1725:
654:
142:
1700:
1737:
668:
154:
530:. Smalley believed that such assemblers were not physically possible and introduced scientific objections to them. His two principal technical objections were termed the "fat fingers problem" and the "sticky fingers problem". He believed these would exclude the possibility of "molecular assemblers" that worked by precision picking and placing of individual atoms. Drexler and coworkers responded to these two issues in a 2001 publication.
2185:
504:
computer and the assemblers is broken, or when that computer is unplugged, the assemblers stop replicating. Such a "broadcast architecture" is one of the safety features recommended by the "Foresight
Guidelines on Molecular Nanotechnology", and a map of the 137-dimensional replicator design space recently published by Freitas and Merkle provides numerous practical methods by which replicators can be safely controlled by good design.
1712:
483:, constructing many copies of itself. This would allow an exponential rate of production. Then, after sufficient quantities of the molecular assemblers were available, they would then be re-programmed for production of the desired product. However, if self-replication of molecular assemblers were not restrained then it might lead to competition with naturally occurring organisms. This has been called
36:
583:, and in its conclusion states that no current theoretical analysis can be considered definitive regarding several questions of potential system performance, and that optimal paths for implementing high-performance systems cannot be predicted with confidence. It recommends funding for experimental research to produce experimental demonstrations in this area:
479:"Molecular assemblers" have been confused with self-replicating machines. To produce a practical quantity of a desired product, the nanoscale size of a typical science fiction universal molecular assembler requires an extremely large number of such devices. However, a single such theoretical molecular assembler might be programmed to
548:
Speculation on the power of systems that have been called "molecular assemblers" has sparked a wider political discussion on the implication of nanotechnology. This is in part due to the fact that nanotechnology is a very broad term and could include "molecular assemblers". Discussion of the possible
296:
Because synthetic molecular assemblers have never been constructed and because of the confusion regarding the meaning of the term, there has been much controversy as to whether "molecular assemblers" are possible or simply science fiction. Confusion and controversy also stem from their classification
446:
In 2005, an animated short film of the nanofactory concept was produced by John Burch, in collaboration with
Drexler. Such visions have been the subject of much debate, on several intellectual levels. No one has discovered an insurmountable problem with the underlying theories and no one has proved
590:
of such bottom-up manufacturing systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time. Thus, the eventually attainable perfection and complexity of manufactured products, while they can be calculated in theory, cannot be predicted with confidence. Finally, the optimum research paths that might lead to
494:
One method of building molecular assemblers is to mimic evolutionary processes employed by biological systems. Biological evolution proceeds by random variation combined with culling of the less-successful variants and reproduction of the more-successful variants. Production of complex molecular
264:
has explored a range of atomically precise fabrication technologies, including both early-generation and longer-term prospects for programmable molecular assembly; the report was released in
December, 2007. In 2008, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council provided funding of £1.5
533:
Smalley also believed that
Drexler's speculations about apocalyptic dangers of self-replicating machines that have been equated with "molecular assemblers" would threaten the public support for development of nanotechnology. To address the debate between Drexler and Smalley regarding molecular
374:
of a molecular product by using a nanomechanical robotic arm to move a molecular substrate between different reactive sites of an artificial molecular machine. An accompanying News and Views article, titled 'A molecular assembler', outlined the operation of the molecular robot as effectively a
280:
to refer to a wide range of fantastic atom-manipulating nanomachines. Much of the controversy regarding "molecular assemblers" results from the confusion in the use of the name for both technical concepts and popular fantasies. In 1992, Drexler introduced the related but better-understood term
503:
Most assembler designs keep the "source code" external to the physical assembler. At each step of a manufacturing process, that step is read from an ordinary computer file and "broadcast" to all the assemblers. If any assembler gets out of range of that computer, or when the link between that
499:
that works is invariably found to have evolved from a simple system that worked. . . . A complex system designed from scratch never works and can not be patched up to make it work. You have to start over, beginning with a system that works." However, most published safety guidelines include
595:
and other capabilities of biological systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time. Research funding that is based on the ability of investigators to produce experimental demonstrations that link to abstract models and guide long-term vision is most appropriate to achieve this goal."
318:
in a sequence-specific manner by using an artificial molecular machine that is guided by a molecular strand. This functions in the same way as a ribosome building proteins by assembling amino acids according to a messenger RNA blueprint. The structure of the machine is based on a
434:
and Ralph Merkle. The
Nanofactory Collaboration, founded by Freitas and Merkle in 2000, is a focused, ongoing effort involving 23 researchers from 10 organizations and 4 countries that is developing a practical research agenda specifically aimed at positionally-controlled
562:
also commissioned a report entitled "Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties" regarding the larger social and ecological implications of nanotechnology. This report does not discuss the threat posed by potential so-called "molecular assemblers".
549:
implications of fantastic molecular assemblers has prompted calls for regulation of current and future nanotechnology. There are very real concerns with the potential health and ecological impact of nanotechnology that is being integrated in manufactured products.
327:
group, which removes amino acids in sequence from the axle, transferring them to a peptide assembly site. In 2018, the same group published a more advanced version of this concept in which the molecular ring shuttles along a polymeric track to assemble an
553:
for instance commissioned a report concerning nanotechnology in which they express concern into the toxicity of nanomaterials that have been introduced in the environment. However, it makes only passing references to "assembler" technology. The UK
301:, which is an active area of laboratory research which has already been applied to the production of real products; however, there had been, until recently, no research efforts into the actual construction of "molecular assemblers".
458:
would be one of many possible negative impacts, though it could be argued that this disruption would have little negative effect, if everyone had such nanofactories. Great benefits also would be anticipated. Various works of
426:, and a top-level systems design for a 'primitive nanofactory' by Chris Phoenix (director of research at the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology). All of these nanofactory designs (and more) are summarized in Chapter 4 of
292:
abilities, mobility, ability to consume food, and so forth. These are quite different from devices that merely (as defined above) "guide chemical reactions by positioning reactive molecules with atomic precision".
914:
1038:
395:
to build larger atomically precise parts. These, in turn, would be assembled by positioning mechanisms of assorted sizes to build macroscopic (visible) but still atomically-precise products.
847:
Lewandowski, Bartosz; De Bo, Guillaume; Ward, John W.; Papmeyer, Marcus; Kuschel, Sonja; Aldegunde, María J.; Gramlich, Philipp M. E.; Heckmann, Dominik; Goldup, Stephen M. (2013-01-11).
233:
1306:
Council, National
Research; Sciences, Division on Engineering Physical; Board, National Materials Advisory; Initiative, Committee to Review the National Nanotechnology (2006).
288:
This article mostly discusses "molecular assemblers" in the popular sense. These include hypothetical machines that manipulate individual atoms and machines with organism-like
1344:
free open-source multi-scale modeling and simulation program for nano-composites with special support for structural DNA nanotechnology (originally
Nanoengineer-1 by Nanorex)
1271:
Nanotechnology, Artificial
Intelligence and Robotics; A technical, political and institutional map of emerging technologies. A report for the Greenpeace Environmental Trust
586: "Although theoretical calculations can be made today, the eventually attainable range of chemical reaction cycles, error rates, speed of operation, and
261:
642:
and 'grey goo' scenarios, like synthetic molecular assemblers, are based upon still-hypothetical technologies that have not yet been demonstrated experimentally.
513:
1384:
1424:
249:
184:
1264:
419:
1774:
752:
976:
Li, J.; Ballmer, S. G.; Gillis, E. P.; Fujii, S.; Schmidt, M. J.; Palazzolo, A. M. E.; Lehmann, J. W.; Morehouse, G. F.; Burke, M. D. (2015).
812:
256:-like molecular assemblers. Clearly, molecular assemblers are possible in this limited sense. A technology roadmap project, led by the
53:
1456:
1408:
2039:
410:". During the 1990s, others have extended the nanofactory concept, including an analysis of nanofactory convergent assembly by
177:
45:
1323:
614:
which consumes carbon to continue its replication. If unchecked, such mechanical replication could potentially consume whole
463:
have explored these and similar concepts. The potential for such devices was part of the mandate of a major UK study led by
1486:
447:
that the theories can be translated into practice. However, the debate continues, with some of it being summarized in the
2128:
1767:
913:
De Bo, Guillaume; Gall, Malcolm A. Y.; Kuschel, Sonja; Winter, Julien De; Gerbaux, Pascal; Leigh, David A. (2018-04-02).
575:
released the report of a study of molecular manufacturing (not molecular assemblers per se) as part of a longer report,
1887:
1428:
1281:
610:
One potential scenario that has been envisioned is out-of-control self-replicating molecular assemblers in the form of
1576:
1399:— online technical book: first comprehensive survey of molecular assemblers (2004) by Robert Freitas and Ralph Merkle
1200:
500:"recommendations against developing ... replicator designs which permit surviving mutation or undergoing evolution".
170:
1999:
787:
848:
1716:
1760:
1510:
592:
536:
1378:
1161:
2189:
2155:
1657:
1449:
285:
of complex structures by mechanically positioning reactive molecules, not by manipulating individual atoms".
1533:
1308:
A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the
National Nanotechnology Initiative - The National Academies Press
572:
559:
2216:
1629:
257:
17:
1261:
2160:
2096:
265:
million over six years (£1,942,235.57, $ 2,693,808.00 in 2021) for research working towards mechanized
229:
molecules. However, the term "molecular assembler" usually refers to theoretical human-made devices.
2221:
2143:
2103:
1644:
1496:
1491:
1481:
1473:
732:
370:'s group reported a molecular robot that could be programmed to construct any one of four different
1934:
1919:
1897:
1667:
1611:
1596:
1506:
1442:
1347:
763:
587:
448:
289:
85:
2211:
2108:
2081:
1704:
1652:
1601:
1588:
1034:
407:
391:(resembling molecular assemblers, or industrial robot arms) would combine reactive molecules via
367:
305:
1419:
1369:
833:
2118:
2113:
2086:
1147:
627:
540:
published a point-counterpoint consisting of an exchange of letters that addressed the issues.
464:
356:
116:
816:
2044:
1907:
1783:
209:
by positioning reactive molecules with atomic precision". A molecular assembler is a kind of
57:
2091:
2054:
2034:
1528:
1050:
989:
926:
863:
518:
One of the most outspoken critics of some concepts of "molecular assemblers" was
Professor
1190:
978:"Synthesis of many different types of organic small molecules using one automated process"
8:
2148:
2123:
1994:
1951:
1829:
1804:
1564:
722:
127:
1054:
993:
930:
867:
2165:
1867:
1606:
1390:
1186:
1074:
1010:
977:
958:
895:
282:
241:
1966:
1862:
1844:
1741:
1319:
1196:
1115:
1078:
1066:
1015:
950:
942:
899:
887:
879:
687:
673:
310:
210:
206:
158:
106:
1414:
1341:
2133:
2049:
2009:
1685:
1402:
1373:
1353:
1311:
1234:
1220:
1105:
1058:
1005:
997:
962:
934:
871:
622:), or it could simply outcompete natural lifeforms for necessary resources such as
480:
392:
337:
266:
96:
1984:
1929:
1872:
1857:
1634:
1621:
1559:
1268:
1249:"Institute for Molecular ManufacturingDebate About Assemblers — Smalley Rebuttal"
519:
460:
399:
277:
273:
269:, in partnership with the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing, amongst others.
202:
1133:
2138:
2004:
1946:
1924:
1729:
1523:
1465:
1248:
682:
659:
527:
496:
431:
415:
360:
323:, which is a molecular ring sliding along a molecular axle. The ring carries a
298:
146:
111:
938:
2205:
2170:
1939:
1892:
1814:
1543:
1396:
946:
883:
849:"Sequence-Specific Peptide Synthesis by an Artificial Small-Molecule Machine"
707:
555:
455:
1285:
1001:
875:
577:
A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative
2074:
1989:
1902:
1680:
1571:
1518:
1119:
1070:
1019:
954:
891:
411:
388:
371:
329:
121:
2069:
2064:
1956:
1834:
1819:
1809:
1206:
727:
702:
523:
468:
340:
333:
222:
1752:
1062:
2029:
1914:
550:
440:
1724:
1354:
Foresight Guidelines for Responsible Nanotechnology Development (2006)
653:
232:
141:
2059:
1877:
1551:
1364:
697:
692:
635:
615:
1110:
1093:
915:"An artificial molecular machine that builds an asymmetric catalyst"
422:"Universal Assembler", the patented exponential assembly process by
217:
fit this definition. This is because they receive instructions from
1976:
1961:
1882:
1315:
1165:
717:
639:
619:
611:
605:
488:
484:
398:
A typical nanofactory would fit in a desktop box, in the vision of
344:
324:
320:
253:
237:
214:
1736:
1282:"Nanoscience and nanotechnologies:opportunities and uncertainties"
667:
153:
1852:
1434:
1039:"Stereodivergent synthesis with a programmable molecular machine"
712:
436:
315:
226:
414:, a systems design of a replicating nanofactory architecture by
359:
report a platform that automates the synthesis of 14 classes of
623:
404:
Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing and Computation
348:
347:
derivative (in a way reminiscent to the ribosome assembling an
281:"molecular manufacturing", which he defined as the programmed "
1305:
423:
846:
1425:
Integrated Nanosystems for Atomically Precise Manufacturing
1192:
Systemantics: How Systems Work and Especially How They Fail
788:"Value of 2008 British Pounds today - Inflation calculator"
218:
495:
assemblers might be evolved from simpler systems since "A
454:
If nanofactories could be built, severe disruption to the
272:
Likewise, the term "molecular assembler" has been used in
1195:(1st ed.). New York: Pocket Books. pp. 80–81.
631:
912:
579:
The study committee reviewed the technical content of
1359:
1385:
Unraveling the Big Debate over Small Machines (2004)
1032:
975:
649:
1221:"Foresight Guidelines on Molecular Nanotechnology"
514:Drexler–Smalley debate on molecular nanotechnology
250:Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
2203:
1037:; Marcos, V.; Palmer, L. I.; Pisano, S. (2017).
363:, with thousands of compatible building blocks.
828:
826:
753:"Productive Nanosystems: A Technology Roadmap"
1768:
1450:
1391:Design considerations for an assembler (1995)
507:
178:
1360:Center for Responsible Nanotechnology (2008)
1350:free software for modeling nanotech entities
1091:
1162:"Nanotechnology: Grey Goo is a Small Issue"
823:
566:
2184:
1775:
1761:
1457:
1443:
185:
171:
1782:
1109:
1009:
314:, details a new method of synthesizing a
834:"C&En: Cover Story - Nanotechnology"
231:
221:and then assemble specific sequences of
1370:Rage Against the (Green) Machine (2003)
1356:of molecular manufacturing technologies
1179:
205:, is a "proposed device able to guide
14:
2204:
2040:Differential technological development
745:
526:for his contributions to the field of
1756:
1438:
1348:Nano-Hive: Nanospace Simulator (2006)
1235:"Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines"
1092:Kelly, T. R.; Snapper, M. L. (2017).
593:exceed the thermodynamic efficiencies
213:. Some biological molecules such as
1711:
1262:Future Technologies, Today's Choices
1185:
58:move details into the article's body
29:
2129:Future-oriented technology analysis
1397:Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines
474:
428:Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines
308:'s group, published in the journal
24:
1888:High-temperature superconductivity
1464:
1429:United States Department of Energy
1381:UK EducationGuardian, 11 June 2003
1365:Molecular Assembler website (2008)
1148:"Nanofactory Technical Challenges"
375:prototypical molecular assembler.
25:
2233:
1420:Review of Molecular Manufacturing
1403:Design of a Primitive Nanofactory
1335:
573:U.S. National Academy of Sciences
351:). In another paper published in
27:Proposed nanotechnological device
2183:
2000:Self-reconfiguring modular robot
1735:
1723:
1710:
1699:
1698:
1342:Molecular Dynamics Studio (2016)
666:
652:
378:
152:
140:
34:
1299:
1274:
1255:
1241:
1227:
1213:
1154:
1140:
1126:
638:examples run on). However, the
537:Chemical & Engineering News
355:in March 2015, chemists at the
248:Beginning in 2007, the British
80:Part of a series of articles on
1893:High-temperature superfluidity
1379:Government launches nano study
1085:
1026:
969:
906:
840:
805:
780:
387:is a proposed system in which
13:
1:
2156:Technology in science fiction
1658:Scanning tunneling microscope
1409:Video - Nanofactory in Action
739:
543:
304:Nonetheless, a 2013 paper by
1033:Kassem, S.; Lee, A. T. L..;
560:Royal Academy of Engineering
7:
1630:Molecular scale electronics
1431:Workshop – August 5–6, 2015
1134:"Nanofactory Collaboration"
645:
599:
406:(1992), a notable work of "
258:Battelle Memorial Institute
10:
2238:
2161:Technology readiness level
2097:Technological unemployment
603:
588:thermodynamic efficiencies
511:
508:Drexler and Smalley debate
262:U.S. National Laboratories
252:has funded development of
2179:
2144:Technological singularity
2104:Technological convergence
2022:
1975:
1920:Multi-function structures
1843:
1797:
1790:
1694:
1666:
1645:Scanning probe microscopy
1643:
1620:
1587:
1542:
1505:
1472:
939:10.1038/s41565-018-0105-3
733:Nanotechnology in fiction
443:nanofactory development.
1935:Molecular nanotechnology
1898:Linear acetylenic carbon
1668:Molecular nanotechnology
1612:Solid lipid nanoparticle
1597:Self-assembled monolayer
567:Formal scientific review
522:(1943–2005) who won the
449:molecular nanotechnology
2109:Technological evolution
2082:Exploratory engineering
1653:Atomic force microscope
1602:Supramolecular assembly
1589:Molecular self-assembly
1094:"A molecular assembler"
1002:10.1126/science.aaa5414
876:10.1126/science.1229753
408:exploratory engineering
2119:Technology forecasting
2114:Technological paradigm
2087:Proactionary principle
1415:Nanofactory technology
591:systems which greatly
465:mechanical engineering
357:University of Illinois
332:that can fold into an
260:and hosted by several
245:
117:Productive nanosystems
2045:Disruptive innovation
1908:Metamaterial cloaking
1784:Emerging technologies
1742:Technology portal
1387:from BetterHumans.com
919:Nature Nanotechnology
439:mechanosynthesis and
336:that can perform the
235:
159:Technology portal
2092:Technological change
2035:Collingridge dilemma
1529:Green nanotechnology
819:on November 4, 2011.
618:or the whole Earth (
2149:Technology scouting
2124:Accelerating change
1995:Powered exoskeleton
1952:Programmable matter
1830:Smart manufacturing
1825:Molecular assembler
1805:3D microfabrication
1676:Molecular assembler
1063:10.1038/nature23677
1055:2017Natur.549..374K
994:2015Sci...347.1221L
988:(6227): 1221–1226.
931:2018NatNa..13..381D
868:2013Sci...339..189L
813:"Grants on the Web"
760:Foresight Institute
723:Santa Claus machine
199:molecular assembler
128:Engines of Creation
102:Molecular assembler
2217:Molecular machines
2166:Technology roadmap
1868:Conductive polymer
1730:Science portal
1607:DNA nanotechnology
1267:2006-04-14 at the
634:light (which some
283:chemical synthesis
246:
242:biological machine
207:chemical reactions
147:Science portal
2199:
2198:
2018:
2017:
1967:Synthetic diamond
1863:Artificial muscle
1845:Materials science
1750:
1749:
1325:978-0-309-10223-0
1104:(7672): 336–337.
1049:(7672): 374–378.
862:(6116): 189–193.
688:Molecular machine
674:Technology portal
211:molecular machine
195:
194:
107:Molecular machine
75:
74:
54:length guidelines
16:(Redirected from
2229:
2222:Self-replication
2187:
2186:
2134:Horizon scanning
2050:Ephemeralization
2010:Uncrewed vehicle
1930:Carbon nanotubes
1795:
1794:
1777:
1770:
1763:
1754:
1753:
1740:
1739:
1728:
1727:
1714:
1713:
1702:
1701:
1686:Mechanosynthesis
1577:characterization
1459:
1452:
1445:
1436:
1435:
1330:
1329:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1294:
1293:
1284:. Archived from
1278:
1272:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1217:
1211:
1210:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1164:. Archived from
1158:
1152:
1151:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1113:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1030:
1024:
1023:
1013:
973:
967:
966:
910:
904:
903:
853:
844:
838:
837:
830:
821:
820:
815:. Archived from
809:
803:
802:
800:
798:
784:
778:
777:
775:
774:
768:
762:. Archived from
757:
749:
676:
671:
670:
662:
657:
656:
475:Self-replication
420:Forrest Bishop's
393:mechanosynthesis
338:enantioselective
290:self-replicating
267:mechanosynthesis
201:, as defined by
187:
180:
173:
157:
156:
145:
144:
97:Mechanosynthesis
77:
76:
70:
67:
61:
52:Please read the
38:
37:
30:
21:
2237:
2236:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2195:
2175:
2014:
1971:
1873:Femtotechnology
1858:Amorphous metal
1839:
1786:
1781:
1751:
1746:
1734:
1722:
1690:
1662:
1639:
1635:Nanolithography
1622:Nanoelectronics
1616:
1583:
1538:
1501:
1492:Popular culture
1468:
1463:
1393:by Ralph Merkle
1338:
1333:
1326:
1304:
1300:
1291:
1289:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1269:Wayback Machine
1260:
1256:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1219:
1218:
1214:
1203:
1184:
1180:
1171:
1169:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1146:
1145:
1141:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1111:10.1038/549336a
1090:
1086:
1031:
1027:
974:
970:
911:
907:
851:
845:
841:
832:
831:
824:
811:
810:
806:
796:
794:
786:
785:
781:
772:
770:
766:
755:
751:
750:
746:
742:
737:
672:
665:
658:
651:
648:
608:
602:
569:
546:
520:Richard Smalley
516:
510:
477:
467:professor Dame
461:science fiction
400:K. Eric Drexler
381:
361:small molecules
278:popular culture
274:science fiction
203:K. Eric Drexler
191:
151:
139:
87:
71:
65:
62:
51:
48:may be too long
43:This article's
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2235:
2225:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2212:Nanotechnology
2197:
2196:
2194:
2193:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2078:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2005:Swarm robotics
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1981:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1947:Picotechnology
1944:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1925:Nanotechnology
1922:
1917:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1849:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1801:
1799:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1780:
1779:
1772:
1765:
1757:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1744:
1732:
1720:
1708:
1695:
1692:
1691:
1689:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1672:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1649:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1632:
1626:
1624:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1593:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1581:
1580:
1579:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1562:
1554:
1548:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1537:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1524:Nanotoxicology
1521:
1515:
1513:
1503:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1478:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1466:Nanotechnology
1462:
1461:
1454:
1447:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1382:
1376:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1337:
1336:External links
1334:
1332:
1331:
1324:
1316:10.17226/11752
1298:
1273:
1254:
1240:
1226:
1212:
1201:
1178:
1153:
1139:
1125:
1084:
1025:
968:
925:(5): 381–385.
905:
839:
822:
804:
792:Inflation Tool
779:
743:
741:
738:
736:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
683:Nanotechnology
679:
678:
677:
663:
660:Science portal
647:
644:
604:Main article:
601:
598:
568:
565:
545:
542:
528:nanotechnology
512:Main article:
509:
506:
497:complex system
481:self-replicate
476:
473:
432:Robert Freitas
416:J. Storrs Hall
380:
377:
299:nanotechnology
193:
192:
190:
189:
182:
175:
167:
164:
163:
162:
161:
149:
134:
133:
132:
131:
124:
119:
114:
112:Brownian motor
109:
104:
99:
91:
90:
88:nanotechnology
82:
81:
73:
72:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2234:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2192:
2191:
2182:
2181:
2178:
2172:
2171:Transhumanism
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1941:
1940:Nanomaterials
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1903:Metamaterials
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1842:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1815:3D publishing
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1798:Manufacturing
1796:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1773:
1771:
1766:
1764:
1759:
1758:
1755:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1719:
1718:
1709:
1707:
1706:
1697:
1696:
1693:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1572:Nanoparticles
1570:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1544:Nanomaterials
1541:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1487:Organizations
1485:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1455:
1453:
1448:
1446:
1441:
1440:
1437:
1430:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1327:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1288:on 2018-07-03
1287:
1283:
1277:
1270:
1266:
1263:
1258:
1250:
1244:
1236:
1230:
1222:
1216:
1208:
1204:
1202:9780671819101
1198:
1194:
1193:
1188:
1182:
1168:on 2014-08-29
1167:
1163:
1157:
1149:
1143:
1135:
1129:
1121:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
972:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
909:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
850:
843:
835:
829:
827:
818:
814:
808:
793:
789:
783:
769:on 2016-10-25
765:
761:
754:
748:
744:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
708:Biotechnology
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
680:
675:
669:
664:
661:
655:
650:
643:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
607:
597:
594:
589:
584:
582:
578:
574:
571:In 2006, the
564:
561:
557:
556:Royal Society
552:
541:
539:
538:
531:
529:
525:
521:
515:
505:
501:
498:
492:
490:
486:
482:
472:
470:
466:
462:
457:
456:world economy
452:
450:
444:
442:
438:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
402:published in
401:
396:
394:
390:
386:
379:Nanofactories
376:
373:
372:stereoisomers
369:
364:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
339:
335:
331:
326:
322:
317:
313:
312:
307:
302:
300:
294:
291:
286:
284:
279:
275:
270:
268:
263:
259:
255:
251:
243:
239:
234:
230:
228:
225:to construct
224:
220:
219:messenger RNA
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
188:
183:
181:
176:
174:
169:
168:
166:
165:
160:
155:
150:
148:
143:
138:
137:
136:
135:
130:
129:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
94:
93:
92:
89:
84:
83:
79:
78:
69:
66:December 2020
59:
55:
49:
47:
41:
32:
31:
19:
2188:
2075:Robot ethics
1990:Nanorobotics
1957:Quantum dots
1824:
1715:
1703:
1681:Nanorobotics
1675:
1519:Nanomedicine
1511:applications
1307:
1301:
1290:. Retrieved
1286:the original
1276:
1257:
1243:
1229:
1215:
1205:– via
1191:
1181:
1170:. Retrieved
1166:the original
1156:
1142:
1128:
1101:
1097:
1087:
1046:
1042:
1035:Leigh, D. A.
1028:
985:
981:
971:
922:
918:
908:
859:
855:
842:
817:the original
807:
797:September 5,
795:. Retrieved
791:
782:
771:. Retrieved
764:the original
759:
747:
609:
585:
580:
576:
570:
547:
535:
532:
517:
502:
493:
478:
453:
445:
427:
412:Ralph Merkle
403:
397:
389:nanomachines
384:
382:
365:
352:
330:oligopeptide
309:
303:
295:
287:
271:
247:
198:
196:
126:
122:Nanorobotics
101:
63:
46:lead section
44:
2139:Moore's law
2070:Neuroethics
2065:Cyberethics
1835:Utility fog
1820:Claytronics
1810:3D printing
1207:Archive.org
728:3D printing
703:Biosecurity
581:Nanosystems
534:assemblers
524:Nobel prize
469:Ann Dowling
385:nanofactory
368:David Leigh
341:epoxidation
306:David Leigh
223:amino acids
18:Nanofactory
2206:Categories
2030:Automation
1915:Metal foam
1565:Non-carbon
1556:Nanotubes
1552:Fullerenes
1534:Regulation
1292:2006-06-16
1187:Gall, John
1172:2007-08-21
773:2008-04-01
740:References
616:ecoregions
551:Greenpeace
544:Regulation
441:diamondoid
430:(2004) by
2060:Bioethics
1878:Fullerene
1079:205259758
947:1748-3395
900:206544961
884:0036-8075
698:Biosafety
693:Bioethics
636:nanomotor
491:problem.
451:article.
366:In 2017,
215:ribosomes
86:Molecular
56:and help
1985:Domotics
1977:Robotics
1962:Silicene
1883:Graphene
1705:Category
1474:Overview
1265:Archived
1189:(1978).
1120:28933435
1071:28933436
1020:25766227
955:29610529
892:23307739
718:Ecophagy
646:See also
640:ecophagy
620:ecophagy
612:gray goo
606:Gray goo
600:Gray goo
489:grey goo
485:ecophagy
345:chalcone
325:thiolate
321:rotaxane
254:ribosome
238:ribosome
1853:Aerogel
1717:Commons
1497:Outline
1482:History
1051:Bibcode
1011:4687482
990:Bibcode
982:Science
963:4624041
927:Bibcode
864:Bibcode
856:Science
713:Ecocide
487:or the
437:diamond
353:Science
334:α-helix
316:peptide
311:Science
227:protein
2055:Ethics
2023:Topics
1791:Fields
1560:Carbon
1507:Impact
1411:(2006)
1405:(2003)
1322:
1199:
1118:
1098:Nature
1077:
1069:
1043:Nature
1018:
1008:
961:
953:
945:
898:
890:
882:
624:carbon
349:enzyme
1374:Wired
1075:S2CID
959:S2CID
896:S2CID
852:(PDF)
767:(PDF)
756:(PDF)
630:, or
424:Zyvex
343:of a
240:is a
2190:List
1509:and
1320:ISBN
1197:ISBN
1116:PMID
1067:PMID
1016:PMID
951:PMID
943:ISSN
888:PMID
880:ISSN
799:2021
558:and
276:and
1372:in
1312:doi
1106:doi
1102:549
1059:doi
1047:549
1006:PMC
998:doi
986:347
935:doi
872:doi
860:339
628:ATP
297:as
2208::
1427:—
1318:.
1310:.
1114:.
1100:.
1096:.
1073:.
1065:.
1057:.
1045:.
1041:.
1014:.
1004:.
996:.
984:.
980:.
957:.
949:.
941:.
933:.
923:13
921:.
917:.
894:.
886:.
878:.
870:.
858:.
854:.
825:^
790:.
758:.
632:UV
626:,
471:.
418:,
383:A
236:A
197:A
1776:e
1769:t
1762:v
1458:e
1451:t
1444:v
1328:.
1314::
1295:.
1251:.
1237:.
1223:.
1209:.
1175:.
1150:.
1136:.
1122:.
1108::
1081:.
1061::
1053::
1022:.
1000::
992::
965:.
937::
929::
902:.
874::
866::
836:.
801:.
776:.
244:.
186:e
179:t
172:v
68:)
64:(
60:.
50:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
