Nazi Germany - Knowledge

3321: 4578:(Cross of Honour of the German Mother)—for giving birth to four children, silver for six, and gold for eight or more. Large families received subsidies to help with expenses. Though the measures led to increases in the birth rate, the number of families having four or more children declined by five per cent between 1935 and 1940. Removing women from the workforce did not have the intended effect of freeing up jobs for men, as women were for the most part employed as domestic servants, weavers, or in the food and drink industries—jobs that were not of interest to men. Nazi philosophy prevented large numbers of women from being hired to work in munitions factories in the build-up to the war, so foreign labourers were brought in. After the war started, slave labourers were extensively used. In January 1943, Hitler signed a decree requiring all women under the age of fifty to report for work assignments to help the war effort. Thereafter women were funnelled into agricultural and industrial jobs, and by September 1944 14.9 million women were working in munitions production. 3817: 3588: 5108: 3176: 4022: 3469:("race defilement") to justify the need for racial laws. In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were enacted. These laws initially prohibited sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews and were later extended to include "Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring". The law also forbade the employment of German women under the age of 45 as domestic servants in Jewish households. The Reich Citizenship Law stated that only those of "German or related blood" could be citizens. Thus Jews and other non-Aryans were stripped of their German citizenship. The law also permitted the Nazis to deny citizenship to anyone who was not supportive enough of the regime. A supplementary decree issued in November defined as Jewish anyone with three Jewish grandparents, or two grandparents if the Jewish faith was followed. 4647: 4509: 2204: 4997: 3599: 2044: 4430: 3431: 2618: 3495: 2215: 5233: 4586: 2508: 3894: 3723: 5032:, a book of racial theories espousing Nordic superiority. Goebbels controlled the wire services and insisted that all newspapers in Germany only publish content favourable to the regime. Under Goebbels, the Propaganda Ministry issued two dozen directives every week on exactly what news should be published and what angles to use; the typical newspaper followed the directives closely, especially regarding what to omit. Newspaper readership plummeted, partly because of the decreased quality of the content and partly because of the surge in popularity of radio. Propaganda became less effective towards the end of the war, as people were able to obtain information outside of official channels. 109: 4166: 3080: 2902: 808: 194: 5295: 781: 4662:, as pioneering research by Franz H. Müller in 1939 demonstrated a causal link between smoking and lung cancer. The Reich Health Office took measures to try to limit smoking, including producing lectures and pamphlets. Smoking was banned in many workplaces, on trains, and among on-duty members of the military. Government agencies also worked to control other carcinogenic substances such as asbestos and pesticides. As part of a general public health campaign, water supplies were cleaned up, lead and mercury were removed from consumer products, and women were urged to undergo regular screenings for breast cancer. 4989:(Reich Chamber of Culture) was organised under the control of the Propaganda Ministry in September 1933. Sub-chambers were set up to control aspects of cultural life such as film, radio, newspapers, fine arts, music, theatre and literature. Members of these professions were required to join their respective organisation. Jews and people considered politically unreliable were prevented from working in the arts, and many emigrated. Books and scripts had to be approved by the Propaganda Ministry prior to publication. Standards deteriorated as the regime sought to use cultural outlets exclusively as propaganda. 3460:("People's Court"), was established in 1934 to deal with political cases. This court handed out over 5,000 death sentences until its dissolution in 1945. The death penalty could be issued for offences such as being a communist, printing seditious leaflets, or even making jokes about Hitler or other officials. The Gestapo was in charge of investigative policing to enforce Nazi ideology as they located and confined political offenders, Jews, and others deemed undesirable. Political offenders who were released from prison were often immediately re-arrested by the Gestapo and confined in a concentration camp. 93: 2334: 3560:("lightning war"), which involved using quick coordinated assaults that avoided enemy strong points. Attacks began with artillery bombardment, followed by bombing and strafing runs. Next the tanks would attack and finally the infantry would move in to secure the captured area. Victories continued through mid-1940, but the failure to defeat Britain was the first major turning point in the war. The decision to attack the Soviet Union and the decisive defeat at Stalingrad led to the retreat of the German armies and the eventual loss of the war. The total number of soldiers who served in the 4525:

changes to their lectures or syllabus during the Nazi period. This was especially true of universities located in predominantly Catholic regions. Enrolment at German universities declined from 104,000 students in 1931 to 41,000 in 1939, but enrolment in medical schools rose sharply as Jewish doctors had been forced to leave the profession, so medical graduates had good job prospects. From 1934, university students were required to attend frequent and time-consuming military training sessions run by the SA. First-year students also had to serve six months in a labour camp for the

4862:(Reich Concordat) treaty with the Vatican was signed in 1933, amid continuing harassment of the church in Germany. The treaty required the regime to honour the independence of Catholic institutions and prohibited clergy from involvement in politics. Hitler routinely disregarded the Concordat, closing all Catholic institutions whose functions were not strictly religious. Clergy, nuns and lay leaders were targeted, with thousands of arrests over the ensuing years, often on trumped-up charges of currency smuggling or immorality. Several Catholic leaders were targeted in the 1934 3946:. Germany imported and enslaved some 12 million people from 20 European countries to work in factories and on farms. Approximately 75 per cent were Eastern European. Many were casualties of Allied bombing, as they received poor air raid protection. Poor living conditions led to high rates of sickness, injury, and death, as well as sabotage and criminal activity. The wartime economy also relied upon large-scale robbery, initially through the state seizing the property of Jewish citizens and later by plundering the resources of occupied territories. 246: 2345: 822: 31443: 4825: 3401: 3753:. When the notes were presented for payment, the Reichsbank printed money. Hitler and his economic team expected that the upcoming territorial expansion would provide the means of repaying the soaring national debt. Schacht's administration achieved a rapid decline in the unemployment rate, the largest of any country during the Great Depression. Economic recovery was uneven, with reduced hours of work and erratic availability of necessities, leading to disenchantment with the regime as early as 1934. 767: 5353:. The process of denazification initiated by the Allies was only partially successful, as the need for experts in such fields as medicine and engineering was too great. However, expression of Nazi views was frowned upon, and those who expressed such views were frequently dismissed from their jobs. From the immediate post-war period through the 1950s, Germans kept quiet about their wartime experiences and felt a sense of communal guilt, even if they were not directly involved in war crimes. 4308: 864: 2966: 3536:(air force). From 2 August 1934, members of the armed forces were required to pledge an oath of unconditional obedience to Hitler personally. In contrast to the previous oath, which required allegiance to the constitution of the country and its lawful establishments, this new oath required members of the military to obey Hitler even if they were being ordered to do something illegal. Hitler decreed that the army would have to tolerate and even offer logistical support to the 2385:, who signed the Pact on 23 November, alongside the Slovak Republic. By late 1942, there were 24 divisions from Romania on the Eastern Front, 10 from Italy, and 10 from Hungary. Germany assumed full control in France in 1942, Italy in 1943, and Hungary in 1944. Although Japan was a powerful ally, the relationship was distant, with little co-ordination or co-operation. For example, Germany refused to share their formula for synthetic oil from coal until late in the war. 26674: 3968:, as well as the German transportation system, especially rail yards and canals. The armaments industry began to break down by September 1944. By November, fuel coal was no longer reaching its destinations and the production of new armaments was no longer possible. Overy argues that the bombing strained the German war economy and forced it to divert up to one-fourth of its manpower and industry into anti-aircraft resources, which very likely shortened the war. 32153: 16936: 1837: 4202:. Over half were those considered mentally deficient, which included not only people who scored poorly on intelligence tests, but those who deviated from expected standards of behaviour regarding thrift, sexual behaviour, and cleanliness. Most of the victims came from disadvantaged groups such as prostitutes, the poor, the homeless, and criminals. Other groups persecuted and murdered included Jehovah's Witnesses, homosexuals, social misfits, and 3347:

decision-making. The government was a disorganised collection of factions led by the party elite, who struggled to amass power and gain the Führer's favour. Hitler's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them in positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped. In this way he fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power.

5410: 1325: 15067: 4634:(Fountain of Life) association, founded by Himmler in 1935, created a series of maternity homes to accommodate single mothers during their pregnancies. Both parents were examined for racial suitability before acceptance. The resulting children were often adopted into SS families. The homes were also made available to the wives of SS and Nazi Party members, who quickly filled over half the available spots. 1814:, the effect in Germany was dire. Millions were thrown out of work and several major banks collapsed. Hitler and the Nazis prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party. They promised to strengthen the economy and provide jobs. Many voters decided the Nazi Party was capable of restoring order, quelling civil unrest, and improving Germany's international reputation. After the 1339: 1892:, imposed on 28 February 1933, rescinded most civil liberties, including rights of assembly and freedom of the press. The decree also allowed the police to detain people indefinitely without charges. The legislation was accompanied by a propaganda campaign that led to public support for the measure. Violent suppression of communists by the SA was undertaken nationwide and 4,000 members of the 4890:

to public facilities. Later Catholic protests included the 22 March 1942 pastoral letter by the German bishops on "The Struggle against Christianity and the Church". About 30 per cent of Catholic priests were disciplined by police during the Nazi era. A vast security network spied on clergy and priests were frequently denounced, arrested or sent to concentration camps – many to the dedicated

4415:, many university professors and members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested, transported to concentration camps, or executed. During the war, Poland lost an estimated 39 to 45 per cent of its physicians and dentists, 26 to 57 per cent of its lawyers, 15 to 30 per cent of its teachers, 30 to 40 per cent of its scientists and university professors, and 18 to 28 per cent of its clergy. 2794: 3869:. Large expenditures were made on rearmament in spite of growing deficits. Plans unveiled in late 1938 for massive increases to the navy and air force were impossible to fulfil, as Germany lacked the finances and material resources to build the planned units, as well as the necessary fuel required to keep them running. With the introduction of compulsory military service in 1935, the 4482:. Teachers had to take an oath of loyalty and obedience to Hitler, and those who failed to show sufficient conformity to party ideals were often reported by students or fellow teachers and dismissed. Lack of funding for salaries led to many teachers leaving the profession. The average class size increased from 37 in 1927 to 43 in 1938 due to the resulting teacher shortage. 2267:, the Czechoslovak government offered economic concessions to the region. Hitler decided not just to incorporate the Sudetenland into the Reich, but to destroy the country of Czechoslovakia entirely. The Nazis undertook a propaganda campaign to try to generate support for an invasion. Top German military leaders opposed the plan, as Germany was not yet ready for war. 2058:, who promised peace and plenty for all in a united, Marxist-free country without the constraints of the Versailles Treaty. The Nazi Party obtained and legitimised power through its initial revolutionary activities, then through manipulation of legal mechanisms, the use of police powers, and by taking control of the state and federal institutions. The first major 1907:, passed in the Reichstag by a vote of 444 to 94. This amendment allowed Hitler and his cabinet to pass laws—even laws that violated the constitution—without the consent of the president or the Reichstag. As the bill required a two-thirds majority to pass, the Nazis used intimidation tactics as well as the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to keep several 3703:(SD; Security Service) under his deputy, Heydrich. This organisation was tasked with locating and arresting communists and other political opponents. Himmler established the beginnings of a parallel economy under the auspices of the SS Economy and Administration Head Office. This holding company owned housing corporations, factories, and publishing houses. 4493:, and other agencies regarding content of lessons and acceptable textbooks for use in primary and secondary schools. Books deemed unacceptable to the regime were removed from school libraries. Indoctrination in Nazi ideology was made compulsory in January 1934. Students selected as future members of the party elite were indoctrinated from the age of 12 at 5334:" to describe Hitler and the Nazi regime. Interest in Nazi Germany continues in the media and the academic world. While Evans remarks that the era "exerts an almost universal appeal because its murderous racism stands as a warning to the whole of humanity", young neo-Nazis enjoy the shock value that Nazi symbols or slogans provide. The display or use of 4076:, the Night of Broken Glass. Further restrictions were imposed on Jews in the coming months – they were forbidden to own businesses or work in retail shops, drive cars, go to the cinema, visit the library, or own weapons, and Jewish pupils were removed from schools. The Jewish community was fined one billion marks to pay for the damage caused by 3853:. Many unemployed people were forcibly drafted into this organisation, where they were given uniforms and tools and put to work. As a result, unemployed people disappeared from the streets, contributing to the perception that the Nazis were improving economic conditions. The average work week was 43 hours in 1933; by 1939 this increased to 47 hours. 4582:

enrolment in secondary schools dropping from 437,000 in 1926 to 205,000 in 1937. The number of women enrolled in post-secondary schools dropped from 128,000 in 1933 to 51,000 in 1938. However, with the requirement that men be enlisted into the armed forces during the war, women comprised half of the enrolment in the post-secondary system by 1944.

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leave the workforce, a loan of up to 1,000 Reichsmarks could be accessed by young couples of Aryan descent who intended to marry, and the amount that had to be repaid was reduced by 25 per cent for each child born. The caveat that the woman had to remain unemployed outside the home was dropped by 1937 due to a shortage of skilled labourers.

2782:, Hitler ordered that anyone who was not prepared to fight should be court-martialed, and thousands of people were executed. In many areas, people surrendered to the approaching Allies in spite of exhortations of local leaders to continue to fight. Hitler ordered the destruction of transport, bridges, industries, and other infrastructure—a 2778:(16 December 1944 – 25 January 1945) was the last major German offensive on the western front, and Soviet forces entered Germany on 27 January. Hitler's refusal to admit defeat and his insistence that the war be fought to the last man led to unnecessary death and destruction in the war's closing months. Through his Justice Minister 3338:("leader principle"), which called for absolute obedience by all subordinates. He viewed the government structure as a pyramid, with himself—the infallible leader—at the apex. Party rank was not determined by elections, and positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank. The party used propaganda to develop a 2614:—was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers. The reaction among Germans was one of surprise and trepidation as many were concerned about how much longer the war would continue or suspected that Germany could not win a war fought on two fronts. 3631:(SA; Storm Detachment), or Brownshirts, founded in 1921, was the first paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party; their initial assignment was to protect Nazi leaders at rallies and assemblies. They also took part in street battles against the forces of rival political parties and violent actions against Jews and others. Under 5318:

of 184 defendants were held between 1946 and 1949. Between 1946 and 1949, the Allies investigated 3,887 cases, of which 489 were brought to trial. The result was convictions of 1,426 people; 297 of these were sentenced to death and 279 to life in prison, with the remainder receiving lesser sentences.

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were decadent became the basis for policy. Many art museum directors lost their posts in 1933 and were replaced by party members. Some 6,500 modern works of art were removed from museums and replaced with works chosen by a Nazi jury. Exhibitions of the rejected pieces, under titles such as "Decadence

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1937 and read from every pulpit as it denounced the systematic hostility of the regime toward the church. In response, Goebbels renewed the regime's crackdown and propaganda against Catholics. Enrolment in denominational schools dropped sharply and by 1939 all such schools were disbanded or converted

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encouraged members to attack Catholic boys in the streets. Propaganda campaigns claimed the church was corrupt, restrictions were placed on public meetings and Catholic publications faced censorship. Catholic schools were required to reduce religious instruction and crucifixes were removed from state

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By 1944, over a half million women served as auxiliaries in the German armed forces. The number of women in paid employment only increased by 271,000 (1.8 per cent) from 1939 to 1944. As the production of consumer goods had been cut back, women left those industries for employment in the war economy.

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by shooting civilians or committing genocide under the guise of anti-partisan operations. The party line was that the Jews were the instigators of the partisan struggle and therefore needed to be eliminated. On 8 July 1941, Heydrich announced that all Jews in the eastern conquered territories were to

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from the rest of Germany. The British announced they would come to the aid of Poland if it was attacked. Hitler, believing the British would not take action, ordered an invasion plan should be readied for September 1939. On 23 May, Hitler described to his generals his overall plan of not only seizing

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in violation of the Versailles Treaty. As the territory was part of Germany, the British and French governments did not feel that attempting to enforce the treaty was worth the risk of war. In the one-party election held on 29 March, the Nazis received 98.9 per cent support. In 1936, Hitler signed an

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Movies were popular in Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, with admissions of over a billion people in 1942, 1943, and 1944. By 1934, German regulations restricting currency exports made it impossible for US film makers to take their profits back to America, so the major film studios closed their German

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under Göring enforced regulations that required foresters to plant a variety of trees to ensure suitable habitat for wildlife, and a new Reich Animal Protection Act became law in 1933. The regime enacted the Reich Nature Protection Act in 1935 to protect the natural landscape from excessive economic

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The Nazi regime promoted a liberal code of conduct regarding sexual matters and was sympathetic to women who bore children out of wedlock. Promiscuity increased as the war progressed, with unmarried soldiers often intimately involved with several women simultaneously. Soldiers' wives were frequently

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The regime used violence and economic pressure to encourage Jews to leave the country voluntarily. Jewish businesses were denied access to markets, forbidden to advertise, and deprived of access to government contracts. Citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks. Many towns posted signs

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and providing funding for programmes initiated by the previous government for housing and agricultural improvements. To stimulate the construction industry, credit was offered to private businesses and subsidies were made available for home purchases and repairs. On the condition that the wife would

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Existing laws banning abortion except for medical reasons were strictly enforced by the Nazi regime. The number of abortions declined from 35,000 per year at the start of the 1930s to fewer than 2,000 per year at the end of the decade, though in 1935 a law was passed allowing abortions for eugenics

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political party which arose during the social and financial upheavals that occurred following the end of World War I. The Party remained small and marginalised, receiving 2.6% of the federal vote in 1928, prior to the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. By 1930 the Party won 18.3% of the federal

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Popular support for Hitler almost completely disappeared as the war drew to a close. Suicide rates in Germany increased, particularly in areas where the Red Army was advancing. Among soldiers and party personnel, suicide was often deemed an honourable and heroic alternative to surrender. First-hand

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On 10 May, the government seized the assets of the Social Democrats, and they were banned on 22 June. On 21 June, the SA raided the offices of the German National People's Party – their former coalition partners – which then disbanded on 29 June. The remaining major political parties followed suit.

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as Minister for Church Affairs to continue efforts to control Protestantism. In 1936, a Confessing Church envoy protested to Hitler against the religious persecutions and human rights abuses. Hundreds more pastors were arrested. The church continued to resist and by early 1937 Hitler abandoned his

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The Nazis captured 5.75 million Soviet prisoners of war, more than they took from all the other Allied powers combined. Of these, they killed an estimated 3.3 million, with 2.8 million of them being killed between June 1941 and January 1942. Many POWs starved to death or resorted to

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the need for Germany to secure its frontiers. Schuschnigg scheduled a plebiscite regarding Austrian independence for 13 March, but Hitler sent an ultimatum to Schuschnigg on 11 March demanding that he hand over all power to the Austrian Nazi Party or face an invasion. German troops entered Austria

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of 1935, which stripped them of their basic rights. The Nazis would take from the Jews their wealth, their right to intermarry with non-Jews, and their right to occupy many fields of labour (such as law, medicine, or education). Eventually the Nazis declared the Jews as undesirable to remain among

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Although the Nazis won the greatest share of the popular vote in the two Reichstag general elections of 1932, they did not have a majority. Hitler refused to participate in a coalition government unless he was its leader. Under pressure from politicians, industrialists, and the business community,

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in Eastern Europe. The Soviet resurgence and entry of the US into the war meant Germany lost the initiative in 1943 and by late 1944 had been pushed back to the 1939 border. Large-scale aerial bombing of Germany escalated and the Axis powers were driven back in Eastern and Southern Europe. Germany

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and many people were fond of zoos and wildlife. The government took several measures to ensure the protection of animals and the environment. In 1933, the Nazis enacted a stringent animal-protection law that affected what was allowed for medical research. The law was only loosely enforced, and in

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Nazi leaders endorsed the idea that rational and theoretical work was alien to a woman's nature, and as such discouraged women from seeking higher education. A law passed in April 1933 limited the number of women admitted to university to ten per cent of the number of men. This resulted in female

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At universities, appointments to top posts were the subject of power struggles between the education ministry, the university boards, and the National Socialist German Students' League. In spite of pressure from the League and various government ministries, most university professors did not make

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was expropriated. In concert with other aircraft manufacturers and under the direction of Aviation Minister Göring, production was ramped up. From a workforce of 3,200 people producing 100 units per year in 1932, the industry grew to employ a quarter of a million workers manufacturing over 10,000

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Six million people were unemployed when the Nazis took power in 1933 and by 1937 there were fewer than a million. This was in part due to the removal of women from the workforce. Real wages dropped by 25 per cent between 1933 and 1938. After the dissolution of the trade unions in May 1933, their

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Most of the judicial system and legal codes of the Weimar Republic remained in place to deal with non-political crimes. The courts issued and carried out far more death sentences than before the Nazis took power. People who were convicted of three or more offences—even petty ones—could be deemed

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While top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, they had considerable autonomy. He expected officials to "work towards the Führer" – to take the initiative in promoting policies and actions in line with party goals and Hitler's wishes, without his involvement in day-to-day

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Radio became popular in Germany during the 1930s; over 70 per cent of households owned a receiver by 1939, more than any other country. By July 1933, radio station staffs were purged of leftists and others deemed undesirable. Propaganda and speeches were typical radio fare immediately after the

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Government-run health care insurance plans were available, but Jews were denied coverage starting in 1933. That same year, Jewish doctors were forbidden to treat government-insured patients. In 1937, Jewish doctors were forbidden to treat non-Jewish patients, and in 1938 their right to practice

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Primary and secondary education focused on racial biology, population policy, culture, geography, and physical fitness. The curriculum in most subjects, including biology, geography, and even arithmetic, was altered to change the focus to race. Military education became the central component of

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and told that any insurance settlements would be confiscated. By 1939, around 250,000 of Germany's 437,000 Jews had emigrated to the United States, Argentina, Great Britain, Palestine, and other countries. Many chose to stay in continental Europe. Emigrants to Palestine were allowed to transfer

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rockets were being developed and produced, were also deemed particularly important. German aircraft production could not keep pace with losses, and without air cover the Allied bombing campaign became even more devastating. By targeting oil refineries and factories, they crippled the German war

5330:(Zero Hour). The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in the history of warfare. As a result, Nazi ideology and the actions taken by the regime are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral. Historians, philosophers, and politicians often use the word " 4254:, a system of classification of people deemed to be of German blood. He ordered that those of Germanic descent who refused to be classified as ethnic Germans should be deported to concentration camps, have their children taken away, or be assigned to forced labour. The plan also included the 4627:

With Hitler's approval, Himmler intended that the new society of the Nazi regime should destigmatise illegitimate births, particularly of children fathered by members of the SS, who were vetted for racial purity. His hope was that each SS family would have between four and six children. The

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was needed for Germany's expansion. Hitler focused his attention on Eastern Europe, aiming to conquer Poland and the Soviet Union. Hitler's belief in the racial inferiority of Russians, as well as Slavs in general, had convinced him that a German conquest of Russia was inevitable. After the

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passed on 7 April forced all non-Aryan civil servants to retire from the legal profession and civil service. Similar legislation soon deprived other Jewish professionals of their right to practise, and on 11 April a decree was promulgated that stated anyone who had even one Jewish parent or

3378:). The change was never fully implemented, as the Länder were still used as administrative divisions for some government departments such as education. This led to a bureaucratic tangle of overlapping jurisdictions and responsibilities typical of the administrative style of the Nazi regime. 5759:

According to Raeder, "Our Air Force could not be counted on to guard our transports from the British Fleets, because their operations would depend on the weather, if for no other reason. It could not be expected that even for a brief period our Air Force could make up for our lack of naval

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that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated immediately. While the murder of Jewish civilians had been ongoing in the occupied territories of Poland and the Soviet Union, plans for the total eradication of the Jewish population of Europe—eleven million people—were formalised at the

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on shipments to Germany affected its economy. Germany was particularly dependent on foreign supplies of oil, coal, and grain. Thanks to trade embargoes and the blockade, imports into Germany declined by 80 per cent. To safeguard Swedish iron ore shipments to Germany, Hitler ordered the

154: 5274:—pioneered techniques of camera movement and editing that influenced later films. New techniques such as telephoto lenses and cameras mounted on tracks were employed. Both films remain controversial, as their aesthetic merit is inseparable from their propagandising of Nazi ideals. 2702:

could be supplied by air, but this turned out to be infeasible. Hitler's refusal to allow a retreat led to the deaths of 200,000 German and Romanian soldiers; of the 91,000 men who surrendered in the city on 31 January 1943, only 6,000 survivors returned to Germany after the war.

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Newspapers, like other media, were controlled by the state; the Reich Press Chamber shut down or bought newspapers and publishing houses. By 1939, over two-thirds of the newspapers and magazines were directly owned by the Propaganda Ministry. The Nazi Party daily newspaper, the

2800: 2798: 2795: 1948:, passed in April, removed from their jobs all teachers, professors, judges, magistrates, and government officials who were Jewish or whose commitment to the party was suspect. This meant the only non-political institutions not under control of the Nazis were the churches. 5378:

starting in the 1970s, people began researching the experiences of their family members. Study of the era and a willingness to critically examine its mistakes has led to the development of a strong democracy in Germany, but with lingering undercurrents of antisemitism and

3873:, which had been limited to 100,000 by the terms of the Versailles Treaty, expanded to 750,000 on active service at the start of World War II, with a million more in the reserve. By January 1939, unemployment was down to 301,800 and it dropped to only 77,500 by September. 153: 2799: 152: 14453: 1737:. The government printed money to make the payments and to repay the country's war debt, but the resulting hyperinflation led to inflated prices, economic chaos, and food riots. When the government defaulted on their reparations payments in January 1923, French troops 150: 149: 148: 5252:, were purchased by the Propaganda Ministry, which by 1939 was producing most German films. The productions were not always overtly propagandistic, but generally had a political subtext and followed party lines regarding themes and content. Scripts were pre-censored. 3666:(OKW). By the end of 1942, the stringent selection and racial requirements that had initially been in place were no longer followed. With recruitment and conscription based only on expansion, by 1943 the Waffen-SS could not longer claim to be an elite fighting force. 2396:

and captured the Free City of Danzig on 1 September 1939, beginning World War II in Europe. Honouring their treaty obligations, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. Poland fell quickly, as the Soviet Union attacked from the east on 17 September.

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The Nazis seized from the French thousands of locomotives and rolling stock, stockpiles of weapons, and raw materials such as copper, tin, oil, and nickel. Payments for occupation costs were levied upon France, Belgium, and Norway. Barriers to trade led to hoarding,

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threatened to impose martial law if the activities of the SA were not curtailed. Therefore, less than a year and a half after seizing power, Hitler ordered the deaths of the SA leadership, including Rohm. After the purge of 1934, the SA was no longer a major force.

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were subjected to persecution from the early days of the regime. The Romani were forbidden to marry people of German extraction. They were shipped to concentration camps starting in 1935 and many were murdered. Following the invasion of Poland, 2,500 Roma and

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brought into Germany were put into four classifications: guest workers, military internees, civilian workers, and Eastern workers. Each group was subject to different regulations. The Nazis issued a ban on sexual relations between Germans and foreign workers.

3934:, Hitler appointed Albert Speer as his replacement. Wartime rationing of consumer goods led to an increase in personal savings, funds which were in turn lent to the government to support the war effort. By 1944, the war was consuming 75 per cent of Germany's 1799:(SA; Storm Detachment), or Brownshirts, used physical violence to advance their political position, disrupting the meetings of rival organisations and attacking their members as well as Jewish people on the streets. Such far-right armed groups were common in 3342:

around Hitler. Historians such as Kershaw emphasise the psychological impact of Hitler's skill as an orator. Roger Gill states: "His moving speeches captured the minds and hearts of a vast number of the German people: he virtually hypnotized his audiences".

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If the experience of the Third Reich teaches us anything, it is that a love of great music, great art and great literature does not provide people with any kind of moral or political immunization against violence, atrocity, or subservience to dictatorship.

3776:. Any profits in excess of that amount would be turned over to the Reich. By 1936, Farben regretted making the deal, as excess profits were by then being generated. In another attempt to secure an adequate wartime supply of petroleum, Germany intimidated 2921:

estimated in 2014 that about 353,000 civilians were killed in Allied air raids. Other civilian deaths include 300,000 Germans (including Jews) who were victims of Nazi political, racial, and religious persecution and 200,000 who were murdered in the

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Action T4 was a programme of systematic murder of the physically and mentally handicapped and patients in psychiatric hospitals that took place mainly from 1939 to 1941, and continued until the end of the war. Initially the victims were shot by the

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Food was in short supply in the conquered areas of the Soviet Union and Poland, as the retreating armies had burned the crops in some areas, and much of the remainder was sent back to the Reich. In Germany, rations were cut in 1942. In his role as

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accounts and propaganda about the uncivilised behaviour of the advancing Soviet troops caused panic among civilians on the Eastern Front, especially women, who feared being raped. More than a thousand people (out of a population of around 16,000)

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Germany's wartime foreign policy involved the creation of allied governments controlled directly or indirectly from Berlin. They intended to obtain soldiers from allies such as Italy and Hungary and workers and food supplies from allies such as

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In 1934, Hitler told his military leaders that rearmament needed to be complete by 1942, as by then the German people would require more living space and resources, so Germany would have to start a war of conquest to obtain more territory. The

4980:(KdF; Strength Through Joy) organisation in 1933. As well as taking control of tens of thousands of privately run recreational clubs, it offered highly regimented holidays and entertainment such as cruises, vacation destinations and concerts. 3768:. The Nazis encouraged the development of synthetic replacements for materials such as oil and textiles. As the market was experiencing a glut and prices for petroleum were low, in 1933 the Nazi government made a profit-sharing agreement with 3669:

SS formations committed many war crimes against civilians and allied servicemen. From 1935 onward, the SS spearheaded the persecution of Jews, who were rounded up into ghettos and concentration camps. With the outbreak of World War II, the SS

4713:

development. It allowed for the expropriation of privately owned land to create nature preserves and aided in long-range planning. Perfunctory efforts were made to curb air pollution, but little enforcement was undertaken once the war began.

2563:, and by the end of October, Hitler realised that air superiority would not be achieved. He permanently postponed the invasion, a plan which the commanders of the German army had never taken entirely seriously. Several historians, including 2096:

As early as February 1933, Hitler announced that rearmament must begin, albeit clandestinely at first, as to do so was in violation of the Versailles Treaty. On 17 May 1933, Hitler gave a speech before the Reichstag outlining his desire for

4139:, of whom 19,000 died. Outside of Germany, the Romani people were regularly used for forced labour, though many were murdered outright. In the Baltic states and the Soviet Union, 30,000 Romani were murdered by the SS, the German Army, and 147: 2021:", which stated that upon Hindenburg's death the office of Reich President would be abolished and its powers merged with those of Reich Chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government and was formally named as 2278:, signed on 29 September 1938. The Czechoslovak government was forced to accept the Sudetenland's annexation into Germany. Chamberlain was greeted with cheers when he landed in London, saying the agreement brought "peace for our time". 4444:

From 1942 onward, Soviet POWs were viewed as a source of forced labour, and received better treatment so they could work. By December 1944, 750,000 Soviet POWs were working, including in German armaments factories (in violation of the

5604:

In 1939, before Germany acquired control of the last two regions which had been in its control before the Versailles Treaty—Alsace-Lorraine, Danzig and the Polish Corridor—its area was 633,786 km (244,706 sq mi). See

4912:

and Hitler's appointed cultural and educational leader for Nazi Germany, considered Catholicism to be among the Nazis' chief enemies. He planned the "extermination of the foreign Christian faiths imported into Germany", and for the

4624:

involved in extramarital relationships. Sex was sometimes used as a commodity to obtain better work from a foreign labourer. Pamphlets enjoined German women to avoid sexual relations with foreign workers as a danger to their blood.

16970: 5202:(Reich Music Chamber) on its founding in November 1933. As was the case with other art forms, the Nazis ostracised musicians who were deemed racially unacceptable and for the most part disapproved of music that was too modern or 1943:

1933, and invited many trade union delegates to Berlin for celebrations. The day after, SA stormtroopers demolished union offices around the country; all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested. The

1463:(leader). Power was centralised in Hitler's person, and his word became the highest law. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power. In the midst of the 14462: 4974:, a national German ethnic community. The goal was to build a classless society based on racial purity and the perceived need to prepare for warfare, conquest and a struggle against Marxism. The German Labour Front founded the 4603:

and bore strong children was considered ideal, and women were praised for being athletic and tanned from working outdoors. Organisations were created for the indoctrination of Nazi values. From 25 March 1939 membership in the

2872:

first broke into a distillery and then rampaged through the town, committing mass rapes, arbitrarily executing civilians, and setting fire to buildings. High numbers of suicides took place in many other locations, including

2125:, which had been placed under League of Nations supervision for 15 years at the end of World War I, voted in January 1935 to become part of Germany. In March 1935, Hitler announced the creation of an air force, and that the 17568: 3427:

habitual offenders and jailed indefinitely. People such as prostitutes and pickpockets were judged to be inherently criminal and a threat to the community. Thousands were arrested and confined indefinitely without trial.

1923:, decreeing the Nazi Party to be the sole legal party in Germany. The founding of new parties was also made illegal, and all remaining political parties which had not already been dissolved were banned. Further elections 4517:

physical education, and education in physics was oriented toward subjects with military applications, such as ballistics and aerodynamics. Students were required to watch all films prepared by the school division of the

180: 179: 18134: 2031:

was dropped. Germany was now a totalitarian state with Hitler at its head. As head of state, Hitler became Supreme Commander of the armed forces. The new law provided an altered loyalty oath for servicemen so that they

12948: 5808:"Nevertheless, the available evidence suggests that, on the whole, ordinary Germans did not approve. Goebbel's propaganda campaigns carried out in the second half of 1941 and again in 1943 had failed to convert them". 1452:

on 30 January 1933, the Nazi Party began to eliminate political opposition and consolidate power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator by merging the powers of the chancellery and presidency. A

2725:

Losses continued to mount after Stalingrad, leading to a sharp reduction in the popularity of the Nazi Party and deteriorating morale. Soviet forces continued to push westward after the failed German offensive at the

1938:

All civilian organisations had their leadership replaced with Nazi sympathisers or party members, and either merged with the Nazi Party or faced dissolution. The Nazi government declared a "Day of National Labor" for

14974: 3416:, the concept that Hitler's word overrode all existing laws. Any acts that were sanctioned by Hitler—even murder—thus became legal. All legislation proposed by cabinet ministers had to be approved by the office of 5084:

were publicly burned. Pacifist works, and literature espousing liberal, democratic values were targeted for destruction, as well as any writings supporting the Weimar Republic or those written by Jewish authors.

4069:

the Nazis incited against the Jews two days later. Members of the SA damaged or destroyed synagogues and Jewish property throughout Germany. At least 91 German Jews were murdered during this pogrom, later called

17573: 5319:

About 65 per cent of the death sentences were carried out. Poland was more active than other nations in investigating war crimes, for example prosecuting 673 of the total 789 Auschwitz staff brought to trial.

3297:

and supported the development of an extensive military at the expense of intellectualism. Creativity and art were stifled, except where they could serve as propaganda media. The party used symbols such as the

2413:(SD; Security Service), ordered on 21 September that Polish Jews should be rounded up and concentrated into cities with good rail links. Initially the intention was to deport them further east, or possibly to 4745:

made up less than 1 per cent. According to the 1939 census, taken following the annexation of Austria, 54 per cent of the population considered themselves Protestant, 40 per cent Roman Catholic, 3.5 per cent

3381:

Jewish civil servants lost their jobs in 1933, except for those who had seen military service in World War I. Members of the Party or party supporters were appointed in their place. As part of the process of

2281:

Austrian and Czech foreign exchange reserves were seized by the Nazis, as were stockpiles of raw materials such as metals and completed goods such as weaponry and aircraft, which were shipped to Germany. The

17598: 4244:

and resettled by German colonists. About 3.8 to 4 million Poles would remain as slaves, part of a slave labour force of 14 million the Nazis intended to create using citizens of conquered nations.

4032:

Discrimination against Jews began immediately after the seizure of power. Following a month-long series of attacks by members of the SA on Jewish businesses and synagogues, on 1 April 1933 Hitler declared a

5035:

Many authors left the country and some wrote material critical of the regime while in exile. Goebbels recommended that the remaining authors concentrate on books themed on Germanic myths and the concept of

4812:, from which some clergymen opposed the Nazi regime. When in 1935 the Confessing Church synod protested the Nazi policy on religion, 700 of their pastors were arrested. Müller resigned and Hitler appointed 3856:

By early 1934, the focus shifted towards rearmament. By 1935, military expenditures accounted for 73 per cent of the government's purchases of goods and services. On 18 October 1936, Hitler named Göring as

21122: 16963: 4756:. Nazi Germany extensively employed Christian imagery and instituted a variety of new Christian celebrations, such as a massive celebration marking the 1200th anniversary of the birth of Frankish emperor 4273:. Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians. Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists. Together, the Hunger Plan and 17603: 17583: 16794: 5322:

The political programme espoused by Hitler and the Nazis brought about a world war, leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Europe. Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction, characterised as

2312:

The Germans reaffirmed their alliance with Italy and signed non-aggression pacts with Denmark, Estonia, and Latvia whilst trade links were formalised with Romania, Norway, and Sweden. Foreign Minister

1665:

on 8 May 1945. Hitler's refusal to admit defeat led to massive destruction of German infrastructure and additional war-related deaths in the closing months of the war. The Allies initiated a policy of

3764:

An elaborate bureaucracy was created to regulate imports of raw materials and finished goods with the intention of eliminating foreign competition in the German marketplace and improving the nation's

2421:, some 65,000 Polish intelligentsia, noblemen, clergy, and teachers were murdered by the end of 1939 in an attempt to destroy Poland's identity as a nation. Soviet forces advanced into Finland in the 4240:, and those who were physically fit were required to perform compulsory labour. In 1941 Hitler decided to destroy the Polish nation completely; within 15 to 20 years the General Government was to be 145: 4266:

after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when the invasion failed Hitler had to consider other options. One suggestion was a mass forced deportation of Jews to Poland, Palestine, or Madagascar.

11786: 2993:

of France under the condition that its residents would later decide by referendum which country to join, and Poland became a separate nation and was given access to the sea by the creation of the

16956: 12626:(1996). "Reviewed work(s): Vom Generalplan Ost zum Generalsiedlungsplan by Czeslaw Madajczyk. Der "Generalplan Ost". Hauptlinien der nationalsozialistischen Planungs- und Vernichtungspolitik by 4572:

Women were encouraged to leave the workforce, and the creation of large families by racially suitable women was promoted through propaganda campaigns. Women received a bronze award—known as the

17608: 2054:

Most Germans were relieved that the conflicts and street fighting of the Weimar era had ended. They were deluged with propaganda orchestrated by Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda

1487:(armed forces). The return to economic stability boosted the regime's popularity. Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands, threatening war if they were not met. Germany seized 3635:'s leadership the SA grew by 1934 to over half a million members—4.5 million including reserves—at a time when the regular army was still limited to 100,000 men by the Versailles Treaty. 3809:

in Berlin on 17 February 1939. With the outbreak of World War II, the factory was converted to produce military vehicles. None were sold until after the war, when the vehicle was renamed the

17686: 17563: 4551:, which coordinated groups throughout the country to promote motherhood and household activities. Courses were offered on childrearing, sewing, and cooking. Prominent feminists, including 4007:

master race and inferior races, particularly Jews, who were viewed as a mixed race that had infiltrated society and were responsible for the exploitation and repression of the Aryan race.

17593: 3861:

of the Four Year Plan, intended to speed up rearmament. In addition to calling for the rapid construction of steel mills, synthetic rubber plants, and other factories, Göring instituted

176: 146: 3658:

Heinrich Himmler from 1929, the SS had over a quarter million members by 1938. Himmler initially envisioned the SS as being an elite group of guards, Hitler's last line of defence. The

15002: 4682:, camp doctor at Auschwitz. Many of his victims died. Concentration camp inmates were made available for purchase by pharmaceutical companies for drug testing and other experiments. 4151:

were murdered. The estimates at end of the war put the total number of Romani victims at around 220,000, which equalled approximately 25 per cent of the Romani population in Europe.

3662:, the military branch of the SS, evolved into a second army. It was dependent on the regular army for heavy weaponry and equipment, and most units were under tactical control of the 2796: 24613: 15649: 3938:, compared to 60 per cent in the Soviet Union and 55 per cent in Britain. Speer improved production by centralising planning and control, reducing production of consumer goods, and 4472:

Antisemitic legislation passed in 1933 led to the removal of all Jewish teachers, professors, and officials from the education system. Most teachers were required to belong to the

14714:

Germany and the Second World War, Vol. 5. Organization and Mobilization in the German Sphere of Power. Part 2: Wartime Administration, Economy, and Manpower Resources, 1942–1944/5

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society in which the German woman would recognise that her "world is her husband, her family, her children, and her home". Feminist groups were shut down or incorporated into the

1911:

deputies from attending, and the Communists had already been banned. The Enabling Act would subsequently serve as the legal foundation for the dictatorship the Nazis established.

4255: 2036:

rather than the office of supreme commander or the state. On 19 August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 90 per cent of the electorate in a

22836: 18094: 17913: 17818: 12957: 2742:

in October 1942. The Allies landed in Sicily in July 1943 and were on the Italian peninsula by September. Meanwhile, American and British bomber fleets based in Britain began

3676:

units followed the army into Poland and the Soviet Union, where from 1941 to 1945 they murdered more than two million people, including 1.3 million Jews. A third of the

3551:

be regarded as partisans and gave the order for all male Jews between the ages of 15 and 45 to be shot. By August, this was extended to include the entire Jewish population.

1681:

Common English terms for the German state in the Nazi era are "Nazi Germany" and the "Third Reich", which Hitler and the Nazis also referred to as the "Thousand-Year Reich" (

18359: 4371:. German citizens had access to information about what was happening, as soldiers returning from the occupied territories reported on what they had seen and done. Historian 2606:

On 22 June 1941, contravening the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, about 3.8 million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union. In addition to Hitler's stated purpose of acquiring

3151:) were placed under civilian administrations staffed largely by natives. Hitler intended to eventually incorporate many of these areas into the Reich. Germany occupied the 25231: 21107: 15791: 3268: 13481:"Non-Germans" under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945 2105:

for military disarmament, provided the other nations of Europe did the same. When the other European powers failed to accept this offer, Hitler pulled Germany out of the

30014: 21271: 4543:

Women were a cornerstone of Nazi social policy. The Nazis opposed the feminist movement, claiming that it was the creation of Jewish intellectuals, instead advocating a

4424: 3320: 2694:("Case Blue"), an offensive against the Caucasian oilfields. The Red Army launched a counter-offensive on 19 November and encircled the Axis forces, who were trapped in 29759: 29367: 2774:, Hitler survived an assassination attempt. He ordered brutal reprisals, resulting in 7,000 arrests and the execution of more than 4,900 people. The failed 31365: 29383: 18109: 13868:

Panayi, Panikos (2005). "Exploitation, Criminality, Resistance: The Everyday Life of Foreign Workers and Prisoners of War in the German Town of Osnabruck, 1939–49".

4195: 4038: 1945: 12353: 17944: 17521: 17382: 17372: 17337: 3412:

In August 1934, civil servants and members of the military were required to swear an oath of unconditional obedience to Hitler. These laws became the basis of the

29703: 29306: 29278: 28422: 3554:

In spite of efforts to prepare the country militarily, the economy could not sustain a lengthy war of attrition. A strategy was developed based on the tactic of

1619:

around Adolf Hitler to influence public opinion. The government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others.

4135:(Gypsy camps) for this purpose. Himmler ordered their deportation from Germany in December 1942, with few exceptions. A total of 23,000 Romani were deported to 2069:

Beginning in April 1933, scores of measures defining the status of Jews and their rights were instituted. These measures culminated in the establishment of the

32282: 31344: 30023: 29710: 28844: 21706: 21047: 17676: 3128: 1955:—and adopted reworked symbolism. The previous imperial black, white, and red tricolour was restored as one of Germany's two official flags; the second was the 20606: 13947: 4993:

seizure of power, but as time went on Goebbels insisted that more music be played so that listeners would not turn to foreign broadcasters for entertainment.

30326: 29689: 28998: 28623: 26280: 17979: 17362: 14693:

Uekötter, Frank (2005). "Polycentrism in Full Swing: Air Pollution Control in Nazi Germany". In Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef; Cioc, Mark; Zeller, Thomas (eds.).

13357: 4518: 3272: 2524:, and uncertainty about the future. Food supplies were precarious; production dropped in most of Europe. Famine was experienced in many occupied countries. 29339: 29285: 28471: 17367: 17357: 5244:

branches. Exports of German films plummeted, as their antisemitic content made them impossible to show in other countries. The two largest film companies,

3749:

and Minister of Economics, created a scheme for deficit financing in May 1933. Capital projects were paid for with the issuance of promissory notes called

3615: 2018: 1370: 2685:

demanded increased shipments of grain from France and fish from Norway. The 1942 harvest was good, and food supplies remained adequate in Western Europe.

1974:, public works projects were undertaken beginning in 1934, creating 1.7 million new jobs by the end of that year alone. Average wages began to rise. 32287: 29796: 29292: 28908: 17347: 17342: 16026: 11795: 3939: 3882: 2688:

Germany and Europe as a whole were almost totally dependent on foreign oil imports. In an attempt to resolve the shortage, in June 1942 Germany launched

1628: 14409: 444: 28318: 19824: 2320:, signed in August 1939. The treaty also contained secret protocols dividing Poland and the Baltic states into German and Soviet spheres of influence. 26096: 5398:

attributed the country's "growing historical amnesia" in part to a failure by German film and television to reflect the country's history accurately.

178: 31654: 29682: 29129: 29005: 25743: 20038: 18053: 17332: 17211: 14538:

Stolfi, Russel (March 1982). "Barbarossa Revisited: A Critical Reappraisal of the Opening Stages of the Russo-German Campaign (June–December 1941)".

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In addition, the Nazis planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the

1932: 1928: 5768:

believed air superiority was not enough and admitted, "We possessed neither control of the air or the sea; nor were we in any position to gain it."

28982: 28362: 26295: 24608: 18196: 17848: 4490: 4108:

people were deported from Germany to the General Government, where they were imprisoned in labour camps. The survivors were likely exterminated at

2917:

puts the number of German military dead and missing at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders.

2270:

The crisis led to war preparations by Britain, Czechoslovakia, and France (Czechoslovakia's ally). Attempting to avoid war, British Prime Minister

14041: 11871: 4352:, but these methods proved impractical for an operation of this scale. By 1942 extermination camps equipped with gas chambers were established at 3111:(Reich Commissariats), quasi-colonial regimes, were established in some occupied countries. Areas placed under German administration included the 29419: 28731: 20820: 18526: 18369: 16721: 5448: 4016: 3152: 3008:

of 1938. The Munich Agreement of 1938 gave Germany control of the Sudetenland, and they seized the remainder of Czechoslovakia six months later.

1249: 709: 15878: 11814:

Biddiscombe, Perry (2001). "Dangerous Liaisons: The Anti-Fraternization Movement in the US Occupation Zones of Germany and Austria, 1945–1948".

2309:

the Polish Corridor but greatly expanding German territory eastward at the expense of Poland. He expected this time they would be met by force.

1859: 544: 31644: 29238: 28540: 25542: 20800: 16702: 5306:, held from November 1945 to October 1946, of 23 top Nazi officials. They were charged with conspiracy to commit crimes, crimes against peace, 5189:, organised by Goebbels, ran in Munich from July to November 1937. The exhibition proved wildly popular, attracting over two million visitors. 4569:, the only Nazi-approved women's magazine in Nazi Germany; despite some propaganda aspects, it was predominantly an ordinary woman's magazine. 3999:

were basic tenets of the Nazi Party and the Nazi regime. Nazi Germany's racial policy was based on their belief in the existence of a superior

2381:

on 27 September 1940. Bulgaria signed the pact on 17 November. German efforts to secure oil included negotiating a supply from their new ally,

31237: 27062: 5040:. By the end of 1933, over a thousand books—most of them by Jewish authors or featuring Jewish characters—had been banned by the Nazi regime. 4360:, Sobibor, Treblinka, and elsewhere. The total number of Jews murdered is estimated at 5.5 to six million, including over a million children. 4065:, a legation secretary at the German embassy in Paris, to protest his family's treatment in Germany. This incident provided the pretext for a 31922: 30030: 29993: 29970: 29491: 28413: 28383: 26021: 25537: 20815: 20612: 20191: 18731: 17720: 17221: 15786: 4324: 4144: 4043: 3816: 3164: 2746:. Many sorties were intentionally given civilian targets in an effort to destroy German morale. The bombing of aircraft factories as well as 108: 29745: 3243:

The regime attempted to obtain this new territory by attacking Poland and the Soviet Union, intending to mass-murder or deport the Jews and

1888:, a Dutch communist, was found guilty of starting the blaze. Hitler proclaimed that the arson marked the start of a communist uprising. The 30123: 29979: 29963: 29935: 29183: 28390: 26533: 26361: 26356: 26351: 26346: 24663: 20795: 18191: 15781: 13238: 4891: 4833: 3224:, which laid out his plan for transforming German society into one based on race. Nazi ideology brought together elements of antisemitism, 1782:("living space") for Germanic peoples, formation of a national community based on race, and racial cleansing via the active suppression of 390: 13398:. Atlanta: Emory University. 17. Radicalisation of the Persecution of the Jews by Hitler at the Turn of the Year 1941–1942. Archived from 12950:

Nauka, planowanie, wypędzenia : Generalny Plan Wschodni narodowych socjalistów : katalog wystawy Niemieckiej Współnoty Badawczej

3587: 30880: 29947: 29859: 29803: 29766: 29048: 25611: 24063: 22312: 22025: 20498: 16714: 4286: 3888: 2091: 1924: 12743: 3255:

conspiracy. The Nazi regime believed that only Germany could defeat the forces of Bolshevism and save humanity from world domination by

32242: 32237: 29852: 28584: 24673: 22005: 21566: 15654: 14592: 5458: 4498: 4479: 14712:

Umbreit, Hans (2003). "Hitler's Europe: The German Sphere of Power". In Kroener, Bernhard; Müller, Rolf-Dieter; Umbreit, Hans (eds.).

13774: 4173:: "60 000 RM is what this person with hereditary illness costs the community in his lifetime. Fellow citizen, that is your money too." 31358: 29986: 28376: 28334: 22035: 21716: 21261: 21102: 20518: 17743: 16692: 13264:

Lambert, Peter (2007). "Heroisation and Demonisation in the Third Reich: The Consensus-building Value of a Nazi Pantheon of Heroes".

5044:

took place; nineteen such events were held on the night of 10 May 1933. Tens of thousands of books from dozens of figures, including

3845:

funds were seized and their leadership arrested, including those who attempted to co-operate with the Nazis. A new organisation, the

2567:, believe the primary reason for the failure of the invasion plan was the superiority of the Royal Navy, not the actions of the RAF. 2143: 32133: 31859: 31207: 29026: 28800: 28563: 28429: 28240: 26372: 25080: 23932: 22332: 21918: 21433: 19440: 19017: 18257: 18220: 17755: 16989: 16784: 16419: 13999:

Grand Admiral: The Personal Memoir of the Commander in Chief of the German Navy From 1935 Until His Final Break With Hitler in 1943

5438: 5210:

was considered especially inappropriate and foreign jazz musicians left the country or were expelled. Hitler favoured the music of

4821:

and Dachau. Theological universities were closed and pastors and theologians of other Protestant denominations were also arrested.

4761: 4021: 3365: 1363: 250: 20921: 14434: 12169: 5107: 4673:, were performed on concentration camp inmates beginning in 1941. The most notorious doctor to perform medical experiments was SS- 3175: 32227: 31588: 30102: 29899: 28936: 28436: 28348: 28284: 20181: 19198: 17984: 17964: 17888: 17588: 15084: 11879:, Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe on behalf of the European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, archived from 2730:

in the summer of 1943. By the end of 1943, the Germans had lost most of their eastern territorial gains. In Egypt, Field Marshal

2083: 922: 17705: 14772: 4277:

would have led to the starvation of 80 million people in the Soviet Union. These partially fulfilled plans resulted in the

31943: 31593: 31552: 31496: 30305: 29817: 28667: 28205: 26377: 26332: 25878: 25763: 24729: 24633: 22070: 21791: 21766: 21621: 21556: 21212: 20790: 20775: 20373: 17959: 17954: 17833: 17663: 16799: 12864: 5014: 3386:, the Reich Local Government Law of 1935 abolished local elections, and mayors were appointed by the Ministry of the Interior. 2367: 1786:, who would be stripped of their citizenship and civil rights. The Nazis proposed national and cultural renewal based upon the 232: 21381: 17681: 12229:

Cadaverland: Inventing a Pathology of Catastrophe for Holocaust Survival: The Limits of Medical Knowledge and Memory in France

4646: 4508: 275: 31948: 30901: 30806: 30333: 30079: 29954: 29040: 29014: 28871: 28577: 28494: 28015: 27397: 26270: 26204: 22382: 22212: 20946: 20805: 20434: 18491: 17710: 17700: 17578: 15907: 15048: 14963: 14944: 14925: 14903: 14884: 14862: 14840: 14721: 14702: 14683: 14664: 14645: 14621: 14528: 14509: 14490: 14398: 14376: 14320: 14298: 14262: 14218: 14196: 14146: 14122: 14096: 14077: 14030: 14006: 13984: 13933: 13914: 13858: 13839: 13820: 13796: 13745: 13724: 13675: 13656: 13634: 13615: 13596: 13574: 13555: 13536: 13514: 13488: 13469: 13443: 13424: 13305: 13227: 13206: 13156: 13135: 13116: 13097: 13076: 13054: 13035: 13011: 12992: 12824: 12800: 12776: 12732: 12708: 12660: 12613: 12591: 12540: 12521: 12500: 12478: 12456: 12437: 12414: 12391: 12343: 12315: 12236: 12217: 12155: 12123: 12099: 12080: 12058: 12037: 12014: 11992: 11860: 11775: 11753: 11731: 11712: 11693: 11672: 11648: 4659: 4390: 4337: 4085:, but those moving to other countries had to leave virtually all their property behind, and it was seized by the government. 3961: 2937: 1616: 1303: 1234: 1167: 12834:

Hamblet, Wendy C. (2008). "Book Review: Götz Aly: Hitler's Beneficiaries: Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State".

2203: 32178: 31545: 31134: 30541: 30427: 29592: 29059: 29055: 29033: 28637: 26342: 25527: 25512: 25287: 23755: 22337: 21786: 21197: 21147: 18798: 17908: 17798: 17748: 16709: 15806: 15681: 15623: 14252: 5541: 4895: 4574: 4548: 4467: 4384: 4170: 1920: 27921: 20875: 19944: 19517: 17994: 16354: 14273: 12928: 12361: 4996: 32257: 31839: 31832: 31049: 30513: 29845: 29831: 29044: 26285: 26127: 26011: 25843: 25492: 24349: 22342: 22182: 22045: 22020: 21851: 21821: 21207: 21142: 20916: 20810: 20622: 18645: 18628: 18461: 18020: 17843: 17458: 14833:

Das Sonderrecht für die Juden im NS-Staat: Eine Sammlung der gesetzlichen Maßnahmen und Rechtlinien, Inhalt und Bedeutung

13391: 11901:"Das "Dritte Reich" im Dritten Reich: Der Topos "Drittes Reich" in der nationalsozialistischen Ideologie und Staatslehre" 5522: 4817:

hope of uniting the Protestant churches. Niemöller was arrested on 1 July 1937 and spent most of the next seven years in

4434: 4042:

grandparent was considered non-Aryan. As part of the drive to remove Jewish influence from cultural life, members of the

3542:—the mobile death squads responsible for millions of murders in Eastern Europe—when it was tactically possible to do so. 3112: 2193: 2187: 1414:, meaning "Third Realm" or "Third Empire", referred to the Nazi claim that Nazi Germany was the successor to the earlier 1356: 1130: 898: 4429: 4124:

in late 1941, where half were estimated to have died. The Romani survivors of the ghetto were subsequently moved to the

3598: 3430: 2425:, and German forces saw action at sea. But little other activity occurred until May, so the period became known as the " 2214: 2010:)—were arrested and shot. Up to 200 people were killed from 30 June to 2 July 1934 in an event that became known as the 32267: 31874: 31796: 31258: 31127: 31005: 30583: 30298: 30249: 30007: 29562: 28814: 28653: 28501: 28355: 28067: 27067: 26209: 26001: 25671: 25211: 25100: 24623: 24429: 22431: 22317: 21866: 21841: 21661: 21631: 21561: 21172: 21127: 21112: 21077: 21029: 20632: 20281: 20086: 19702: 18536: 18501: 18446: 16748: 15813: 15614: 15295: 12028:: Nazi Germany's Reich Nature Protection Law of 1935". In Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef; Cioc, Mark; Zeller, Thomas (eds.). 5232: 4474: 4446: 4408: 4404: 4396: 4241: 3009: 2712: 2497: 1908: 1815: 1269: 1063: 918: 26026: 17526: 17377: 13315: 13166: 3741:

The most pressing economic matter the Nazis initially faced was the 30 per cent national unemployment rate. Economist

3494: 2747: 2617: 31927: 31884: 31374: 30256: 30228: 30045: 29627: 29346: 29313: 26711: 26163: 25828: 25467: 24653: 24643: 23927: 22040: 22000: 21771: 21746: 21686: 21339: 20975: 20166: 19278: 18985: 18889: 18726: 17989: 17715: 14177: 12297: 5028: 4585: 4034: 4025: 3608: 3156: 2890: 2442: 2433: 2087: 1982:

The SA leadership continued to apply pressure for greater political and military power. In response, Hitler used the

31727: 28529: 25420: 21386: 18181: 5374:(coping with the past) to the forefront for many Germans. Once study of Nazi Germany was introduced into the school 2969:

Territorial expansion of German Reich from 1933 to 1941 as explained to Wehrmacht soldiers, a Nazi era map in German

2296:

In January 1934, Germany signed a non-aggression pact with Poland. In March 1939, Hitler demanded the return of the

31732: 31411: 30569: 30506: 29641: 29477: 28600: 26587: 26229: 26122: 25833: 22255: 22030: 21751: 21329: 21162: 20870: 20830: 20617: 20543: 20538: 20043: 17898: 17012: 16062: 15719: 12790: 4818: 4289:; less than nine million of these were combat deaths. One in four of the Soviet population were killed or wounded. 3806: 3160: 2954: 1514: 913: 92: 29154: 25621: 17694: 16948: 15076: 15043:. The Canadian Foundation for Polish Studies of the Polish Institute of Arts & Sciences, Price-Patterson Ltd. 12287: 9694: 3135:, which had been part of Germany until 1919, was annexed. Part of Poland was incorporated into the Reich, and the 3095:

Some of the conquered territories were incorporated into Germany as part of Hitler's long-term goal of creating a

964: 32138: 31953: 31899: 31844: 31619: 31614: 31535: 30935: 30776: 30765: 30601: 30360: 30319: 30212: 30150: 29537: 28807: 28676: 28644: 27693: 26337: 25923: 25723: 25257: 25226: 24949: 24214: 24083: 22327: 22109: 21965: 21945: 21928: 21371: 21334: 21132: 21024: 20503: 20419: 19854: 18851: 18451: 17903: 17873: 16906: 16116: 15871: 15796: 15686: 15305: 15300: 15290: 15285: 15189: 15135: 13368: 5428: 4909: 4772:, a "figure of redemption according to the Christian model", "who would liberate the world from the Antichrist". 4237: 3638:

Röhm hoped to assume command of the army and absorb it into the ranks of the SA. Hindenburg and Defence Minister

2592:. All of Yugoslavia and parts of Greece were subsequently divided between Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Bulgaria. 2564: 2507: 1720: 1075: 940: 29324: 28892: 26855: 25462: 25457: 23765: 21376: 19756: 17195: 4620:(BDM; League of German Girls) for young women age 14 to 18. The BDM's activities focused on physical education. 31904: 31854: 31321: 31293: 31171: 30964: 30201: 29652: 29578: 29374: 28745: 28464: 28369: 28254: 26006: 25688: 25631: 25332: 25327: 24648: 24553: 24314: 24048: 23912: 23016: 22187: 21641: 21137: 20941: 20825: 20186: 18834: 18650: 18334: 18058: 17883: 17828: 17160: 15801: 4691: 4109: 3147: 2913:

Estimates of the total German war dead range from 5.5 to 6.9 million persons. A study by German historian

2853: 2720: 1662: 1467:, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending. Financed by 944: 903: 635: 485: 21533: 19720: 3287: 3084: 2493:. The victory in France resulted in an upswing in Hitler's popularity and an upsurge in war fever in Germany. 114: 31381: 31314: 31265: 31196: 31021: 30527: 30478: 30242: 30235: 29838: 29599: 29390: 28443: 28131: 26545: 25863: 25646: 25126: 24618: 23968: 22217: 21938: 21092: 20705: 20528: 19986: 19477: 19465: 19128: 18904: 18766: 18670: 18569: 17939: 17934: 17555: 17443: 17254: 16284: 16254: 16242: 14812: 14417: 12381: 4959: 4312: 3986: 3652:(SS; Protection Squadron) grew to become one of the largest and most powerful groups in Nazi Germany. Led by 3361: 3056: 2960: 2857: 2804: 1435: 26178: 17516: 4501:

for secondary education. Detailed indoctrination of future holders of elite military rank was undertaken at

4357: 4125: 3893: 3722: 3280: 2284: 2131:

would be increased to 550,000 men. Britain agreed to Germany building a naval fleet with the signing of the

32292: 31696: 31540: 31455: 31351: 30726: 30687: 29606: 29441: 29426: 29353: 29332: 29150: 28828: 28614: 28607: 28591: 28302: 28261: 28233: 28126: 28010: 25666: 25532: 25390: 25357: 24779: 24563: 23306: 22436: 22392: 22367: 22285: 22265: 21666: 21576: 21571: 21473: 21468: 21463: 21234: 21182: 21157: 20835: 20672: 20647: 20590: 20296: 20033: 19323: 19148: 18876: 18746: 18250: 18104: 18099: 18089: 17999: 17808: 17803: 17778: 17671: 16774: 16057: 12231:. Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry series. Waltham, Mass: University Press of New England. 11631: 5795: 5789: 5783: 5391: 4797: 4333: 4228: 4148: 4136: 3965: 3924: 3734: 2132: 2106: 1696: 936: 31786: 25848: 25522: 24469: 24229: 23760: 23745: 22926: 22690: 19888: 13755: 10641: 5369: 2155:

with Japan and a non-aggression agreement with Mussolini, who was soon referring to a "Rome-Berlin Axis".

31864: 31418: 30742: 30694: 30312: 30284: 30137: 29752: 29731: 29252: 28915: 28821: 28311: 28136: 27173: 25783: 25656: 25651: 25367: 25050: 24759: 24588: 23872: 22290: 22197: 22134: 22082: 22010: 21781: 21711: 21391: 21187: 21002: 20755: 20368: 20176: 19729: 18943: 18856: 18308: 18063: 17974: 17274: 16553: 15430: 12550: 11683: 5315: 4782: 3920: 3489: 3141: 2933: 2450: 2317: 2256: 2122: 1819: 1596: 1502: 956: 908: 893: 888: 843: 17: 24259: 21294: 19920: 19829: 16588: 5553: 1845: 1653: 32018: 31489: 31216: 30712: 30631: 30576: 30464: 30420: 30070: 29696: 29620: 29522: 29399: 29271: 29264: 29224: 29197: 28929: 28862: 28457: 28268: 28198: 26518: 26410: 25903: 25307: 24693: 24583: 24179: 23291: 22811: 22387: 22372: 22297: 22275: 22270: 22207: 21923: 21885: 21741: 21721: 21696: 21493: 21458: 21453: 21177: 20980: 20906: 20865: 20730: 20627: 20575: 20463: 20256: 20196: 20116: 18866: 18778: 18756: 18675: 18660: 18476: 18456: 18298: 18073: 18068: 17793: 17425: 17420: 17415: 17410: 17405: 17397: 17307: 16728: 16653: 16274: 16021: 15866: 15219: 14229: 14049: 12068: 11880: 5720:– this latter term was the official name used by the Nazis to describe their expanded political state. 4849: 4841: 4399:

2.7 million ethnic Poles died. Polish civilians were subject to forced labour in German industry,

4364: 4113: 3663: 3434:

A meeting of the four jurists who imposed Nazi ideology on the legal system of Germany (left to right:

3315: 3123: 3117: 2901: 2852:. Between 4 and 8 May 1945, most of the remaining German armed forces unconditionally surrendered. The 2170:

included a range of aircraft and their crews, as well as a tank contingent. The aircraft of the Legion

2139: 1893: 1765: 1135: 1105: 878: 24479: 23735: 23624: 21087: 16072: 13702: 12553:(Spring 2014). "Allied Knowledge of Auschwitz: A (Further) Challenge to the 'Elusiveness' Narrative". 4407:

to make way for German colonists, and mass executions. The German authorities engaged in a systematic

4231:

was based on Hitler's long-standing view that Jews were the great enemy of the German people and that

3004:

Germany regained control of the Saarland through a referendum held in 1935 and annexed Austria in the

2043: 1603:, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women 32232: 32222: 31978: 31894: 31849: 31118: 31035: 30820: 30680: 30652: 30485: 30390: 30180: 29613: 28687: 28341: 28094: 27242: 26806: 25858: 25487: 25322: 25070: 24668: 23867: 23391: 22352: 22177: 22129: 22124: 22015: 21846: 21806: 21701: 21503: 21448: 21443: 20895: 20840: 20785: 20750: 20682: 20595: 20548: 20483: 19588: 19118: 18303: 18004: 17690: 14540: 11662: 5186: 5134: 4829: 3783:

Major public works projects financed with deficit spending included the construction of a network of

3101: 3036: 2661:

with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves. The Moscow offensive, which resumed in October 1941,

2649:

to halt its advance to Moscow and temporarily divert its Panzer groups to aid in the encirclement of

2642: 2490: 2474: 2063: 1811: 952: 948: 883: 662: 28885: 22670: 19864: 19793: 10972: 7727: 4165: 3079: 32004: 30857: 30834: 30086: 29887: 29880: 29544: 29204: 29176: 29169: 28556: 28052: 28027: 27877: 27536: 27531: 26168: 25918: 25893: 25788: 25773: 25586: 25435: 25317: 25277: 25216: 25090: 24864: 24078: 23780: 23411: 23154: 23113: 22715: 22362: 22242: 22202: 22167: 22114: 22065: 21895: 21836: 21736: 21726: 21691: 21681: 21676: 21616: 21581: 21421: 21319: 21152: 21117: 20780: 20735: 20652: 20637: 20457: 20286: 20053: 19428: 19393: 19333: 19095: 19057: 18894: 18665: 17788: 17215: 17125: 17110: 16878: 16822: 16638: 16624: 16154: 16067: 15991: 15917: 15893: 15861: 15659: 15229: 15214: 15091: 15070: 14635: 11959: 11853:

The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 – March 1942

11766:(1999). "Germans and Poles, 1871–1945". In Bullivant, Keith; Giles, Geoffrey; Pape, Walter (eds.). 5433: 5142: 4863: 4804:

because of its Jewish origins and demanded that converted Jews be barred from their church. Pastor

4728: 4199: 2059: 2011: 1757: 1608: 1488: 960: 786: 499: 28901: 28878: 25009: 24404: 22956: 22806: 22604: 16558: 15440: 15333: 11932: 5022: 4866:

assassinations. Most Catholic youth groups refused to dissolve themselves and Hitler Youth leader

32262: 32252: 31279: 31223: 31093: 30953: 30638: 30291: 30187: 30093: 29661: 29529: 29499: 29463: 29448: 29320: 29212: 29190: 29136: 29122: 29104: 28768: 28549: 28277: 28226: 28119: 28000: 27541: 27494: 27437: 27136: 27080: 26828: 26493: 26367: 25661: 25517: 25507: 25425: 25060: 24749: 24688: 24568: 24548: 24304: 24123: 23563: 22487: 22260: 21671: 21656: 21428: 21416: 20901: 20770: 20667: 20338: 20313: 20266: 20161: 19932: 19231: 19105: 19085: 19062: 19042: 19002: 18965: 18914: 18788: 18751: 18521: 18243: 17893: 17838: 17813: 16873: 16832: 16779: 16613: 15360: 15275: 14979: 12924: 12170:"Slouching Towards Utopia?: The Economic History of the Twentieth Century. XV. Nazis and Soviets" 9794: 5350: 5311: 5294: 4785: 3862: 3712: 3520: 3214:

vote, making it the Reichstag's second largest political party. While in prison after the failed

2896: 2142:

led to only mild protests by the British and French governments, on 7 March 1936 Hitler used the

2114: 2037: 1935:

were Nazi-controlled, with only members of the Party and a small number of independents elected.

1730: 1631:

became hallmarks of the regime; the implementation of the regime's racial policies culminated in

1227: 928: 815: 801: 193: 24859: 24008: 23775: 19707: 13569:(in Polish). Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu. 9459: 9457: 3805:

car), intended to be an automobile that everyone could afford. A prototype was displayed at the

3686: 3024: 2973:

As a result of their defeat in World War I and the resulting Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost

2438: 2288:

industrial conglomerate took control of steel and coal production facilities in both countries.

32098: 31889: 31827: 30971: 30864: 30666: 30617: 30520: 30413: 30383: 30166: 30054: 29780: 29571: 29162: 29143: 29113: 28660: 28630: 28141: 28042: 28037: 27725: 27673: 27593: 27526: 27430: 27415: 27308: 27075: 27029: 26870: 26757: 26199: 26031: 25813: 25703: 25502: 25472: 25450: 25415: 25405: 25400: 25292: 25142: 25019: 24819: 24189: 24068: 23917: 23271: 23108: 23057: 22961: 22322: 22307: 22097: 21880: 21816: 21626: 21606: 21586: 21518: 21508: 21478: 21411: 21396: 21299: 21266: 20926: 20860: 20760: 20692: 20585: 20533: 20470: 20390: 20348: 20291: 20201: 20141: 19981: 19817: 19573: 19522: 19032: 19007: 18970: 18829: 18761: 18590: 18481: 18471: 17544: 17145: 16498: 16359: 16187: 16036: 15776: 15540: 15535: 15280: 14366: 13248: 5496: 5362: 5283: 5153:

building in Berlin. Hitler's plans for rebuilding Berlin included a gigantic dome based on the

4926: 4615: 4591: 4478:(NSLB; National Socialist Teachers League) and university professors were required to join the 3935: 3096: 3044: 3032: 2865: 2666: 2585: 2581: 2470: 2313: 2174:

in 1937. The Nationalists were victorious in 1939 and became an informal ally of Nazi Germany.

1804: 1738: 1658: 1580: 1454: 1427: 1093: 987: 134: 37: 31675: 24419: 24264: 23725: 23598: 21861: 19741: 3793:

Envisioning widespread car ownership as part of the new Germany, Hitler arranged for designer

2762:

On 6 June 1944, American, British, and Canadian forces established a front in France with the

1966:

Germany was still in a dire economic situation, as six million people were unemployed and the

1756:), commonly known as the Nazi Party, was founded in 1920. It was the renamed successor of the 32217: 32157: 32086: 31985: 31649: 31574: 31482: 31462: 31185: 31028: 30924: 30894: 30850: 30590: 30555: 30548: 30471: 30369: 29810: 29787: 29634: 29245: 28782: 28522: 28508: 28191: 28072: 28032: 27845: 27720: 26784: 26774: 26733: 26704: 26649: 26476: 25965: 25908: 25868: 25808: 25778: 25606: 25380: 24944: 24939: 24914: 24904: 24894: 24769: 24598: 24394: 24359: 24269: 24219: 24163: 24113: 24108: 24028: 23699: 23381: 23062: 22901: 22302: 22280: 22232: 22172: 22162: 22119: 21960: 21831: 21811: 21731: 21591: 21324: 21246: 21229: 21167: 21097: 21082: 20936: 20395: 20363: 20358: 20318: 20308: 20241: 20171: 20136: 20111: 19655: 19512: 19271: 19193: 19012: 18997: 18960: 17725: 17287: 17259: 16921: 16754: 16349: 16299: 16294: 15628: 15619: 15351: 14386: 9454: 5102: 4853: 4845: 4709: 4538: 4219: 3260: 2869: 2829: 2821:

while the Red Army approached. On 30 April, when Soviet troops were within two blocks of the

2333: 2113:

in October, claiming its disarmament clauses were unfair if they applied only to Germany. In

2102: 1889: 1885: 1870: 1604: 1442: 1290: 932: 29080: 27960: 24764: 23704: 22866: 20959: 19876: 14792: 14752: 14732: 12247: 9220: 4485:

Frequent and often contradictory directives were issued by Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick,

3772:, guaranteeing them a 5 per cent return on capital invested in their synthetic oil plant at 2066:

in 1933. Hundreds of camps of varying size and function were created by the end of the war.

1959:

of the Nazi Party, which became the sole national flag in September 1935. The Party anthem "

1768:

included destruction of the Weimar Republic, rejection of the Treaty of Versailles, radical

32247: 32062: 32011: 31964: 31582: 31569: 31557: 31286: 31141: 30792: 30749: 30719: 30645: 30455: 30434: 29360: 28837: 28515: 28165: 27995: 27965: 27840: 27771: 27742: 27661: 26995: 26833: 26823: 26420: 26382: 26239: 26214: 26016: 25573: 25569: 25482: 25410: 25297: 25221: 25147: 25085: 24974: 24909: 24794: 24593: 24464: 24459: 24224: 23770: 23709: 23118: 22250: 22139: 21975: 21970: 21761: 21636: 21251: 21072: 20911: 20725: 20657: 20642: 20439: 20353: 20343: 20303: 20231: 20211: 20121: 20096: 19895: 19778: 19583: 19578: 19460: 19450: 18975: 18919: 18803: 18741: 18736: 18706: 18638: 18616: 18564: 18466: 18217: 18176: 18139: 17868: 17649: 17302: 17264: 17185: 17180: 17100: 16911: 16804: 16687: 16508: 15912: 15712: 15644: 15570: 15209: 14997: 12865:"Not a slippery slope or sudden subversion: German medicine and National Socialism in 1933" 5271: 5065: 4976: 4880: 4651: 4556: 4526: 4494: 3982: 3802: 3505: 3439: 3052: 2743: 2716: 2699: 2695: 2622: 2611: 2601: 2418: 2264: 1900: 1734: 1639: 1285: 1113: 1100: 992: 648: 557: 98: 27945: 26644: 24814: 24384: 23730: 22563: 21361: 19798: 17282: 16342: 16337: 14413: 5387: 4733:

When the Nazis seized power in 1933, roughly 67 per cent of the population of Germany was

2500:, industrial firms in the Netherlands, France, and Belgium were put to work producing war 2461:

Against the advice of many of his senior military officers, in May 1940 Hitler ordered an

1787: 8: 32068: 31971: 31958: 31686: 31404: 31178: 31056: 31012: 30534: 29668: 29434: 28961: 28791: 28775: 28724: 27857: 27737: 27703: 27605: 27425: 27420: 27232: 26951: 26887: 26762: 26747: 26244: 25591: 25477: 25342: 25337: 25282: 25105: 25095: 25035: 24849: 24844: 24344: 24158: 24023: 23816: 23740: 23694: 23674: 23629: 23456: 23426: 23296: 23139: 23083: 22700: 22660: 22573: 22553: 22451: 22060: 21995: 21955: 21256: 21241: 21219: 20931: 20745: 20712: 20580: 20570: 20328: 20206: 20101: 19964: 19939: 19373: 19358: 19158: 19052: 19027: 19022: 18899: 18844: 18783: 18689: 18420: 18354: 17949: 17476: 17387: 17292: 17080: 17065: 17055: 16851: 16677: 16128: 16097: 15932: 15565: 15520: 15315: 15199: 15128: 13320: 12133:

Davis, Richard G. (1995). "German Rail Yards and Cities: U.S. Bombing Policy 1944–1945".

11530: 5266: 5260: 5125:

Hitler took a personal interest in architecture and worked closely with state architects

5098: 4867: 4236:

occupation of Poland in 1939, all Jews living in the General Government were confined to

3957:

They also took jobs formerly held by men, especially on farms and in family-owned shops.

3846: 3825: 3765: 3730: 3639: 3443: 3395: 3339: 3256: 3099:. Several areas, such as Alsace-Lorraine, were placed under the authority of an adjacent 3020: 2998: 2779: 2297: 2271: 2171: 2152: 2007: 1904: 1866: 1612: 1449: 515: 409: 27573: 27563: 24324: 23537: 22665: 21438: 21366: 21349: 16109: 14330: 13784: 13298:

The Man Who Invented the Third Reich: The Life and Times of Arthur Moeller van den Bruck

12627: 12601: 4932:

publicly proclaiming in 1941, "National Socialism and Christianity are irreconcilable."

4805: 4675: 4203: 4121: 2914: 2146:

as a pretext to order the army to march 3,000 troops into the demilitarised zone in the

2002:

and other SA leaders who—along with a number of Hitler's political adversaries (such as

32025: 31997: 31397: 31230: 31155: 31109: 31079: 30987: 30827: 30492: 30376: 30270: 30221: 30159: 29915: 29866: 29675: 29299: 28954: 28752: 27970: 27950: 27933: 27884: 27749: 27558: 27509: 27442: 27360: 27301: 27296: 27291: 27247: 27217: 27109: 27007: 26875: 26850: 26466: 26219: 25440: 25347: 25252: 25121: 25045: 24959: 24954: 24879: 24739: 24709: 24683: 24678: 24603: 24578: 24489: 24319: 24249: 24143: 24138: 24133: 23958: 23654: 23149: 23047: 22583: 20997: 20985: 20261: 20246: 19976: 19959: 19788: 19670: 19547: 19497: 19224: 19217: 19072: 19037: 18924: 18909: 18839: 18817: 18793: 18721: 18655: 18585: 18496: 18415: 18384: 18293: 18270: 18036: 17633: 17468: 17352: 17297: 17105: 17045: 16901: 16643: 16578: 16374: 16259: 16237: 16232: 16227: 16182: 16006: 15764: 15342: 15027: 14567: 14111: 13893: 13885: 13458: 13281: 13146: 12892: 12851: 12810: 12722: 12570: 12352: 12271: 12177: 12165: 11912: 11839: 7733: 5526: 5138: 5041: 4985: 4450: 4368: 4329: 4316: 4058: 4047: 3691: 3136: 3107: 3016: 2978: 2775: 2739: 2536: 2482: 2446: 2403: 2393: 2382: 1831: 1761: 1510: 1080: 1040: 1012: 852: 596: 221: 31752: 24274: 23522: 22730: 20477: 17481: 16048: 12426: 11374: 4705:, the Ministry of the Interior readily handed out permits for experiments on animals. 4285:(POWs) throughout the USSR and elsewhere in Europe. During the course of the war, the 3654: 2982: 32272: 31388: 31272: 31162: 31102: 31063: 30996: 30978: 30944: 30887: 30841: 30785: 30610: 30348: 30340: 30277: 30130: 29724: 29256: 28717: 28696: 28406: 28079: 27975: 27911: 27906: 27835: 27732: 27447: 27375: 27370: 27212: 27141: 27124: 27119: 27114: 26914: 26865: 26602: 26508: 26249: 25975: 25385: 25167: 25162: 24964: 24829: 24774: 24754: 24628: 24573: 24279: 24058: 23983: 23851: 23588: 23532: 23502: 23441: 23361: 23266: 23205: 23144: 23011: 22906: 22886: 22720: 22680: 22517: 22377: 22347: 22222: 21990: 21903: 21756: 21548: 21498: 21488: 21483: 21356: 21344: 21309: 21286: 21052: 21039: 20740: 20488: 20449: 20226: 20216: 19834: 19665: 19650: 19638: 19593: 19403: 19363: 19178: 19153: 19100: 19047: 18861: 18633: 18425: 18144: 17170: 17095: 16861: 16856: 16827: 16682: 16468: 16397: 16222: 16102: 16001: 15922: 15885: 15674: 15505: 15495: 15234: 15044: 15031: 15019: 14959: 14940: 14921: 14899: 14880: 14858: 14836: 14717: 14698: 14679: 14660: 14641: 14617: 14571: 14524: 14505: 14486: 14394: 14372: 14316: 14308: 14294: 14258: 14248: 14214: 14192: 14173: 14152: 14142: 14136: 14118: 14092: 14073: 14026: 14020: 14002: 13980: 13968: 13929: 13910: 13897: 13854: 13835: 13816: 13792: 13741: 13735: 13720: 13690: 13671: 13652: 13630: 13611: 13592: 13570: 13551: 13532: 13510: 13502: 13484: 13465: 13439: 13420: 13337: 13329: 13301: 13285: 13223: 13202: 13152: 13131: 13112: 13093: 13087: 13072: 13050: 13031: 13025: 13007: 12988: 12947:

Heinemann, Isabel; Oberkrome, Willi; Schleiermacher, Sabine; Wagner, Patrick (2006).

12897: 12855: 12820: 12796: 12772: 12728: 12704: 12675: 12656: 12609: 12587: 12574: 12536: 12517: 12511: 12496: 12474: 12452: 12433: 12410: 12403: 12387: 12339: 12333: 12311: 12293: 12275: 12232: 12213: 12151: 12119: 12113: 12095: 12076: 12054: 12033: 12010: 11988: 11967: 11940: 11856: 11843: 11831: 11771: 11749: 11727: 11708: 11689: 11668: 11644: 5245: 5227: 5215: 5198: 5150: 5094: 4970: 4856:, which along with all other non-Nazi political parties ceased to exist by July. The 4809: 4614:(Young Girls League) section of the Hitler Youth was for girls age 10 to 14, and the 4147:, 1,000 to 12,000 Romani were murdered, while nearly all 25,000 Romani living in the 4131:

The Nazis intended on deporting all Romani people from Germany, and confined them to

4082: 3829: 3810: 3794: 3699: 3694:, where millions more were murdered. Up to 60,000 Waffen-SS men served in the camps. 3447: 3405: 3352: 3252: 3040: 2990: 2849: 2822: 2763: 2646: 2560: 2535:

had advised Hitler in June that air superiority was a pre-condition for a successful

2528: 2478: 2409: 2398: 2163: 2110: 1960: 1700: 1600: 1478: 1415: 1045: 968: 162: 25928: 24984: 24474: 24444: 24194: 22911: 22851: 22705: 22548: 21304: 19900: 19715: 17050: 16488: 15490: 13973: 13707:(in German), Stadtarchiv Göttingen Cordula Tollmien Projekt NS-Zwangsarbeiter, 1942. 9704: 4925:

and the swastika. Other sects of Christianity were also targeted, with Chief of the

4560: 3833: 2682: 245: 32110: 31879: 31747: 31307: 31300: 31244: 30908: 30673: 30659: 30562: 30499: 30450: 30263: 30116: 30063: 29873: 29824: 29738: 28968: 28945: 28478: 27928: 27715: 27710: 27666: 27653: 27583: 27551: 27546: 27410: 27405: 27387: 27348: 27281: 27264: 27205: 27195: 27190: 27131: 27087: 27057: 27017: 27000: 26983: 26946: 26697: 26666: 26503: 26290: 26234: 26158: 25980: 25065: 24924: 24454: 24409: 24329: 24309: 24294: 24284: 24239: 24018: 23948: 23877: 23841: 23836: 23750: 23679: 23659: 23634: 23568: 23406: 23386: 23376: 23356: 23341: 23210: 23195: 23134: 23042: 23001: 22971: 22951: 22916: 22891: 22781: 22771: 22558: 22527: 22446: 22157: 22087: 21596: 20719: 20698: 20523: 20508: 20076: 19677: 19532: 19470: 19348: 19338: 19264: 19240: 19188: 19183: 19173: 19168: 19163: 18990: 18955: 18929: 18601: 18405: 18374: 18329: 18324: 18212: 17090: 17060: 16978: 16885: 16697: 16603: 16528: 16473: 16369: 16247: 16082: 15975: 15590: 15550: 15510: 15194: 15011: 14913: 14557: 14549: 13877: 13712: 13453: 13273: 13217: 13021: 12976: 12905: 12887: 12879: 12843: 12814: 12786: 12639: 12623: 12584:

Atlas of Nazi Germany: A Political, Economic, and Social Anatomy of the Third Reich

12562: 12377: 12329: 12263: 11823: 5303: 5255: 5236: 5073: 4954: 4905: 4670: 4599:

Women were expected to be strong, healthy, and vital. The sturdy peasant woman who

4372: 4282: 3942:. The wartime economy eventually relied heavily upon the large-scale employment of 3456: 3215: 3179: 3048: 3028: 2833: 2812: 2662: 2589: 2462: 2353:(Top) Animated map showing the sequence of events in Europe throughout World War II 2275: 2248: 2159: 1971: 1967: 1691: 1670: 1544: 1468: 1464: 1007: 1002: 997: 622: 31: 31527: 28487: 25445: 23507: 22966: 22482: 20156: 16598: 16140: 14579: 14165: 13247:(in German). No. 2. Hamburg: Spiegel-Verlag. pp. 218–221. Archived from 7712: 4793: 4650:

Statues representing the ideal body were erected in the streets of Berlin for the

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Hitler sent military supplies and assistance to the Nationalist forces of General

2017:

On 2 August 1934, Hindenburg died. The previous day, the cabinet had enacted the "

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Did the Children Cry?: Hitler's War Against Jewish and Polish Children, 1939–1945

13387: 13293: 12981: 12466: 12325: 12048: 11955: 11763: 11517: 11515: 5744: 5729: 5713: 5698: 5618: 5214:, especially pieces based on Germanic myths and heroic stories, and attended the 5193: 5162: 5045: 4941: 4918: 4858: 4777: 4565: 4502: 4215: 4191: 3858: 3742: 3435: 3303: 3191: 2994: 2974: 2881:(1,000 dead), and Berlin, where at least 7,057 people committed suicide in 1945. 2751: 2727: 2674: 2540: 2512: 2414: 2378: 2301: 2055: 2047: 2003: 1952: 1916: 1644: 1588: 1446: 1407: 1177: 772: 609: 527: 473: 383: 330: 310: 31700: 31442: 27568: 25549: 24929: 23527: 23021: 22801: 22675: 22578: 22568: 20952: 17783: 15239: 4028:, April 1933. The posters say "Germans! Defend yourselves! Don't buy from Jews!" 3697:

In 1931, Himmler organised an SS intelligence service which became known as the

3139:

was established in occupied central Poland. The governments of Denmark, Norway (

2817: 31991: 31869: 31772: 31737: 31624: 31337: 30873: 30799: 28851: 28710: 28089: 28084: 28047: 28022: 28005: 27916: 27901: 27872: 27830: 27678: 27638: 27633: 27588: 27514: 27474: 27464: 27454: 27269: 27148: 27042: 26909: 26791: 26619: 26597: 26540: 26513: 26148: 25943: 25898: 25888: 25883: 25713: 25693: 25683: 25616: 25581: 25497: 25267: 25152: 25040: 24744: 24504: 24379: 24364: 24339: 24148: 24088: 24013: 23978: 23922: 23846: 23806: 23796: 23669: 23471: 23396: 23331: 23326: 23311: 23256: 23190: 23098: 23088: 23006: 22981: 22931: 22861: 22826: 22786: 22745: 22735: 22710: 22634: 22629: 22619: 22441: 22227: 21950: 21933: 21826: 21801: 21007: 20970: 20845: 20765: 20687: 20565: 20323: 20071: 20048: 19954: 19949: 19807: 19697: 19682: 19552: 19423: 19408: 19328: 19245: 19123: 19110: 18773: 18531: 17918: 17853: 17491: 17312: 16868: 16733: 16648: 16593: 16583: 16539: 16448: 16428: 16217: 16194: 16087: 15985: 15970: 15927: 15827: 15460: 15244: 15204: 15172: 15121: 15095: 14106: 14065: 13952: 13524: 13194: 12194:

Die Bevölkerung des Deutschen Reichs nach den Ergebnissen der Volkszählung 1939

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from 1935 to 1945 was around 18.2 million, of whom 5.3 million died.

3538: 3225: 2874: 2845: 2837: 2783: 2678: 2556: 2552: 2344: 2070: 1881: 1795: 1666: 1473: 1343: 1329: 1070: 570: 24979: 22695: 22639: 22522: 22507: 16438: 16406: 15515: 15450: 15396: 13810: 13399: 13277: 12883: 12643: 12205: 11512: 5765: 4748: 4512:

The Nazi salute in school (1934): children were indoctrinated at an early age.

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How Green Were the Nazis?: Nature, Environment, and Nation in the Third Reich

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How Green Were the Nazis?: Nature, Environment, and Nation in the Third Reich

11835: 11658: 5840: 5799:(Turkestan) were proposed in case these areas were brought under German rule. 5486: 5314:. All but three were found guilty and twelve were sentenced to death. Twelve 5177: 5061: 5049: 4801: 4697: 4679: 4486: 4298: 4262:

traits, who were presumed to be of German descent. The goal was to implement

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and put many of the surviving Nazi leadership on trial for war crimes at the

1632: 1556: 1532: 1518: 1419: 1157: 364: 290: 277: 31806: 31717: 27598: 27578: 24724: 24389: 24289: 16503: 15545: 15100: 13341: 12250:[How Successful was National Socialist Control of the Daily Press?] 5081: 3632: 3012:

of invasion by sea, Lithuania surrendered the Memel district in March 1939.

2815:(16 April – 2 May 1945), Hitler and his staff lived in the underground 2559:. The German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the RAF in what became known as the 1999: 32104: 32080: 32056: 32050: 31802: 31634: 31505: 31447: 31251: 29551: 29087: 28450: 28214: 28062: 27803: 27793: 27688: 27683: 27610: 27400: 27382: 27343: 27338: 27318: 27313: 27185: 27178: 27168: 27163: 27158: 27052: 26990: 26971: 26956: 26892: 26592: 26572: 26567: 26562: 26552: 26488: 26483: 26432: 26327: 26265: 25958: 25953: 25913: 25758: 25733: 25728: 25596: 25430: 25157: 24543: 24499: 24449: 24424: 24369: 24334: 24244: 24003: 23973: 23897: 23892: 23887: 23882: 23831: 23821: 23644: 23436: 23351: 23346: 23336: 23261: 23170: 23078: 22976: 22921: 22896: 22841: 22725: 22543: 22502: 22192: 22077: 20965: 20677: 20429: 20424: 20405: 20378: 20146: 19633: 19625: 19527: 19378: 18871: 18546: 18541: 18410: 18364: 17823: 17190: 17035: 16743: 16608: 16563: 16513: 16493: 16478: 16433: 16364: 16289: 16133: 16016: 15955: 15900: 15771: 15575: 15480: 15445: 15435: 15425: 15270: 15166: 14872: 14850: 14362: 14206: 14156: 13994: 13943: 13644: 13584: 13175: 12718: 12679: 12488: 12267: 11741: 5395: 5346: 5342: 5169: 5130: 5053: 4874: 4789: 4753: 4722: 4605: 4353: 4307: 4187: 3996: 3943: 3526: 3183: 2965: 2844:

as Reich President and Goebbels as Reich Chancellor. Goebbels and his wife

2787: 2771: 2731: 2572: 2548: 2532: 2521: 2374: 2305: 1951:

The Nazi regime abolished the symbols of the Weimar Republic—including the

1840: 1769: 1540: 1536: 1506: 1399: 1395: 1266: 1262: 1197: 1148: 1035: 531: 421: 200: 24919: 23497: 15387: 14070:

Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust

13694: 13529:

Legacies of Dachau: The Uses and Abuses of a Concentration Camp, 1933-2001

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survey found that just 47 per cent of 14 to 16-year-olds polled knew what

4441:

cannibalism while being held in open-air pens at Auschwitz and elsewhere.

2316:

arranged in negotiations with the Soviet Union a non-aggression pact, the

863: 32092: 31086: 31072: 30734: 29410: 29231: 29216: 28570: 27781: 27766: 27615: 27328: 27237: 27227: 27153: 26801: 26796: 26634: 26624: 26582: 26439: 26224: 26173: 26047: 25985: 25823: 25798: 25626: 25601: 25559: 25262: 25236: 25075: 24989: 24734: 24714: 24434: 24073: 23664: 23619: 23578: 23492: 23466: 23371: 23286: 23220: 23185: 22941: 22881: 22856: 22816: 22791: 22750: 22740: 22609: 22472: 21980: 21908: 21538: 21513: 21067: 20600: 20553: 20400: 20091: 19969: 19908: 19883: 19871: 19455: 19418: 19368: 18881: 18595: 18430: 18379: 18129: 17150: 17085: 16916: 16463: 16309: 16279: 16123: 15996: 15610: 15606: 15500: 15405: 15378: 15369: 14790: 13243: 13064: 12566: 12002: 10647: 8628: 5325: 5126: 5077: 5057: 4813: 4757: 4702: 4544: 4529:; an additional ten weeks service were required of second-year students. 4395:

Poles were viewed by Nazis as subhuman non-Aryans, and during the German

4323:

Around the time of the failed offensive against Moscow in December 1941,

4270: 4259: 4223: 4183: 4120:. A further 5,000 Sinti and Austrian Lalleri people were deported to the 4000: 3899: 3500: 3420: 3325: 3276: 3248: 3187: 3127:. Conquered areas of Belgium and France were placed under control of the 3064: 2260: 2234: 2228: 2098: 2033: 1726: 1649: 1624: 1592: 1564: 1548: 1525:, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940 and threatened Great Britain. 1522: 1498: 1050: 508: 26673: 25793: 24809: 23593: 17863: 13889: 13567:

Polska 1939–1945: straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami

13174:(in German), Spitzenorganisation der Filmwirtschaft e. V, archived from 12744:"Auschwitz-Birkenau: 4 out of 10 German students don't know what it was" 11916: 11900: 11768:

Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identities and Cultural Differences

4046:

removed from libraries any books considered un-German, and a nationwide

31722: 31712: 31563: 30441: 30194: 30173: 29066: 28399: 28327: 27808: 27625: 27499: 27459: 27392: 26629: 26425: 26153: 25933: 25738: 25636: 25352: 25312: 24884: 24854: 24799: 24638: 24484: 24118: 23993: 23988: 23649: 23603: 23573: 23431: 22871: 22831: 22766: 22624: 22456: 22102: 22092: 22055: 21651: 21192: 21123:

Hungarian National Socialist Agricultural Labourers' and Workers' Party

20559: 20493: 20151: 20081: 19859: 19746: 19687: 19537: 19502: 19445: 19353: 19090: 18711: 18171: 17155: 17140: 17040: 16453: 16203: 16166: 16092: 15980: 15820: 15669: 15560: 15525: 15465: 15144: 14631: 14562: 13907:

Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century

12687: 12310:(in Polish). Vol. 3. Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. 2004. 11350: 5443: 5375: 5181: 5113: 4921:

to be replaced in all churches, cathedrals, and chapels with copies of

4734: 4630: 4400: 4367:

and Polish leadership in Warsaw, based mostly on intelligence from the

4250: 4004: 3931: 3850: 3821: 3750: 3746: 3556: 3220: 2807:

film of the aftermath of the destruction in central Berlin in July 1945

2755: 2426: 2422: 2259:

was home to a substantial minority of Germans, who lived mostly in the

2127: 1836: 1778: 1773: 1749: 1584: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1403: 1120: 737: 346: 324: 14998:"Using the Past in the Nazi Successor States from 1945 to the Present" 14461:(in German). Statistisches Bundesamt. 2006. p. 34. Archived from 13791:. Beiträge zur Militärgeschichte (in German). München: R. Oldenbourg. 10177: 4003:. The Nazis postulated the existence of a racial conflict between the 3512:

The unified armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 were called the

2669:, Hawaii. Four days later, Germany declared war on the United States. 1803:, and were tolerated by the sympathetic far-right state government of 1471:, the regime undertook extensive public works projects, including the 30:"Drittes Reich" and "The Reich" redirect here. For the 1923 book, see 32044: 31706: 30704: 30109: 29906: 29717: 29515: 29470: 27698: 27469: 27353: 27323: 27104: 26978: 26769: 26612: 26523: 26456: 26415: 25948: 25853: 25838: 25718: 25641: 25206: 24969: 24934: 24899: 24719: 24128: 23963: 23826: 23512: 21013: 20271: 20236: 19692: 19388: 18701: 18349: 17237: 17070: 17030: 16633: 16314: 15948: 15746: 14637:

The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy

14048:(in German). Bundesministerium für Landesverteidigung. Archived from 13507:

Heinrich Himmler: The Sinister Life of the Head of the SS and Gestapo

13047:

Deutschland im Wandel. Geschichte der deutschen Bevolkerung seit 1815

12516:. Translated by Osers, Ewald; Dring, Alexandra. San Diego: Harcourt. 12473:. International Propaganda and Communications. New York: Arno Press. 12449:

Cosmopolitan Islanders: British Historians and the European Continent

12289:

Mitteleuropa!: deutsche Pläne zur europäischen Neuordnung (1918-1945)

7136: 5453: 5307: 5249: 5146: 5000:

A Nazi book burning on 10 May 1933 in Berlin, as books by Jewish and

4412: 4345: 4160: 4117: 3904: 3769: 3726: 3659: 3532: 3514: 3483: 3374: 3299: 3294: 2923: 2826: 2690: 2650: 2544: 2183: 2147: 1994: 1642:

of the Soviet Union in 1941, Nazi Germany attempted to implement the

1493: 1483: 583: 31520: 28991: 24869: 21856: 15152: 14170:

Toward the Millennium: Messianic Expectations from the Bible to Waco

2878: 2023: 1459: 28975: 28703: 27099: 26882: 26840: 26779: 26639: 26607: 26557: 26471: 26461: 26444: 26052: 25818: 25748: 25055: 24789: 23487: 21611: 19812: 19751: 19736: 19492: 19434: 19398: 18235: 18186: 17130: 16304: 16269: 16011: 14553: 14344:"Germany's Nazi Past: Why Germans Can Never Escape Hitler's Shadow" 14138:

Mobilizing Women for War: German and American Propaganda, 1939–1945

13355: 10978: 8130: 5380: 4349: 4278: 4094: 3646:

Initially a small bodyguard unit under the auspices of the SA, the

3229: 2986: 2936:

to death, and civil courts sentenced an additional 40,000 Germans.

2767: 2658: 2501: 2355:(Bottom) Germany and its allies at the height of Axis success, 1942 1620: 15003:

The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

14676:

The Green and the Brown: A History of Conservation in Nazi Germany

14291:

The World's Wasted Wealth 2: Save Our Wealth, Save Our Environment

14271: 13089:

The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation

12956:(in Polish). Bonn: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Archived from 12692:

An Honourable Defeat: A History of the German Resistance to Hitler

12493:

Plotting Hitler's Death: The German Resistance to Hitler 1933–1945

11639:

Bartrop, Paul R.; Jacobs, Leonard, eds. (2014). "Einsatzgruppen".

9734: 5846: 5302:

The Allied powers organised war crimes trials, beginning with the

3761:

technically advanced aircraft annually less than ten years later.

2238: 1860:

Adolf Hitler's rise to power § Seizure of control (1931–1933)

27012: 26941: 26897: 26752: 25970: 24839: 24804: 24784: 24614:

An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus

24584:

The Foundations of Geopolitics: The Geopolitical Future of Russia

24153: 22149: 21796: 21224: 20850: 19927: 19287: 18980: 18400: 18344: 18266: 15755: 14502:

The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933–1939

14164:

Schreiner, Klaus (1998). "Messianism in the Weimar Republic". In

13392:"Hitler's Role in the Persecution of the Jews by the Nazi Regime" 12792:

Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust

11023: 9148: 8058: 7751: 5173: 5001: 4769: 3777: 3757: 3210: 3060: 2638: 2634: 2486: 1989: 1940: 1800: 1422:(1871–1918). The Third Reich, which the Nazis referred to as the 1215: 1017: 379: 359: 26813: 14730: 13851:

The Bombers and the Bombed: Allied Air War Over Europe 1940–1945

13757:'NS-Frauenwarte': Paper of the National Socialist Women's League 11770:. Yearbook of European Studies. Amsterdam; Atlanta, GA: Rodopi. 11641:

Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection

10345: 9809: 9800: 8640: 7956: 7954: 7952: 5185:

in Art", were launched in sixteen different cities by 1935. The

32116: 31792: 31782: 31598: 31474: 29585: 28183: 26845: 26720: 26449: 26117: 26112: 26057: 25803: 25753: 25272: 24999: 24994: 24824: 24658: 21875: 21776: 21646: 21314: 19991: 19839: 19766: 19507: 17618: 16175: 16031: 15728: 15224: 13608:

Working Towards the Führer: Essays in Honour of Sir Ian Kershaw

13325: 12248:"Wie erfolgreich war die nationalsozlalistische Presselenkung?" 12148:

Bountiful Harvest: Technology, Food Safety, and the Environment

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A wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium in the

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