551:
122:
612:
25:
600:
677:
586:, indicating the presence of unpaired electrons. Pauling proposed that this molecule actually contains two three-electron bonds and one normal covalent (two-electron) bond. The octet on each atom then consists of two electrons from each three-electron bond, plus the two electrons of the covalent bond, plus one lone pair of non-bonding electrons. The bond order is 1+0.5+0.5=2.
717:
using a large number of formal charges or using partial bonds and is recommended by the IUPAC as a convenient formalism in preference to depictions that better reflect the bonding. On the other hand, showing more than eight electrons around Be, B, C, N, O, or F (or more than two around H, He, or Li) is considered an error by most authorities.
320:
672:
which each share an electron pair with a halogen atom, for a total of 10 shared electrons, two more than the octet rule predicts. Similarly to form six bonds, the six spd hybrid orbitals form six bonds with 12 shared electrons. In this model the availability of empty d orbitals is used to explain the
239:
are counted twice, once for each atom. In carbon dioxide each oxygen shares four electrons with the central carbon, two (shown in red) from the oxygen itself and two (shown in black) from the carbon. All four of these electrons are counted in both the carbon octet and the oxygen octet, so that both
461:
atom has an analogous 3s 3p configuration. There is also an empty 3d level, but it is at considerably higher energy than 3s and 3p (unlike in the hydrogen atom), so that 3s 3p is still considered a closed shell for chemical purposes. The atoms immediately before and after argon tend to
285:
of chlorine (the energy release when chlorine gains an electron to form Cl) is 349 kJ per mole of chlorine atoms. Adding a second electron to form a hypothetical Cl would require energy, energy that cannot be recovered by the formation of a chemical bond. The result is that chlorine will very
298:
of sodium atoms, a small amount of energy. By contrast, the second electron resides in the deeper second electron shell, and the second ionization energy required for its removal is much larger: +4562 kJ per mole. Thus sodium will, in most cases, form a compound in which it has lost a single
716:
Nevertheless, for historical reasons, structures implying more than eight electrons around elements like P, S, Se, or I are still common in textbooks and research articles. In spite of the unimportance of d shell expansion in chemical bonding, this practice allows structures to be shown without
708:
to be a non-bonding orbital localized on the five fluorine atoms, in addition to four occupied bonding orbitals, so again there are only eight valence electrons on the phosphorus. The validity of the octet rule for hypervalent molecules is further supported by
337:
In the late 19th century, it was known that coordination compounds (formerly called "molecular compounds") were formed by the combination of atoms or molecules in such a manner that the valencies of the atoms involved apparently became satisfied. In 1893,
302:
The energy required to transfer an electron from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom (the difference of the 1st ionization energy of sodium and the electron affinity of chlorine) is small: +495.8 − 349 = +147 kJ mol. This energy is easily offset by the
570:
which contributes one shared and one unshared electron to the octet of each bonded atom. In NO, the octet on each atom consists of two electrons from the three-electron bond, plus four electrons from two two-electron bonds and two electrons from a
667:
proposed that third-row atoms can form five bonds by using one s, three p and one d orbitals, or six bonds by using one s, three p and two d orbitals. To form five bonds, the one s, three p and one d orbitals combine to form five spd
1384:, p.395) writes the Lewis structure with a double bond, but adds a question mark with the explanation that there is some doubt about the validity of this structure because it fails to account for the observed paramagnetism.
856:
orbitals to form bonding and non-bonding orbitals. However, unlike the octet rule for main-group elements, transition metals do not strictly obey the 18-electron rule and the valence electron count can vary between 12 and
473:
there is no 1p level according to the quantum theory, so that 1s is a closed shell with no p electrons. The atoms before and after helium (H and Li) follow a duet rule and tend to have the same 1s configuration as helium.
575:
of non-bonding electrons on that atom alone. The bond order is 2.5, since each two-electron bond counts as one bond while the three-electron bond has only one shared electron and therefore corresponds to a half-bond.
453:
shell. According to the octet rule, the atoms immediately before and after neon in the periodic table (i.e. C, N, O, F, Na, Mg and Al), tend to attain a similar configuration by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons.
289:
A sodium atom has a single electron in its outermost electron shell, the first and second shells again being full with two and eight electrons respectively. To remove this outer electron requires only the first
533:
Although stable odd-electron molecules and hypervalent molecules are commonly taught as violating the octet rule, ab initio molecular orbital calculations show that they largely obey the octet rule (see
673:
fact that third-row atoms such as phosphorus and sulfur can form more than four covalent bonds, whereas second-row atoms such as nitrogen and oxygen are strictly limited by the octet rule.
249:
1323:
663:
in which five distinct electron pairs are shared, then the phosphorus would be surrounded by 10 valence electrons in violation of the octet rule. In the early days of quantum mechanics,
700:
F structures, so that each F is bonded by a covalent bond in four structures and an ionic bond in one structure. Each resonance structure has eight valence electrons on P. A
281:
A chlorine atom has seven electrons in its third and outer electron shell, the first and second shells being filled with two and eight electrons respectively. The first
421:
During the formation of a chemical bond, atoms combine together by gaining, losing or sharing electrons in such a way that they acquire nearest noble gas configuration.
435:
with an sp electron configuration. A closed-shell configuration is one in which low-lying energy levels are full and higher energy levels are empty. For example, the
404:
saw that noble gases did not have the tendency of taking part in chemical reactions under ordinary conditions. On the basis of this observation, they concluded that
394:
refined these concepts further and renamed them the "cubical octet atom" and "octet theory". The "octet theory" evolved into what is now known as the "octet rule".
582:
is sometimes represented as obeying the octet rule with a double bond (O=O) containing two pairs of shared electrons. However the ground state of this molecule is
1642:
1324:"The Atom and the Molecule. April 1916. - Published Papers and Official Documents - Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History"
358:
in which he distinguished atoms as electron donors or acceptors, leading to positive and negative valence states that greatly resemble the modern concept of
1749:
1348:
Harcourt, Richard D., ed. (2015). "Chapter 2: Pauling "3-Electron Bonds", 4-Electron 3-Centre
Bonding, and the Need for an "Increased-Valence" Theory".
1167:
1327:
1573:
Bayse, Craig; Hall, Michael (1999). "Prediction of the
Geometries of Simple Transition Metal Polyhydride Complexes by Symmetry Analysis".
1635:
1744:
1575:
1770:
1628:
1521:
710:
89:
61:
1285:
1677:
1462:
1442:
1426:
1381:
1357:
1114:
108:
954:
929:
901:
68:
46:
1512:
Frenking, Gernot; Shaik, Sason, eds. (May 2014). "Chapter 7: Chemical bonding in
Transition Metal Compounds".
1437:
R.H. Petrucci, W.S. Harwood and F.G. Herring, General
Chemistry (8th ed., Prentice-Hall 2002) p.408 and p.445
1025:
991:
331:
1008:
974:
346:") is often 4 or 6; other coordination numbers up to a maximum of 8 were known, but less frequent. In 1904,
75:
567:
684:
However other models describe the bonding using only s and p orbitals in agreement with the octet rule. A
42:
1537:
Frenking, Gernot; Fröhlich, Nikolaus (2000). "The Nature of the
Bonding in Transition-Metal Compounds".
1042:
506:
on the carbon atom and no electron of opposite spin in the same orbital. Another example is the radical
286:
often form a compound in which it has eight electrons in its outer shell (a complete octet), as in Cl.
57:
1350:
Bonding in
Electron-Rich Molecules: Qualitative Valence-Bond Approach via Increased-Valence Structures
1088:
1862:
1765:
1706:
1697:
701:
640:
635:
Main-group elements in the third and later rows of the periodic table can form hypercoordinate or
466:
in which the 3d level may play a part in the bonding, although this is controversial (see below).
1867:
1715:
323:
35:
1651:
334:
classified the sixty-two known elements into eight groups, based on their physical properties.
173:
1410:(3rd ed., Oxford University Press 1960) p.63. In this source Pauling considers as examples PCl
1160:
693:
483:
1297:
636:
630:
523:
463:
271:
1601:
King, R.B. (2000). "Structure and bonding in homoleptic transition metal hydride anions".
737:
configurations are different from main-group elements. These other rules are shown below:
8:
1724:
1415:
685:
648:
515:
503:
491:
413:
383:
363:
355:
351:
343:
1301:
1185:"Die Valenz und das periodische System. Versuch einer Theorie der Molekularverbindungen"
82:
1235:
1187:[Valency and the periodic system. Attempt at a theory of molecular compounds].
1148:
752:
726:
153:
1610:
639:
in which the central main-group atom is bonded to more than four other atoms, such as
1827:
1796:
1672:
1555:
1517:
1458:
1438:
1422:
1377:
1353:
1075:
950:
925:
897:
872:
730:
507:
291:
282:
263:
235:
as shown at the right for carbon dioxide. The electrons shared by the two atoms in a
1239:
713:, which show that the contribution of d functions to the bonding orbitals is small.
1841:
1812:
1775:
1606:
1583:
1547:
1539:
1305:
1266:
1227:
1196:
1126:
840:
835:
761:
734:
527:
401:
387:
371:
367:
359:
311:: −783 kJ mol. This completes the explanation of the octet rule in this case.
225:
221:
319:
867:
511:
391:
375:
308:
232:
1141:
Classics in
Coordination Chemistry, Part I: The selected papers of Alfred Werner
811:
has two electrons in its outer shell, which is very stable. (Since there is no 1
550:
121:
1689:
1667:
1662:
669:
495:
397:
342:
showed that the number of atoms or groups associated with a central atom (the "
304:
205:
126:
1044:
On the
Discovery of the Periodic Law and on Relations among the Atomic Weights
827:
only needs one additional electron to attain this stable configuration, while
1856:
1817:
1791:
1309:
1200:
1130:
664:
660:
347:
339:
255:
236:
169:
157:
149:
1501:
Hypercoordinate
Molecules of Second-Row Elements: d Functions or d Orbitals?
1064:
908:
Source gives enthalpy change -349 kJ corresponding to energy release +349 kJ
362:. Abegg noted that the difference between the maximum positive and negative
1559:
1376:
by R.H.Petrucci, W.S.Harwood and F.G.Herring (8th ed., Prentice-Hall 2002,
1288:[On the formation of molecules as a question of atomic structure].
583:
563:
486:
are unstable and do not obey the octet rule. This includes species such as
432:
379:
248:
1620:
412:
are stable and on the basis of this conclusion they proposed a theory of
295:
209:
1587:
1270:
1231:
555:
1551:
611:
705:
572:
409:
177:
165:
146:
1254:
1215:
1184:
24:
1117:[Contribution to the constitution of inorganic compounds].
824:
579:
299:
electron and have a full outer shell of eight electrons, or octet.
275:
213:
193:
185:
1143:. New York City, New York, USA: Dover Publications. pp. 5–88.
382:
model and the "rule of eight", which began to distinguish between
828:
519:
487:
462:
attain this configuration in compounds. There are, however, some
431:
The quantum theory of the atom explains the eight electrons as a
201:
197:
1026:"Proceedings of Societies: Chemical Society: Thursday, March 1"
823:, and thus shell 1 can only have at most 2 valence electrons).
808:
599:
470:
267:
217:
189:
181:
1514:
The
Chemical Bond: Chemical Bonding Across the Periodic Table
676:
514:. These molecules often react so as to complete their octet.
458:
259:
258:
is common between pairs of atoms, where one of the pair is a
436:
405:
161:
133:): all atoms are surrounded by 8 electrons, fulfilling the
1139:
Werner, Alfred; Kauffman, G.B., trans. & ed. (1968).
807:
of the first shell applies to H, He and Li—the noble gas
196:; although more generally the rule is applicable for the
949:(2nd ed.). Pearson Education Limited. p. 156.
924:(2nd ed.). Pearson Education Limited. p. 880.
896:(2nd ed.). Pearson Education Limited. p. 883.
1499:
Magnusson, E., J.Am.Chem.Soc. (1990), v.112, p.7940-51
1255:"The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules"
1115:"Beitrag zur Konstitution anorganischer Verbindungen"
208:. Other rules exist for other elements, such as the
1750:
Electron configurations of the elements (data page)
1397:(3rd ed., Oxford University Press 1960) chapter 10.
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1119:Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie
945:Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2005).
920:Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2005).
892:Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2005).
680:5 resonance structures of phosphorus pentafluoride
243:
1023:
416:known as "electronic theory of valency" in 1916:
1854:
1536:
1477:, 2nd ed. (Pearson Education Ltd. 2005), p.390-1
944:
919:
891:
844:which corresponds to the utilization of valence
566:, NO) obtain octet configurations by means of a
426:
1453:Douglas B.E., McDaniel D.H. and Alexander J.J.
1138:
370:under his model is frequently eight. In 1916,
350:was one of the first to extend the concept of
1636:
1511:
1089:"For Your Information: The Delayed Discovery"
659:, if it is supposed that there are five true
240:atoms are considered to obey the octet rule.
231:The valence electrons can be counted using a
1326:. Osulibrary.oregonstate.edu. Archived from
1286:"Über Molekülbildung als Frage des Atombaus"
1650:
1643:
1629:
1455:Concepts and Models of Inorganic Chemistry
539:
522:also do not obey the octet rule but share
1572:
1166:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
535:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1745:Periodic table (electron configurations)
1347:
1259:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1252:
1220:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1040:
1006:
989:
973:Newlands, John A. R. (7 February 1863).
972:
711:ab initio molecular orbital calculations
675:
624:
549:
318:
120:
1007:Newlands, John A. R. (18 August 1865).
990:Newlands, John A. R. (20 August 1864).
592:Modified Lewis structures with 3e bonds
545:
180:. The rule is especially applicable to
1855:
1283:
1112:
1076:Newlands on classification of elements
1047:. E. & F.N. Spon: London, England.
502:) which has an unpaired electron in a
1624:
1213:
1182:
725:The octet rule is only applicable to
562:Some stable molecular radicals (e.g.
1600:
1490:, 2nd ed. (Prentice-Hall 1999), p.48
1457:(2nd ed., John Wiley 1983) pp.45-47
992:"On relations among the equivalents"
975:"On relations among the equivalents"
558:of an individual 2e bond and 3e bond
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
1189:Zeitschrift für Anorganische Chemie
1086:
1063:in February 1863, according to the
274:of high electronegativity (such as
13:
1024:(Editorial staff) (9 March 1866).
706:highest occupied molecular orbital
378:and used it to help formulate his
247:
14:
1879:
1678:Introduction to quantum mechanics
1473:Housecroft C.E. and Sharpe A.G.,
446:shell (2s 2p) and an empty
610:
598:
23:
1594:
1566:
1530:
1505:
1493:
1480:
1467:
1447:
1431:
1408:The Nature of the Chemical Bond
1400:
1395:The Nature of the Chemical Bond
1387:
1366:
1341:
1316:
1277:
1246:
1207:
244:Example: sodium chloride (NaCl)
34:needs additional citations for
1603:Coordination Chemistry Reviews
1176:
1103:
1080:
1069:
1053:
963:
938:
913:
885:
729:. Other elements follow other
720:
294:, which is +495.8 kJ per
152:that reflects the theory that
1:
1611:10.1016/S0010-8545(00)00263-0
1486:Miessler D.L. and Tarr G.A.,
878:
838:, molecules tend to obey the
477:
439:atom ground state has a full
427:Explanation in quantum theory
330:In 1864, the English chemist
1041:Newlands, John A.R. (1884).
819:is followed immediately by 2
374:referred to this insight as
7:
1738:Ground-state configurations
1216:"The Atom and the Molecule"
1087:Ley, Willy (October 1966).
861:
783:Full valence configuration
510:(ClO) which is involved in
10:
1886:
1707:Azimuthal quantum number (
1698:Principal quantum number (
1214:Lewis, Gilbert N. (1916).
704:description considers the
628:
314:
233:Lewis electron dot diagram
1826:
1805:
1784:
1766:Pauli exclusion principle
1758:
1737:
1716:Magnetic quantum number (
1688:
1658:
1253:Langmuir, Irving (1919).
1059:in a letter published in
1310:10.1002/andp.19163540302
1201:10.1002/zaac.19040390125
1131:10.1002/zaac.18930030136
769:Electron counting rules
702:molecular orbital theory
641:phosphorus pentafluoride
174:electronic configuration
160:in such a way that each
1113:Werner, Alfred (1893).
1065:Notable Names Data Base
1009:"On the law of octaves"
526:in a manner similar to
1652:Electron configuration
1137:English translation:
1093:Galaxy Science Fiction
681:
559:
484:reactive intermediates
424:
327:
252:
138:
16:Chemical rule of thumb
1806:Bonding participation
1725:Spin quantum number (
679:
637:hypervalent molecules
625:Hypervalent molecules
553:
540:hypervalent molecules
524:delocalized electrons
464:hypervalent molecules
418:
322:
251:
172:, giving it the same
124:
1605:. 200–202: 813–829.
1330:on November 25, 2013
696:between different PF
655:. For example, in PF
631:Hypervalent molecule
546:Three-electron bonds
536:three-electron bonds
43:improve this article
1488:Inorganic Chemistry
1475:Inorganic Chemistry
1302:1916AnP...354..229K
1284:Kossel, W. (1916).
1271:10.1021/ja02227a002
1232:10.1021/ja02261a002
947:Inorganic Chemistry
922:Inorganic Chemistry
894:Inorganic Chemistry
727:main-group elements
649:sulfur hexafluoride
568:three-electron bond
504:non-bonding orbital
352:coordination number
344:coordination number
270:) and the second a
154:main-group elements
1290:Annalen der Physik
1183:Abegg, R. (1904).
1159:has generic name (
831:needs to lose one.
682:
560:
518:molecules such as
516:Electron deficient
328:
253:
139:
1850:
1849:
1828:Electron counting
1797:Unpaired electron
1673:Quantum mechanics
1588:10.1021/ja981965+
1576:J. Am. Chem. Soc.
1552:10.1021/cr980401l
1523:978-3-527-33315-8
1374:General chemistry
1030:The Chemical News
1013:The Chemical News
996:The Chemical News
979:The Chemical News
873:Electron counting
836:transition metals
796:
795:
778:18-electron rule
772:Duet/Duplet rule
731:electron counting
688:description of PF
542:sections below).
508:chlorine monoxide
388:valence electrons
292:ionization energy
283:electron affinity
264:electronegativity
226:transition metals
119:
118:
111:
93:
1875:
1863:Chemical bonding
1842:18-electron rule
1813:Valence electron
1785:Electron pairing
1776:Aufbau principle
1759:Electron filling
1728:
1719:
1710:
1701:
1645:
1638:
1631:
1622:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1582:(6): 1348–1358.
1570:
1564:
1563:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1491:
1484:
1478:
1471:
1465:
1451:
1445:
1435:
1429:
1404:
1398:
1391:
1385:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1336:
1335:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1281:
1275:
1274:
1250:
1244:
1243:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1180:
1174:
1171:
1164:
1158:
1154:
1152:
1144:
1134:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1084:
1078:
1073:
1067:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1037:
1020:
1003:
986:
967:
961:
960:
942:
936:
935:
917:
911:
910:
889:
841:18-electron rule
762:Transition metal
740:
739:
735:valence electron
614:
602:
528:metallic bonding
452:
445:
402:Gilbert N. Lewis
372:Gilbert N. Lewis
360:oxidation states
354:to a concept of
326:' law of octaves
222:18-electron rule
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
1885:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1846:
1822:
1801:
1780:
1754:
1733:
1726:
1717:
1708:
1699:
1690:Quantum numbers
1684:
1654:
1649:
1619:
1618:
1599:
1595:
1571:
1567:
1535:
1531:
1524:
1510:
1506:
1498:
1494:
1485:
1481:
1472:
1468:
1452:
1448:
1436:
1432:
1419:
1413:
1405:
1401:
1392:
1388:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1346:
1342:
1333:
1331:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1282:
1278:
1251:
1247:
1212:
1208:
1181:
1177:
1165:
1156:
1155:
1146:
1145:
1108:
1104:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1070:
1058:
1054:
968:
964:
957:
943:
939:
932:
918:
914:
904:
890:
886:
881:
868:Lewis structure
864:
759:
750:
733:rules as their
723:
699:
691:
670:hybrid orbitals
658:
654:
646:
633:
627:
622:
621:
620:
619:
618:
615:
607:
606:
603:
594:
593:
548:
512:ozone depletion
501:
480:
447:
440:
429:
392:Irving Langmuir
317:
309:sodium chloride
246:
132:
125:The bonding in
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1883:
1882:
1871:
1870:
1868:Rules of thumb
1865:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1833:
1831:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1820:
1815:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1794:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1781:
1779:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1747:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1734:
1732:
1731:
1722:
1713:
1704:
1694:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1670:
1668:Atomic orbital
1665:
1663:Electron shell
1659:
1656:
1655:
1648:
1647:
1640:
1633:
1625:
1617:
1616:
1593:
1565:
1546:(2): 717–774.
1529:
1522:
1516:. Wiley -VCH.
1504:
1492:
1479:
1466:
1446:
1430:
1417:
1411:
1399:
1386:
1365:
1358:
1340:
1315:
1296:(3): 229–362.
1276:
1265:(6): 868–934.
1245:
1226:(4): 762–785.
1206:
1195:(1): 330–380.
1175:
1173:
1172:
1135:
1102:
1079:
1068:
1061:Chemistry News
1052:
1050:
1049:
1038:
1021:
1004:
987:
962:
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902:
883:
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880:
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832:
794:
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790:
787:
784:
780:
779:
776:
773:
770:
766:
765:
756:
747:
744:
722:
719:
697:
689:
661:covalent bonds
656:
652:
644:
629:Main article:
626:
623:
616:
609:
608:
604:
597:
596:
595:
591:
590:
589:
588:
547:
544:
499:
496:methyl radical
479:
476:
428:
425:
398:Walther Kossel
316:
313:
305:lattice energy
245:
242:
206:periodic table
130:
127:carbon dioxide
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1881:
1880:
1869:
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1861:
1860:
1858:
1843:
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1838:
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1829:
1825:
1819:
1818:Core electron
1816:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1804:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1792:Electron pair
1790:
1789:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1774:
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1769:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1761:
1757:
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1714:
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1696:
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1687:
1679:
1676:
1675:
1674:
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1657:
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1634:
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1627:
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1612:
1608:
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1569:
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1549:
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1541:
1533:
1525:
1519:
1515:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1489:
1483:
1476:
1470:
1464:
1463:0-471-21984-3
1460:
1456:
1450:
1444:
1443:0-13-014329-4
1440:
1434:
1428:
1427:0-8014-0333-2
1424:
1420:
1409:
1403:
1396:
1390:
1383:
1382:0-13-014329-4
1379:
1375:
1372:For example,
1369:
1361:
1359:9783319166766
1355:
1351:
1344:
1329:
1325:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1292:(in German).
1291:
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1229:
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1210:
1202:
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1186:
1179:
1169:
1162:
1157:|first2=
1150:
1142:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1121:(in German).
1120:
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1111:
1110:
1106:
1099:(1): 116–127.
1098:
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1066:
1062:
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1046:
1045:
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1027:
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1010:
1005:
1001:
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988:
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826:
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771:
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728:
718:
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712:
707:
703:
695:
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678:
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662:
650:
642:
638:
632:
613:
601:
587:
585:
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569:
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557:
552:
543:
541:
537:
531:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
497:
493:
492:free radicals
490:, as well as
489:
485:
475:
472:
467:
465:
460:
455:
450:
443:
438:
434:
423:
422:
417:
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411:
407:
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399:
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
348:Richard Abegg
345:
341:
340:Alfred Werner
335:
333:
332:John Newlands
325:
321:
312:
310:
306:
300:
297:
293:
287:
284:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
256:Ionic bonding
250:
241:
238:
237:covalent bond
234:
229:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
170:valence shell
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
150:rule of thumb
148:
144:
136:
128:
123:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
1836:
1602:
1596:
1579:
1574:
1568:
1543:
1538:
1532:
1513:
1507:
1500:
1495:
1487:
1482:
1474:
1469:
1454:
1449:
1433:
1407:
1402:
1394:
1389:
1373:
1368:
1352:. Springer.
1349:
1343:
1332:. Retrieved
1328:the original
1318:
1293:
1289:
1279:
1262:
1258:
1248:
1223:
1219:
1209:
1192:
1188:
1178:
1140:
1122:
1118:
1105:
1096:
1092:
1082:
1071:
1060:
1055:
1043:
1033:
1029:
1016:
1012:
999:
995:
982:
978:
965:
956:0130-39913-2
946:
940:
931:0130-39913-2
921:
915:
907:
903:0130-39913-2
893:
887:
853:
849:
845:
839:
820:
816:
812:
804:
800:
743:Element type
724:
715:
686:valence bond
683:
634:
605:Nitric oxide
584:paramagnetic
578:
564:nitric oxide
561:
532:
481:
468:
456:
448:
441:
433:closed shell
430:
420:
419:
396:
390:. In 1919,
380:cubical atom
376:Abegg's rule
336:
329:
301:
288:
280:
254:
230:
142:
140:
134:
105:
99:October 2023
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
58:"Octet rule"
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1771:Hund's rule
1406:L. Pauling
1393:L. Pauling
1125:: 267–330.
815:subshell, 1
805:duplet rule
775:Octet rule
746:First shell
721:Other rules
556:MO diagrams
410:noble gases
210:duplet rule
1857:Categories
1837:Octet rule
1540:Chem. Rev.
1334:2014-01-03
1036:: 113–114.
879:References
753:Main group
554:Lewis and
478:Exceptions
220:, and the
192:, and the
164:has eight
143:octet rule
135:octet rule
69:newspapers
1149:cite book
801:duet rule
694:resonance
573:lone pair
266:(such as
178:noble gas
166:electrons
1560:11749249
1414:and the
1240:95865413
1002:: 94–95.
985:: 70–72.
862:See also
825:Hydrogen
617:Dioxygen
580:Dioxygen
494:and the
488:carbenes
364:valences
324:Newlands
276:chlorine
272:nonmetal
214:hydrogen
194:halogens
186:nitrogen
156:tend to
147:chemical
1298:Bibcode
829:lithium
758:d-block
749:p-block
665:Pauling
520:boranes
414:valency
384:valence
368:element
356:valence
315:History
262:of low
204:of the
202:p-block
198:s-block
168:in its
83:scholar
1558:
1520:
1461:
1441:
1425:
1380:
1356:
1238:
953:
928:
900:
809:helium
647:, and
471:helium
366:of an
268:sodium
218:helium
190:oxygen
182:carbon
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
1830:rules
1421:ion.
1236:S2CID
1109:See:
1019:: 83.
969:See:
692:uses
482:Many
459:argon
406:atoms
260:metal
176:as a
145:is a
90:JSTOR
76:books
1556:PMID
1518:ISBN
1459:ISBN
1439:ISBN
1423:ISBN
1378:ISBN
1354:ISBN
1168:link
1161:help
951:ISBN
926:ISBN
898:ISBN
852:and
834:For
799:The
792:dsp
651:, SF
643:, PF
538:and
469:For
457:The
437:neon
400:and
386:and
296:mole
224:for
216:and
212:for
200:and
162:atom
158:bond
141:The
62:news
1607:doi
1584:doi
1580:121
1548:doi
1544:100
1306:doi
1294:354
1267:doi
1228:doi
1197:doi
1127:doi
857:18.
803:or
789:sp
498:(CH
451:= 3
444:= 2
408:of
307:of
278:).
129:(CO
45:by
1859::
1554:.
1416:PF
1304:.
1263:41
1261:.
1257:.
1234:.
1224:38
1222:.
1218:.
1193:39
1191:.
1153::
1151:}}
1147:{{
1097:25
1095:.
1091:.
1034:13
1032:.
1028:.
1017:12
1015:.
1011:.
1000:10
998:.
994:.
981:.
977:.
906:.
848:,
786:s
764:)
530:.
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188:,
184:,
1729:)
1727:s
1720:)
1718:m
1711:)
1709:ℓ
1702:)
1700:n
1644:e
1637:t
1630:v
1613:.
1609::
1590:.
1586::
1562:.
1550::
1526:.
1418:6
1412:5
1362:.
1337:.
1312:.
1308::
1300::
1273:.
1269::
1242:.
1230::
1203:.
1199::
1170:)
1163:)
1133:.
1129::
1123:3
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959:.
934:.
854:p
850:s
846:d
821:s
817:s
813:p
760:(
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751:(
698:4
690:5
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653:6
645:5
500:3
449:n
442:n
137:.
131:2
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106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
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