Virginia
465:American Jewish Committee
371:
349:
339:
329:
321:
311:
303:
298:
288:
280:
272:
262:
252:
235:
229:Charleston, West Virginia
211:
206:
202:
190:
180:
170:
159:
151:
139:
127:
117:
106:
98:
86:
74:
64:
53:
46:
42:
30:
23:
8980:American philanthropists
8920:American anti-communists
8687:James Jeremiah Wadsworth
8521:Secretary of Agriculture
7823:August 28, 2006, at the
7791:January 7, 2010, at the
7509:. University of Toledo.
7477:"59th Commencementβ1956"
7084:"Missing Murray Kempton"
6831:. United States Senate.
6052:, pp. 160β161, 169, 172.
5711:, pp. 204, 308β309, 531.
5557:American Bomb in Britain
5544:American Bomb in Britain
5418:American Bomb in Britain
5405:American Bomb in Britain
5301:Bodansky, David (2004).
4770:American Bomb in Britain
4757:American Bomb in Britain
4744:American Bomb in Britain
4623:Harris, Brayton (2012).
2646:Rhodes, Richard (1995).
2501:Holloway, David (1994).
2469:; Holl, Jack M. (1989).
2117:Oppenheimer biographers
2018:Richmond Hebrew Cemetery
2010:Brandy Station, Virginia
1951:, in 1962. At the time,
1584:in Israel. He met with
1502:and other UK officials.
1453:uranium fission reactors
1229:Atomic Energy Commission
1077:Office of Naval Research
1042:the Navy's bureau system
902:Lay religious activities
246:Brandy Station, Virginia
9055:Jews from West Virginia
8970:Jewish American bankers
8066:Secretaries of Commerce
7782:, link no longer given
6573:Atoms for Peace and War
6347:Atoms for Peace and War
6221:Atoms for Peace and War
5735:Atoms for Peace and War
5518:Atoms for Peace and War
5496:Atoms for Peace and War
5389:Atoms for Peace and War
5219:Atoms for Peace and War
5193:Atoms for Peace and War
4993:Harkavy, Oscar (1995).
3987:, pp. 102β109, 114β117.
3812:Whyte, Kenneth (2017).
3266:, pp. 9β12, 256β257n21.
2872:The Cincinnati Enquirer
2691:American Jewish History
1600:Strauss and Oppenheimer
1594:Israeli nuclear program
1540:Limited Test Ban Treaty
1261:United States Air Force
1243:perceived as stubborn.
1005:. In 1939 and 1940, as
7008:No Sacrifice Too Great
6982:No Sacrifice Too Great
6958:March 5, 2021, at the
6947:March 5, 2021, at the
6884:No Sacrifice Too Great
6723:No Sacrifice Too Great
6615:No Sacrifice Too Great
6602:No Sacrifice Too Great
6586:No Sacrifice Too Great
6534:No Sacrifice Too Great
6399:No Sacrifice Too Great
6360:No Sacrifice Too Great
6312:No Sacrifice Too Great
6273:No Sacrifice Too Great
6182:No Sacrifice Too Great
6104:No Sacrifice Too Great
6075:No Sacrifice Too Great
6050:No Sacrifice Too Great
5838:No Sacrifice Too Great
5825:No Sacrifice Too Great
5812:No Sacrifice Too Great
5799:No Sacrifice Too Great
5774:No Sacrifice Too Great
5748:No Sacrifice Too Great
5632:No Sacrifice Too Great
5289:No Sacrifice Too Great
5206:No Sacrifice Too Great
5180:No Sacrifice Too Great
5059:No Sacrifice Too Great
5046:No Sacrifice Too Great
4783:No Sacrifice Too Great
4687:No Sacrifice Too Great
4674:No Sacrifice Too Great
4417:No Sacrifice Too Great
4392:No Sacrifice Too Great
4379:No Sacrifice Too Great
4366:No Sacrifice Too Great
4246:No Sacrifice Too Great
4220:No Sacrifice Too Great
4181:No Sacrifice Too Great
4150:No Sacrifice Too Great
3972:No Sacrifice Too Great
3914:No Sacrifice Too Great
3873:No Sacrifice Too Great
3838:No Sacrifice Too Great
3787:No Sacrifice Too Great
3765:No Sacrifice Too Great
3752:No Sacrifice Too Great
3522:No Sacrifice Too Great
3465:No Sacrifice Too Great
3449:No Sacrifice Too Great
3436:No Sacrifice Too Great
3361:No Sacrifice Too Great
3348:No Sacrifice Too Great
3335:No Sacrifice Too Great
3264:No Sacrifice Too Great
3188:No Sacrifice Too Great
3170:No Sacrifice Too Great
3090:No Sacrifice Too Great
2898:No Sacrifice Too Great
2603:Pfau, Richard (1984).
2290:. Downey received the
2168:
2082:No Sacrifice Too Great
2077:
1970:
1940:
1842:
1785:
1665:boosted fission weapon
1634:
1431:
1409:
1334:boosted fission weapon
1320:
1224:
921:However, he was not a
793:
691:War Between the States
633:Harvey Hollister Bundy
609:
589:Recession of 1913β1914
578:University of Virginia
9045:J. Robert Oppenheimer
8995:People from Manhattan
8681:Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.
8573:Martin Patrick Durkin
8540:Secretary of Commerce
7565:"Chronicle of Giving"
7453:. Purdue University.
7216:Young and Schilling,
7203:Young and Schilling,
7133:. December 15, 1997.
6665:Young and Schilling,
6652:Young and Schilling,
6639:Young and Schilling,
6558:Young and Schilling,
6480:(December 16, 2022).
6478:Granholm, Jennifer M.
6441:"Operation Butter-Up"
5643:Young and Schilling,
5233:"Too Cheap to Meter?"
4941:Young and Schilling,
4906:Young and Schilling,
4884:Young and Schilling,
4845:Young and Schilling,
4823:Young and Schilling,
4797:Young and Schilling,
4716:Young and Schilling,
4647:Young and Schilling,
4266:Tampa Morning Tribune
4132:Young and Schilling,
2914:Young and Schilling,
2703:10.1353/ajh.2000.0058
2262:Strauss is played by
2177:Oak Leaf ClusterβArmy
2166:
2072:
1968:
1938:
1847:Secretary of Commerce
1840:
1783:
1632:
1612:Los Alamos Laboratory
1606:J. Robert Oppenheimer
1552:nuclear proliferation
1429:
1407:
1318:
1282:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1253:J. Robert Oppenheimer
1237:Paul Frederick Foster
1222:
1101:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1069:Secretary of the Navy
887:self-made millionaire
871:Franklin D. Roosevelt
791:
683:Ignacy Jan Paderewski
607:
553:. Their parents were
519:J. Robert Oppenheimer
430:nuclear energy policy
322:Years of service
9035:Virginia Republicans
8940:American Reform Jews
8554:Frederick H. Mueller
8460:Herbert Brownell Jr.
8429:Charles Erwin Wilson
8421:Secretary of Defense
8323:Dwight D. Eisenhower
7967:James R. Schlesinger
7273:. Washington Decoded
6514:. Nuclearsecrecy.com
6286:The Oppenheimer Case
6260:The Oppenheimer Case
6247:The Oppenheimer Case
6234:The Oppenheimer Case
6208:The Oppenheimer Case
6169:The Oppenheimer Case
6117:The Oppenheimer Case
6088:The Oppenheimer Case
5995:The Oppenheimer Case
5520:, pp. 362–364.
4549:, pp. 281, 287, 301.
4000:, pp. 69β71, 74, 78.
3582:. December 8, 2004.
2785:Schilling, Warner R.
2681:The Oppenheimer Case
2531:. New York: Viking.
2360:The Public Historian
2356:Bernstein, Barton J.
2210:University of Toledo
2153:Congressional Record
1795:DixonβYates contract
1586:Ernst David Bergmann
1394:Dwight D. Eisenhower
1359:Rockefeller brothers
1340:executive secretary
1205:Operation Crossroads
1189:Japanese cedar grove
1003:lieutenant commander
912:Baron de Hirsch Fund
723:Kuhn, Loeb & Co.
545:Strauss was born in
527:Dwight D. Eisenhower
514:thermonuclear test.
461:Kuhn, Loeb & Co.
186:Position established
122:Dwight D. Eisenhower
93:Frederick H. Mueller
69:Dwight D. Eisenhower
8441:Thomas S. Gates Jr.
7937:David E. Lilienthal
7616:Daily News Bulletin
7257:American Prometheus
7176:(4732): 1370β1371.
7131:The Weekly Standard
6386:American Prometheus
6262:, pp. 413, 415β418.
6236:, pp. 376, 380β381.
6156:American Prometheus
5956:Danger and Survival
5465:Danger and Survival
5431:Danger and Survival
5355:Danger and Survival
5167:Stalin and the Bomb
5154:Stalin and the Bomb
5125:Danger and Survival
5114:, pp. 287, 290β292.
5112:Danger and Survival
5099:American Prometheus
4873:Stalin and the Bomb
4812:Stalin and the Bomb
4518:Daily News Bulletin
4381:, pp. 67β70, 75β76.
4196:, pp. 463, 466β467.
4114:American Prometheus
3860:Danger and Survival
3800:American Prometheus
3451:, pp. 24β25, 84β85.
3363:, pp. 16β18, 23β25.
3212:American Prometheus
2762:Young, Ken (2016).
2467:Hewlett, Richard G.
2294:for his portrayal.
2282:Christopher Nolan's
2090:Barton J. Bernstein
2058:Warner R. Schilling
1700:American Prometheus
1577:coming into place.
1468:radioactive fallout
1367:Columbia University
1248:WB-29 Superfortress
1233:David E. Lilienthal
1054:VT (proximity) fuse
1046:Army-Navy "E" Award
927:Mandatory Palestine
635:. Another was with
504:radioactive fallout
9050:Jews from Virginia
8565:Secretary of Labor
8485:Arthur Summerfield
8477:Postmaster General
8410:Robert B. Anderson
8404:George M. Humphrey
8379:John Foster Dulles
8371:Secretary of State
7583:The New York Times
7507:"Honorary Degrees"
7425:The New York Times
7361:"Lewis L. Strauss"
7255:Bird and Sherwin,
6571:Hewlett and Holl,
6562:, pp. 147, 189n78.
6464:The New York Times
6384:Bird and Sherwin,
6345:Hewlett and Holl,
6219:Hewlett and Holl,
6154:Bird and Sherwin,
5733:Hewlett and Holl,
5516:Hewlett and Holl,
5494:Hewlett and Holl,
5387:Hewlett and Holl,
5217:Hewlett and Holl,
5191:Hewlett and Holl,
5097:Bird and Sherwin,
4572:Bird, Kai (1998).
4205:Rowland and Boyd,
4192:Rowland and Boyd,
4161:Rowland and Boyd,
4112:Bird and Sherwin,
4083:The New York Times
3998:Politics of Rescue
3985:Politics of Rescue
3943:Politics of Rescue
3798:Bird and Sherwin,
3726:The New York Times
3689:The New York Times
3654:The New York Times
3613:The New York Times
3580:The New York Times
3539:The New York Times
3309:The New York Times
3210:Bird and Sherwin,
3027:. pp. 1, 64.
3025:The New York Times
2392:Sherwin, Martin J.
2315:Strauss, Lewis L.
2241:Eisenhower College
2169:
2016:. He is buried in
1971:
1941:
1900:the 1960 elections
1855:recess appointment
1843:
1828:Secretary of State
1824:John Foster Dulles
1788:Strauss's term as
1786:
1705:Kenneth D. Nichols
1693:In November 1953,
1635:
1588:, chairman of the
1481:Daigo FukuryΕ« Maru
1441:too cheap to meter
1432:
1410:
1375:Rockefeller Center
1363:Population Council
1321:
1225:
1161:nuclear physicists
1061:James V. Forrestal
1027:Bureau of Ordnance
947:WagnerβRogers Bill
846:nomination in the
814:Central Park South
798:Ritz-Carlton Hotel
794:
610:
559:Richmond, Virginia
500:too cheap to meter
481:Bureau of Ordnance
441:Richmond, Virginia
344:Bureau of Ordnance
316:United States Navy
8882:
8881:
8878:
8877:
8869:Robert Keith Gray
8656:Percival Brundage
8619:
8618:
8579:James P. Mitchell
8466:William P. Rogers
8282:
8281:
7982:
7981:
7890:
7889:
7884:Frederick Mueller
7881:Succeeded by
7538:. Union College.
7395:The Baltimore Sun
6918:. July 27, 1962.
6755:. June 29, 1959.
6090:, pp. 242n, 243n.
5647:, pp. 3, 41, 156.
5314:978-0-387-26931-3
5016:978-0-306-45050-1
4930:Men and Decisions
4860:Men and Decisions
4634:978-0-230-39364-6
4598:Men and Decisions
4583:978-0-684-80970-0
4368:, pp. 75, 267n29.
4353:Men and Decisions
4044:Men and Decisions
3927:Men and Decisions
3823:978-0-307-59796-0
3423:Men and Decisions
3410:Men and Decisions
3277:Men and Decisions
3248:Men and Decisions
3146:. June 15, 1959.
2977:Men and Decisions
2954:on April 14, 2006
2800:978-1-5017-4516-4
2775:978-0-7190-8675-5
2614:978-0-8139-1038-3
2458:978-0-8135-0664-7
2407:978-0-375-41202-8
2317:Men and Decisions
2278:Robert Downey Jr.
2225:Hampton Institute
2134:Awards and honors
2123:Martin J. Sherwin
1949:Men and Decisions
1920:Charles B. Warren
1909:Lyndon B. Johnson
1826:(who was ill) as
1762:Jennifer Granholm
1723:Isidor Isaac Rabi
1695:William L. Borden
1500:Winston Churchill
1353:Financial analyst
1185:Manhattan Project
1122:The promotion to
1087:; Representative
995:U.S. Navy Reserve
806:Central Park West
763:Great Lakes Steel
735:League of Nations
675:PolishβSoviet War
508:Pacific Islanders
477:U.S. Navy Reserve
375:
374:
9062:
8844:Gerald D. Morgan
8625:
8624:
8604:Marion B. Folsom
8598:Oveta Culp Hobby
8529:Ezra Taft Benson
8452:Attorney General
8385:Christian Herter
8364:
8363:
8332:
8331:
8309:
8302:
8295:
8286:
8285:
8059:
8009:
8002:
7995:
7986:
7985:
7961:Glenn T. Seaborg
7916:
7909:
7902:
7893:
7892:
7875:
7860:Preceded by
7852:
7851:
7767:
7766:
7764:
7762:
7750:
7744:
7743:
7741:
7739:
7715:
7709:
7708:
7706:
7704:
7693:
7687:
7686:
7684:
7682:
7673:. Time website.
7667:
7661:
7660:
7658:
7656:
7647:. Time website.
7641:
7635:
7634:
7632:
7630:
7624:
7613:
7605:
7599:
7598:
7596:
7594:
7575:
7569:
7568:
7561:
7555:
7554:
7552:
7550:
7544:
7537:
7529:
7523:
7522:
7520:
7518:
7503:
7497:
7496:
7494:
7492:
7481:Carnegie Alumnus
7473:
7467:
7466:
7464:
7462:
7447:
7441:
7440:
7438:
7436:
7417:
7411:
7410:
7408:
7406:
7386:
7377:
7376:
7374:
7372:
7357:
7346:
7345:
7343:
7341:
7324:
7315:
7314:
7312:
7310:
7292:
7283:
7282:
7280:
7278:
7266:
7260:
7253:
7247:
7240:
7234:
7227:
7221:
7214:
7208:
7201:
7195:
7192:
7186:
7185:
7165:
7159:
7156:
7147:
7146:
7144:
7142:
7123:
7117:
7110:
7104:
7103:
7101:
7099:
7079:
7073:
7072:
7070:
7068:
7062:
7055:
7047:
7041:
7040:
7038:
7036:
7025:The Journal News
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6703:. May 18, 1959.
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4395:
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4375:
4369:
4362:
4356:
4349:
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4340:
4338:
4321:
4315:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4291:
4282:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4258:
4249:
4242:
4236:
4229:
4223:
4216:
4210:
4203:
4197:
4190:
4184:
4177:
4166:
4159:
4153:
4146:
4137:
4130:
4117:
4110:
4099:
4098:
4096:
4094:
4075:
4069:
4062:
4047:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4029:
4014:
4001:
3994:
3988:
3981:
3975:
3968:
3962:
3959:
3946:
3939:
3930:
3923:
3917:
3910:
3897:
3894:
3888:
3885:
3876:
3869:
3863:
3856:
3841:
3834:
3828:
3827:
3809:
3803:
3796:
3790:
3783:
3777:
3774:
3768:
3767:, pp. 38β40, 47.
3761:
3755:
3748:
3742:
3741:
3739:
3737:
3718:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3700:
3681:
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3605:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3591:
3572:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3550:
3531:
3525:
3524:, pp. 29, 34β37.
3518:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3504:
3499:on April 7, 2010
3485:
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3136:
3093:
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3056:
3041:
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3036:
3017:
2980:
2973:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2944:
2931:
2928:
2919:
2912:
2901:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2863:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2836:The Morning News
2828:
2804:
2779:
2758:
2722:
2685:
2674:
2663:
2642:
2618:
2599:
2580:Makhijani, Arjun
2575:
2550:
2518:
2497:
2477:
2462:
2441:
2419:
2383:
2351:
2190:Medal of Freedom
2158:Legion of Honour
2103:James R. Shepley
1859:Clinton Anderson
1841:Strauss, c. 1959
1832:Christian Herter
1770:Alex Wellerstein
1730:Haakon Chevalier
1571:Harold Macmillan
1545:Nevada Test Site
1527:
1513:
1495:Project SUNSHINE
1491:Harold Macmillan
1445:Project Sherwood
1417:Operation Candor
1286:Quebec Agreement
1031:Washington, D.C.
844:Republican Party
719:Felix M. Warburg
572:of his class at
413:
408:
407:
404:
403:
400:
397:
394:
391:
388:
299:Military service
293:Medal of Freedom
242:
239:January 21, 1974
226:January 31, 1896
225:
223:
207:Personal details
197:T. Keith Glennan
193:
183:
164:
142:
130:
111:
89:
77:
58:
35:
21:
20:
9070:
9069:
9065:
9064:
9063:
9061:
9060:
9059:
8885:
8884:
8883:
8874:
8863:Maxwell M. Rabb
8849:
8824:
8799:
8780:
8761:
8736:
8725:Arthur Flemming
8711:
8692:
8667:
8630:
8615:
8610:Arthur Flemming
8584:
8559:
8534:
8515:
8490:
8471:
8446:
8435:Neil H. McElroy
8415:
8390:
8365:
8361:
8356:
8337:
8326:
8313:
8283:
8278:
8060:
8051:
8018:
8013:
7983:
7978:
7928:
7920:
7886:
7877:
7873:
7872:
7865:
7825:Wayback Machine
7805:Wayback Machine
7793:Wayback Machine
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7111:
7107:
7097:
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7076:
7066:
7064:
7060:
7053:
7049:
7048:
7044:
7034:
7032:
7019:
7018:
7014:
7005:
7001:
6992:
6988:
6979:
6975:
6970:
6966:
6960:Wayback Machine
6949:Wayback Machine
6939:
6935:
6925:
6923:
6910:
6909:
6902:
6897:
6890:
6881:
6874:
6864:
6862:
6853:
6852:
6848:
6838:
6836:
6827:
6826:
6822:
6811:
6807:
6797:
6795:
6782:
6781:
6772:
6762:
6760:
6747:
6746:
6742:
6735:
6733:
6729:
6720:
6716:
6695:
6694:
6690:
6678:
6677:
6673:
6664:
6660:
6651:
6647:
6638:
6634:
6627:
6625:
6621:
6612:
6608:
6599:
6592:
6588:, pp. 180, 188.
6583:
6579:
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6557:
6553:
6546:
6544:
6540:
6531:
6527:
6517:
6515:
6508:
6504:
6494:
6492:
6488:
6475:
6471:
6456:
6452:
6445:The New Mexican
6439:
6438:
6431:
6421:
6419:
6412:
6405:
6396:
6392:
6383:
6379:
6370:
6366:
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6318:
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5315:
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5017:
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4896:
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4857:
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4835:
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4809:
4805:
4796:
4789:
4780:
4776:
4767:
4763:
4754:
4750:
4741:
4737:
4728:
4724:
4715:
4706:
4697:
4693:
4684:
4680:
4671:
4664:
4659:
4655:
4646:
4642:
4635:
4621:
4617:
4608:
4604:
4595:
4591:
4584:
4570:
4566:
4557:
4553:
4544:
4540:
4530:
4528:
4524:
4513:
4509:
4508:
4501:
4492:
4488:
4479:
4475:
4466:
4462:
4453:
4449:
4439:
4437:
4430:"Lewis Strauss"
4428:
4427:
4423:
4414:
4410:
4405:
4398:
4389:
4385:
4376:
4372:
4363:
4359:
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4334:
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4322:
4318:
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4306:
4293:
4292:
4285:
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4273:
4260:
4259:
4252:
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4226:
4217:
4213:
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4200:
4191:
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4147:
4140:
4131:
4120:
4111:
4102:
4092:
4090:
4077:
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4072:
4063:
4050:
4041:
4037:
4027:
4025:
4015:
4004:
3995:
3991:
3982:
3978:
3969:
3965:
3960:
3949:
3940:
3933:
3924:
3920:
3911:
3900:
3895:
3891:
3886:
3879:
3870:
3866:
3857:
3844:
3835:
3831:
3824:
3810:
3806:
3797:
3793:
3784:
3780:
3775:
3771:
3762:
3758:
3749:
3745:
3735:
3733:
3720:
3719:
3708:
3698:
3696:
3683:
3682:
3673:
3663:
3661:
3648:
3647:
3632:
3622:
3620:
3607:
3606:
3599:
3589:
3587:
3574:
3573:
3558:
3548:
3546:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3519:
3512:
3502:
3500:
3487:
3486:
3471:
3462:
3455:
3446:
3442:
3433:
3429:
3420:
3416:
3407:
3403:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3380:
3376:
3371:
3367:
3358:
3354:
3345:
3341:
3332:
3328:
3318:
3316:
3303:
3302:
3283:
3274:
3270:
3261:
3254:
3245:
3241:
3236:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3209:
3194:
3185:
3176:
3167:
3163:
3153:
3151:
3138:
3137:
3096:
3087:
3083:
3073:
3071:
3058:
3057:
3044:
3034:
3032:
3018:
2983:
2974:
2967:
2957:
2955:
2946:
2945:
2934:
2929:
2922:
2913:
2904:
2895:
2891:
2881:
2879:
2864:
2855:
2845:
2843:
2830:
2829:
2816:
2811:
2801:
2782:
2776:
2761:
2725:
2688:
2666:
2660:
2645:
2639:
2623:Rhodes, Richard
2621:
2615:
2602:
2596:
2578:
2553:
2539:
2521:
2515:
2500:
2486:
2475:
2465:
2459:
2444:
2438:
2424:Bundy, McGeorge
2422:
2408:
2386:
2372:10.2307/3377436
2354:
2329:
2326:
2312:
2300:
2260:
2173:Legion of Merit
2136:
2029:
2004:After battling
1933:
1905:John F. Kennedy
1778:
1754:The New Mexican
1691:
1685:
1677:Joseph McCarthy
1672:J. Edgar Hoover
1652:Foreign Affairs
1608:
1602:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1528:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1514:
1421:Atoms for Peace
1402:
1355:
1294:Thomas E. Dewey
1217:
1171:and the use of
1165:Ernest Lawrence
1133:
1109:Harry S. Truman
1023:J. Edgar Hoover
991:
952:American Legion
904:
812:, and later on
810:Upper East Side
779:Polaroid camera
771:Kodachrome film
731:Mortimer Schiff
715:
695:ChΓ’teau-Thierry
602:
597:
543:
447:as part of the
422:nuclear weapons
411:
385:
381:
367:
362:Legion of Merit
350:Military awards
289:Civilian awards
263:Political party
257:Hebrew Cemetery
244:
240:
227:
221:
219:
218:
217:
191:
181:
175:Harry S. Truman
165:
160:
140:
128:
112:
107:
87:
75:
59:
54:
38:
37:Strauss in 1962
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
9068:
9058:
9057:
9052:
9047:
9042:
9037:
9032:
9027:
9022:
9017:
9012:
9007:
9002:
8997:
8992:
8987:
8982:
8977:
8972:
8967:
8962:
8957:
8952:
8947:
8942:
8937:
8932:
8927:
8922:
8917:
8912:
8907:
8902:
8897:
8880:
8879:
8876:
8875:
8873:
8872:
8866:
8859:
8857:
8851:
8850:
8848:
8847:
8841:
8838:Wilton Persons
8834:
8832:
8826:
8825:
8823:
8822:
8819:Wilton Persons
8816:
8809:
8807:
8801:
8800:
8798:
8797:
8794:John A. McCone
8790:
8788:
8782:
8781:
8779:
8778:
8771:
8769:
8763:
8762:
8760:
8759:
8753:
8746:
8744:
8738:
8737:
8735:
8734:
8728:
8721:
8719:
8713:
8712:
8710:
8709:
8706:Harold Stassen
8702:
8700:
8694:
8693:
8691:
8690:
8684:
8677:
8675:
8669:
8668:
8666:
8665:
8659:
8653:
8650:Rowland Hughes
8647:
8640:
8638:
8632:
8631:
8621:
8620:
8617:
8616:
8614:
8613:
8607:
8601:
8594:
8592:
8586:
8585:
8583:
8582:
8576:
8569:
8567:
8561:
8560:
8558:
8557:
8551:
8548:Sinclair Weeks
8544:
8542:
8536:
8535:
8533:
8532:
8525:
8523:
8517:
8516:
8514:
8513:
8510:Fred A. Seaton
8507:
8500:
8498:
8492:
8491:
8489:
8488:
8481:
8479:
8473:
8472:
8470:
8469:
8463:
8456:
8454:
8448:
8447:
8445:
8444:
8438:
8432:
8425:
8423:
8417:
8416:
8414:
8413:
8407:
8400:
8398:
8392:
8391:
8389:
8388:
8382:
8375:
8373:
8367:
8366:
8359:
8357:
8355:
8354:
8347:
8345:
8343:Vice President
8339:
8338:
8328:
8327:
8312:
8311:
8304:
8297:
8289:
8280:
8279:
8277:
8276:
8271:
8266:
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8241:
8236:
8231:
8226:
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8216:
8211:
8206:
8201:
8196:
8191:
8186:
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8176:
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8156:
8151:
8146:
8141:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8121:
8116:
8111:
8106:
8101:
8096:
8091:
8086:
8081:
8076:
8070:
8068:
8062:
8061:
8054:
8052:
8050:
8049:
8044:
8039:
8034:
8028:
8026:
8020:
8019:
8012:
8011:
8004:
7997:
7989:
7980:
7979:
7977:
7976:
7970:
7964:
7958:
7955:John A. McCone
7952:
7946:
7940:
7933:
7930:
7929:
7919:
7918:
7911:
7904:
7896:
7888:
7887:
7882:
7879:
7866:
7863:Sinclair Weeks
7861:
7857:
7856:
7855:Legal offices
7850:
7849:
7843:
7837:
7827:
7815:
7814:
7813:
7807:
7795:
7775:
7774:External links
7772:
7769:
7768:
7745:
7710:
7688:
7662:
7636:
7600:
7570:
7556:
7524:
7498:
7468:
7442:
7412:
7378:
7347:
7316:
7284:
7261:
7259:, pp. 546β547.
7248:
7235:
7222:
7220:, pp. 144β147.
7209:
7207:, pp. 133β143.
7196:
7187:
7160:
7148:
7118:
7116:, pp. 402β403.
7105:
7074:
7042:
7012:
7010:, pp. 247β248.
6999:
6986:
6973:
6964:
6933:
6900:
6888:
6872:
6846:
6820:
6805:
6770:
6740:
6727:
6714:
6688:
6671:
6669:, pp. 148β150.
6658:
6645:
6632:
6619:
6606:
6590:
6577:
6575:, pp. 128β130.
6564:
6551:
6538:
6525:
6502:
6469:
6450:
6429:
6403:
6401:, pp. 180β181.
6390:
6377:
6364:
6351:
6338:
6316:
6303:
6290:
6288:, pp. 414β415.
6277:
6264:
6251:
6249:, pp. 412β413.
6238:
6225:
6212:
6199:
6186:
6184:, pp. 170β171.
6173:
6171:, pp. 282β284.
6160:
6147:
6145:, pp. 206β207.
6134:
6132:, pp. 558β559.
6121:
6108:
6092:
6079:
6077:, pp. 159β160.
6063:
6054:
6041:
6028:
6012:
5999:
5997:, pp. 231β233.
5986:
5984:, pp. 536β538.
5973:
5971:, pp. 534β535.
5960:
5947:
5921:
5895:
5855:
5842:
5840:, pp. 140β141.
5829:
5816:
5814:, pp. 146β147.
5803:
5790:
5778:
5776:, pp. 145β146.
5765:
5752:
5739:
5726:
5724:, pp. 170β171.
5713:
5700:
5687:
5671:
5662:
5660:, pp. 166β167.
5649:
5636:
5620:
5607:
5591:
5578:
5561:
5548:
5546:, pp. 193β195.
5535:
5533:, pp. 258β259.
5522:
5509:
5500:
5487:
5478:
5469:
5456:
5444:
5435:
5433:, pp. 330β334.
5422:
5420:, pp. 143β144.
5409:
5393:
5380:
5371:
5359:
5341:
5332:
5313:
5293:
5277:
5250:
5223:
5210:
5208:, pp. 186β187.
5197:
5195:, pp. 419β420.
5184:
5182:, pp. 185β186.
5171:
5169:, pp. 352β353.
5158:
5156:, pp. 351β352.
5145:
5129:
5116:
5103:
5085:
5072:
5063:
5061:, pp. 131β136.
5050:
5034:
5015:
4985:
4947:
4934:
4921:
4912:
4899:
4890:
4877:
4864:
4862:, pp. 219β222.
4851:
4838:
4829:
4816:
4803:
4787:
4785:, pp. 106β109.
4774:
4772:, pp. 190β191.
4761:
4748:
4746:, pp. 182β183.
4735:
4722:
4704:
4691:
4678:
4662:
4653:
4640:
4633:
4615:
4613:, pp. 228β229.
4602:
4600:, pp. 192β193.
4589:
4582:
4564:
4551:
4538:
4499:
4486:
4473:
4460:
4447:
4421:
4408:
4396:
4383:
4370:
4357:
4344:
4316:
4283:
4250:
4237:
4224:
4211:
4209:, pp. 476β477.
4198:
4185:
4167:
4154:
4138:
4118:
4100:
4070:
4048:
4035:
4002:
3989:
3976:
3963:
3947:
3945:, pp. 149β151.
3931:
3918:
3898:
3889:
3877:
3864:
3842:
3829:
3822:
3804:
3802:, pp. 361β362.
3791:
3778:
3769:
3756:
3743:
3706:
3671:
3630:
3597:
3556:
3526:
3510:
3469:
3453:
3440:
3427:
3414:
3401:
3392:
3383:
3374:
3365:
3352:
3339:
3326:
3281:
3268:
3252:
3239:
3225:
3216:
3192:
3174:
3161:
3094:
3081:
3064:The Miami News
3042:
2981:
2965:
2932:
2920:
2902:
2900:, pp. 169β170.
2889:
2853:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2799:
2780:
2774:
2759:
2741:(6): 815β840.
2723:
2697:(3): 377β406.
2686:
2675:
2664:
2658:
2643:
2637:
2619:
2613:
2600:
2594:
2576:
2566:(3): 553β572.
2551:
2537:
2519:
2513:
2498:
2484:
2463:
2457:
2442:
2436:
2420:
2406:
2384:
2366:(2): 105β120.
2352:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2320:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2306:
2299:
2296:
2259:
2256:
2181:Gold StarβNavy
2135:
2132:
2107:Clay Blair Jr.
2067:New York Times
2028:
2025:
1958:New York Times
1932:
1929:
1777:
1774:
1687:Main article:
1684:
1681:
1601:
1598:
1582:Dimona reactor
1563:Sputnik crisis
1556:Harold Stassen
1529:
1522:
1521:
1520:
1515:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1472:Rongelap Atoll
1401:
1398:
1369:that led to a
1354:
1351:
1216:
1213:
1193:NikkΕ, Tochigi
1150:chain reaction
1132:
1129:
1093:Ernest J. King
1035:Shoreham Hotel
990:
987:
979:Temple Beth-El
963:Bernard Baruch
903:
900:
823:and later the
808:, then on the
802:Vassar College
759:Republic Steel
714:
711:
707:anti-Communist
671:Pinsk massacre
656:Woodrow Wilson
642:Following the
637:Robert A. Taft
618:Herbert Hoover
601:
598:
596:
593:
542:
539:
510:following the
445:Herbert Hoover
373:
372:
369:
368:
366:
365:
359:
353:
351:
347:
346:
341:
337:
336:
331:
327:
326:
323:
319:
318:
313:
312:Branch/service
309:
308:
305:
301:
300:
296:
295:
290:
286:
285:
282:
278:
277:
274:
270:
269:
264:
260:
259:
254:
250:
249:
243:(aged 77)
237:
233:
232:
215:
213:
209:
208:
204:
203:
200:
199:
194:
188:
187:
184:
178:
177:
172:
168:
167:
157:
156:
152:Member of the
149:
148:
146:John A. McCone
143:
137:
136:
131:
125:
124:
119:
115:
114:
104:
103:
96:
95:
90:
84:
83:
81:Sinclair Weeks
78:
72:
71:
66:
62:
61:
51:
50:
44:
43:
40:
39:
36:
28:
27:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9067:
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9038:
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8845:
8842:
8839:
8836:
8835:
8833:
8831:
8827:
8820:
8817:
8814:
8813:Sherman Adams
8811:
8810:
8808:
8806:
8802:
8795:
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8776:
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8699:
8695:
8688:
8685:
8682:
8679:
8678:
8676:
8674:
8670:
8663:
8662:Maurice Stans
8660:
8657:
8654:
8651:
8648:
8645:
8642:
8641:
8639:
8637:
8633:
8629:Cabinet-level
8626:
8622:
8611:
8608:
8605:
8602:
8599:
8596:
8595:
8593:
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8587:
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8543:
8541:
8537:
8530:
8527:
8526:
8524:
8522:
8518:
8511:
8508:
8505:
8504:Douglas McKay
8502:
8501:
8499:
8497:
8493:
8486:
8483:
8482:
8480:
8478:
8474:
8467:
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8408:
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8399:
8397:
8393:
8386:
8383:
8380:
8377:
8376:
8374:
8372:
8368:
8352:
8351:Richard Nixon
8349:
8348:
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8340:
8333:
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8317:
8310:
8305:
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8082:
8080:
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8058:
8048:
8045:
8043:
8040:
8038:
8035:
8033:
8030:
8029:
8027:
8025:
8021:
8017:
8010:
8005:
8003:
7998:
7996:
7991:
7990:
7987:
7974:
7971:
7968:
7965:
7962:
7959:
7956:
7953:
7950:
7949:Lewis Strauss
7947:
7944:
7941:
7938:
7935:
7934:
7931:
7927:
7924:
7917:
7912:
7910:
7905:
7903:
7898:
7897:
7894:
7885:
7876:
7871:
7864:
7858:
7853:
7847:
7844:
7841:
7838:
7835:
7831:
7828:
7826:
7822:
7819:
7816:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7802:
7799:
7796:
7794:
7790:
7787:
7784:
7783:
7781:
7778:
7777:
7756:
7749:
7733:
7729:
7725:
7723:
7714:
7698:
7692:
7676:
7672:
7666:
7650:
7646:
7640:
7621:
7617:
7610:
7604:
7588:
7584:
7580:
7574:
7566:
7560:
7541:
7534:
7528:
7512:
7508:
7502:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7472:
7456:
7452:
7446:
7430:
7426:
7422:
7416:
7400:
7397:. p. 2.
7396:
7392:
7385:
7383:
7366:
7362:
7356:
7354:
7352:
7335:
7331:
7330:
7323:
7321:
7304:
7300:
7299:
7291:
7289:
7272:
7265:
7258:
7252:
7245:
7239:
7232:
7226:
7219:
7213:
7206:
7200:
7191:
7183:
7179:
7175:
7171:
7164:
7155:
7153:
7136:
7132:
7128:
7122:
7115:
7109:
7093:
7089:
7085:
7078:
7059:
7052:
7046:
7030:
7026:
7022:
7016:
7009:
7003:
6996:
6990:
6983:
6977:
6968:
6961:
6957:
6954:
6950:
6946:
6943:
6937:
6921:
6917:
6913:
6907:
6905:
6895:
6893:
6885:
6879:
6877:
6860:
6856:
6850:
6834:
6830:
6824:
6816:
6809:
6798:September 26,
6793:
6789:
6785:
6779:
6777:
6775:
6758:
6754:
6750:
6744:
6731:
6724:
6718:
6710:
6706:
6702:
6698:
6692:
6684:
6683:
6675:
6668:
6662:
6655:
6649:
6642:
6636:
6623:
6616:
6610:
6603:
6597:
6595:
6587:
6581:
6574:
6568:
6561:
6555:
6542:
6535:
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6513:
6506:
6487:
6485:
6479:
6473:
6465:
6461:
6454:
6446:
6442:
6436:
6434:
6417:
6410:
6408:
6400:
6394:
6387:
6381:
6374:
6368:
6361:
6355:
6348:
6342:
6326:
6320:
6313:
6307:
6300:
6294:
6287:
6281:
6274:
6268:
6261:
6255:
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5833:
5826:
5820:
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5807:
5800:
5794:
5785:
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5574:
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5398:
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5356:
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5297:
5290:
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5282:
5265:
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5142:
5136:
5134:
5126:
5120:
5113:
5107:
5100:
5094:
5092:
5090:
5082:
5076:
5067:
5060:
5054:
5047:
5041:
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5022:
5018:
5012:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4989:
4970:
4963:
4962:
4954:
4952:
4944:
4938:
4931:
4925:
4916:
4909:
4903:
4894:
4887:
4881:
4874:
4868:
4861:
4855:
4848:
4842:
4833:
4826:
4820:
4813:
4807:
4800:
4794:
4792:
4784:
4778:
4771:
4765:
4758:
4752:
4745:
4739:
4732:
4726:
4719:
4713:
4711:
4709:
4701:
4695:
4689:, pp. 97β103.
4688:
4682:
4675:
4669:
4667:
4657:
4650:
4644:
4636:
4630:
4626:
4619:
4612:
4606:
4599:
4593:
4585:
4579:
4575:
4568:
4561:
4555:
4548:
4542:
4523:
4519:
4512:
4506:
4504:
4496:
4490:
4483:
4477:
4470:
4464:
4457:
4451:
4435:
4431:
4425:
4418:
4412:
4403:
4401:
4393:
4387:
4380:
4374:
4367:
4361:
4354:
4348:
4332:
4328:
4327:
4320:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4290:
4288:
4276:September 27,
4271:
4267:
4263:
4257:
4255:
4247:
4241:
4234:
4228:
4221:
4215:
4208:
4202:
4195:
4189:
4182:
4176:
4174:
4172:
4164:
4158:
4152:, pp. 63, 69.
4151:
4145:
4143:
4135:
4129:
4127:
4125:
4123:
4115:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4088:
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4067:
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4011:
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3999:
3993:
3986:
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3808:
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3405:
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3203:
3201:
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3008:
3006:
3004:
3002:
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2911:
2909:
2907:
2899:
2893:
2877:
2874:. p. 1.
2873:
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2860:
2858:
2841:
2837:
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2821:
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2700:
2696:
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2676:
2672:
2671:
2665:
2661:
2659:0-684-80400-X
2655:
2651:
2650:
2644:
2640:
2638:0-671-44133-7
2634:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2610:
2606:
2601:
2597:
2595:0-8157-7773-6
2591:
2587:
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2581:
2577:
2573:
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2565:
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2557:
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2548:
2544:
2540:
2538:0-670-03422-3
2534:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2514:0-300-06056-4
2510:
2506:
2505:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2485:0-520-06018-0
2481:
2474:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2454:
2450:
2449:
2443:
2439:
2437:0-394-52278-8
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
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2255:
2253:
2251:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2217:
2215:
2214:Union College
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2165:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2131:
2127:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2112:
2109:). Historian
2108:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2076:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2062:Alden Whitman
2059:
2054:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2042:
2036:
2034:
2033:cause célèbre
2024:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2006:lymphosarcoma
2002:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1967:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1937:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1875:David L. Hill
1870:
1868:
1864:
1863:Gale W. McGee
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1839:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1820:Sherman Adams
1817:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1782:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1755:
1748:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1735:
1734:Leslie Groves
1731:
1726:
1724:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1706:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1690:
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1607:
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1548:
1546:
1541:
1526:
1512:
1503:
1501:
1496:
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1487:
1483:
1482:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1439:electricity "
1437:
1428:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1413:
1406:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1383:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1342:Sidney Souers
1339:
1335:
1331:
1330:hydrogen bomb
1326:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1302:John Strachey
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1277:Modus Vivendi
1274:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1257:Edward Teller
1254:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1221:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1128:
1125:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1080:
1078:
1074:
1073:Harry F. Byrd
1070:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
986:
982:
980:
976:
975:Irving Lehman
972:
967:
964:
959:
957:
953:
948:
944:
943:
942:Kristallnacht
937:
935:
930:
928:
924:
919:
917:
913:
909:
899:
897:
892:
891:Horatio Alger
888:
882:
880:
876:
872:
867:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
840:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
790:
786:
784:
783:Edwin H. Land
780:
776:
775:Eastman Kodak
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
742:
738:
736:
732:
728:
727:New York City
724:
720:
710:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
687:
684:
680:
676:
673:, during the
672:
668:
663:
661:
658:to recognize
657:
653:
652:Rudolf Holsti
649:
645:
640:
638:
634:
630:
625:
623:
619:
615:
606:
592:
590:
585:
583:
582:typhoid fever
579:
575:
571:
570:valedictorian
567:
562:
560:
556:
552:
548:
538:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
515:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
496:hydrogen bomb
493:
489:
484:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
437:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
414:
406:
379:
370:
363:
360:
358:
355:
354:
352:
348:
345:
342:
338:
335:
332:
328:
324:
320:
317:
314:
310:
307:United States
306:
302:
297:
294:
291:
287:
283:
279:
276:Alice Hanauer
275:
271:
268:
265:
261:
258:
255:
253:Resting place
251:
247:
238:
234:
230:
214:
210:
205:
201:
198:
195:
189:
185:
179:
176:
173:
169:
163:
158:
155:
150:
147:
144:
138:
135:
132:
126:
123:
120:
116:
110:
105:
102:
99:Chair of the
97:
94:
91:
85:
82:
79:
73:
70:
67:
63:
57:
52:
49:
45:
41:
34:
29:
25:Lewis Strauss
22:
19:
8750:Val Peterson
8644:Joseph Dodge
8138:
7973:Dixy Lee Ray
7948:
7868:
7759:. Retrieved
7748:
7736:. Retrieved
7727:
7721:
7713:
7701:. Retrieved
7691:
7679:. Retrieved
7665:
7653:. Retrieved
7639:
7627:. Retrieved
7615:
7603:
7591:. Retrieved
7582:
7573:
7559:
7547:. Retrieved
7527:
7515:. Retrieved
7501:
7489:. Retrieved
7480:
7471:
7459:. Retrieved
7445:
7433:. Retrieved
7424:
7415:
7403:. Retrieved
7394:
7369:. Retrieved
7338:. Retrieved
7328:
7307:. Retrieved
7297:
7275:. Retrieved
7264:
7256:
7251:
7243:
7238:
7230:
7225:
7217:
7212:
7204:
7199:
7190:
7173:
7169:
7163:
7139:. Retrieved
7130:
7121:
7113:
7108:
7096:. Retrieved
7087:
7077:
7065:. Retrieved
7045:
7033:. Retrieved
7024:
7015:
7007:
7002:
6994:
6989:
6981:
6976:
6967:
6936:
6924:. Retrieved
6915:
6883:
6863:. Retrieved
6858:
6849:
6837:. Retrieved
6823:
6808:
6796:. Retrieved
6787:
6761:. Retrieved
6752:
6743:
6730:
6722:
6717:
6700:
6691:
6680:
6674:
6666:
6661:
6653:
6648:
6640:
6635:
6622:
6614:
6609:
6601:
6585:
6580:
6572:
6567:
6559:
6554:
6541:
6533:
6528:
6516:. Retrieved
6505:
6493:. Retrieved
6483:
6472:
6463:
6453:
6444:
6420:. Retrieved
6398:
6393:
6385:
6380:
6372:
6367:
6359:
6354:
6346:
6341:
6331:December 17,
6329:. Retrieved
6319:
6311:
6306:
6298:
6293:
6285:
6280:
6272:
6267:
6259:
6254:
6246:
6241:
6233:
6228:
6220:
6215:
6207:
6202:
6194:
6189:
6181:
6176:
6168:
6163:
6155:
6150:
6142:
6137:
6129:
6124:
6116:
6111:
6103:
6087:
6082:
6074:
6057:
6049:
6044:
6039:, pp. 11β12.
6036:
6031:
6023:
6007:
6002:
5994:
5989:
5981:
5976:
5968:
5963:
5955:
5950:
5938:. Retrieved
5934:
5924:
5912:. Retrieved
5908:
5898:
5872:. Retrieved
5868:
5858:
5850:
5845:
5837:
5832:
5824:
5819:
5811:
5806:
5798:
5793:
5773:
5768:
5760:
5755:
5747:
5742:
5737:, pp. 52β53.
5734:
5729:
5721:
5716:
5708:
5703:
5695:
5690:
5682:
5665:
5657:
5652:
5644:
5639:
5631:
5615:
5610:
5602:
5586:
5581:
5571:
5564:
5556:
5551:
5543:
5538:
5530:
5525:
5517:
5512:
5503:
5495:
5490:
5481:
5472:
5464:
5459:
5438:
5430:
5425:
5417:
5412:
5404:
5388:
5383:
5374:
5354:
5335:
5323:. Retrieved
5303:
5296:
5288:
5268:. Retrieved
5253:
5241:. Retrieved
5226:
5218:
5213:
5205:
5200:
5192:
5187:
5179:
5174:
5166:
5161:
5153:
5148:
5140:
5124:
5119:
5111:
5106:
5098:
5080:
5075:
5066:
5058:
5053:
5045:
5025:. Retrieved
4998:
4988:
4976:. Retrieved
4960:
4942:
4937:
4929:
4924:
4915:
4907:
4902:
4893:
4885:
4880:
4872:
4867:
4859:
4854:
4846:
4841:
4832:
4824:
4819:
4811:
4806:
4798:
4782:
4777:
4769:
4764:
4756:
4751:
4743:
4738:
4730:
4725:
4720:, pp. 19β21.
4717:
4699:
4694:
4686:
4681:
4673:
4656:
4648:
4643:
4624:
4618:
4610:
4605:
4597:
4592:
4573:
4567:
4559:
4554:
4546:
4541:
4529:. Retrieved
4517:
4494:
4489:
4481:
4476:
4468:
4463:
4455:
4450:
4438:. Retrieved
4424:
4419:, pp. 51β53.
4416:
4411:
4391:
4386:
4378:
4373:
4365:
4360:
4352:
4347:
4337:November 10,
4335:. Retrieved
4325:
4319:
4307:. Retrieved
4298:
4274:. Retrieved
4265:
4245:
4240:
4232:
4227:
4222:, pp. 71β74.
4219:
4214:
4206:
4201:
4193:
4188:
4183:, pp. 64β67.
4180:
4162:
4157:
4149:
4133:
4113:
4091:. Retrieved
4082:
4073:
4065:
4043:
4038:
4026:. Retrieved
4022:
3997:
3992:
3984:
3979:
3971:
3966:
3942:
3926:
3921:
3916:, pp. 49β51.
3913:
3892:
3872:
3867:
3859:
3840:, pp. 46β47.
3837:
3832:
3813:
3807:
3799:
3794:
3789:, pp. 41β42.
3786:
3781:
3772:
3764:
3759:
3754:, pp. 30β32.
3751:
3746:
3734:. Retrieved
3725:
3697:. Retrieved
3688:
3662:. Retrieved
3653:
3621:. Retrieved
3612:
3588:. Retrieved
3579:
3547:. Retrieved
3538:
3529:
3521:
3501:. Retrieved
3497:the original
3492:
3467:, pp. 25β26.
3464:
3448:
3443:
3438:, pp. 15β16.
3435:
3430:
3422:
3417:
3409:
3404:
3395:
3386:
3377:
3368:
3360:
3355:
3350:, pp. 20β21.
3347:
3342:
3337:, pp. 16β18.
3334:
3329:
3317:. Retrieved
3308:
3276:
3271:
3263:
3247:
3242:
3219:
3211:
3187:
3169:
3164:
3154:September 3,
3152:. Retrieved
3143:
3089:
3084:
3072:. Retrieved
3063:
3033:. Retrieved
3024:
2976:
2956:. Retrieved
2952:the original
2915:
2897:
2892:
2880:. Retrieved
2871:
2844:. Retrieved
2835:
2789:
2783:Young, Ken;
2764:
2738:
2734:
2694:
2690:
2680:
2669:
2648:
2627:
2604:
2584:
2563:
2559:
2527:
2503:
2471:
2447:
2427:
2396:
2363:
2359:
2339:
2335:
2324:Bibliography
2316:
2285:
2271:
2266:in the 1980
2261:
2249:
2245:
2218:
2194:
2170:
2151:
2137:
2128:
2116:
2095:
2086:Richard Pfau
2084:, historian
2081:
2078:
2073:
2065:
2055:
2046:Alfred Kazin
2039:
2037:
2030:
2022:
2003:
1984:
1980:desalination
1972:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1913:
1886:
1883:
1871:
1844:
1813:
1806:
1787:
1759:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1727:
1720:
1709:
1698:
1692:
1669:
1650:
1647:
1636:
1624:
1616:
1609:
1579:
1560:
1549:
1536:
1486:FukuryΕ« Maru
1485:
1479:
1476:Utirik Atoll
1464:Bikini Atoll
1460:Castle Bravo
1457:
1433:
1414:
1411:
1387:
1379:
1356:
1347:
1322:
1310:
1270:
1245:
1241:
1226:
1209:Bikini Atoll
1201:
1197:warning shot
1181:
1158:
1134:
1121:
1117:rear admiral
1105:Inner Circle
1081:
1058:
1039:
1015:B'nai B'rith
1007:World War II
992:
989:World War II
983:
968:
960:
940:
938:
934:Nazi Germany
931:
920:
905:
883:
868:
864:Tammany Hall
841:
818:
795:
755:Inland Steel
743:
739:
716:
699:Belleau Wood
688:
664:
641:
626:
611:
586:
563:
544:
516:
512:Castle Bravo
492:Soviet Union
485:
469:Nazi Germany
438:
426:World War II
377:
376:
334:Rear Admiral
241:(1974-01-21)
192:Succeeded by
161:
141:Succeeded by
108:
88:Succeeded by
55:
18:
8900:1974 deaths
8895:1896 births
8871:(1958β1961)
8865:(1954β1958)
8846:(1958β1961)
8840:(1953β1958)
8821:(1958β1961)
8815:(1953β1958)
8796:(1958β1961)
8777:(1958β1961)
8758:(1957β1958)
8752:(1953β1957)
8733:(1957β1958)
8731:Gordon Gray
8727:(1953β1957)
8689:(1960β1961)
8683:(1953β1960)
8664:(1958β1961)
8658:(1956β1958)
8652:(1954β1956)
8646:(1953β1954)
8612:(1958β1961)
8606:(1955β1958)
8600:(1953β1955)
8581:(1953β1961)
8556:(1959β1961)
8550:(1953β1958)
8531:(1953β1961)
8512:(1956β1961)
8506:(1953β1956)
8487:(1953β1961)
8468:(1957β1961)
8462:(1953β1957)
8443:(1959β1961)
8437:(1957β1959)
8431:(1953β1957)
8412:(1957β1961)
8406:(1953β1957)
8387:(1959β1961)
8381:(1953β1959)
8353:(1953β1961)
8325:(1953β1961)
7943:Gordon Dean
7836:, New York.
7722:Oppenheimer
7593:October 27,
7491:October 25,
7435:October 25,
7405:December 3,
7371:December 2,
7340:October 25,
7309:October 24,
7246:, p. 302n7.
7141:October 31,
7098:October 31,
6993:McMillian,
5940:January 13,
5914:January 13,
5874:January 13,
5869:@politifact
4440:December 7,
4093:October 24,
4028:January 13,
3699:October 28,
3503:January 29,
2958:December 3,
2342:(1): 1β16.
2287:Oppenheimer
2273:Oppenheimer
2270:miniseries
2160:of France.
1999:Black Angus
1960:Best Seller
1931:Final years
1818:to replace
1712:Gordon Gray
1643:Gordon Dean
1639:Q clearance
1478:and by the
1298:Klaus Fuchs
1154:atomic bomb
1146:Leo Szilard
1138:Arno Brasch
1119:by Truman.
1089:Carl Vinson
709:sentiment.
614:World War I
600:World War I
535:U.S. Senate
473:Leo Szilard
453:World War I
182:Preceded by
134:Gordon Dean
129:Preceded by
76:Preceded by
8889:Categories
8189:Richardson
8159:Trowbridge
7878:1958β1959
7681:August 17,
7655:August 17,
7549:October 4,
7517:October 4,
7461:October 4,
7277:August 28,
7242:McMillan,
7229:McMillan,
7218:Super Bomb
7205:Super Bomb
6926:August 29,
6839:August 31,
6763:August 29,
6667:Super Bomb
6654:Super Bomb
6641:Super Bomb
6560:Super Bomb
6518:August 26,
6495:August 12,
6422:August 24,
6371:McMillan,
6297:McMillan,
6193:McMillan,
6141:McMillan,
6035:McMillan,
5720:McMillan,
5694:McMillan,
5681:McMillan,
5656:McMillan,
5645:Super Bomb
5529:McMillan,
5165:Holloway,
5152:Holloway,
5139:McMillan,
5079:McMillan,
4943:Super Bomb
4908:Super Bomb
4886:Super Bomb
4871:Holloway,
4847:Super Bomb
4825:Super Bomb
4810:Holloway,
4801:, pp. 1β2.
4799:Super Bomb
4718:Super Bomb
4649:Super Bomb
4309:October 4,
4134:Super Bomb
3996:Feingold,
3983:Feingold,
3941:Feingold,
3736:October 8,
3664:October 8,
3549:October 7,
3319:October 7,
3190:, pp. 7β9.
2916:Super Bomb
2809:References
2727:Young, Ken
2284:2023 film
2264:Phil Brown
2146:, and the
1924:John Tower
1716:Roger Robb
1604:See also:
1163:, such as
1065:Frank Knox
1063:succeeded
999:lieutenant
914:, and the
896:autodidact
551:wholesaler
541:Early life
439:Raised in
304:Allegiance
267:Republican
222:1896-01-31
8775:Leo Hoegh
8756:Leo Hoegh
8320:President
8249:Gutierrez
8214:Mosbacher
8199:Klutznick
8079:Alexander
8032:Cortelyou
6997:, p. 260.
6984:, p. 246.
6886:, p. 242.
6817:. Snopes.
6725:, p. 230.
6709:0040-781X
6656:, p. 148.
6643:, p. 147.
6617:, p. 225.
6604:, p. 223.
6536:, p. 215.
6388:, p. 580.
6375:, p. 251.
6362:, p. 180.
6349:, p. 110.
6314:, p. 156.
6301:, p. 197.
6275:, p. 179.
6210:, p. 288.
6197:, p. 205.
6158:, p. 527.
6119:, p. 301.
6106:, p. 171.
6026:, p. 539.
6010:, p. 538.
5958:, p. 305.
5853:, p. 533.
5827:, p. 148.
5801:, p. 146.
5763:, p. 528.
5685:, p. 170.
5634:, p. 144.
5618:, p. 309.
5605:, p. 308.
5559:, p. 195.
5498:, p. 361.
5467:, p. 333.
5407:, p. 143.
5391:, p. 181.
5357:, p. 329.
5291:, p. 187.
5221:, p. 246.
5143:, p. 257.
5127:, p. 303.
5101:, p. 466.
5083:, p. 160.
5048:, p. 128.
5027:March 16,
4932:, p. 230.
4928:Strauss,
4910:, p. 164.
4888:, p. 140.
4875:, p. 301.
4858:Strauss,
4814:, p. 300.
4759:, p. 190.
4733:, p. 371.
4702:, p. 311.
4596:Strauss,
4562:, p. 289.
4497:, p. 240.
4484:, p. 281.
4471:, p. 239.
4458:, p. 238.
4355:, p. 143.
4351:Strauss,
4165:, p. 523.
4136:, p. 150.
4116:, p. 362.
4068:, p. 310.
4046:, p. 104.
4042:Strauss,
3929:, p. 105.
3925:Strauss,
3862:, p. 206.
3590:August 3,
3425:, p. vii.
3421:Strauss,
3408:Strauss,
3275:Strauss,
3246:Strauss,
3214:, p. 361.
2975:Strauss,
2918:, p. 144.
2755:154257639
2719:161722695
2388:Bird, Kai
2276:, and by
2248:cover of
2216:in 1958.
2098:Ken Young
1760:In 2022,
1124:flag rank
1113:commodore
1021:director
703:Communism
679:Bolshevik
325:1926β1945
171:President
162:In office
118:President
109:In office
65:President
56:In office
8274:Raimondo
8264:Pritzker
8219:Franklin
8204:Baldrige
8174:Peterson
8124:Harriman
8074:Redfield
7821:Archived
7801:Archived
7789:Archived
7738:July 20,
7732:Archived
7703:July 21,
7675:Archived
7649:Archived
7629:July 26,
7620:Archived
7587:Archived
7540:Archived
7511:Archived
7485:Archived
7455:Archived
7429:Archived
7399:Archived
7365:Archived
7334:Archived
7303:Archived
7135:Archived
7114:Dark Sun
7112:Rhodes,
7092:Archived
7067:July 25,
7058:Archived
7035:July 24,
7029:Archived
6956:Archived
6945:Archived
6920:Archived
6865:July 23,
6833:Archived
6792:Archived
6757:Archived
6738:", p. 2.
6630:", p. 1.
6549:", p. 4.
6223:, p. 98.
6130:Dark Sun
6128:Rhodes,
6024:Dark Sun
6022:Rhodes,
6008:Dark Sun
6006:Rhodes,
5982:Dark Sun
5980:Rhodes,
5969:Dark Sun
5967:Rhodes,
5884:cite web
5851:Dark Sun
5849:Rhodes,
5761:Dark Sun
5759:Rhodes,
5709:Dark Sun
5707:Rhodes,
5616:Dark Sun
5614:Rhodes,
5603:Dark Sun
5601:Rhodes,
5587:Dark Sun
5585:Rhodes,
5325:March 6,
5319:Archived
5264:Archived
5243:April 2,
5237:Archived
5021:Archived
4978:July 25,
4969:Archived
4945:, p. 64.
4849:, p. 42.
4827:, p. 77.
4731:Dark Sun
4729:Rhodes,
4700:Dark Sun
4698:Rhodes,
4676:, p. 89.
4651:, p. 40.
4611:Dark Sun
4609:Rhodes,
4558:Rhodes,
4545:Rhodes,
4531:July 26,
4522:Archived
4493:Rhodes,
4480:Rhodes,
4467:Rhodes,
4454:Rhodes,
4434:Archived
4331:Archived
4303:Archived
4270:Archived
4248:, p. 77.
4087:Archived
4066:Dark Sun
4064:Rhodes,
3974:, p. 57.
3875:, p. 40.
3730:Archived
3693:Archived
3658:Archived
3623:July 26,
3617:Archived
3584:Archived
3543:Archived
3412:, p. 25.
3313:Archived
3148:Archived
3074:July 24,
3068:Archived
3035:July 24,
3029:Archived
2882:July 26,
2876:Archived
2846:July 24,
2840:Archived
2787:(2019).
2729:(2013).
2711:23886392
2625:(1986).
2572:27551901
2547:57342111
2525:(2005).
2494:82275622
2426:(1988).
2416:56753298
2394:(2005).
2310:Writings
2298:See also
2258:In media
2252:magazine
2119:Kai Bird
2070:stated,
1993:and the
1373:part of
1273:Cold War
1173:neutrons
879:New Deal
777:and the
749:and the
488:Cold War
455:and the
281:Children
8336:Cabinet
8316:Cabinet
8144:Mueller
8139:Strauss
8119:Wallace
8109:Hopkins
8089:Whiting
8037:Metcalf
7832:at the
7761:May 10,
7182:1696995
7170:Science
6284:Stern,
6258:Stern,
6245:Stern,
6232:Stern,
6206:Stern,
6167:Stern,
6115:Stern,
6086:Stern,
5993:Stern,
5954:Bundy,
5909:Vulture
5698:, p. 4.
5555:Young,
5542:Young,
5463:Bundy,
5429:Bundy,
5416:Young,
5403:Young,
5353:Bundy,
5270:June 2,
5123:Bundy,
5110:Bundy,
4768:Young,
4755:Young,
4742:Young,
3858:Bundy,
3279:, p. 9.
3250:, p. 3.
3172:, p. 7.
3092:, p. 5.
2979:, p. 1.
2380:3377436
1898:. With
1865:on the
1388:In the
1284:in the
1195:, as a
923:Zionist
873:in the
566:physics
451:during
8708:(1953)
8575:(1953)
8259:Bryson
8239:Mineta
8229:Kantor
8209:Verity
8184:Morton
8154:Connor
8149:Hodges
8129:Sawyer
8099:Chapin
8094:Lamont
8084:Hoover
8042:Straus
7975:(1973)
7969:(1971)
7963:(1961)
7957:(1958)
7951:(1953)
7945:(1950)
7939:(1946)
7926:Chairs
7874:Acting
7699:. IMDb
7180:
7006:Pfau,
6980:Pfau,
6882:Pfau,
6721:Pfau,
6707:
6613:Pfau,
6600:Pfau,
6584:Pfau,
6532:Pfau,
6397:Pfau,
6358:Pfau,
6310:Pfau,
6271:Pfau,
6180:Pfau,
6102:Pfau,
6073:Pfau,
6048:Pfau,
5836:Pfau,
5823:Pfau,
5810:Pfau,
5797:Pfau,
5772:Pfau,
5746:Pfau,
5630:Pfau,
5311:
5287:Pfau,
5204:Pfau,
5178:Pfau,
5057:Pfau,
5044:Pfau,
5013:
4781:Pfau,
4685:Pfau,
4672:Pfau,
4631:
4580:
4415:Pfau,
4390:Pfau,
4377:Pfau,
4364:Pfau,
4244:Pfau,
4218:Pfau,
4179:Pfau,
4148:Pfau,
3970:Pfau,
3912:Pfau,
3871:Pfau,
3836:Pfau,
3820:
3785:Pfau,
3763:Pfau,
3750:Pfau,
3520:Pfau,
3463:Pfau,
3447:Pfau,
3434:Pfau,
3359:Pfau,
3346:Pfau,
3333:Pfau,
3262:Pfau,
3186:Pfau,
3168:Pfau,
3088:Pfau,
2896:Pfau,
2797:
2772:
2753:
2717:
2709:
2656:
2635:
2611:
2592:
2570:
2545:
2535:
2511:
2492:
2482:
2455:
2434:
2414:
2404:
2378:
2142:, the
2027:Legacy
1989:, the
1764:, the
1177:radium
1142:X-rays
1095:, the
954:, the
889:and a
761:, and
595:Career
580:, but
555:Jewish
432:, and
424:after
412:STRAWZ
273:Spouse
248:, U.S.
231:, U.S.
8254:Locke
8244:Evans
8234:Daley
8224:Brown
8194:Kreps
8169:Stans
8164:Smith
8134:Weeks
8114:Jones
8104:Roper
8047:Nagel
7757:. NBC
7623:(PDF)
7612:(PDF)
7543:(PDF)
7536:(PDF)
7178:JSTOR
7061:(PDF)
7054:(PDF)
6489:(PDF)
4972:(PDF)
4965:(PDF)
4525:(PDF)
4514:(PDF)
2751:S2CID
2715:S2CID
2707:JSTOR
2568:JSTOR
2476:(PDF)
2376:JSTOR
1191:near
1059:When
8269:Ross
8179:Dent
7763:2024
7740:2023
7728:Time
7705:2023
7683:2020
7657:2020
7631:2020
7595:2020
7551:2020
7519:2020
7493:2020
7463:2020
7437:2020
7407:2020
7373:2020
7342:2020
7311:2020
7279:2023
7143:2020
7100:2020
7069:2020
7037:2020
6928:2020
6916:Time
6867:2023
6841:2019
6800:2020
6765:2020
6753:Time
6705:ISSN
6701:Time
6682:1959
6520:2023
6497:2023
6424:2023
6333:2022
5942:2024
5916:2024
5890:link
5876:2024
5327:2016
5309:ISBN
5272:2017
5245:2012
5029:2022
5011:ISBN
4980:2020
4629:ISBN
4578:ISBN
4533:2020
4442:2020
4339:2020
4311:2020
4278:2020
4095:2020
4030:2024
3818:ISBN
3738:2020
3701:2020
3666:2020
3625:2020
3592:2020
3551:2020
3505:2010
3321:2020
3156:2020
3144:Time
3076:2020
3037:2020
2960:2005
2884:2020
2848:2020
2795:ISBN
2770:ISBN
2654:ISBN
2633:ISBN
2609:ISBN
2590:ISBN
2543:OCLC
2533:ISBN
2509:ISBN
2490:OCLC
2480:ISBN
2453:ISBN
2432:ISBN
2412:OCLC
2402:ISBN
2250:Time
2246:The
2227:, a
2121:and
2105:and
1953:Time
1907:and
1896:veto
1887:Time
1808:Time
1561:The
1474:and
1323:The
1255:and
835:and
781:for
773:for
697:and
340:Unit
330:Rank
236:Died
212:Born
8318:of
7174:230
5003:doi
2743:doi
2699:doi
2368:doi
2344:doi
2280:in
2268:BBC
1304:as
1067:as
1019:FBI
725:in
521:'s
364:(4)
8891::
7730:.
7726:.
7614:.
7581:.
7479:.
7423:.
7393:.
7381:^
7350:^
7319:^
7287:^
7172:.
7151:^
7129:.
7090:.
7086:.
7023:.
6914:.
6903:^
6891:^
6875:^
6857:.
6786:.
6773:^
6751:.
6699:.
6593:^
6462:.
6443:.
6432:^
6406:^
6095:^
6066:^
6015:^
5933:.
5907:.
5886:}}
5882:{{
5867:.
5781:^
5674:^
5623:^
5594:^
5447:^
5396:^
5362:^
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