Ionizing radiation

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recommendations are conservative limits and may represent an over representation of the actual health risk. Generally radiation safety organization recommend the most conservative limits assuming it is best to err on the side of caution. This level of caution is appropriate but should not be used to create fear about background radiation danger. Radiation danger from background radiation may be a serious threat but is more likely a small overall risk compared to all other factors in the environment.

765:. Modern technologies and discoveries have shown an overlap between X-ray and gamma energies. In many fields they are functionally identical, differing for terrestrial studies only in origin of the radiation. In astronomy, however, where radiation origin often cannot be reliably determined, the old energy division has been preserved, with X-rays defined as being between about 120 eV and 120 keV, and gamma rays as being of any energy above 100 to 120 keV, regardless of source. Most astronomical " 1329: 1070: 2439: 2447: 6752: 2842: 851: 2884: 879: 6740: 2898: 710: 699: 2806:, CARI, SIEVERT, PCAIRE are attempts to simulate exposure by aircrews and passengers. An example of a measured dose (not simulated dose) is 6 μSv per hour from London Heathrow to Tokyo Narita on a high-latitude polar route. However, dosages can vary, such as during periods of high solar activity. The United States FAA requires airlines to provide flight crew with information about cosmic radiation, and an 6764: 942:, energy that a particle transfers to the material it is moving through. This mechanism scatters the nuclei of the materials in the target area, causing direct ionization of the hydrogen atoms. When neutrons strike the hydrogen nuclei, proton radiation (fast protons) results. These protons are themselves ionizing because they are of high energy, are charged, and interact with the electrons in matter. 580:) as they pass through matter. Both of these can cause an indirect ionization effect. Bremsstrahlung is of concern when shielding beta emitters, as the interaction of beta particles with some shielding materials produces Bremsstrahlung. The effect is greater with material having high atomic numbers, so material with low atomic numbers is used for beta source shielding. 2336:

UNSCEAR 2000 Report (see links at bottom), airline flight crew workers receive more dose on average than any other worker, including those in nuclear power plants. Airline crews receive more cosmic rays if they routinely work flight routes that take them close to the North or South pole at high altitudes, where this type of radiation is maximal.

672:, sending both away with the energy of the first ball divided between the two unequally. When a charged nucleus strikes a relatively slow-moving nucleus of an object in space, LET occurs and neutrons, alpha particles, low-energy protons, and other nuclei will be released by the collisions and contribute to the total absorbed dose of tissue. 2515:, the thickness of material that reduces the radiation by half. This value is a function of the material itself and of the type and energy of ionizing radiation. Some generally accepted thicknesses of attenuating material are 5 mm of aluminum for most beta particles, and 3 inches of lead for gamma radiation. 2834:

Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury, including food irradiators, teletherapy machines for cancer treatment and industrial radiography units. The symbol is to be placed on the device housing the source, as a warning not to dismantle the device or

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Charged nuclei are characteristic of galactic cosmic rays and solar particle events and except for alpha particles (charged helium nuclei) have no natural sources on earth. In space, however, very high energy protons, helium nuclei, and HZE ions can be initially stopped by relatively thin layers of

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for astronauts traveling to the Moon and to any distant location beyond the Earth orbit. Highly charged HZE ions in particular are known to be extremely damaging, although protons make up the vast majority of galactic cosmic rays. Evidence indicates past SPE radiation levels that would have been

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The background rate for natural radiation varies considerably with location, being as low as 1.5 mSv/a (1.5 mSv per year) in some areas and over 100 mSv/a in others. The highest level of purely natural radiation recorded on the Earth's surface is 90 μGy/h (0.8 Gy/a) on a

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was 640 mSv/a (64.0 rem/yr). This unique case is over 200 times higher than the world average background radiation. Despite the high levels of background radiation that the residents of Ramsar receive there is no compelling evidence that they experience a greater health risk. The ICRP

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range) also damage in DNA (for example, pyrimidine dimers). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent,

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from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, with a dose rate that varies in different parts of the world and based largely on the geomagnetic field, altitude, and solar cycle. The cosmic-radiation dose rate on airplanes is so high that, according to the United Nations

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of polymers by ozone formed by ionization of air). Ionizing radiation can also accelerate existing chemical reactions such as polymerization and corrosion, by contributing to the activation energy required for the reaction. Optical materials deteriorate under the effect of ionizing radiation.

847:, 33 eV is close to the energy at the conventional 10 nm wavelength transition between extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, which occurs at about 125 eV. Thus, X-ray radiation is always ionizing, but only extreme-ultraviolet radiation can be considered ionizing under all definitions. 465:

are three times as energetic, and penetrate proportionately farther in air. The helium nuclei that form 10–12% of cosmic rays, are also usually of much higher energy than those produced by radioactive decay and pose shielding problems in space. However, this type of radiation is significantly

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Herrera Ortiz AF, Fernández Beaujon LJ, García Villamizar SY, Fonseca López FF. Magnetic resonance versus computed tomography for the detection of retroperitoneal lymph node metastasis due to testicular cancer: A systematic literature review. European Journal of Radiology Open.2021;8:100372.

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to the disposal of the spent fuel. The effects of such exposure have not been reliably measured due to the extremely low doses involved. Opponents use a cancer per dose model to assert that such activities cause several hundred cases of cancer per year, an application of the widely accepted

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Ionizing radiation is generated through nuclear reactions, nuclear decay, by very high temperature, or via acceleration of charged particles in electromagnetic fields. Natural sources include the sun, lightning and supernova explosions. Artificial sources include nuclear reactors, particle

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shielding, clothes, or skin. However, the resulting interaction will generate secondary radiation and cause cascading biological effects. If just one atom of tissue is displaced by an energetic proton, for example, the collision will cause further interactions in the body. This is called "

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microelectronics employed in electronic equipment, with subsequent currents introducing operation errors or even permanently damaging the devices. Devices intended for high radiation environments such as the nuclear industry and extra-atmospheric (space) applications may be made

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in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema). Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.

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Hazardous levels of ionizing radiation are signified by the trefoil sign on a yellow background. These are usually posted at the boundary of a radiation controlled area or in any place where radiation levels are significantly above background due to human intervention.

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at energies beyond 5 MeV. The accompanying interaction diagram shows two Compton scatterings happening sequentially. In every scattering event, the gamma ray transfers energy to an electron, and it continues on its path in a different direction and with reduced energy.

417:. In the atmosphere such particles are often stopped by air molecules, and this produces short-lived charged pions, which soon decay to muons, a primary type of cosmic ray radiation that reaches the surface of the earth. Pions can also be produced in large amounts in 1050:

In the adjacent diagram, a neutron collides with a proton of the target material, and then becomes a fast recoil proton that ionizes in turn. At the end of its path, the neutron is captured by a nucleus in an (n,γ)-reaction that leads to the emission of a

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X-rays normally have a lower energy than gamma rays, and an older convention was to define the boundary as a wavelength of 10 m (or a photon energy of 100 keV). That threshold was driven by historic limitations of older X-ray tubes and low awareness of

730:. Either of those interactions will cause the ejection of an electron from an atom at relativistic speeds, turning that electron into a beta particle (secondary beta particle) that will ionize other atoms. Since most of the ionized atoms are due to the 391:, c) these particles have enough kinetic energy to be ionizing, but there is considerable speed variation. For example, a typical alpha particle moves at about 5% of c, but an electron with 33 eV (just enough to ionize) moves at about 1% of c. 2523:

is a major tool in reducing dose uptake and is effectively a combination of shielding and isolation from the open environment. Radioactive materials are confined in the smallest possible space and kept out of the environment such as in a

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The total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and contributions by the three effects. The photoelectric effect dominates at low energy, but above 5 MeV, pair production starts to

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operate within closed systems with multiple barriers that keep the radioactive materials contained. Work rooms, hot cells and gloveboxes have slightly reduced air pressures to prevent escape of airborne material to the open environment.

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The International Commission on Radiological Protection recommends limiting artificial irradiation to the public to an average of 1 mSv (0.001 Sv) of effective dose per year, not including medical and occupational exposures.

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Occupationally exposed individuals are controlled within the regulatory framework of the country they work in, and in accordance with any local nuclear licence constraints. These are usually based on the recommendations of the

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The global average exposure of humans to ionizing radiation is about 3 mSv (0.3 rem) per year, 80% of which comes from nature. The remaining 20% results from exposure to human-made radiation sources, primarily from

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beta (β). There are two forms of beta decay, β and β, which respectively give rise to the electron and the positron. Beta particles are much less penetrating than gamma radiation, but more penetrating than alpha particles.

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Ionizing radiation has many industrial, military, and medical uses. Its usefulness must be balanced with its hazards, a compromise that has shifted over time. For example, at one time, assistants in shoe shops in the US

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All earthly materials that are the building blocks of life contain a radioactive component. As humans, plants, and animals consume food, air, and water, an inventory of radioisotopes builds up within the organism (see

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Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 14 minutes, 42 seconds. Free neutrons decay by emission of an electron and an electron antineutrino to become a proton, a process known as

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to get any closer. It will not be visible under normal use, only if someone attempts to disassemble the device. The symbol will not be located on building access doors, transportation packages or containers.

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The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system. This cosmic radiation consists of relativistic particles: positively charged nuclei (ions) from 1

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indicating a Helium ion with a +2 charge (missing its two electrons). If the ion gains electrons from its environment, the alpha particle can be written as a normal (electrically neutral) helium atom

481:, when he ranked the known radioactive emissions in descending order of ionising effect in 1899. The symbol is α or α. Because they are identical to helium nuclei, they are also sometimes written as 2814:

flightcrew members, to comply with a European Directive. The FAA has a recommended limit of 1 mSv total for a pregnancy, and no more than 0.5 mSv per month. Information originally based on

1249:, although most people with CML have not been exposed to radiation. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. 2394:, emit a high-energy gamma ray that can be measured by sensitive electronic radiation measurement systems. These internal radiation sources contribute to an individual's total radiation dose from 1295:. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can cause 227:, research, and industrial manufacturing, but presents a health hazard if proper measures against excessive exposure are not taken. Exposure to ionizing radiation causes cell damage to living 7233: 4205: 3794: 1906: 827:

references, the ionization of a typical water molecule at an energy of 33 eV is referenced as the appropriate biological threshold for ionizing radiation: this value represents the so-called

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Kim, Myung-Hee Y.; Wilson, John W.; Cucinotta, Francis A.; Simonsen, Lisa C.; Atwell, William; Badavi, Francis F.; Miller, Jack, NASA Johnson Space Center; Langley Research Center, May 1999.

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decay chain. Uranium is found in soil throughout the world in varying concentrations. Radon is the largest cause of lung cancer among non-smokers and the second-leading cause overall.

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Mortazavi, S.M.J.; P.A. Karamb (2005). "Apparent lack of radiation susceptibility among residents of the high background radiation area in Ramsar, Iran: can we relax our standards?".

2577:. The ICRP recommends limiting artificial irradiation. For occupational exposure, the limit is 50 mSv in a single year with a maximum of 100 mSv in a consecutive five-year period. 1162:, have no chemical bonds to break and no crystal lattice to disturb, so they are immune to the chemical effects of ionizing radiation. Simple diatomic compounds with very negative 3873:

Sohrabi, Mehdi; Babapouran, Mozhgan (2005). "New public dose assessment from internal and external exposures in low- and elevated-level natural radiation areas of Ramsar, Iran".

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Neutrons that strike other nuclei besides hydrogen will transfer less energy to the other particle if linear energy transfer does occur. But, for many nuclei struck by neutrons,

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Indirectly ionizing radiation is electrically neutral and does not interact strongly with matter, therefore the bulk of the ionization effects are due to secondary ionization.

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Radiation level in a range of situations, from normal activities up to the Chernobyl reactor accident. Each step up the scale indicates a tenfold increase in radiation level.

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to originate in nuclear radioactive processes but, rather, result from processes like those that produce astronomical X-rays, except driven by much more energetic electrons.

3403: 7213: 3101: 1105:. A large enough number of transmutations can change macroscopic properties and cause targets to become radioactive themselves, even after the original source is removed. 832: 2475:: For people exposed to radiation in addition to natural background radiation, limiting or minimizing the exposure time will reduce the dose from the source of radiation. 3087: 2351:, even if in small quantities. Most of the dose received from these sources is from gamma-ray emitters in building materials, or rocks and soil when outside. The major 1332:

Relationship between radioactivity and detected ionizing radiation. Key factors are; strength of the radioactive source, transmission effects and instrument sensitivity

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is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. Other stochastic effects of ionizing radiation are

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Radiation interaction: gamma rays are represented by wavy lines, charged particles and neutrons by straight lines. The small circles show where ionization occurs.

2491:: Air or skin can be sufficient to substantially attenuate alpha radiation, while sheet metal or plastic is often sufficient to stop beta radiation. Barriers of 3932: 836: 5703: 3189: 4915: 7218: 5230: 2917: 2807: 2574: 2170: 248: 118:. The boundary between ionizing and non-ionizing radiation in the ultraviolet area cannot be sharply defined, as different molecules and atoms ionize at 3509: 5525: 3494: 1098: 2511:

shields that stop beta particles, and air will stop most alpha particles. The effectiveness of a material in shielding radiation is determined by its

2238:/yr) ten times more than the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. Record levels were found in a house where the 776:

Photoelectric absorption is the dominant mechanism in organic materials for photon energies below 100 keV, typical of classical X-ray tube originated

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The ionization of materials temporarily increases their conductivity, potentially permitting damaging current levels. This is a particular hazard in

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are used to visualise ionizing radiation. This image show the tracks of particles, which ionise saturated air and leave a trail of water vapour.

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is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certain

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Alpha particles are a strongly ionizing form of radiation, but when emitted by radioactive decay they have low penetration power and can be

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and other radiological protection instruments which will measure radioactive particulate concentrations, area gamma dose readings and

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cause ionization in a single step or interaction with matter. However, fast neutrons will interact with the protons in hydrogen via

321:) radiation consists of free neutrons that are blocked by light elements, like hydrogen, which slow and/or capture them. Not shown: 3633: 2210:

comes from five primary sources: cosmic radiation, solar radiation, external terrestrial sources, radiation in the human body, and

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measures can help reduce exposure of populations by reducing ingestion of isotopes and occupational exposure. One is the issue of

1127:. These free radicals may then react chemically with neighbouring materials even after the original radiation has stopped. (e.g., 6251: 6091: 6030: 3396: 6171: 3943: 2499:, or water are often used to give effective protection from more penetrating forms of ionizing radiation such as gamma rays and 1222:

deterministic effects (harmful tissue reactions) due in large part to killing or malfunction of cells following high doses from

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which are helium nuclei ejected from the nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay, and energetic electrons, which are called

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visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation of

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in digital circuits. The electrical effects of ionizing radiation are exploited in gas-filled radiation detectors, e.g. the

6047: 4645: 4614: 4559: 2912: 1785: 3040: 988:, which decays to oxygen-16. The short-lived nitrogen-16 decay emits a powerful beta ray. This process can be written as: 7228: 6871: 6768: 5964: 5510: 5475: 4278: 2416:

gas, which seeps continuously from bedrock but can, because of its high density, accumulate in poorly ventilated houses.

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Cosmic rays also include high-energy gamma rays, which are far beyond the energies produced by solar or human sources.

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While not a favorable reaction, the O (n,p) N reaction is a major source of X-rays emitted from the cooling water of a

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recommendation for the general public is no more than 1 mSv per year. In addition, many airlines do not allow

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are by far the most significant source of human-made radiation exposure to the general public. Some of the major

2620: 824: 3402:(4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: OET (Office of Engineering and Technology) Federal Communications Commission. 625:). As positrons are positively charged particles they can directly ionize an atom through Coulomb interactions. 341: 7031: 6489: 6338: 5796: 3629: 3397:"Questions and Answers about Biological Effects and Potential Hazards of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields" 2782: 900: 1673: 7364: 7314: 7259: 7254: 6926: 6907: 6876: 6263: 6096: 5520: 5448: 4726: 3520: 3482: 2794:

Air travel exposes people on aircraft to increased radiation from space as compared to sea level, including

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manages the International System of Radiological Protection, which sets recommended limits for dose uptake.

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with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. For example, ionizing radiation is one cause of

387:, and energetic charged nuclei stripped of their electrons. When moving at relativistic speeds (near the 251:(ICRP) issues guidance on ionizing radiation protection, and the effects of dose uptake on human health. 4158:

The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (Annals of the ICRP)

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of somatic cells or heritable disease in their offspring owing to mutation of reproductive (germ) cells.

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Most adverse health effects of exposure to ionizing radiation may be grouped in two general categories:

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absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, which is a radiation shield equivalent to about 10 meters of water.

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from cosmic sources. These high-energy charged nuclei are blocked by Earth's magnetic field but pose a

2631: 2292:). This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including 1730: 3793: 949:

occurs. Whether elastic or inelastic scatter occurs is dependent on the speed of the neutron, whether

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Pattison JE, Bachmann DJ, Beddoe AH (1996). "Gamma Dosimetry at Surfaces of Cylindrical Containers".

3714:"Irradiation of skin with visible light induces reactive oxygen species and matrix-degrading enzymes" 2903: 2770: 2743: 2635: 2585: 2536:

for medical use, for example, are dispensed in closed handling facilities, usually gloveboxes, while

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have a neutral electrical charge often misunderstood as zero electrical charge and thus often do not

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Contribution of High Charge and Energy (HZE) Ions During Solar-Particle Event of September 29, 1989

2239: 1878: 1835: 1257: 1242: 1230: 807:. However, US Federal Communications Commission material defines ionizing radiation as that with a 669: 461:

by a few centimeters of air, or by the top layer of human skin. More powerful alpha particles from

244: 213: 73: 4172: 7076: 6579: 6546: 6521: 6135: 5912: 5718: 5641: 5598: 5581: 5542: 5465: 4477: 4271: 2407: 2284:.) The energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create, even in the largest 1313: 889: 360: 6504: 4134: 2830:

The red ionizing radiation warning symbol (ISO 21482) was launched in 2007, and is intended for

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nucleus, for example, undergoes neutron activation, rapidly decays by a proton emission forming

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These can all be applied to natural and human-made sources. For human-made sources the use of

1256:(LNT), holds that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with 976:

of the nucleus. Neutron interactions with most types of matter in this manner usually produce

7354: 7310: 7119: 6705: 6441: 6396: 5858: 5786: 5713: 5708: 5673: 5460: 5428: 5215: 5142: 4722: 4457: 4213: 4209: 3318: 1938: 1873:. The sterilizing effects of ionizing radiation are useful for cleaning medical instruments, 1197: 1163: 1090: 1086: 958: 190: 177:), which in turn decay and emit ionizing radiation. Cosmic rays and the decay of radioactive 3519:. MacMaster University, Department of Medical Physics and Radiation Sciences. Archived from 3461: 3293: 2870:

Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury.

1838:, but this practice was halted when the risks of ionizing radiation were better understood. 7339: 7131: 7124: 6963: 6949: 6902: 6616: 6391: 6376: 5693: 5651: 5487: 5393: 5321: 4894: 4744: 4579: 4467: 4424: 4374: 3969: 2969: 2954: 2778: 2463: 2285: 2207: 2182: 1600: 1501: 1455: 1394: 1265: 1140: 1085:

Neutron radiation, alpha radiation, and extremely energetic gamma (> ~20 MeV) can cause

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This high-energy β further interacts rapidly with other nuclei, emitting high-energy γ via

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are used to detect and measure it. However, very high energy particles can produce visible

182: 46: 3806: 2371:. Each of these sources has been decreasing in activity since the formation of the Earth. 1233:

and heritable effects involving either cancer development in exposed individuals owing to

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are made up primarily of relativistic protons but also include heavier atomic nuclei like

8: 7146: 7056: 6811: 6715: 6526: 6311: 5905: 5773: 5751: 5576: 5433: 5200: 5162: 4995: 4822: 4696: 4574: 4487: 4226:"XrayRisk.com : Radiation Risk Calculator. Calculate Radiation Dose and Cancer Risk" 2616: 2533: 2332: 1862: 1858: 1184: 1114: 1102: 954: 950: 762: 209: 200:

Ionizing radiation is not immediately detectable by human senses, so instruments such as

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part of the electromagnetic spectrum are ionizing radiation, whereas the lower energy

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Some human-made radiation sources affect the body through direct radiation, known as

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if produced outside the nucleus. The generic term "photon" is used to describe both.

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to resist such effects through design, material selection, and fabrication methods.

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The radiation exposure of these individuals is carefully monitored with the use of

2549: 2512: 2267: 2200: 2195:. Average human-made exposure is much higher in developed countries, mostly due to 1987: 1931: 1874: 1292: 1136: 1064: 1036: 965: 839:, which combines ionization energy plus the energy lost to other processes such as 742: 633: 228: 3658: 2990:

Treatment of infections after accidental or hostile exposure to ionizing radiation

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the remains of long-dead organisms (such as wood that is thousands of years old).

1849:. The penetrating power of x-ray, gamma, beta, and positron radiation is used for 7071: 7046: 6897: 6509: 6469: 5923: 5737: 5661: 5636: 5482: 5275: 5177: 5167: 5132: 5010: 5000: 4864: 4701: 4686: 4502: 4414: 4404: 4256: 4240: 3947: 3936: 3193: 2928: 2758: 2754: 2557: 2537: 2192: 2059: 1870: 1850: 1842: 1680: 1646: 1583: 1055:

photon. Such photons always have enough energy to qualify as ionizing radiation.

1052: 1014: 969: 785: 637: 462: 395: 232: 194: 146: 6001: 4197:

regulates most commercial radiation sources and non-medical exposures in the US:

644:. Positrons are common artificial sources of ionizing radiation used in medical 181:

are the primary sources of natural ionizing radiation on Earth, contributing to

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Pattison, J.E. (1999). "Finger Doses Received during Samarium-153 Injections".

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Lecture notes for MED PHYS 4R06/6R03 – Radiation & Radioisotope Methodology

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or somewhere in between. It is also dependent on the nuclei it strikes and its

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Ionized air glows blue around a beam of particulate ionizing radiation from a

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LET can be visualized as a billiard ball hitting another in the manner of the

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Of lesser magnitude, members of the public are exposed to radiation from the

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in rooms constructed of thick concrete or lined with lead. There are special

2438: 2051: 2030: 1653: 1277: 1269: 1179: 1124: 840: 808: 780:. At energies beyond 100 keV, photons ionize matter increasingly through the 399: 368: 364: 345: 224: 134: 4233: 3908: 1325:

The table below shows radiation and dose quantities in SI and non-SI units.

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of oxygen, and the ionization energy of hydrogen, both about 14 eV. In some

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are used in medical and industrial applications, as well as biological and

1828: 1506: 1398: 1370: 1213: 1020:

For the best shielding of neutrons, hydrocarbons that have an abundance of

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Two of the first types of directly ionizing radiation to be discovered are

205: 170: 123: 4092: 3553: 3483:"Fundamental Quantities and Units for Ionizing Radiation (ICRU Report 85)" 2690:. The public is also exposed to radiation from consumer products, such as 145:, and almost all are energetic enough to ionize. There are also secondary 7182: 7114: 7051: 6626: 6273: 5863: 5370: 5341: 4869: 4785: 4346: 3730: 3713: 3142: 2799: 2795: 2591:

Examples of activities where occupational exposure is a concern include:

2242:

due to external radiation was 135 mSv/a, (13.5 rem/yr) and the

1967: 1668: 1658: 1624: 1609: 1201: 977: 812: 798: 546: 451: 166: 150: 91: 1139:

of telltale bluish-purple color. The glow can be observed, e.g., during

1013:

and contributes enormously to the radiation generated by a water-cooled

7066: 6918: 5979: 4768: 4394: 4341: 3659:"Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)" 3073:

OSHA: Stallcup's High-voltage Telecommunications Regulations Simplified

2703: 2553: 2481:: Radiation intensity decreases sharply with distance, according to an 2450:

Various doses of radiation in sieverts, ranging from trivial to lethal.

2305: 2260: 2235: 1899: 1800: 1738: 1688: 1663: 1120: 1044: 903: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 766: 689: 603: 593: 557: 406: 186: 111: 54: 6780: 4206:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

3795:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

3394: 2458:

Visual comparison of radiological exposure from daily life activities.

2446: 1907:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

352:

Ionizing radiation may be grouped as directly or indirectly ionizing.

72:, and the electromagnetic waves are on the high-energy portion of the 7104: 7021: 6968: 6621: 5984: 5974: 5102: 5055: 5020: 4941: 4854: 4766: 4681: 4554: 4389: 4336: 4326: 4287: 2923: 2811: 2723: 2639: 2604: 2581: 2529: 2419: 2360: 2187:

Background radiation comes from both natural and human-made sources.

2132: 2093: 1995: 1959: 1882: 1375: 1350: 1074: 816: 738: 615: 614:

occurs, resulting in their conversion into the energy of two or more

577: 317:, is eventually absorbed as it penetrates a dense material. Neutron ( 174: 107: 79: 6479: 3354: 2503:. Some radioactive materials are stored or handled underwater or by 2222:. The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in 964:

In inelastic scattering, neutrons are readily absorbed in a type of

878: 450:. Alpha particle emissions are generally produced in the process of 7167: 6710: 6353: 6348: 6288: 5957: 5885: 5868: 5853: 5828: 5571: 5060: 4816: 4811: 4331: 4316: 3283: 3246: 2695: 2525: 2500: 2496: 2321: 2317: 2281: 2219: 2196: 1975: 1952: 1355: 1304: 1234: 1021: 850: 645: 607: 589: 542: 538: 414: 372: 334: 306: 278: 274: 220: 178: 162: 103: 65: 61: 4245: 992:

O (n,p) N (fast neutron capture possible with >11 MeV neutron)

610:. When a low-energy positron collides with a low-energy electron, 7198: 7081: 6679: 6631: 6494: 6474: 5873: 5848: 5288: 5119: 5107: 5085: 5050: 4874: 4806: 4609: 2984: 2883: 2738: 2727: 2711: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2561: 2508: 2427: 2368: 2364: 2325: 2089: 2012: 1805: 1743: 1693: 1446: 1296: 1261: 1028: 931: 864: 804: 440: 138: 3316: 367:

if it carries sufficient kinetic energy. Such particles include

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High-intensity ionizing radiation in air can produce a visible

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Ionizing radiation is used in a wide variety of fields such as

83: 50: 2280:

and even beyond. (The high-atomic number particles are called

718:

Even though photons are electrically neutral, they can ionize

709: 698: 6700: 6657: 6320: 6176: 5969: 5833: 4434: 4321: 2920:– manages the International System of Radiological Protection 2715: 2707: 2679: 2671: 2655: 2413: 2247: 2211: 1549: 1511: 1151:, or the inside of a damaged nuclear reactor like during the 777: 754: 478: 158: 99: 95: 4135:"New Symbol Launched to Warn Public About Radiation Dangers" 3593:(6th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier. p. 530. 3570: 3010:"Ionizing radiation, health effects and protective measures" 1123:(breaking chemical bonds), and formation of highly reactive 803:

The lowest ionization energy of any element is 3.89 eV, for

6181: 6070: 5880: 5838: 3712:

Liebel F, Kaur S, Ruvolo E, Kollias N, Southall MD (2012).

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Massive particles are a concern for astronauts outside the

2699: 2492: 2348: 2313: 2297: 2274: 1385: 1308: 719: 380: 376: 356: 154: 57: 4225: 3872: 3805:. Vol. 1. United Nations. p. 121. Archived from 3355:

Grupen, Claus; G. Cowan; S. D. Eidelman; T. Stroh (2005).

2737:

cycle, which includes the entire sequence from processing

2626:

Research laboratories (government, university and private)

583: 122:. The energy of ionizing radiation starts between 10 6154: 6018: 4137:. International Atomic Energy Agency. February 15, 2007. 4061:

NAIRAS (Nowcast of Atmospheric Ionizing Radiation System)

3284:

Feynman, Richard; Robert Leighton; Matthew Sands (1963).

2934:

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

2231: 1284: 243:, and lower level doses over a protracted time can cause 3939:

in Pazdur R, Wagman LD, Camphausen KA, Hoskins WJ (Eds)

3395:

Robert F. Cleveland, Jr.; Jerry L. Ulcek (August 1999).

2918:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

2757:, gamma rays from both the initial weapon explosion and 1170:

will reform rapidly and spontaneously after ionization.

4099:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 221–230. 4093:

Jeffrey R. Davis; Robert Johnson; Jan Stepanek (2008).

3711: 568:

High-energy beta particles may produce X-rays known as

185:. Ionizing radiation is also generated artificially by 4201:

NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Ionizing Radiation

4194: 3959: 734:

particles, photons are indirectly ionizing radiation.

68:

from them. Some particles can travel up to 99% of the

3127:"Ionizing Radiation: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly" 3827: 3755:"The Shoe-fitting Fluoroscope as a Radiation Hazard" 3379: 3187:

One kg of water per cm squared is 10 meters of water

2879: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3589:Huether, Sue E.; McCance, Kathryn L. (2016-01-22). 3539:"Particle Data Group Summary Data Table on Baryons" 2808:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

2575:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

2171:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

249:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

5704:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 4286: 4129: 4127: 3285: 3228: 3076:. US: Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 133. 2102:Exposures in extractive and processing industries 4219:Beginners Guide to Ionising Radiation Measurement 3653: 3651: 2821: 2468:There are three standard ways to limit exposure: 2347:Most materials on Earth contain some radioactive 1841:Neutron radiation is essential to the working of 1035:, causing a larger amount of ionization from the 837:mean energy expended in a gas per ion pair formed 325:that consist of energetic charged nuclei such as 7326: 3688: 3317:L'Annunziata, Michael; Mohammad Baradei (2003). 675: 4246:Health Physics Society Public Education Website 4124: 4039:"Superflares could kill unprotected astronauts" 3941:Cancer Management: A Multidisciplinary Approach 3753:Lewis, Leon; Caplan, Paul E (January 1, 1950). 2544:In nuclear conflicts or civil nuclear releases 2342: 1192:Proton radiation found in space can also cause 819:). Roughly, this corresponds to both the first 4002: 3648: 3588: 3382:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed 2116:Radon exposure in workplaces other than mines 2038:Transport of nuclear and radioactive material 443:bound together into a particle identical to a 254: 6934: 6796: 6407:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 4957: 4752: 4272: 3821: 3042:Environmental, Safety, and Health Engineering 2642:the body from within. The latter is known as 2374: 1909:(UNSCEAR) itemized types of human exposures. 556:. The production of beta particles is termed 208:and inorganic matter (e.g. water lighting in 2761:would be the sources of radiation exposure. 2726:), electron tubes, and gas lantern mantles ( 2412:An important source of natural radiation is 793:Definition boundary for lower-energy photons 153:interact with Earth's atmosphere, including 7100:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring 3866: 3752: 2556:(one of the major radioisotope products of 2075: 1917: 1320: 537:Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed 6941: 6927: 6803: 6789: 4964: 4950: 4759: 4745: 4279: 4265: 4161:. ICRP publication 103. Vol. 37:2–4. 3922: 3176:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejro.2021.100372 3045:. US: John Wiley & Sons. p. 476. 2595:Airline crew (the most exposed population) 1031:materials, secondary neutrons may produce 355:Any charged particle with mass can ionize 309:, is halted by an aluminium plate. Gamma ( 3803:Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation 3770: 3729: 3620: 3618: 3536: 3426: 3247:European Centre of Technological Safety. 3150: 2913:European Committee on Radiation Risk 2552:(KI) tablets, which blocks the uptake of 919:Learn how and when to remove this message 235:. In high acute doses, it will result in 6948: 6319: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4078: 4076: 4074: 3384:. USA: Chemical Rubber Co. p. 2850. 3131:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 3069: 3038: 2567: 2453: 2445: 2437: 1836:used X-rays to check a child's shoe size 1327: 1068: 849: 811:greater than 10 eV (equivalent to a far 708: 697: 340: 264: 6810: 4223: 3454:"Ionizing & Non-Ionizing Radiation" 3063: 3032: 2773:who would receive solar particles from 2654:Medical procedures, such as diagnostic 2176: 1892: 584:Positrons and other types of antimatter 333:nuclei, and high-charged nuclei called 14: 7327: 6334:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 4971: 4620:Wireless electronic devices and health 3676:from the original on 29 September 2019 3615: 3288:The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.1 3249:"Interaction of Radiation with Matter" 1857:, and a variety of industrial gauges. 273:) radiation consists of a fast-moving 7265:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 6922: 6784: 6576: 6339:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 5748: 5735: 4945: 4767:Cancer-causing materials and agents ( 4740: 4260: 4071: 2975:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960 2433: 2426:-226. Both are a part of the natural 2043:Application other than nuclear power 1241:The most common impact is stochastic 1173: 313:) radiation, consisting of energetic 129:Ionizing subatomic particles include 6763: 5736: 4646:List of civilian radiation accidents 4615:Wireless device radiation and health 4610:Biological dose units and quantities 4560:Electromagnetic radiation and health 4154: 3699: 3576: 3507: 3124: 2422:is a gas produced by the α-decay of 1818: 1299:to unprotected skin, as a result of 1252:The most widely accepted model, the 1119:Ionization of molecules can lead to 901:adding citations to reliable sources 872: 753:within the nucleus. They are called 598:The positron or antielectron is the 6872:Radiation-induced cognitive decline 6344:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 4045:from the original on 27 March 2015. 2786:lethal for unprotected astronauts. 2254: 1264:. If this is correct, then natural 1108: 1058: 683: 24: 6153: 5304:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 4595:Radioactivity in the life sciences 4096:Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine 3962:Journal of Radiological Protection 3320:Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis 3020:from the original on 29 March 2020 2816:Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine 2802:events. Software programs such as 2649: 2588:. A legal record of dose is kept. 2218:Brazilian black beach composed of 2109:Gas and oil extraction industries 1080: 843:. At 38 nanometers wavelength for 424: 25: 7376: 5327:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 5226:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 4195:The Nuclear Regulatory Commission 4188: 3930:"Principles of Radiation Therapy" 3670:U.S. National Library of Medicine 3460:. EPA. 2014-07-16. Archived from 1337:Methods of radiation measurement 1207: 651: 526: 141:. These particles are created by 6762: 6751: 6750: 6738: 6427:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 4926:Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic) 4921:Group 2A (probably carcinogenic) 4141:from the original on 2007-02-17. 4067:from the original on 2016-03-05. 4041:. New Scientist. 21 March 2005. 4017:10.1097/00004032-199911000-00006 3830:Radioactivity in the Environment 3626:"Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)" 3497:from the original on 2012-04-20. 3292:. USA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 3090:from the original on 2015-10-17. 3059:from the original on 2015-10-19. 2980:Radiation protection of patients 2896: 2882: 2855: 2840: 877: 469:The alpha particle was named by 27:Harmful high-frequency radiation 5516:Historical stockpiles and tests 4113:from the original on 2020-08-03 4049: 4031: 3996: 3953: 3893: 3787: 3746: 3705: 3636:from the original on 2019-09-22 3630:Leukemia & Lymphoma Society 3582: 3537:W.-M. Yao; et al. (2007). 3530: 3501: 3475: 3446: 3435:from the original on 2011-11-26 3420: 3409:from the original on 2011-10-20 3388: 3373: 3348: 3337:from the original on 2021-04-16 3310: 3277: 3240: 3212:. 9 August 2000. Archived from 2698:-210), combustible fuels (gas, 2621:nuclear fuel reprocessing plant 2077:Occupational radiation exposure 1970:and power production from coal 888:needs additional citations for 825:Environmental Protection Agency 435:Alpha particles consist of two 7032:Computed tomography dose index 6417:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 5299:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 3323:. Academic Press. p. 58. 3198: 3180: 3167: 3125:Ryan, Julie (5 January 2012). 3118: 3094: 3002: 2822:Radiation hazard warning signs 2764: 2634:while others take the form of 1440:, particles per cm per second 1158:Monatomic fluids, e.g. molten 1093:. The relevant mechanisms are 831:, the colloquial name for the 784:, and then indirectly through 640:from a sufficiently energetic 628:Positrons can be generated by 623:electron–positron annihilation 473:after the first letter in the 13: 1: 6908:Radiation dose reconstruction 6877:Radiation-induced lung injury 6745:Nuclear technology portal 4148: 3875:International Congress Series 3842:10.1016/S1569-4860(04)07140-2 3591:Understanding pathophysiology 3380:Charles Hodgman, Ed. (1961). 2996: 2789: 2139:Industrial uses of radiation 2058:Residues in the environment. 1865:. Alpha radiation is used in 676:Indirectly ionizing radiation 560:. They are designated by the 6607:Field-reversed configuration 6217:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 4234:Free Radiation Safety Course 3928:Camphausen KA, Lawrence RC. 2396:natural background radiation 2390:). Some radionuclides, like 2343:External terrestrial sources 2290:ultra-high-energy cosmic ray 2273:(about 85% of it) to 26 amu 1913:Type of radiation exposures 1247:chronic myelogenous leukemia 737:Radiated photons are called 646:positron emission tomography 545:emitted by certain types of 7: 6564:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 5749: 5511:States with nuclear weapons 4795:Prominent human carcinogens 4483:Cosmic background radiation 3070:Stallcup, James G. (2006). 2875: 2866:danger symbol intended for 1452:thermoluminescent dosimeter 858: 305:) radiation, consisting of 301:by a sheet of paper. Beta ( 255:Directly ionizing radiation 10: 7381: 7296: 6577: 6402:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 5526:Tests in the United States 4931:Group 3 (not classifiable) 4712: 4570:Lasers and aviation safety 4230:(from CT scans and xrays). 3982:10.1088/0952-4746/16/4/004 2936:– US national organisation 2632:effective dose (radiation) 2461: 2405: 2378: 2375:Internal radiation sources 2258: 2180: 2019:Other exposure situations 1924: 1822: 1229:stochastic effects, i.e., 1211: 1112: 1062: 862: 796: 741:if they are produced by a 687: 587: 530: 428: 258: 7294: 7273: 7242: 7191: 7155: 7090: 7007: 6989:Radioactive contamination 6956: 6885: 6854: 6818: 6732: 6688: 6640: 6597: 6587: 6539: 6527:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 6440: 6422:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 6387: 6370: 6310: 6237: 6229:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 6203: 6194: 6146: 6126: 6079: 6061: 6017: 5922: 5904: 5772: 5759: 5744: 5731: 5686: 5619: 5564: 5555: 5503: 5411: 5402: 5369: 5312: 5274: 5265: 5186: 5118: 5041: 4983: 4979: 4905: 4794: 4776: 4710: 4674: 4638: 4600:Radioactive contamination 4525: 4453:Electromagnetic radiation 4443: 4355: 4302: 4295: 4120:– via Google Books. 3887:10.1016/j.ics.2004.11.102 3359:. Springer. p. 109. 3014:World Health Organization 2904:Nuclear technology portal 2744:Linear no-threshold model 2636:radioactive contamination 2586:radioactive contamination 2156: 2133:Medical uses of radiation 2127:Nuclear power industries 2123: 2120: 2082: 2070: 2065: 2047: 2026: 2023: 1944: 1927: 1791: 1729: 1679: 1652: 1582: 1519: 1497: 1444: 1383: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1341: 1254:Linear no-threshold model 1011:pressurized water reactor 845:electromagnetic radiation 704:electromagnetic radiation 572:("braking radiation") or 7360:Radiation health effects 7297:See also the categories 7286:Radiation-induced cancer 7281:Acute radiation syndrome 6867:Radiation-induced cancer 6432:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 6048:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 5384:Electron-beam processing 4853:(e.g., from isotopes of 4713:See also the categories 4651:1996 Costa Rica accident 4312:Acoustic radiation force 3039:Woodside, Gayle (1997). 2485:(in an absolute vacuum). 2401: 2240:effective radiation dose 2088:Cosmic ray exposures of 2071:Exposure from accidents 1879:sterile insect technique 1321:Measurement of radiation 1258:effective radiation dose 670:conservation of momentum 661:" (LET), which utilizes 214:acute radiation syndrome 86:, and the higher energy 74:electromagnetic spectrum 6547:Organic nuclear reactor 5719:Nuclear power phase-out 5642:Nuclear decommissioning 5582:Reactor-grade plutonium 5332:Targeted alpha-particle 5211:Accidents and incidents 4625:Radiation heat-transfer 4478:Gravitational radiation 2408:Health effects of radon 1314:reactive oxygen species 1033:nuclear chain reactions 722:indirectly through the 632:nuclear decay (through 361:fundamental interaction 206:effects on both organic 173:on Earth (for example, 7137:Semiconductor detector 7093:measurement techniques 4916:Group 1 (carcinogenic) 4666:1990 Zaragoza accident 4661:1984 Moroccan accident 4630:Linear energy transfer 4304:Non-ionizing radiation 3510:"Gas Filled Detectors" 2771:Earth's magnetic field 2599:Industrial radiography 2513:half-value thicknesses 2459: 2451: 2443: 2388:banana equivalent dose 2152:Other exposed workers 2066:Historical situations 1855:nondestructive testing 1811:banana equivalent dose 1597:quartz fiber dosimeter 1593:semiconductor detector 1521:Linear energy transfer 1333: 1260:at a rate of 5.5% per 1077: 1007: 972:and attributes to the 940:linear energy transfer 855: 715: 706: 659:linear energy transfer 349: 338: 116:non-ionizing radiation 98:, nearly all types of 37:in the UK), including 7156:Protection techniques 7120:Scintillation counter 5709:Anti-nuclear movement 4656:1987 Goiânia accident 4458:Synchrotron radiation 4448:Earth's energy budget 4430:Radioactive materials 4425:Particle accelerators 4253:Basic Radiation Facts 4251:Oak Ridge Reservation 4057:"Effective Dose Rate" 3907:. EPA. Archived from 3357:Astroparticle Physics 2568:Occupational exposure 2532:(for contamination). 2457: 2449: 2441: 2357:terrestrial radiation 2286:particle accelerators 1939:Terrestrial radiation 1331: 1198:Geiger-Muller counter 1164:enthalpy of formation 1141:criticality accidents 1091:induced radioactivity 1087:nuclear transmutation 1072: 990: 980:nuclei. The abundant 959:neutron cross section 853: 712: 701: 419:particle accelerators 344: 268: 191:particle accelerators 126:(eV) and 33 eV. 49:that have sufficient 47:electromagnetic waves 7365:Radiation protection 7315:Radiation protection 7132:Radiation monitoring 7125:Proportional counter 7010:quantities and units 6964:Background radiation 6950:Radiation protection 6903:Radiation protection 6617:Reversed field pinch 6412:Traveling-wave (TWR) 5896:Supercritical (SCWR) 5394:Gemstone irradiation 4727:Radiation protection 4580:Radiation protection 4468:Black-body radiation 4375:Background radiation 4290:(physics and health) 3731:10.1038/jid.2011.476 3666:Medical Encyclopedia 3458:Radiation Protection 3143:10.1038/jid.2011.411 2970:Radiation protection 2955:Exposure (radiation) 2783:major health concern 2779:galactic cosmic rays 2534:Radioactive isotopes 2464:Radiation protection 2208:background radiation 2183:Background radiation 2177:Background radiation 2160:UNSCEAR 2008 Annex B 1893:Sources of radiation 1601:Kearny fallout meter 1502:proportional counter 1456:film badge dosimeter 1395:proportional counter 1365:Disintegration rate 1266:background radiation 947:inelastic scattering 897:improve this article 763:isomeric transitions 724:photoelectric effect 323:galactic cosmic rays 183:background radiation 7147:Whole-body counting 7057:Mean glandular dose 6994:Radioactive sources 6846:Biological timeline 6812:Radiation poisoning 5782:Aqueous homogeneous 5577:Reprocessed uranium 5250:Safety and security 4823:Helicobacter pylori 4697:Radiation hardening 4639:Radiation incidents 4575:Medical radiography 4534:Radiation syndrome 4488:Cherenkov radiation 4175:on 16 November 2012 3974:1996JRP....16..249P 3759:California Medicine 3718:J. Invest. Dermatol 3552:(1). Archived from 3487:Journal of the ICRU 3429:"Ionisation Energy" 2847:Ionizing radiation 2818:published in 2008. 2775:solar proton events 2617:Nuclear power plant 2528:(for radiation) or 2144:Miscellaneous uses 1914: 1863:radiation chemistry 1859:Radioactive tracers 1338: 1243:induction of cancer 1194:single-event upsets 1115:Radiation chemistry 1103:photodisintegration 767:gamma-ray astronomy 702:Different types of 606:counterpart of the 574:secondary electrons 210:Cherenkov radiation 43:subatomic particles 7335:Ionizing radiation 6984:Internal dosimetry 6979:Ionizing radiation 6893:Dose fractionation 6696:Dense plasma focus 5611:Actinide chemistry 5076:Isotope separation 4973:Nuclear technology 4851:Ionizing radiation 4841:Diethylstilbestrol 4692:Radioactive source 4513:Radiation exposure 4493:Askaryan radiation 4473:Particle radiation 4357:Ionizing radiation 4239:2018-04-16 at the 3946:2013-10-04 at the 3935:2009-05-15 at the 3427:Jim Clark (2000). 3192:2016-01-01 at the 3137:(3 0 2): 985–993. 2960:Radiation hormesis 2554:radioactive iodine 2483:inverse-square law 2460: 2452: 2444: 2434:Radiation exposure 2234:per year, (1 2162:retrieved 2011-7-4 2121:Human-made sources 2024:Human-made sources 1928:Normal occurrences 1912: 1898:accelerators, and 1881:. Measurements of 1867:static eliminators 1825:Nuclear technology 1589:ionization chamber 1336: 1334: 1174:Electrical effects 1153:Chernobyl disaster 1095:neutron activation 1078: 995:N → O + β (Decay t 974:neutron activation 856: 815:wavelength of 124 747:subatomic particle 716: 707: 663:elastic scattering 350: 339: 261:Particle radiation 241:radiation sickness 212:) or humans (e.g. 120:different energies 35:ionising radiation 31:Ionizing radiation 7322: 7321: 7303:Radiation effects 7274:Radiation effects 7037:Counts per minute 6916: 6915: 6778: 6777: 6728: 6727: 6724: 6723: 6675:Magnetized-target 6572: 6571: 6535: 6534: 6366: 6365: 6362: 6361: 6306: 6305: 6190: 6189: 6122: 6121: 5727: 5726: 5682: 5681: 5551: 5550: 5538:Weapon-free zones 5365: 5364: 5357:Radiopharmacology 4939: 4938: 4870:Ultraviolet light 4734: 4733: 4715:Radiation effects 4585:Radiation therapy 4521: 4520: 4463:Thermal radiation 4400:Neutron radiation 4365:Radioactive decay 4214:Volume 2: Effects 4210:Volume 1: Sources 4168:978-0-7020-3048-2 3366:978-3-540-25312-9 3330:978-0-12-436603-9 3303:978-0-201-02116-5 3016:. 29 April 2016. 2965:Radiation physics 2945:Nuclear semiotics 2664:radiation therapy 2560:) into the human 2167: 2166: 2163: 2149:Military purposes 2124:Peaceful purposes 2048:Military purposes 2027:Peaceful purposes 1978:and gas drilling 1885:, can be used to 1819:Uses of radiation 1816: 1815: 1438:counts per minute 1293:pyrimidine dimers 1274:cognitive decline 1168:hydrogen fluoride 1149:nuclear explosion 1037:daughter products 1017:while operating. 929: 928: 921: 869:neutron radiation 821:ionization energy 751:radioactive decay 634:weak interactions 630:positron emission 471:Ernest Rutherford 297:) nucleus and is 169:may also produce 143:radioactive decay 39:nuclear radiation 18:Nuclear radiation 16:(Redirected from 7372: 7178:Radon mitigation 7173:Potassium iodide 7091:Instruments and 6943: 6936: 6929: 6920: 6919: 6805: 6798: 6791: 6782: 6781: 6766: 6765: 6754: 6753: 6743: 6742: 6741: 6653: 6612:Levitated dipole 6582: 6574: 6573: 6522:Helium gas (GFR) 6385: 6384: 6380: 6317: 6316: 6201: 6200: 6151: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6139: 6138: 5920: 5919: 5916: 5915: 5754: 5746: 5745: 5738:Nuclear reactors 5733: 5732: 5632:High-level (HLW) 5562: 5561: 5409: 5408: 5389:Food irradiation 5379:Atomic gardening 5272: 5271: 5255:Nuclear meltdown 5081:Nuclear material 5071:Fissile material 5066:Fertile material 4981: 4980: 4966: 4959: 4952: 4943: 4942: 4761: 4754: 4747: 4738: 4737: 4675:Related articles 4590:Radiation damage 4415:Nuclear reactors 4300: 4299: 4281: 4274: 4267: 4258: 4257: 4229: 4184: 4182: 4180: 4171:. Archived from 4143: 4142: 4131: 4122: 4121: 4119: 4118: 4090: 4069: 4068: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4035: 4029: 4028: 4000: 3994: 3993: 3957: 3951: 3926: 3920: 3919: 3917: 3916: 3897: 3891: 3890: 3870: 3864: 3863: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3809:on 4 August 2012 3791: 3785: 3784: 3774: 3750: 3744: 3743: 3733: 3724:(7): 1901–1907. 3709: 3703: 3697: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3655: 3646: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3622: 3613: 3612: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3564: 3558: 3543: 3534: 3528: 3527: 3525: 3514: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3479: 3473: 3472: 3470: 3469: 3450: 3444: 3443: 3441: 3440: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3414: 3408: 3401: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3377: 3371: 3370: 3352: 3346: 3345: 3343: 3342: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3291: 3281: 3275: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3264: 3258:. Archived from 3256:Radiation Hazard 3253: 3244: 3238: 3232: 3226: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3202: 3196: 3184: 3178: 3171: 3165: 3164: 3154: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3113: 3112: 3098: 3092: 3091: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3036: 3030: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3006: 2906: 2901: 2900: 2899: 2892: 2887: 2886: 2859: 2844: 2660:nuclear medicine 2609:nuclear medicine 2550:potassium iodide 2538:nuclear reactors 2359:are isotopes of 2255:Cosmic radiation 2201:nuclear medicine 2157: 1988:titanium dioxide 1945:Enhanced sources 1932:Cosmic radiation 1915: 1911: 1875:food irradiation 1843:nuclear reactors 1797:derived quantity 1761: 1759: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1735:derived quantity 1711: 1709: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1685:derived quantity 1642: 1640: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1621: 1619: 1618: 1615: 1612: 1578: 1576: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1561: 1559: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1542: 1540: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1525:derived quantity 1491: 1489: 1488: 1485: 1482: 1474: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1434: 1432: 1431: 1428: 1425: 1417: 1415: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1339: 1335: 1147:shortly after a 1137:ionized air glow 1109:Chemical effects 1099:alpha absorption 1065:Radiation damage 1059:Physical effects 966:nuclear reaction 924: 917: 913: 910: 904: 881: 873: 743:nuclear reaction 684:Photon radiation 522: 520: 519: 510: 509: 508: 501: 500: 491: 490: 489: 295: 294: 293: 286: 285: 147:cosmic particles 21: 7380: 7379: 7375: 7374: 7373: 7371: 7370: 7369: 7325: 7324: 7323: 7318: 7317: 7299:Medical physics 7290: 7269: 7238: 7187: 7151: 7092: 7086: 7047:Equivalent dose 7009: 7003: 6952: 6947: 6917: 6912: 6898:Radioresistance 6881: 6850: 6814: 6809: 6779: 6774: 6739: 6737: 6720: 6684: 6651: 6636: 6593: 6583: 6578: 6568: 6531: 6436: 6381: 6374: 6373: 6358: 6302: 6233: 6208: 6186: 6158: 6140: 6133: 6132: 6131: 6118: 6084: 6075: 6057: 6022: 6013: 5927: 5910: 5909: 5908: 5900: 5814:Natural fission 5768: 5767: 5755: 5750: 5740: 5723: 5699:Nuclear weapons 5678: 5637:Low-level (LLW) 5615: 5547: 5499: 5398: 5361: 5308: 5261: 5182: 5114: 5037: 4975: 4970: 4940: 4935: 4901: 4790: 4772: 4765: 4735: 4730: 4729: 4706: 4702:Havana syndrome 4687:Nuclear physics 4670: 4634: 4527: 4517: 4503:Unruh radiation 4439: 4420:Nuclear weapons 4405:Nuclear fission 4351: 4291: 4285: 4241:Wayback Machine 4191: 4178: 4176: 4169: 4151: 4146: 4133: 4132: 4125: 4116: 4114: 4107: 4091: 4072: 4055: 4054: 4050: 4037: 4036: 4032: 4001: 3997: 3958: 3954: 3948:Wayback Machine 3937:Wayback Machine 3927: 3923: 3914: 3912: 3899: 3898: 3894: 3871: 3867: 3852: 3826: 3822: 3812: 3810: 3792: 3788: 3751: 3747: 3710: 3706: 3698: 3689: 3679: 3677: 3657: 3656: 3649: 3639: 3637: 3624: 3623: 3616: 3601: 3587: 3583: 3579:, paragraph 55. 3575: 3571: 3562: 3560: 3556: 3541: 3535: 3531: 3523: 3512: 3506: 3502: 3481: 3480: 3476: 3467: 3465: 3452: 3451: 3447: 3438: 3436: 3425: 3421: 3412: 3410: 3406: 3399: 3393: 3389: 3378: 3374: 3367: 3353: 3349: 3340: 3338: 3331: 3315: 3311: 3304: 3282: 3278: 3268: 3266: 3262: 3251: 3245: 3241: 3233: 3229: 3219: 3217: 3216:on 3 March 2016 3204: 3203: 3199: 3194:Wayback Machine 3185: 3181: 3172: 3168: 3123: 3119: 3110: 3108: 3100: 3099: 3095: 3084: 3068: 3064: 3053: 3037: 3033: 3023: 3021: 3008: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2929:Irradiated mail 2902: 2897: 2895: 2888: 2881: 2878: 2871: 2860: 2851: 2845: 2824: 2792: 2767: 2720:smoke detectors 2652: 2650:Public exposure 2570: 2558:nuclear fission 2466: 2436: 2410: 2404: 2383: 2377: 2355:of concern for 2345: 2310:alpha particles 2263: 2257: 2193:medical imaging 2185: 2179: 2083:Natural Sources 2060:Nuclear fallout 2007:Application of 1925:Natural Sources 1919:Public exposure 1895: 1871:smoke detectors 1851:medical imaging 1847:nuclear weapons 1831: 1823:Main articles: 1821: 1780: 1771: 1756: 1753: 1750: 1749: 1747: 1721: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1697: 1681:Equivalent dose 1637: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1628: 1616: 1613: 1608: 1607: 1605: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1566: 1564: 1556: 1553: 1548: 1547: 1545: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1530: 1528: 1486: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1477: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1462: 1460: 1429: 1426: 1423: 1422: 1420: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1405: 1403: 1323: 1289:molecular bonds 1224:radiation burns 1216: 1210: 1176: 1145:mushroom clouds 1117: 1111: 1083: 1081:Nuclear effects 1067: 1061: 1053:neutron capture 1015:nuclear reactor 998: 970:neutron capture 925: 914: 908: 905: 894: 882: 871: 863:Main articles: 861: 801: 795: 786:pair production 696: 686: 678: 654: 638:pair production 596: 588:Main articles: 586: 535: 529: 518: 515: 514: 513: 512: 507: 505: 504: 503: 499: 496: 495: 494: 493: 488: 486: 485: 484: 482: 463:ternary fission 433: 427: 425:Alpha particles 396:alpha particles 292: 290: 289: 288: 284: 282: 281: 280: 279: 263: 257: 237:radiation burns 202:Geiger counters 195:nuclear fission 149:produced after 131:alpha particles 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7378: 7368: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7320: 7319: 7295: 7292: 7291: 7289: 7288: 7283: 7277: 7275: 7271: 7270: 7268: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7246: 7244: 7240: 7239: 7237: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7195: 7193: 7189: 7188: 7186: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7163:Lead shielding 7159: 7157: 7153: 7152: 7150: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7128: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7110:Geiger counter 7107: 7102: 7096: 7094: 7088: 7087: 7085: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7064: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7042:Effective dose 7039: 7034: 7029: 7027:Committed dose 7024: 7019: 7013: 7011: 7005: 7004: 7002: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6974:Health physics 6971: 6966: 6960: 6958: 6954: 6953: 6946: 6945: 6938: 6931: 6923: 6914: 6913: 6911: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6889: 6887: 6883: 6882: 6880: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6862:Radiation burn 6858: 6856: 6852: 6851: 6849: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6822: 6820: 6816: 6815: 6808: 6807: 6800: 6793: 6785: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6772: 6760: 6748: 6733: 6730: 6729: 6726: 6725: 6722: 6721: 6719: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6706:Muon-catalyzed 6703: 6698: 6692: 6690: 6686: 6685: 6683: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6666: 6665: 6655: 6646: 6644: 6638: 6637: 6635: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6603: 6601: 6595: 6594: 6588: 6585: 6584: 6570: 6569: 6567: 6566: 6561: 6560: 6559: 6554: 6543: 6541: 6537: 6536: 6533: 6532: 6530: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6513: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6446: 6444: 6438: 6437: 6435: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6397:Integral (IFR) 6394: 6388: 6382: 6371: 6368: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6360: 6359: 6357: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6325: 6323: 6314: 6308: 6307: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6300: 6299: 6298: 6293: 6292: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6261: 6256: 6255: 6254: 6243: 6241: 6235: 6234: 6232: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6212: 6210: 6206: 6198: 6192: 6191: 6188: 6187: 6185: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6163: 6161: 6156: 6148: 6141: 6127: 6124: 6123: 6120: 6119: 6117: 6116: 6115: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6088: 6086: 6082: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6073: 6067: 6065: 6059: 6058: 6056: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6044: 6043: 6038: 6027: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6014: 6012: 6011: 6010: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5988: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5967: 5962: 5961: 5960: 5955: 5952: 5949: 5946: 5932: 5930: 5925: 5917: 5902: 5901: 5899: 5898: 5893: 5892: 5891: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5877: 5876: 5871: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5816: 5811: 5810: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5784: 5778: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5761: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5742: 5741: 5729: 5728: 5725: 5724: 5722: 5721: 5716: 5714:Uranium mining 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5690: 5688: 5684: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5676: 5671: 5670: 5669: 5664: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5623: 5621: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5613: 5608: 5607: 5606: 5596: 5591: 5590: 5589: 5587:Minor actinide 5584: 5579: 5568: 5566: 5559: 5553: 5552: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5529: 5528: 5523: 5513: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5497: 5496: 5495: 5485: 5480: 5479: 5478: 5473: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5452: 5451: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5415: 5413: 5406: 5400: 5399: 5397: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5375: 5373: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5360: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5318: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5307: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5284:Autoradiograph 5280: 5278: 5269: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5259: 5258: 5257: 5247: 5246: 5245: 5235: 5234: 5233: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5192: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5181: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5124: 5122: 5116: 5115: 5113: 5112: 5111: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5099: 5098: 5093: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5047: 5045: 5039: 5038: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5028: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5006:Atomic nucleus 5003: 4998: 4993: 4987: 4985: 4977: 4976: 4969: 4968: 4961: 4954: 4946: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4912: 4910: 4903: 4902: 4900: 4899: 4898: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4827: 4826: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4798: 4796: 4792: 4791: 4789: 4788: 4783: 4777: 4774: 4773: 4764: 4763: 4756: 4749: 4741: 4732: 4731: 4711: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4678: 4676: 4672: 4671: 4669: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4642: 4640: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4550:Health physics 4547: 4546: 4545: 4540: 4531: 4529: 4523: 4522: 4519: 4518: 4516: 4515: 4510: 4508:Dark radiation 4505: 4500: 4498:Bremsstrahlung 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4444: 4441: 4440: 4438: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4410:Nuclear fusion 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4380:Alpha particle 4377: 4372: 4367: 4361: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4308: 4306: 4297: 4293: 4292: 4284: 4283: 4276: 4269: 4261: 4255: 4254: 4248: 4243: 4231: 4221: 4216: 4203: 4198: 4190: 4189:External links 4187: 4186: 4185: 4167: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4144: 4123: 4105: 4070: 4048: 4030: 4005:Health Physics 3995: 3968:(4): 249–261. 3952: 3950:. 11 ed. 2008. 3921: 3901:"Health Risks" 3892: 3865: 3850: 3820: 3786: 3745: 3704: 3687: 3647: 3632:. 2015-02-26. 3614: 3599: 3581: 3569: 3529: 3526:on 2012-06-17. 3500: 3474: 3445: 3419: 3387: 3372: 3365: 3347: 3329: 3309: 3302: 3276: 3265:on 12 May 2013 3239: 3227: 3197: 3179: 3166: 3117: 3093: 3083:978-0763743475 3082: 3062: 3052:978-0471109327 3051: 3031: 3000: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2950:Radiant energy 2947: 2942: 2940:Nuclear safety 2937: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2907: 2893: 2877: 2874: 2873: 2872: 2861: 2854: 2852: 2846: 2839: 2823: 2820: 2791: 2788: 2766: 2763: 2651: 2648: 2644:committed dose 2628: 2627: 2624: 2614: 2613:Uranium mining 2611: 2601: 2596: 2569: 2566: 2517: 2516: 2505:remote control 2486: 2476: 2462:Main article: 2435: 2432: 2403: 2400: 2381:Committed dose 2376: 2373: 2344: 2341: 2256: 2253: 2244:committed dose 2228:radiation dose 2181:Main article: 2178: 2175: 2165: 2164: 2154: 2153: 2150: 2146: 2145: 2141: 2140: 2136: 2135: 2129: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2118: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2086: 2084: 2080: 2079: 2073: 2072: 2068: 2067: 2063: 2062: 2055: 2054: 2049: 2045: 2044: 2040: 2039: 2035: 2034: 2028: 2025: 2021: 2020: 2016: 2015: 2004: 2003: 1992: 1991: 1980: 1979: 1972: 1971: 1964: 1963: 1956: 1955: 1946: 1942: 1941: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1926: 1922: 1921: 1894: 1891: 1820: 1817: 1814: 1813: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1795: 1793:Committed dose 1789: 1788: 1783: 1776: 1767: 1741: 1736: 1733: 1731:Effective dose 1727: 1726: 1724: 1717: 1691: 1686: 1683: 1677: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1656: 1650: 1649: 1644: 1622: 1603: 1586: 1580: 1579: 1562: 1543: 1526: 1523: 1517: 1516: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1495: 1494: 1492: 1475: 1458: 1449: 1442: 1441: 1435: 1430:metre · second 1418: 1401: 1391:Geiger counter 1388: 1381: 1380: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1366: 1362: 1361: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1322: 1319: 1301:photoreactions 1239: 1238: 1227: 1212:Main article: 1209: 1208:Health effects 1206: 1186:radiation hard 1175: 1172: 1129:ozone cracking 1113:Main article: 1110: 1107: 1082: 1079: 1063:Main article: 1060: 1057: 1004:Bremsstrahlung 996: 927: 926: 885: 883: 876: 860: 857: 794: 791: 782:Compton effect 732:secondary beta 728:Compton effect 685: 682: 677: 674: 653: 652:Charged nuclei 650: 585: 582: 570:bremsstrahlung 533:Beta particles 531:Main article: 528: 527:Beta particles 525: 516: 506: 497: 487: 475:Greek alphabet 431:Alpha particle 429:Main article: 426: 423: 400:beta particles 389:speed of light 346:Cloud chambers 291: 283: 259:Main article: 256: 253: 135:beta particles 70:speed of light 41:, consists of 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7377: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7350:Radioactivity 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7332: 7330: 7316: 7312: 7308: 7307:Radioactivity 7304: 7300: 7293: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7278: 7276: 7272: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7247: 7245: 7241: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7196: 7194: 7192:Organisations 7190: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7160: 7158: 7154: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7129: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7097: 7095: 7089: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7017:Absorbed dose 7015: 7014: 7012: 7006: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6961: 6959: 6957:Main articles 6955: 6951: 6944: 6939: 6937: 6932: 6930: 6925: 6924: 6921: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6890: 6888: 6884: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6853: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6823: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6806: 6801: 6799: 6794: 6792: 6787: 6786: 6783: 6771: 6770: 6761: 6759: 6758: 6749: 6747: 6746: 6735: 6734: 6731: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6693: 6691: 6687: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6664: 6663:electrostatic 6661: 6660: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6648: 6647: 6645: 6643: 6639: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6604: 6602: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6586: 6581: 6575: 6565: 6562: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6538: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6452: 6451: 6448: 6447: 6445: 6443: 6442:Generation IV 6439: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6392:Breeder (FBR) 6390: 6389: 6386: 6383: 6378: 6369: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6326: 6324: 6322: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6309: 6297: 6294: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6271: 6270: 6267: 6266: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6253: 6250: 6249: 6248: 6245: 6244: 6242: 6240: 6236: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6218: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6209: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6193: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6160: 6152: 6149: 6145: 6142: 6137: 6130: 6125: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6094: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6085: 6078: 6072: 6069: 6068: 6066: 6064: 6060: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6033: 6032: 6029: 6028: 6026: 6024: 6016: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5972: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5959: 5956: 5953: 5950: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5942: 5939: 5938: 5937: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5929: 5921: 5918: 5914: 5907: 5903: 5897: 5894: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5866: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5821: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5789: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5779: 5777: 5775: 5771: 5766: 5765: 5758: 5753: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5734: 5730: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5694:Nuclear power 5692: 5691: 5689: 5685: 5675: 5674:Transmutation 5672: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5659: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5618: 5612: 5609: 5605: 5602: 5601: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5574: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5554: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5518: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5508: 5506: 5502: 5494: 5491: 5490: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5471:high-altitude 5469: 5468: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5461:Proliferation 5459: 5457: 5454: 5450: 5447: 5446: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5416: 5414: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5376: 5374: 5372: 5368: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5347:Brachytherapy 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5317: 5315: 5311: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5281: 5279: 5277: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5264: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5251: 5248: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5239: 5236: 5232: 5229: 5228: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5185: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5143:Cross section 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5117: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5088: 5087: 5084: 5083: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5048: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4988: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4967: 4962: 4960: 4955: 4953: 4948: 4947: 4944: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4904: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4877: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4865:Tobacco smoke 4863: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4836:1,3-Butadiene 4834: 4832: 4829: 4825: 4824: 4820: 4819: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4799: 4797: 4793: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4775: 4770: 4762: 4757: 4755: 4750: 4748: 4743: 4742: 4739: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4719:Radioactivity 4716: 4709: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4673: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4637: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4535: 4533: 4532: 4530: 4524: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4445: 4442: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4385:Beta particle 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4370:Cluster decay 4368: 4366: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4358: 4354: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4301: 4298: 4296:Main articles 4294: 4289: 4282: 4277: 4275: 4270: 4268: 4263: 4262: 4259: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4238: 4235: 4232: 4227: 4224:Mike Hanley. 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4196: 4193: 4192: 4174: 4170: 4164: 4160: 4159: 4155:ICRP (2007). 4153: 4152: 4140: 4136: 4130: 4128: 4112: 4108: 4106:9780781774666 4102: 4098: 4097: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4075: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4052: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 3999: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3956: 3949: 3945: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3931: 3925: 3911:on 2008-10-20 3910: 3906: 3902: 3896: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3869: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3851:9780080441375 3847: 3843: 3839: 3836:: 1141–1147. 3835: 3831: 3824: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3790: 3782: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3765:(1): 26–30 . 3764: 3760: 3756: 3749: 3741: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3701: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3665: 3660: 3654: 3652: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3619: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3600:9780323354097 3596: 3592: 3585: 3578: 3573: 3559:on 2011-09-10 3555: 3551: 3547: 3540: 3533: 3522: 3518: 3511: 3504: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3478: 3464:on 2015-02-12 3463: 3459: 3455: 3449: 3434: 3430: 3423: 3405: 3398: 3391: 3383: 3376: 3368: 3362: 3358: 3351: 3336: 3332: 3326: 3322: 3321: 3313: 3305: 3299: 3295: 3290: 3289: 3280: 3261: 3257: 3250: 3243: 3236: 3231: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3201: 3195: 3191: 3188: 3183: 3177: 3170: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3121: 3107: 3103: 3097: 3089: 3085: 3079: 3075: 3074: 3066: 3058: 3054: 3048: 3044: 3043: 3035: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3005: 3001: 2991: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2978: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2941: 2938: 2935: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2925: 2922: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2910: 2905: 2894: 2891: 2890:Energy portal 2885: 2880: 2869: 2865: 2864:radioactivity 2858: 2853: 2850: 2849:hazard symbol 2843: 2838: 2837: 2836: 2833: 2828: 2819: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2787: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2762: 2760: 2756: 2751: 2747: 2745: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2668:radionuclides 2665: 2661: 2657: 2647: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2625: 2622: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2600: 2597: 2594: 2593: 2592: 2589: 2587: 2583: 2578: 2576: 2565: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2546:civil defense 2542: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2522: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2487: 2484: 2480: 2477: 2474: 2471: 2470: 2469: 2465: 2456: 2448: 2440: 2431: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2415: 2409: 2399: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2382: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2353:radionuclides 2350: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2329: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2276: 2272: 2269: 2262: 2252: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2215: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2188: 2184: 2174: 2172: 2161: 2155: 2151: 2148: 2147: 2143: 2142: 2138: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2130: 2126: 2119: 2115: 2113: 2112: 2108: 2106: 2105: 2101: 2099: 2098: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2064: 2061: 2057: 2056: 2053: 2052:Nuclear tests 2050: 2046: 2042: 2041: 2037: 2036: 2032: 2031:Nuclear power 2029: 2022: 2018: 2017: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1994: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1982: 1981: 1977: 1974: 1973: 1969: 1966: 1965: 1961: 1958: 1957: 1954: 1950: 1947: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1936: 1933: 1930: 1923: 1920: 1916: 1910: 1908: 1903: 1901: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1839: 1837: 1830: 1826: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1802: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1790: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1775: 1770: 1766: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1737: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1695: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1654:Absorbed dose 1651: 1648: 1645: 1626: 1623: 1611: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1563: 1551: 1544: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1496: 1493: 1476: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1443: 1439: 1436: 1419: 1402: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1340: 1330: 1326: 1318: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1281: 1279: 1278:heart disease 1275: 1271: 1270:teratogenesis 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1248: 1244: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1225: 1221: 1220: 1219: 1215: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1188: 1187: 1181: 1180:semiconductor 1171: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1156: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1133: 1130: 1126: 1125:free radicals 1122: 1116: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1056: 1054: 1048: 1046: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1018: 1016: 1012: 1006: 1005: 1000: 993: 989: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 962: 960: 956: 952: 948: 943: 941: 937: 933: 923: 920: 912: 902: 898: 892: 891: 886:This section 884: 880: 875: 874: 870: 866: 852: 848: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 809:photon energy 806: 800: 790: 787: 783: 779: 774: 772: 768: 764: 758: 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 735: 733: 729: 725: 721: 711: 705: 700: 695: 691: 681: 673: 671: 666: 664: 660: 649: 648:(PET) scans. 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 626: 624: 620: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 595: 591: 581: 579: 575: 571: 566: 563: 559: 555: 551: 548: 544: 540: 534: 524: 480: 476: 472: 467: 464: 460: 455: 453: 449: 446: 442: 438: 432: 422: 420: 416: 412: 408: 403: 401: 397: 392: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 369:atomic nuclei 366: 365:Coulomb force 362: 358: 353: 347: 343: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 276: 272: 267: 262: 252: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 225:nuclear power 222: 217: 215: 211: 207: 203: 198: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 171:radioisotopes 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 127: 125: 124:electronvolts 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 75: 71: 67: 64:by detaching 63: 59: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 19: 7355:Radiobiology 7311:Radiobiology 7142:Survey meter 7062:Monitor unit 7008:Measurement 6999:Radiobiology 6978: 6767: 6755: 6736: 6716:Pyroelectric 6670:Laser-driven 6450:Sodium (SFR) 6377:fast-neutron 6216: 5762: 5652:Reprocessing 5533:WMD treaties 5352:Radiosurgery 5322:Fast-neutron 5294:Scintigraphy 5025: 4880:Epstein–Barr 4850: 4846:Formaldehyde 4821: 4802:Acetaldehyde 4786:Cancer cells 4723:Radiobiology 4605:Radiobiology 4565:Laser safety 4356: 4208:2000 Report 4177:. Retrieved 4173:the original 4157: 4115:. Retrieved 4095: 4060: 4051: 4033: 4011:(5): 530–5. 4008: 4004: 3998: 3965: 3961: 3955: 3924: 3913:. Retrieved 3909:the original 3904: 3895: 3878: 3874: 3868: 3833: 3829: 3823: 3811:. Retrieved 3807:the original 3802: 3789: 3762: 3758: 3748: 3721: 3717: 3707: 3680:22 September 3678:. Retrieved 3664:Medline Plus 3662: 3640:22 September 3638:. Retrieved 3590: 3584: 3572: 3561:. Retrieved 3554:the original 3549: 3545: 3532: 3521:the original 3516: 3503: 3490: 3486: 3477: 3466:. Retrieved 3462:the original 3457: 3448: 3437:. Retrieved 3422: 3411:. Retrieved 3390: 3381: 3375: 3356: 3350: 3339:. Retrieved 3319: 3312: 3287: 3279: 3267:. Retrieved 3260:the original 3255: 3242: 3230: 3218:. Retrieved 3214:the original 3209: 3206:"Beta Decay" 3200: 3182: 3169: 3134: 3130: 3120: 3109:. Retrieved 3106:www.osha.gov 3105: 3096: 3072: 3065: 3041: 3034: 3022:. Retrieved 3013: 3004: 2829: 2825: 2815: 2793: 2768: 2752: 2748: 2735:nuclear fuel 2732: 2653: 2629: 2590: 2579: 2571: 2543: 2520: 2518: 2488: 2478: 2472: 2467: 2418: 2411: 2392:potassium-40 2384: 2356: 2346: 2338: 2330: 2264: 2216: 2205: 2189: 2186: 2168: 2076: 1949:Metal mining 1918: 1904: 1896: 1840: 1832: 1829:Radiobiology 1777: 1773: 1768: 1764: 1718: 1714: 1507:electronvolt 1498:Beam energy 1399:scintillator 1360:Other units 1324: 1307:and (in the 1282: 1251: 1240: 1217: 1214:Radiobiology 1191: 1185: 1177: 1157: 1134: 1118: 1084: 1049: 1041: 1039:of fission. 1026: 1019: 1008: 1001: 994: 991: 963: 944: 935: 930: 915: 906: 895:Please help 890:verification 887: 828: 802: 775: 770: 769:" are known 759: 736: 717: 679: 667: 655: 627: 612:annihilation 600:antiparticle 597: 567: 562:Greek letter 554:potassium-40 536: 468: 456: 434: 404: 393: 363:through the 359:directly by 354: 351: 318: 310: 302: 270: 233:organ damage 218: 199: 128: 78: 34: 30: 29: 7340:Carcinogens 7183:Respirators 7115:Ion chamber 6841:Experiments 6627:Stellarator 6591:confinement 6485:Superphénix 6312:Molten-salt 6264:VHTR (HTGR) 6041:HW BLWR 250 6007:R4 Marviken 5936:Pressurized 5906:Heavy water 5890:many others 5819:Pressurized 5774:Light water 5476:underground 5434:Disarmament 5342:Tomotherapy 5337:Proton-beam 5201:Power plant 5163:Temperature 4996:Engineering 4890:Hepatitis C 4885:Hepatitis B 4831:Benzopyrene 4769:carcinogens 4347:Ultraviolet 4342:Radio waves 3881:: 169–174. 3813:11 November 3493:(1). 2011. 2800:solar flare 2796:cosmic rays 2765:Spaceflight 2755:nuclear war 2714:), airport 2710:and dials ( 2706:, luminous 2704:televisions 2521:Containment 2306:antiprotons 2230:of 10 2033:production 2002:industries 1990:industries 1968:Coal mining 1900:x-ray tubes 1659:calorimeter 1413:cm · second 1202:ion chamber 986:nitrogen-16 978:radioactive 813:ultraviolet 799:Ultraviolet 547:radioactive 452:alpha decay 407:cosmic rays 187:X-ray tubes 167:Cosmic rays 151:cosmic rays 112:radio waves 92:ultraviolet 88:ultraviolet 7329:Categories 7243:Regulation 6886:Treatments 6855:Conditions 6652:(acoustic) 6269:PBR (PBMR) 5657:Spent fuel 5647:Repository 5627:Fuel cycle 5594:Activation 5371:Processing 5238:Propulsion 5196:by country 5128:Activation 4528:and health 4526:Radiation 4395:Cosmic ray 4149:Literature 4117:2015-06-27 3915:2012-03-05 3563:2012-08-16 3546:J. Phys. G 3508:Hao Peng. 3468:2015-01-09 3439:2011-12-07 3413:2011-12-07 3341:2020-10-26 3269:5 November 3111:2022-06-23 3024:22 January 2997:References 2790:Air travel 2777:(SPE) and 2582:dosimeters 2406:See also: 2379:See also: 2261:Cosmic ray 2259:See also: 2094:space crew 1984:Rare earth 1877:, and the 1166:, such as 1121:radiolysis 1045:beta decay 1024:are used. 999:= 7.13 s) 841:excitation 817:nanometers 797:See also: 749:decay, or 739:gamma rays 690:Gamma rays 688:See also: 604:antimatter 594:Antimatter 558:beta decay 552:, such as 379:, charged 108:microwaves 94:, visible 80:Gamma rays 7255:NRC (USA) 7204:HPS (USA) 7105:Dosimeter 7022:Becquerel 6969:Dosimetry 6836:Accidents 6622:Spheromak 6321:Fluorides 5985:IPHWR-700 5980:IPHWR-540 5975:IPHWR-220 5764:Moderator 5444:Explosion 5419:Arms race 5206:Economics 5158:Reflector 5153:Radiation 5148:Generator 5103:Plutonium 5056:Deuterium 5021:Radiation 4991:Chemistry 4855:plutonium 4682:Half-life 4555:Dosimetry 4390:Gamma ray 4337:Microwave 4327:Starlight 4288:Radiation 3860:1569-4860 3799:"Annex B" 3700:ICRP 2007 3609:740632205 3577:ICRP 2007 2924:Ionometer 2862:2007 ISO 2798:and from 2724:americium 2718:systems, 2702:, etc.), 2670:used are 2640:irradiate 2605:radiology 2530:glove box 2489:Shielding 2420:Radon-222 2361:potassium 2322:positrons 2318:electrons 1996:Zirconium 1962:industry 1960:Phosphate 1883:carbon-14 1384:Particle 1376:becquerel 1351:CGS units 1342:Quantity 1283:Although 1143:, around 1075:cyclotron 982:oxygen-16 714:dominate. 636:), or by 616:gamma ray 578:delta ray 543:positrons 539:electrons 413:ions and 373:electrons 307:electrons 175:carbon-14 163:positrons 66:electrons 62:molecules 7345:Mutagens 7260:ONR (UK) 7250:IRR (UK) 7229:SRP (UK) 7168:Glovebox 7072:Roentgen 6757:Category 6711:Polywell 6642:Inertial 6599:Magnetic 6354:TMSR-LF1 6349:TMSR-500 6329:Fuji MSR 6289:THTR-300 6129:Graphite 5992:PHWR KWU 5958:ACR-1000 5886:IPWR-900 5869:ACPR1000 5864:HPR-1000 5854:CPR-1000 5829:APR-1400 5620:Disposal 5572:Actinide 5565:Products 5424:Delivery 5267:Medicine 5096:depleted 5091:enriched 5061:Helium-3 5026:ionizing 4817:Bacteria 4812:Asbestos 4332:Sunlight 4317:Infrared 4237:Archived 4139:Archived 4111:Archived 4065:Archived 4043:Archived 4025:10524506 3990:71757795 3944:Archived 3933:Archived 3797:(2000). 3781:15408494 3740:22318388 3674:Archived 3634:Archived 3495:Archived 3433:Archived 3404:Archived 3335:Archived 3220:10 April 3190:Archived 3161:22217743 3088:Archived 3057:Archived 3018:Archived 2876:See also 2812:pregnant 2696:polonium 2603:Medical 2526:hot cell 2501:neutrons 2497:concrete 2479:Distance 2326:neutrons 2282:HZE ions 2220:monazite 2206:Natural 2197:CT scans 2000:ceramics 1953:smelting 1647:roentgen 1356:SI units 1346:Detector 1305:collagen 1291:to form 1235:mutation 1022:hydrogen 936:directly 932:Neutrons 909:May 2024 859:Neutrons 726:and the 608:electron 590:Positron 459:absorbed 441:neutrons 439:and two 415:HZE ions 405:Natural 335:HZE ions 275:helium-4 221:medicine 179:isotopes 139:neutrons 104:infrared 7234:UNSCEAR 7199:Euratom 7082:Sievert 6831:Chronic 6819:General 6769:Commons 6680:Z-pinch 6650:Bubble 6632:Tokamak 6495:FBR-600 6475:CFR-600 6470:BN-1200 6136:coolant 6063:Organic 5948:CANDU 9 5945:CANDU 6 5913:coolant 5874:ACP1000 5849:CAP1400 5787:Boiling 5752:Fission 5599:Fission 5543:Weapons 5483:Warfare 5466:Testing 5456:History 5449:effects 5404:Weapons 5314:Therapy 5289:RadBall 5276:Imaging 5168:Thermal 5133:Capture 5120:Neutron 5108:Thorium 5086:Uranium 5051:Tritium 5031:braking 5011:Fission 5001:Physics 4984:Science 4875:Viruses 4807:Arsenic 4543:chronic 3970:Bibcode 3772:1520288 3210:Lbl.gov 3152:3779131 2985:Sievert 2759:fallout 2746:(LNT). 2739:uranium 2728:thorium 2712:tritium 2708:watches 2692:tobacco 2623:workers 2564:gland. 2562:thyroid 2509:plastic 2428:uranium 2369:thorium 2365:uranium 2302:protons 2271:protons 2158:Source 2090:aircrew 2013:thorium 1806:sievert 1760:⁠ 1748:⁠ 1744:sievert 1710:⁠ 1698:⁠ 1694:sievert 1641:⁠ 1629:⁠ 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The 245:cancer 229:tissue 193:, and 161:, and 159:mesons 137:, and 110:, and 84:X-rays 55:ionize 51:energy 6826:Acute 6701:Migma 6689:Other 6658:Fusor 6557:Piqua 6552:Arbus 6510:PRISM 6252:MHR-T 6247:GTMHR 6177:EGP-6 6172:AMB-X 6147:Water 6092:HWGCR 6031:HWLWR 5970:IPHWR 5941:CANDU 5802:ESBWR 5557:Waste 5521:Tests 5504:Lists 5488:Yield 5231:MMRTG 5188:Power 4909:lists 4538:acute 4435:X-ray 4322:Light 3986:S2CID 3905:Radon 3557:(PDF) 3542:(PDF) 3524:(PDF) 3513:(PDF) 3407:(PDF) 3400:(PDF) 3263:(PDF) 3252:(PDF) 2753:In a 2716:X-ray 2680:Co-60 2672:I-131 2414:radon 2402:Radon 2349:atoms 2314:pions 2298:muons 2288:(see 2248:radon 2246:from 2212:radon 1751:joule 1701:joule 1632:joule 1584:Kerma 1557:metre 1550:Joule 1512:joule 1487:metre 1481:joule 1371:curie 720:atoms 621:(see 381:pions 377:muons 357:atoms 155:muons 100:laser 96:light 58:atoms 33:(US, 7224:IRPA 7219:ICRP 7214:ICRU 7209:IAEA 7052:Gray 6517:Lead 6500:CEFR 6490:PFBR 6372:None 6182:RBMK 6167:AM-1 6097:EL-4 6071:WR-1 6053:AHWR 5997:MZFR 5965:CVTR 5954:AFCR 5881:VVER 5839:APWR 5834:APR+ 5797:ABWR 5667:cask 5662:pool 5604:LLFP 5493:TNTe 5173:Fast 5043:Fuel 4907:IARC 4857:and 4181:2012 4163:ISBN 4101:ISBN 4021:PMID 3879:1276 3856:ISSN 3846:ISBN 3815:2012 3777:PMID 3736:PMID 3682:2019 3642:2019 3605:OCLC 3595:ISBN 3361:ISBN 3325:ISBN 3298:ISBN 3271:2012 3222:2014 3157:PMID 3078:ISBN 3047:ISBN 3026:2020 2868:IAEA 2832:IAEA 2700:coal 2638:and 2619:and 2607:and 2493:lead 2473:Time 2333:dose 2331:The 2275:iron 2199:and 2169:The 2092:and 2011:and 1998:and 1986:and 1951:and 1905:The 1887:date 1869:and 1845:and 1827:and 1786:BRET 1669:gray 1625:gray 1386:flux 1309:UV-B 1089:and 951:fast 867:and 833:ICRU 692:and 592:and 239:and 231:and 114:are 7077:Rem 7067:Rad 6589:by 6505:PFR 6296:PMR 6274:AVR 6196:Gas 6134:by 6102:KKN 6036:ATR 5951:EC6 5911:by 5859:EPR 5792:BWR 4895:HPV 4013:doi 3978:doi 3883:doi 3838:doi 3767:PMC 3726:doi 3722:132 3294:2–5 3147:PMC 3139:doi 3135:132 2730:). 2268:amu 2236:rad 2232:mGy 1976:Oil 1801:rem 1739:rem 1689:rem 1674:rep 1664:rad 1610:esu 1568:keV 1532:MeV 1464:MeV 1303:in 1285:DNA 1027:In 997:1/2 953:or 899:by 835:'s 771:not 541:or 492:or 216:). 60:or 53:to 45:or 7331:: 7309:, 7305:, 7301:, 6239:He 6205:CO 6081:CO 6002:R3 4721:, 4717:, 4212:, 4126:^ 4109:. 4073:^ 4063:. 4059:. 4019:. 4009:77 4007:. 3984:. 3976:. 3966:16 3964:. 3903:. 3877:. 3854:. 3844:. 3832:. 3801:. 3775:. 3763:72 3761:. 3757:. 3734:. 3720:. 3716:. 3690:^ 3672:. 3668:. 3661:. 3650:^ 3628:. 3617:^ 3603:. 3550:33 3548:. 3544:. 3515:. 3491:11 3489:. 3485:. 3456:. 3431:. 3333:. 3296:. 3254:. 3208:. 3155:. 3145:. 3133:. 3129:. 3104:. 3086:. 3055:. 3012:. 2682:, 2678:, 2674:, 2658:, 2646:. 2495:, 2398:. 2363:, 2328:. 2320:, 2316:, 2312:, 2308:, 2304:, 2300:, 2296:, 2214:. 2203:. 1902:. 1853:, 1772:× 1762:× 1757:kg 1712:× 1707:kg 1638:kg 1617:cm 1599:, 1595:, 1591:, 1574:μm 1538:cm 1470:cm 1454:, 1397:, 1393:, 1280:. 1272:, 1204:. 1155:. 1097:, 1047:: 961:. 745:, 665:. 523:. 521:He 502:He 483:He 477:, 454:. 421:. 402:. 383:, 375:, 371:, 329:, 287:He 223:, 197:. 189:, 165:. 157:, 133:, 106:, 82:, 76:. 6942:e 6935:t 6928:v 6804:e 6797:t 6790:v 6379:) 6375:( 6207:2 6159:O 6157:2 6155:H 6083:2 6023:O 6021:2 6019:H 5928:O 5926:2 5924:D 4965:e 4958:t 4951:v 4861:) 4771:) 4760:e 4753:t 4746:v 4280:e 4273:t 4266:v 4228:. 4183:. 4027:. 4015:: 3992:. 3980:: 3972:: 3918:. 3889:. 3885:: 3862:. 3840:: 3834:7 3817:. 3783:. 3742:. 3728:: 3702:. 3684:. 3644:. 3611:. 3566:. 3471:. 3442:. 3416:. 3369:. 3344:. 3306:. 3273:. 3224:. 3163:. 3141:: 3114:. 3028:. 2722:( 2694:( 1782:) 1778:T 1774:W 1769:R 1765:W 1754:/ 1746:( 1723:) 1719:R 1715:W 1704:/ 1696:( 1643:) 1635:/ 1627:( 1614:/ 1571:/ 1554:/ 1535:/ 1484:/ 1467:/ 1427:/ 1410:/ 1226:. 922:) 916:( 911:) 907:( 893:. 576:( 517:2 498:2 479:α 337:. 319:n 311:γ 303:β 277:( 271:α 20:)

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Ionizing radiation

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