302:
were small vessels, large vessels, and ocean-going vessels. They received the largest number the Roman coins-hoards in Tamil. This ranges from different emperors of Rome as their dates on the coins and as well as the emperors on the coins are different. This trade even continued to the end of the Roman Empire and continued into the time of the
Byzantine Empire. The Tamil also trade along the Red Sea as we have seen some of their goods such as potsherds found in dig sites. Rice and salt were popular goods that came out as exports as well as used as currency for bargaining. They were used as a means of bartering as they were able to transport large amounts and the demand for these items was always there. There was a port called Cholas that traded with the west and the Malaya coast.
178:
482:
writing system fits under the abugida. The letters in the Old Tamil abugida all appear to take the form of shapes like squares and circles. In the language every consonant is combined with a vowel for example NA is the letter n in the
English alphabet. If a letter in a word is followed by the same vowel it is written twice to distinguish between the constants adjacent vowel and the vowel following the consonant-vowel combination. In Tamil, constants occur usually at the end and the middle of words. There is an exception to this rule that occurs when a word starts with a vowel, and in this case, a character representing a singular syllable is used.
337:
period. Regardless of this, Sangam Tamil literature still nevertheless boasts a literary history spanning over 2,000 years, marking it as the one of the oldest languages still in use today, as the Tamil from the Sangam period is still mutually intelligible to a degree by modern Tamil speakers. The exact dates of Sangam publications are debated by scholars. “There are two primary styles defined through Sangam literature, Akam and Puram. Through Akam, aspects of love and romantic feelings are portrayed through five distinct categories, each relating to a unique landscape. Puram typically displays aspects of war and politics.”
470:. This early record of the language dives into the sounds of the language as well as allophones which are used to help understand adjacent phonemes. According to a rough translation from Tolkappiyam, “It will be evident on careful observation that all the sounds (in the Tamil language) are but the results of the modifications which the air undergoes in starting from naval, and passing through the eight parts- chest, neck, head, tongue, hard palate, teeth, lips, and nose.”
333:"Tamil is categorized as a classical language as it has a considerably extensive written tradition that is known for predating other classical works in India by over a thousand years." In addition, to its thousands of years of history as a literary language, notably during the Sangam period. A major distinction in this regard, is that Tamil is classified as a Dravidian language, making it the oldest written tradition not descended from Sanskrit in India.
494:
306:
later destroyed by tsunamis. These were the cities of
Thenmadurai and Kapatapuram. Archaeologist T. Satyamurth found 160 urns at their dig site. Dr. Jagor found 9000 objectives such as pottery, weapons, vessels, ornaments, stone beads, clothes, bones, ivory, sandalwood, and stone implements for grinding. The population wore cotton clothes and adorned the neck with ornaments made of beads, copper, and bronze.
349:
Old Tamil preserved many features of Proto-Dravidian, including inventory of consonants, the syllable structure, and various grammatical features. Amongst these was the absence of a distinct present tense – like Proto-Dravidian, Old Tamil only had two tenses, the past and the "non-past". Old Tamil
301:
Tamil began to trade with Greece, Rome, Egypt, China, Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, and Tibet. Their ports were Tondi, Musiri and Comari, Colchi, Poduke and
Sopatma. This was done during the period of Tamil independence from 600 BCE to 300 CE. The different types of ships that would go into the port
305:
There were large amounts of
Roulette potteries and Roman coins were found in a brick jetty that they would put items into so they would be ready for when they needed to unload them a mound in Arikamedu with Rouletted ware, amphorae, conical jars, agate, and chalcedony. Two of the port cities were
481:
Tamil’s writing system is widely believed to be inspired by the Asokan Brahmi system, which is the original Indian script that all modern Indian script derived from. There are 5 main categories of writing system which are the alphabet, abugida, abjad, syllabary, and semanto-phonetic. Old Tamil’s
336:
The term Sangam refers to multiple periods in which Sangam Tamil literature originates. Notably, there are to be considered three primary Sangam periods, as well as a Post Sangam period. However, all Sangam literature available to us dates from the third Sangam period, as well as the Post Sangam
340:
Sangam literature can be found from its first period around 250 BCE-200 CE. Regarding their pretexts, Puram poems most notably target specific morals that the author wishes to convey. One of the most notable works of Sangam literature is the
Tirukkural, and serves as a prime example among other
447:). Despite the significant amount of grammatical and syntactical change between Old, Middle and Modern Tamil, Tamil demonstrates grammatical continuity across these stages: many characteristics of the later stages of the language have their roots in features of Old Tamil.
273:
Indian literature. Scholars categorise the attested history of the language into three periods: Old Tamil (300 BCE–700 CE), Middle Tamil (700–1600) and Modern Tamil (1600–present). In
November 2007, an excavation at
1081:
Gopal, Nanduri Raj. “Tamil Sangam
Literature: A Journey through History, Culture, and Literary Brilliance.” View of Tamil Sangam Literature: A Journey through History, Culture, and Literary Brilliance, 2024,
318:. These poems are usually dated to between the 3rd century BCE and 5th century CE, which makes them the oldest extant body of literature in India. Other literary works in Old Tamil include
505:
in his work, Kerala
Sahithya Charithram names these regions. Senavaraiyar and Mayilainatar, both interpret almost similar names for these twelve Tamil dialectical regions of Old Tamil.
538:
The dating of Sangam literature and the identification of its language with Old Tamil was questioned by Herman Tieken who argued that the works are better understood as 9th century
501:
The
Tolkappiyam mentions about 12 moḻipeyar lands apart from the region where Centamil was spoken. Tolkappiyam 881 also mentions about dialectical words called Ticaicol.
200:. The earliest records in Old Tamil are inscriptions from between the 3rd and 1st century BCE in caves and on pottery. These inscriptions are written in a variant of the
542:
compositions, written in an archaising style to make them seem older than they were. Tieken's dating has, however, been criticised by multiple reviewers of his work.
196:
spanning from 300 BCE to 700 CE. Prior to Old Tamil, the period of Tamil linguistic development is termed as Proto-Tamil. After the Old Tamil period, Tamil becomes
341:
Sangam didactic texts. The Tirukkural is known for being a text in which the reader is taught morals in a poetic manner, typically through the use of couplets.
473:
The language has Thirty linear phonemes ranging from a to n with the exception of three nonlinear phonemes. The non-linear phonemes consist of i’,u’, and o’.
1552:
853:
214:, an early work on Tamil grammar and poetics, whose oldest layers could be as old as the mid 2nd century BCE. Old Tamil preserved many features of
1562:
1557:
254:
river basin in peninsular India. The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto-Dravidian were of the culture associated with the
1517:
1091:
Rajagopal, Govindaswamy. “Virtues in Tirukkuṟaḷ and Other Tamil Didactic Works – a Bird’s Eye View.” Academia.Edu, 27 Sept. 2016
1527:
1507:
1488:
1470:
1450:
1411:
1375:
1356:
1324:
1346:
1063:
Hart, George. “Statement on the Status of Tamil as a Classical Language.” The Institute for South Asia Studies, 11 Apr. 2000
815:
514:
283:
1431:
1277:
177:
519:
987:
Monius, A. E.; Dubianskii, A. M.; Tieken, H. (2002). "Ritual and Mythological Sources of the Early Tamil Poetry".
949:
314:
Many literary works in Old Tamil have also survived. These include a corpus of 2,381 poems collectively known as
460:
1072:
Shanmugananthan, R. “An Overview of Sangam Literature சங்க இலக்கியம்.” – Ilankai Tamil Sangam, 22 Sept. 2022.
1024:"Towards an Internal Chronology of Old Tamil Cankam Literature or How to Trace the Laws of a Poetic Universe"
150:
642:
66:
185:
has emerged as a major source of Brahmi inscriptions in Old Tamil dated between 3rd to 1st centuries BCE.
71:
282:
dating back to first century BCE with ancient Tamil Brahmi inscriptions. There are a number of apparent
502:
76:
456:
279:
239:
181:
A 2nd-century BCE Tamil Brahmi inscription from Arittapatti, Madurai India. The southern state of
1547:
1462:
Women Writing in India: 600 B.C. to the present – Vol. 1: 600 B.C. to the early twentieth century
295:
235:
1054:
R. Nagaswamy, Mirror of Tamil and Sanskrit (2012), Section 2.18.2: Natural evolution of Sanskrit
110:
1421:
1293:
M. Mena, Kannan (2009). "Negotiations with the Past: Classical Tamil in Contemporary Tamil".
1243:
676:
389:) "we do not see"). Nouns could take pronominal suffixes like verbs to express ideas: e.g.
287:
8:
330:, and a number of ethical and didactic texts, written between the 5th and 8th centuries.
266:
attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been written from the 2nd century BCE.
219:
61:
680:
1390:
1217:
1199:
1004:
969:
798:
697:
664:
617:
223:
327:
246:. Linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third
167:
1523:
1503:
1484:
1466:
1460:
1446:
1427:
1407:
1371:
1352:
1320:
1273:
1191:
889:
702:
315:
1394:
1035:
996:
961:
790:
781:
Sivathamby, K (1974), "Early South Indian Society and Economy: The Tinai Concept",
692:
684:
1335:
1314:
539:
275:
215:
53:
606:
323:
243:
193:
114:
99:
1272:(in Malayalam) (Digital ed.). Kerala: Kerala University. pp. 10–13.
210:
1541:
1502:, Gonda Indological Studies, Volume X, Groningen: Egbert Forsten Publishing,
1195:
291:
201:
143:
36:
32:
841:
Proceedings of the Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies
706:
263:
205:
197:
106:
1481:
Women Writing in India: 600 B.C. to the Present, II: The Twentieth Century
430:
410:
391:
371:
352:
134:
1040:
1023:
467:
259:
1203:
1179:
688:
643:"Keeladi, Excavation Report, Urban Settlement, Sangam Age, River Vaigai"
621:
1218:"Dravidian languages | History, Grammar, Map, & Facts | Britannica"
1008:
973:
802:
319:
247:
182:
952:; Tieken, H. (2001). "Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry".
900:
493:
255:
160:
127:
1441:
Steever, Sanford (1998), "Introduction", in Steever, Sanford (ed.),
1000:
965:
908:
870:
794:
888:
Saravanakumar, AR; Seetharaman, Paranthaman; Radha, R (June 2020).
270:
251:
286:
dating to before 500 BCE, the oldest attestation of the language.
1319:. Harvard University Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies.
665:"A Bayesian phylogenetic study of the Dravidian language family"
887:
1340:. State Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu.
459:
has preserved an inventory of 17 consonants very similar to
1261:
1154:
1082:
eduzonejournal.com/index.php/eiprmj/article/view/508/444.)
466:
The oldest depiction of Old Tamil’s phonology is found in
1519:
The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India
269:
Among Indian languages, Tamil has the most ancient non-
986:
598:
485:
The following is an example of the Old Tamil abugida:
1180:"An Introduction to the Study of Old Tamil Phonemics"
350:
verbs also had a distinct negative conjugation (e.g.
745:The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South
641:Government of Tamilnadu, Department of Archeology.
640:
607:"From Proto-Tamil-Malayalam to West Coast Dialects"
724:
722:
720:
718:
716:
1366:Lehmann, Thomas (1998). Sanfordr, Steever (ed.).
1184:Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute
948:
1539:
1267:
238:, Tamil, as a Dravidian language, descends from
713:
436:
416:
397:
378:
358:
616:, vol. 14, no. 1/2, pp. 52–60,
497:The 12 mozhipeyar regions of Ancient Tamilakam
1500:Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry
780:
604:
463:: /p t ṯ c ṭ k, m n ñ ṇ, r ẓ, l ḷ, y w *H/.
427:) "women" and the first person plural marker
250:BCE, possibly in the region around the lower
208:. The earliest long text in Old Tamil is the
1344:
1160:
1124:
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1100:
1478:
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925:
662:
561:
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515:Old Tamil words attested in Biblical Hebrew
455:Old Tamil, the earliest attested branch of
442:
422:
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384:
364:
1553:Languages attested from the 3rd century BC
1401:
1028:Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens
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756:
739:
737:
1333:
1312:
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890:"Trade and Commerce of Ancient Tamilagam"
846:
696:
585:
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520:Old Tamil words attested in Ancient Greek
218:, the earliest reconstructed form of the
16:Form of Tamil used from 300 BCE to 700 CE
1515:
1295:Journal of the American Oriental Society
1177:
833:
556:
492:
176:
1479:Tharu, Susie; Lalita, Ke, eds. (1998).
1459:Tharu, Susie; Lalita, K., eds. (1991),
1440:
1365:
1292:
1148:
1136:
909:"History of Ancient Tamil Civilization"
734:
728:
222:including inventory of consonants, the
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1497:
1419:
1384:
1021:
937:
906:
1563:6th-century disestablishments in Asia
1173:
1171:
1169:
808:
1558:Languages extinct in the 6th century
1445:, London: Routledge, pp. 1–39,
1404:Linguistic archaeology of South Asia
1268:Parameswara Iyer, Ulloor S. (1953).
855:Scroll.in – News. Politics. Culture.
488:
226:, and various grammatical features.
13:
1389:. University of California Press.
1270:Kerala Sahithya Charithram, Part 1
1166:
868:
284:Tamil loanwords in Biblical Hebrew
14:
1574:
1345:Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003).
476:
1402:Southworth, Franklin C. (2005),
309:
1286:
1244:"Dr.Gift Siromoney's Home Page"
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862:
774:
762:
663:Vishnupriya, Kolipakam (2018).
532:
1426:. BRILL Academic. p. 44.
1351:. Cambridge University Press.
816:"Tamil Brahmi script in Egypt"
750:
656:
634:
1:
1334:Iravatham, Mahadevan (1970).
1313:Iravatham, Mahadevan (2003).
549:
408:) "we are women" formed from
1423:Handbook of Oriental Studies
1297:: 320–323 – via JSTOR.
989:The Journal of Asian Studies
593:Handbook of Oriental Studies
450:
67:Southern Dravidian languages
7:
871:"Timeline of Tamil History"
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431:
411:
392:
372:
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10:
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1305:
669:Royal Society Open Science
605:Govindankutty, A. (1972),
503:Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer
437:
417:
398:
379:
359:
290:states that Tamil was the
229:
1337:Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions
1022:Wilden, E. V. A. (2003).
580:Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions
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158:
141:
125:
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96:
50:
42:
28:
23:
1516:Zvelebil, Kamil (1973).
1420:Spuler, Bertold (1975).
1178:Sankaran, C. R. (1947).
525:
280:Ancient Egyptian pottery
1498:Tieken, Herman (2001),
1443:The Dravidian Languages
1385:Ollett, Andrew (2017).
1368:The Dravidian Languages
1348:The Dravidian Languages
926:Tharu & Lalita 1991
236:Bhadriraju Krishnamurti
1387:Language of the Snakes
954:Asian Folklore Studies
498:
296:early maritime traders
186:
1316:Early Tamil Epigraphy
907:Dokras, Uday (2020).
567:Early Tamil Epigraphy
496:
192:is the period of the
180:
1395:10.1525/j.ctt1w8h1vk
1041:10.1553/wzksXLVIs105
399:𑀧𑁳𑀡𑁆𑀝𑀺𑀭𑁂𑀫𑁆
689:10.1098/rsos.171504
681:2018RSOS....571504K
369:)) "I do not see",
72:Proto-Tamil–Kannada
1465:, Feminist Press,
1222:www.britannica.com
1127:, pp. 182–193
950:Ferro-Luzzi, G. E.
869:El, David (2015).
822:, 21 November 2007
771:, pp. 250–251
759:, pp. 249–250
499:
224:syllable structure
187:
77:Proto-Tamil–Kodagu
1529:978-90-04-03591-1
1509:978-90-6980-134-6
1490:978-15-58-61028-6
1472:978-1-55861-027-9
1452:978-0-415-10023-6
1413:978-0-415-33323-8
1377:978-04-15-41267-4
1358:978-05-11-48687-6
1326:978-0-674-01227-1
1224:. 2 February 2024
1161:Krishnamurti 2003
1125:Krishnamurti 2003
1113:Krishnamurti 2003
1101:Krishnamurti 2003
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316:Sangam literature
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1409:
1406:, Routledge,
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1370:. Routledge.
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202:Brahmi script
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144:Linguist List
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37:Ancient India
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1251:. Retrieved
1247:
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1226:. Retrieved
1221:
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1156:
1151:, p. 80
1149:Lehmann 1998
1144:
1139:, p. 24
1137:Steever 1998
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1115:, p. 92
1108:
1103:, p. 53
1096:
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390:
380:𑀓𑀸𑀡𑁄𑀫𑁆
370:
360:𑀓𑀸𑀡𑁂𑀷𑁆
351:
348:
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335:
332:
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298:from India.
268:
233:
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206:Tamil Brahmi
198:Middle Tamil
189:
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107:Tamil-Brahmi
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1034:(16): 105.
995:(4): 1404.
938:Tieken 2001
858:, scroll.in
648:27 December
591:Souler, B.
468:Tolkappiyam
328:Maṇimēkalai
260:South India
211:Tolkāppiyam
1542:Categories
960:(2): 373.
839:Rabin, C.
550:References
405:பெண்டிரேம்
320:Thirukural
271:Sanskritic
264:epigraphic
248:millennium
183:Tamil Nadu
111:Vaṭṭeḻuttu
1522:. BRILL.
1196:0045-9801
1190:: 87–96.
826:5 January
820:The Hindu
569:pp. 91–94
451:Phonology
278:revealed
256:Neolithic
220:Dravidian
190:Old Tamil
161:Glottolog
154:Old Tamil
128:ISO 639-3
82:Old Tamil
62:Dravidian
33:Tamiḻakam
24:Old Tamil
1483:. CUNY.
1253:20 March
1228:20 March
1204:42929588
913:academia
875:academia
843:, p. 438
707:29657761
627:25 March
622:24651352
582:pp. 1–12
509:See also
424:பெண்டிர்
393:peṇṭirēm
345:Features
288:John Guy
252:Godavari
168:oldt1248
113:and the
109:, later
1306:Sources
1009:3096501
974:1179075
803:3516448
698:5882685
677:Bibcode
438:-𑀏𑀫𑁆
230:History
204:called
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366:காணேன்
29:Region
1391:JSTOR
1200:JSTOR
1005:JSTOR
970:JSTOR
799:JSTOR
618:JSTOR
614:BRILL
610:(PDF)
595:p. 44
526:Notes
373:kāṇōm
354:kāṇēṉ
1524:ISBN
1504:ISBN
1485:ISBN
1467:ISBN
1447:ISBN
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1408:ISBN
1372:ISBN
1353:ISBN
1321:ISBN
1274:ISBN
1255:2024
1230:2024
1192:ISSN
828:2015
747:p.XX
703:PMID
650:2020
629:2023
444:-ஏம்
326:and
294:for
242:, a
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693:PMC
685:doi
151:oty
135:oty
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