Military history of Mexico

2576:, after Obregón's assassination when Calles was not formally president but was the power behind the presidency. Amaro's orders were to reduce the military budget, challenged officers to justify their rank, reduced the number of regular troops, and mustered out irregular troops. He significantly reduced the military's budget from 36% of the national budget to 25%. He oversaw the revision of military laws, which codified practices for the postrevolutionary period. A general organic law laid out the mission of the military; the law of promotions created procedures for advancement in rank that did not rest on battlefield promotions or favoritism and ended automatic promotions. Promotions dependent on a space opening up and candidates passing competitive examinations, having professional training, and field experience. Retirement ages were specified for enlisted men and officers. Amaro also pursued creating a professional officer corps of younger men who had not risen to high rank during the Revolution. Young officers were sent abroad for military training, and then on their return to Mexico, to instill in them the idea of the military as a nonpolitical institution, subordinate to civil authority. 739:, a settler in Cuba who was well-connected locally. He received a license to lead an expedition of exploration only. As was standard practice for an expedition, those joining it brought their own weapons and armor, and if wealthy enough, a horse. If an entrada of conquest was successful, participants would receive shares of the spoils, with each man receiving one share, and if he was a horseman, an additional share. These expeditions were not organized armies of salaried troops funded by the crown, but groups of settlers turned bands of men in combat or soldiers of fortune, who joined with the expectation that their valor and skill in combat would be rewarded. The term "soldier" was not used by participants themselves. The leader was often called "captain,", but this was not a military rank. Cortés did not want to be restricted by the license limiting him solely to exploration of Mexico's coast, and left Cuba before officials realized his ambition. For that reason, once the Spanish would-be conquerors landed on the mainland, they needed to find way to constitute themselves as a legal entity. They did so by founding the town of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (today's 2775:. Cárdenas cracked down on sources of revenue for generals by closing casinos. Although revolutionary generals were increasingly concerned by Cárdenas's moves, he began winning over the junior officer corps by creating better schools, housing, and pensions. Calles was alarmed at Cárdenas's independence and seeming radicalism and attempted to rein him in. Cárdenas openly broke with Calles, counting on the support of some army generals, labor, and peasants. He removed Calles's men from the cabinet; he purged Calles's men from the PNR. In the end in April 1936, Cárdenas put Calles put him on an airplane to exile in the U.S. Consolidating his position further, Cárdenas invited back from exile those generals driven out by Obregón and Calles. These included participants in the 1923 Delahuertista rebellion. Also returning from exile were military participants in the 1929 Escobar rebellion, including Escobar himself. Porfirio Díaz, Junior, 1115: 3135:

detention centers, where guerrillas would be sent before being transferred to a legal prison, to keep the state's activities hidden from outside sources. Hundreds of people tied to the left were illegally detained, tortured and disappeared at the hands of Mexican security forces. The military detained Pablo Cabañas, Lucio’s younger brother, in January 1972. As he stated," my life changed completely." As the soldiers questions him about his brother Lucio's whereabouts, the soldiers chose violence to get him talking they, "slapped us (prisoners) across the face with a club, kicked, electric shocks all over the body, inside the underpants, almost naked, stuck us in a barrel of cold water, submerged our heads, hands and feet tied up, thrown on the floor to be kicked wherever we fell.” After almost spending six years in prison Pablo was released in 1977.

3107:

opponents. Which culminated in the Tlatelolco massacre on October 2, 1968, a student rally in Mexico City turned sideways. With the death toll still in question to this day some estimated the toll in the thousands, but most sources report the toll between 200 and 300 student deaths. The shocking part was the government trying to cover up the massacre by claiming that extremists and communists' agitators initiated the violence. With many eyewitnesses pointing the finger at the President’s security forces who had entered the plaza fully armed with weapons and backed up by armored vehicles. Another massacre took place in Corpus Christi, which also involved student demonstrators in Mexico City on June 10, 1971. During this time, there were several unconnected groups fighting against the government.

2091: 1143: 2310: 427:(1862–65). The Mexican army loyal to the liberal republic were unable to stop the French army's invasion, briefly halting it with a victory at Puebla on 5 May 1862. Mexican Conservatives supported the installation of Maximilian Hapsburg as Emperor of Mexico, propped up by the French and Mexican armies. With the military aid of the U.S. flowing to the republican government in exile of Juárez, the French withdrew its military supporting the monarchy and Maximilian was caught and executed. The Mexican army that emerged in the wake of the French Intervention was young and battle tested, not part of the military tradition dating to the colonial and early independence eras. 751:, the dominant power in central Mexico at the time of European Contact, had conquered indigenous city-states, many of which were chafing under Aztec rule and sought independent status themselves. Cortés quickly realized that he needed indigenous allies for successful conquest and found various indigenous city-states willing to take their chances with these newcomers. From the Spaniards' point of view, the standard strategy of divide-and-conquer was a workable—and winning—strategy. From the indigenous allies' point of view, they formed this alliance with the expectation of bettering their own circumstances. The most important of these allies was the city-state ( 1330: 1492: 1131: 3142:", a research group at George Washington University, posted the document on their Web site. An early version of the report was leaked in February to the Mexican press against the wishes of Fox and Carrillo, who felt it was biased against the military and left out important facts. With the government being pressured they issued out the much-awaited final draft. The report included the names of 645 people who disappeared by the state security apparatus, along with the circumstances under which some of them vanished. It also includes the names of 99 people who were victims of extrajudicial executions and more than 2,141 cases of torture. 3092:

government over use of power, the state enacted suppression acts on Guerrero people to keep the numerous political reform movements quiet. As citizens became more determined to speak out against the government, the PRI increased its terror tactics in the region. With the state’s lengthy coast and rugged but fertile inland mountains, as well as its high poverty rates, made it ideal for drug production and trafficking. Which also increased rates of violence in the state. The tactics continued being done to keep the people under its control, the constant barrage of violence also prompted many guerrillas to consider joining the PRI.

20: 505: 2852: 1103: 3201:(Operations against drug trafficking), for example, describes its purpose in regards to "the performance of the Mexican Army and Air Force in the permanent campaign against the drug trafficking is sustained properly in the faculties that the Executive of the Nation grants to him, the 89 Art. Fracc. VI of the Constitution of the Mexican United States, when indicating that it is faculty of the President of the Republic to have the totality of the permanent Armed Forces, that is of the terrestrial Army, Navy military and the Air Force for the inner and outer security of the federation." 3163:, released the official archives of the Federal Security Directorate which showed how'd intelligence agencies targeted activists and opposition groups during the country's "Dirty War." Lopez Obrador stated," we lived for decades under an authoritarian regime that limited freedoms and persecuted those who struggled for social change." Furthermore, he added an official apology on behalf of the Mexican State to victims of repression and said surviving perpetrators of the repression will face legal action, and that surviving victims will be able to see compensation under the law. 1894: 2917:(1934–40) served the Avila Camacho administration as Minister of Defense. Cárdenas was the key negotiator with the U.S. military about "radar surveillance, landing rights, naval patrols, and chains of command." The Mexican population was indifferent or hostile to the war. The institution of conscription led to violent protests, prompting the Mexican government to exempt conscripts from service overseas, helping to quell the civil unrest. However, Mexican citizens living in the United States were drafted in the U.S. Army, sustaining a high casualty rate. 1395: 885: 1155: 2503: 3103:, a prominent PRI leader. Echeverría's security apparatus took part in a manhunt, to secure a staged rescue of the senator. Reason being, Pablo Cabanas leader of the (PDLP) had a secret payout which was part of his demand for Figueroa's liberation. The army began to start closing in on Cabanas after the successful capture of Senator Figueroa. With the governments eyes on the (PDLP) they seized this was the best opportunity to capture and or kill their leader. Cabanas was later found dead in a shoot-out with soldiers in December 1974. 2556: 701: 2742:

Cárdenas also created an office to monitor accounting and fiscal management, increased oversight of military justice to make sure regulations were followed and established an office of procurement for war materiel. These measures undercut the ways generals had been able to pad budgets and divert funds into their own pockets. The military in this period "became more professional and less political" during the Maximato, particularly for junior officers. Generals who participated in the Revolution continued to pursue politics.

1293: 969: 2055: 3178: 2194:, along with bands of bandits. Carranza's insistence on the complete dissolution of the Federal Army before revolutionary forces were organized sufficiently for a peace-keeping role meant that disorder prevailed. Revolutionary generals held more than half of the state governorships, with only half of those elected to the office. The other half seized power without confirmation by an election. Military men turned governors were not subordinate to Carranza's government, most notably General 2010: 2349: 2216:

resistance. The revolutionary armies were huge, with 200,000 soldiers and some 50,000 officers, of whom 500 claimed the rank of general. Carranza's Minister of War, General Obregón was tasked in 1916 with creating a national army. He had commanded the Army of the Northwest, bringing those forces under the control of the government, and persuading the commander of the Army of the Northeast, General González; the commander of the Army of the East; commander of the Army of the Northeast,

2398: 2751: 2653: 1055:, to the north and northwest of Mexico City. Some regional forces were caught up with the rebels in Querétaro and Michoacán. "Militiamen with their arms and wearing their Spanish uniforms marched with Hidalgo's masses. Some criollo officers, mostly provincial sublieutenants, lieutenants, and captains, attempted to discipline and organize the inchoate popular movement." The larger story, however, was that the vast majority of the royalist army remained loyal to the crown. When 2799: 953: 2860: 60: 2337: 2361: 1539: 1171: 2325: 2298: 2025:, became president of Mexico. In 1884, Díaz returned to the presidency, where he remained in continuous power until 1911. Díaz saw the regular army as a potential threat to his vision of Mexico and his own regime; its budget absorbed a huge amount of the national budget. "He reduced the size of the officer corps and the total strength of the army from a theoretical 30,000 to 20,000." He began to expand the size and role of the elite rural military police, the 2002: 2623:), was the last large-scale uprising in Mexico after the end of the military phase of the Mexican Revolution in 1920. There was serious fighting in the states of Michoacán, Guanajuato, Jalisco, and Colima. There are estimates of 100,000 Mexican army troops combating 50,000 Cristeros, with nearly 57,000 government troops killed and 30–50,000 Cristeros killed. An estimated 250,000, largely noncombatants, fled, many to the U.S. An experienced general in the 2482: 2151: 686: 1839: 3156:

disappearances at the hands of state forces in the municipality of Atoyac during the 1970s. Despite evidence of numerous human rights violations, ex-President Echeverria and several other PRI officials had their cases dismissed and were released. The government's failure to address these past problems has caused tension in Mexico at times, as citizens have grown distrustful of a state that does not address the old regime and its reign of terror.

1360:(1773–1850). Coming to its citizen's aid, France demanded 600,000 pesos in damages. This amount was extremely high when compared to an average workman's daily pay, which was about one peso. In addition to this amount, Mexico had defaulted on millions of dollars worth of loans from France. Diplomat Baron Beffaudis gave Mexico an ultimatum of paying, or the French would demand satisfaction. When the payment was not forthcoming from president 1914: 328: 1682: 2588: 3118:(1975). Operation Intercept was launched along the Mexico border to halt the flow of marijuana, heroin, and dangerous drugs. Operation Condor was the first war on drugs in Mexican history, its main purpose was to wipe out the actors involved in the illegal drug industry. The judicial investigation into state crimes against political movements did not begin until the end of the 71-year-long PRI regime and the election of 1784: 2787:

trend of decreasing the size of the military budget as a percentage of national income, now down to 19% in 1938. He was determined to create a military whose soldiers were not separate from larger Mexican society. In a speech to cadets at the military academy he stated that "We should not think of ourselves as professional soldiers ... but rather as armed auxiliaries organized from the humble classes."

819: 934:, the privilege of being tried before a military rather than a civilian or criminal court, no matter what the offense. Viceroy Branciforte saw the fuero as a way of attracting wealthy American-born Spaniards to the military. Many of them donated large sums to create militias, with themselves as the ranking member, funding the purchase of arms, uniforms, and equipment. The local city councils 2957:(1942-1964) between the two countries sought to supply American plantations and factories with Mexican workers. The Bracero Program is the largest foreign worker program in U.S. history, and the subsequent pattern of mass migration of millions of Mexicans to the United States can be traced back to this policy. Around 5 million worker visas were granted to fill up vacancies in 24 U.S. states. 402:. The royalist military had to decide whether to support newly independent Mexico. With the collapse of the Spanish state and the establishment of first a monarchy under Iturbide and then a republic, the state was a weak institution. The Roman Catholic Church and the military weathered independence better. Military men dominated Mexico's nineteenth-century history, most particularly General 2421:. The U.S. occupation of the port of Veracruz lasted seven months. The U.S. withdrew, leaving munitions that Carranza's Constitutionalist Army utilized against the Huerta regime. Following the break between Pancho Villa and Carranza's Constitutionalists, and Obregón's 1915 victory over Villa, Villa began waging guerrilla warfare against the U.S. in border raids, prompting the U.S. Army to 2031:, placing them under his direct control. The Army remained, but it was increasingly an aging and less efficient or effective fighting force. Díaz was a modernizing, liberal authoritarian, who sought Mexico's development through "order and progress." Peace in Mexico was the key to attracting foreign investment. A major infrastructure project that facilitated that was the construction of a 3028:. Mexican army convoys and a navy ship laden with food, supplies and specialists traveled to the United States including military specialists, doctors, nurses and engineers carrying water treatment plants, mobile kitchens, food and blankets. The convoy represents the first Mexican military unit to operate on U.S. soil since 1846, when Mexican troops briefly marched into 719:(1519–1521) is the most famous episode of Spanish conquest history. It is documented in the sixteenth century by both Spaniards, their indigenous allies, and indigenous opponents shortly after the events. With arrival of Spaniards in the Caribbean in 1492, they developed patterns of conquest and settlement. From the Caribbean, they went on expeditions ( 2511:

developing organized support of worker and peasant groups. Compared to Madero and Carranza, elite landowning civilians, Obregón had worked with his hands and during the Revolution found that he was a brilliant military leader and became a skilled politician. He began creating a power base that would enable him to reform the revolutionary military.

876:) was not effective enough and the Spanish turned to a strategy of "peace by purchase," followed by peaceful Christian evangelization of the indigenous. The frontier institutions of the presidio and the Christian mission complex became standard crown-supported ways to establish and maintain Spanish control in northern Mexico. 2678:

election. Shortly after the win and before he took the oath of office, Obregón was assassinated by a Catholic fanatic before taking office. Calles could not directly serve as president, but he brokered a solution to presidential succession by founding the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), the precursor of the

2494:

loyal. Generals supporting Carranza purged and De la Huerta replaced military governors who Carranza loyalists. De la Huerta's most successful action was to grant amnesty to Pancho Villa, who had remained a threat, purchasing a landed estate for him in exchange for his laying down arms and generous cash payments.

938:, nominated wealthy and socially prominent estate owners to be officers. What was unusual about the fuero militar from fueros of other groups was its extension to enlisted men and not just officers. The crown was concerned that such an extension to the lower ranks would the military a haven for miscreants. 3204:

In 1892 the Federal Law started making changes and brought in four new elite special forces into Mexico. While having to reorganize police forces five times the very tempting bribery to pay off police forces had come to an end. Drug wholesales had sky rocketed in the early (2000s) jumping from $ 13.6

3106:

The protests of 1968 were unprecedented in Mexico and saw hundreds of thousands take to the streets demanding an end to political repression and the freeing of political prisoners. The violent governmental response also was unmatched and signaled the beginning of Mexico 's dirty war against political

2631:

led Cristeros. As President, Obregón was no friend of the Catholic Church, but he did not see a reason to provoke conflict with it when there were pressing issues for his presidency, such as securing U.S. diplomatic recognition and reining in regional revolutionary generals. But Calles underestimated

2198:

of Sonora, who ignored Carranza's orders that he disagreed with. Mexico entered a period of what has been called "predatory militarism", where revolutionary strongmen were "venal, cruel, and corrupt", taking on the worst characteristics of the ousted Federal Army. Carranza was in no position to stop

1874:

became increasingly bloody and polarized the nation's politics. Many of the Moderados came over to the side of the Liberales, convinced that the great political power of the Church needed to be curbed. For some time the Liberals and Conservatives had their own governments, the Conservatives in Mexico

1066:

turned to guerrilla warfare. Royal troops were less able to win decisive victories and the insurgency remained at a stalemale until the end of the decade. The political situation changed in Spain with a major impact on the situation in New Spain. Spanish liberals staged a coup against the absolutist

859:

by the Aztecs became fierce and effective warriors against the Spanish once they acquired horses. With the expansion of Spanish exploration northward, these northern indigenous groups were not quickly or permanently subdued and block northern settlement until the discovery of large deposits of silver

835:

required the awardees to keep "their Indians" peaceful and to promote their conversion to Christianity. The status of indigenous nobles was recognized by the Spanish crown and were granted the right to carry Spanish arms and ride on horseback, prohibited to commoners. In general, once conquered, the

790:

Several factors contributed to Spanish victory against the Aztecs. Their alliances with indigenous city-states discontented with Aztec rule were crucial to their victory, vastly swelling the number of warriors that could be mobilized in combat. The Aztec empire was fragile politically and militarily,

3358:

1917: The Constitution of 1917 maintains republican and liberal features of the 1824 and 1857 constitutions but also guarantees social rights such as a living wage. It nationalizes mineral resources and prohibits foreign businessmen from appealing to their home governments to protect their property.

2786:

Cárdenas continued the push for a smaller, professionalized army. The criterion for promotion became their performance on competitive examinations. Another way to reshape the top ranks was his reduction of time in service from 35 years to 25, forcing the retirement of many officers. He continued the

2571:

as Minister of War. From a humble indigenous background, Amaro distinguished himself on the battlefield during the Revolution and then picked the right side in the coup against Carranza and in the failed De la Huerta rebellion. Amaro's tenure as Minister of War lasted six years, spanning the Calles

2215:

The huge task of forging a regime that held effective power meant bringing the revolutionary armies of the Constitutionalist coalition and their officers under the control of the civilian central government. The armies had been created as regional entities, so that creating a national army met with

438:

1862. He revolted against the civilian liberal government in 1876, and remained continuously in the presidency from 1880 to 1911. Over the course of his presidency, Díaz began professionalizing the army that had emerged. By the time he turned 80 years old in 1910, the Mexican military was an aging,

381:

is replete with small-scale revolts, foreign invasions, civil wars, indigenous uprisings, and coups d'état by disgruntled military leaders. Mexico's colonial-era military was not established until the eighteenth century. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the early sixteenth century,

3324:

1862–1867: The French emperor Napoleon III, in alliance with conservative and proclerical Mexicans, installs Maximilian of Habsburg as emperor of Mexico. On May 5, 1862, loyalist troops defeat Napoleon III's troops at Puebla. Porfirio Díaz, maintains the liberal economic policies and secularization

2992:

ended two weeks after the uprising and there have been no full-scale confrontations ever since. The federal government instead pursued a policy of low-intensity warfare with para-military groups in an attempt to control the rebellion, while the Zapatistas developed a media campaign through numerous

2770:

being Cárdenas's choice. Calles had expected Cárdenas to become a puppet president like his immediate predecessors, but increasing he forged his own more independent and radical path of social reform. As a counterpoise to the army, Cárdenas proposed arming peasants and he was close to Marxist labor

2761:

With the 1934 presidential election looming at the end of the six years that would have been Obregón's term as president, generals who were part of Calles's ruling group now began to show their presidential ambitions. Cárdenas resigned his post as Minister of War and ran for the presidency with the

2579:

Implementing draconian changes to a large ad hoc fighting force with many distinguished and battle-hardened officers was no easy task. Calles followed practices of Porfirio Díaz and Alvaro Obregón, allowing generals to enrich themselves, and Calles himself accumulated a huge fortune. After Obregón

2211:

publicly supported Carranza and formed the Liberal Constitutionalist Party to ensure his election. Zapata remained in rebellion in Morelos, and Carranza ordered his assassination in 1919. Obregón had returned to his home state of Sonora, to await developments when elections were to be held in 1920.

1029:

was less straightforward than the independence movements in most of Spanish South America. In 1808 Peninsulares in Mexico City ousted the viceroy, Iturrigaray, whom they considered too accommodating to creoles' demands. In 1810 a conspiracy of creoles for independence, plotted a rising against the

830:

Not until the Spanish empire was by foreign conquest in the eighteenth century did the Spanish crown establish a standing military. Conquests of the central Mexican indigenous civilizations was basically final in the sixteenth century, with the conquest of the Maya region more protracted. Spaniards

520:

that had engaged in conquest of rival powers. As civilizations arose, traditional raiding to plunder resources evolved into full-scale conquests between 300 BCE and 150 BCE, with occupying forces that could direct tribute from the conquered to the conquerors. Conquest on a grand scale only occurred

2493:

had ambitions to be president and entered Mexico City with 20,000 men in May. A larger army of Obregonistas forced González to withdraw. He was arrested and sentenced to death, but De la Huerta pardoned, allowing him to go into exile. De la Huerta then offered enticements to González's army to be

2446:

In 1920, Sonoran generals rebelled against Carranza, initiating a twenty-five year period of revolutionary generals in the presidency. Each one systematically curtailed the power of the military, bringing revolutionary armies and their generals under central government control. The period was also

2173:

With the forces of reaction defeated and the Federal Army gone, the revolutionary winners failed to reach agreement on how power would exercised. Civil war was the result, with the Constitutionalist Army loyal to Carranza and commanded by Obregón fought the army commanded by Villa, who had broken

2021:, was a self-proclaimed era of "Order and Progress." Díaz brought order, sometimes through brutal suppression of uprisings, that gave entrepreneurs confidence to invest in Mexico's modernization. In 1880 at the end of his term, Díaz stepped away from the presidency, and his fellow liberal general, 1950:

and enthroned Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico. Maximilian of Habsburg favored the establishment of a limited monarchy sharing powers with a democratically elected congress. This was too liberal to please the Conservatives, while the liberals refused to accept a monarch, leaving Maximilian with few

1724:

had prepared a decree for the evacuation of Mérida, but was apparently delayed in publishing it by the lack of suitable paper in the besieged capital. The decree became unnecessary when the republican troops suddenly broke the siege and took the offensive with major advances. The majority of the

1038:

that had denounced bad government touched off a massive uprising by mixed-race castas and indigenous tens of thousands of unorganized followers of Hidalgo. Creole elites who had toyed with the idea of political independence rapidly withdrew their support as their property and persons were targeted

3274:

1810–c. 1821: During wars of independence that pit Mexicans against one another as well as the forces of Spain, over 12 percent of the Mexican population dies. Independence is achieved under the 1821 Plan of Iguala, which promises equality for citizens and preserves the privileges of the Catholic

3155:

has conducted some local investigations since the early 2000s, providing insight into the tactics and dynamics of the war and the scale of crimes. In one case, the "Association of Relatives of Victims of Disappearance, Detention, and Human Rights Violations in Mexico" (AFADEM) documented over 470

2830:

revolt in 1952. There were no more rebellions or attempted coups. The long history of the Mexican military as a political force was over. "The armed forces had been disciplined, unified, and subordinated to the civilian power... The consolidation of civilian supremacy over the armed forces in the

2614:

Calles is known for provoking an armed conflict with the Roman Catholic Church and its supporters, seeing them as a threat to the revolutionary regime. Using anticlerical provisions in the 1917 constitution, Calles mandated that secular education be implemented, the number of priests limited, and

2510:

Obregón had started the process when he served as Carranza's Minister of War and continued it when he was elected President following the coup against Carranza. Obregón achieved a level of success by broadening the base of support for the central government, reining in local military strongmen by

1743:

In 1850, the Maya of the south east were inspired to continue the struggle by the apparition of the "Talking Cross". This apparition, believed to be a way in which God communicated with the Maya, dictated that the War continue. Chan Santa Cruz (Small Holy Cross) became the religious and political

455:

seized the presidency of Madero in 1913, with Madero murdered in the coup d'état. Civil war broke out in the wake of the coup. Huerta's Federal Army racked up one defeat after another by the revolutionary armies, with Huerta resigning in 1914. The Federal Army ceased to exist. A new generation of

2790:

In 1936, Cárdenas reorganized the dominant party, renaming it the Partido Revolucionario Mexicano, with sectors of members by occupation. The Mexican National Army became of the four sectors, making it dependent on the PRM for patronage and privilege. Cárdenas implemented some radical policies,

2514:

When Obregón chose Calles rather than De la Huerta as his successor, De la Huerta led an unsuccessful rebellion in 1923. De la Huerta had been an old comrade in arms, but the rebellion was serious, having significant army support to challenge Obregón and the central government's power. A hundred

2472:

and rose up against Carranza. Carranza fled the capital in a train, filled with his supporters and much of the gold in the treasury. Carranza died while trying to flee the country, and De la Huerta was installed as interim president, pending elections. Obregón was elected in 1920, serving a full

2227:

In the fall of 1916, Carranza called for a constituent convention to draft a new constitution. Carranza hadd envisioned a civilian government pursuing moderate reforms, the many revolutionary generals were unwilling to subordinate themselves to civilians, since they had won the revolution on the

927:

had introduced practices and reforms that systematically excluded elite American-born Spaniards from holding high civil or ecclesiastical office. There were fewer visible routes to status and privilege for these men. The establishment of the military provided such a route to recognition with the

468:

were the victors in 1915. The revolutionary military men were to continue to dominate Mexico's postrevolutionary period, but the military men who became presidents of Mexico brought the military under civilian control, systematically reining in the power of the military and professionalizing the

2741:

During the Maximato, Gen. Lázaro Cárdenas became Minister of War, replacing Amaro, he put soldiers to work building infrastructure, particularly paving roads and maintaining them. The push to professionalize the officer corps through education continued even in this era of economic difficulty.

2737:

General Amaro remained as Minister of War during the entire period, continuing to pursue the reform of the military that Calles had instigated when president. Presidential cabinets were replete with military men; they held governorships. "The military was supreme both in the government and the

1905:

When Juárez repudiated the debts incurred by the rival conservative Mexican government in 1861, Mexican conservatives and European powers, especially France took the opportunity to place a European monarch as head of state in Mexico. The French sent an invading army in 1862, while the U.S. was

3150:

While Mexico's Dirty War has been over for several years, little is known about the number of victims the war claimed due to its elusive nature throughout its duration. Part of the reason was people getting fed lies and not hearing the truth and leaving many victims' families without closure.

3134:

was one of many tools used by the PRI group to keep the numerous guerrilla groups and political dissidents under control. Torture was used by the Mexican state to obtain information about attacks and plans from captured rebels and guerrillas. Torture would be done at any number of clandestine

911:

by establishing a standing military. The external military threat was real, but in order to establish a military, Spanish and colonial elites had to overcome the fear of arming large numbers of lower-class non-whites. Given the small number of Spaniards available for military service and the

536:

For many years, scholars depicted the Maya as peaceful, but there is ample evidence of Maya warfare in glyphic written texts and pictorials, as well as archeological evidence of "fortifications, mass graves, and militaristic iconography," indicating warfare's importance. In the 6th century, a

2677:

aspired to the presidency but, realizing that they could not win an election with the Calles government in charge of the election machinery, they rose in rebellion in 1927. Serrano, Gómez, and a number of their followers were captured and executed, and Obregón won the presidency in the 1928

2232:

enshrined the Mexican government's power over land and natural resources as well as labor rights. It also included stringent measures against the Roman Catholic Church. Despite some articles appearing to be antimilitary, civilian attempts to abolish military courts judging cases dealing with

746:

The conquest of Mexico unfolded along established principles worked out by the Spanish in their twenty years of settlement and expeditions around the Caribbean. Seizing the leader of an indigenous group during a friendly parley was typical, quickly giving Spaniards the advantage. Some groups

3091:

It all began in 1960, when Echeverría wanted to take over the Guerrero region with his "dirty war tactics" that involved his desire to tamp down military dissatisfaction by giving the army and the security forces the green light to attack the left. As the local people grew agitated with the

2543:. Others went into exile. Officers loyal to Obregón were promoted. The rebellion was costly, with 7,000 deaths and 100 million pesos spent, but it importantly "sealed the supremacy of the military power of the central government over that of the outlying regions, spell the doom of regional 386:(1756–63). The regular army units and militias had a short history when in the early 19th century, the unstable situation in Spain with the Napoleonic invasion gave rise to an insurgency for independence, propelled by militarily untrained men fighting for the independence of Mexico. The 1791:

This period was the only one in the nineteenth century with civilian control of the government, but it was not a peaceful era, with a civil war and the foreign invasion of the French and monarchy supported by Mexico's Conservatives, followed by the restoration of the Liberal Republic.

771:

and had learned a Maya language in captivity. She quickly became essential in the Spaniards' ability to negotiate with potential allies and advise the Spaniards about indigenous military strategy and tactics. In sixteenth-century indigenous pictorial accounts of the conquest, such as

533:, the first Mesoamerican states, there is evidence of local conquests of defensive walls around urban cores and conflicts resulting in large-scale sacrifice of warriors. There were cycles of conquests over many hundreds of years, resulting in the rise and decline of civilizations. 1951:

enthusiastic allies within Mexico. When the Civil War ended in 1865, the United States sent military aid to Juárez's government. In 1867, the French withdrew their military support of Maximilian, who refused the opportunity to return to Europe. He was captured and executed on the

3122:

in 2000, when the Special Prosecutor's Office for Social and Political Movements of the Past was established (FEMOSPP). Despite realigning much about the conflict's history the (FEMOSPP) has been unable to complete prosecutions against their main perpetrators of the Dirty War.

1308:. In defending Mexico's independence, Santa Anna lost a leg in battle, which became the visible symbol of his sacrifices for the nation. He capitalized on this reputation to forward his political career. The early post-independence period is often called the Age of Santa Anna. 1728:

Yucatán had considered itself an independent nation, but during the crisis of the revolt had offered sovereignty to any nation that would aid in defeating the Indians. The Mexican government was in a rare position of being cash rich from payment by the United States under the

787:, bringing about the Aztecs' total defeat in 1521. Despite their metal weapons, horses, dogs, cannons, and thousands of indigenous allies, the Spanish were unable to subdue the Mexica for seven full months. It was one of the longest continuous sieges in world history. 2817:

ran for the presidency, but in violent and likely fraudulent election, Avila Camacho was declared the winner. Almazán sought support from the U.S. and considered fomenting a rebellion, but in the end he attended Avila Camacho's inauguration. In 1946, the party chose

2228:

battlefield. Many generals were of modest social backgrounds, as opposed to Carranza, a wealthy landowner and professional politician, and the military men were ideologically more radical concerning the changes they envisioned for post-revolutionary Mexico. The new

1142: 3078:

government records, photographs, and details about individuals who were killed under the rule of the PRI. Also, Echeverria is known as," the master of illusion, the magician of deceit." According to prosecutor Carrillo who tried to charge him. He explains how their

3312:

1854–1861: Benito Juárez and other liberals overthrow Santa Anna (Revolution of Ayutla). The liberal reforms they inaugurate encourage division of Indian and church lands into private holdings, subject clergy and military to regular courts, and establish religious

2523:, and official statistics showed that 2,500 officers (20%) rebelled as well as 23,000 troops (40%), joined by 24,000 civilians. Despite their numbers, the rebels were not unified or well-led. De la Huerta was nominally the head of the rebellion, but generals 418:

sought to curtail the power of the military and the church and wrote a new constitution in 1857 enshrining these principles. Conservatives comprised large landowners, the Catholic Church, and most of the regular army revolted against the Liberals, fighting a

1195:

In 1821 Agustín de Iturbide, a former Spanish general who switched sides to fight for Mexican independence, proclaimed himself emperor – officially as a temporary measure until a member of European royalty could be persuaded to become monarch of Mexico (see

2997:

and over time a set of six "Declarations of the Lacandonian Jungle", with no further military or terrorist actions on their part. A strong international Internet presence has prompted the adherence to the movement of numerous leftist international groups.

723:) of exploration, trade, conquest, and settlement. The Spanish crown issued a license for a particular leader to head an expedition, a mature man with wealth, social standing, and ambition to better his position. Explorers probed Mexico's east coast, with 1879:. The war ended with Liberal victory on the battlefield, and Liberal president Benito Juárez moved his administration to Mexico City. But that was not the end of the conflict between Liberals and Conservatives, which was to carry on through another seven 1114: 2428:

Germany hoped to capitalize on Carranza's fervent Mexican nationalism and anti-Americanism to aid its own geopolitical aims in World War I. Germany sent a coded communication to Mexico, promising the restoration of the region lost to the U.S. in the

2766:, the radical strongman of the state of San Luis Potosí and other generals. Unlike previous elections, that of Cárdenas did not provoke a military revolt by disgruntled generals. Cárdenas accepted the cabinet that Calles proposed, with only General 2632:

the continuing power of religion in Mexico. Calles mobilized army troops to fight the Cristeros, which held their own against the federal armed forces. The rebellion was ended by diplomatic means, in large part due to the efforts of U.S. Ambassador

3354:

1916: Villa's attacks on border towns. United States President Woodrow Wilson orders Gen. John Pershing to capture guerrilla leader Pancho Villa after Villa's attack on Columbus, New Mexico. For nine months 4,000 American troops search in vain for

766:

or more politely called Doña Marina, who became Cortés's cultural translator. Sent into slavery as a child by her family, she was given as a gift to the Spaniards by a Maya indigenous ally. Malinche was a native speaker of language of the Aztecs,

2437:

was intercepted by the British. Carranza was attempting to consolidate his own regime and gain central control over revolutionary armies, so he held fast to Mexican neutrality in the larger conflict rather than risk an escalation with the U.S.

581:

had a role in initiating the first war. There is also evidence of conquests in the region of the Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Purépecha (or Tarascans), which were not as extensive as the Aztec empire, but followed the same pattern on a smaller scale.

2672:

Under pressure from Obregón, Calles pushed through a change to the constitution, allowing the re-election of a president if the terms were not continuous. This permitted Obregón to run again in the 1928 election. Generals Francisco Serrano and

1737:, and accepted Yucatán's offer. Yucatán was officially reunited with Mexico on 17 August 1848. European Yucateco forces rallied, aided by fresh guns, money, and troops from Mexico, and pushed back the Maya from more than half of the state. 747:

capitulated immediately and of those some became active allies of the Spanish. The small group of Spaniards realized immediately that the mainland had indigenous populations that were far denser and hierarchically organized societies. The

2106:

to power, Madero dismissed them and retained the Federal Army that had just been defeated. The Federal Army suppressed a number of rebellions against Madero, following his election as president in November 1911, by revolutionary general

2455:

Carranza could not run for re-election when his presidential term ended in 1920, but he expected to play a role in choosing his successor. Instead of endorsing his best and most loyal general, Alvaro Obregón, Carranza chose civilian

1071:

sought to implement the liberal constitution of 1812. In Mexico, conservatives saw this turn of events as highly unsettling and considered political independence now an option. Royalist army officer Agustín de Iturbide drafted the

3316:

1857: Constitution re-establishes a federal republic and, moving beyond the Constitution of 1824, guarantees the individual rights of free speech, assembly, and press. In 1858–1861 supporters and opponents of the reforms fight the

613:

state that small pieces of meat were offered as gifts to important people in exchange for presents and slaves, but it was rarely eaten, since they considered it had no value; instead it was replaced by turkey, or just thrown away.

864:. The high value of the silver mines and the need to secure the mining zone and the overland routes to transport silver south and supplies north meant the crown had to create a viable solution. A fifty-year long conflict, the 2531:, and Guadalupe Sánchez were the real leaders. On the government side, initially they had only 35,000 men, but workers and peasants volunteered for the cause. The disorganized rebellion was crushed, with Obregón, Calles, and 5220: 5190: 5095: 2964:

were the only Latin American nations that sent troops to fight overseas. The cooperation of Mexico and the United States in World War II helped bring about reconciliation between the two countries at the leadership level.

2738:

official party"(the PNR). The military held the upper hand in power, but the divisional generals understood that army was too large and put too much stress on the national budget, particularly during the Great Depression.

2147:, rose to command armies that soundly defeated Huerta's Federal Army in 1914. Huerta resigned in July 1914, and Carranza insisted on the dissolution of the Federal Army. Zapata had continued guerrilla warfare in Morelos. 1042:

The viceroy was slow to mobilize a military response to the Hidalgo revolt. Troops had been moved to Mexico City and units suspected of sympathies for independence were demobilized. The followers of Hidalgo rapidly took

3369:

1926-29: Conflict over the 1917 Constitution's provisions for separation of church and state leads to nationalization of church property and armed rebellion, which the government suppresses. This period is known as the

2584:, who became president of Mexico during the Maximato, created a vast fortune as an entrepreneur in border towns, owning race tracks, casinos, and brothels and then diversified into real estate and financial services. 1535:(September 13, 1847). Ever since this war many Mexicans have resented the loss of much territory, some by means of coercion, and more territory sold cheaply by the dictator Santa Anna (allegedly) for personal profit. 5215: 2111:. The army failed to suppress an on-going rebellion in the south, led by Zapata. Army generals increasingly saw the Madero regime as weak and ineffective, and intervened, staging a coup in February 1913. General 1751:

The government of Yucatán first declared the war over in 1855, but hopes for peace were premature. There were regular skirmishes, and occasional deadly major assaults into each other's territory, by both sides. The

2199:

victorious generals from their abuses and had to entice them through bribes to remain loyal to him. Revolutionary generals closed ranks behind Carranza after Villa was defeated in 1915, and top generals Obregón,

776:, Malinche is shown as an out-sized figure in a leadership position. With their indigenous allies, the Spanish defeated the Aztec empire in a two-year long struggle. They were aided by the outbreak of a smallpox 5145: 2988:, which is an armed rebel group that claims to work to promote the rights of the country's indigenous peoples. The Zapatistas had the initial goal of overthrowing the federal government. Short armed clashes in 5195: 3073:

With the release of “Historical Report to the Mexican Society” Mexico accepted full responsibility for starting a dirty war against leftist guerrillas, university students, and activists. The report included

1269:. The insurrectionists sent their proposal to the provincial delegations and requested their adhesion to the plan. In the course of only six weeks the Plan de Casa Mata had arrived at remote places, like 5035: 5085: 2082:. The outbreak of the Revolution was a protest against the three-decade regime of Porfirio Díaz. It was unexpectedly successful in ousting Díaz in 1911, a surprise even to the revolutionary forces. 5100: 1084:, which triumphantly marched into Mexico City in 1821. Independence from Spain was first proclaimed by Hidalgo in 1810, but it was not a political reality until 1821, when the last Spanish viceroy 5185: 912:

large-scale external threat, there was no alternative to enlisting dark-skinned plebeians into part-time militias or a standing military. Indians were exempt from military service, but mixed-race

791:

once it became clear that they were beatable. Spanish military technology was superior in many ways, with horses giving Spaniards the advantage in open-field warfare. Iron and steel weapons and

382:

the Spanish crown did not establish on a standing military, but the crown responded to the external threat of a British invasion by creating a standing military for the first time following the

1740:

In the 1850s a stalemate developed, with the Yucatecan government in control of the north-west, and the Maya in control of the south-east, with a sparsely populated jungle frontier in between.

3205:

to $ 49.4 billion. With that happening on June (2008) legislation was passed and Mexico was granted $ 1.6 billion in efforts to upgrade the National Justice System and stop the war on drugs.

1204:

became the first president of the new country; his given name was actually Félix Fernández but he chose his new name for symbolic significance: Guadalupe to give thanks for the protection of

2425:, from March 1916 to February 1917. It was an unsuccessful attempt to capture him, ending when the U.S. entered World War I, but it raised tensions between the U.S. and the Carranza regime. 2098:(right), who defeated Diaz's Federal Army in Ciudad Juárez in 1911 and helped bring and civilian Francisco I. Madero (left) to the presidency in 1911. Orozco revolted against Madero in 1912. 451:, on whose political behalf rebels rose against Díaz, demobilized the rebel forces and kept the Federal Army in place. "This single decision cost the presidency and his life." Army General 5205: 2615:

that they register with civilian authorities. The church hierarchy responded by ceasing saying mass, performing baptisms, marriages, and burials, and called for Catholics to resist. The

5200: 4543: 2264:

against the conservative Díaz regime to fight for freedoms. Many of these women led ordinary lives, but had taken arms during the time to seek better conditions and rights. Among the

1469:

led the Texas army to victory over a portion of the Mexican Army led by Santa Anna, who was captured shortly after the battle. The conclusion of the war resulted in the creation of the

1102: 5210: 1312: 831:

who had participated in the conquest of central Mexico were rewarded with grants of labor and tribute from city-states which was facilitated by indigenous nobles. The institution of

5090: 5040: 5000: 895:

In the eighteenth century, the rise of rival European empires, particularly the British, threatened Spanish control of its lucrative overseas colonies. The 1762 British capture of

5175: 5170: 5165: 5020: 2665: 5155: 5160: 5075: 5050: 3295:, Mexico recognizes the loss of Texas and cedes parts or all of what are now the U.S. states of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, Nevada, and California to the United States. 1767:

by a Chan Santa Cruz general and the vice-Governor of Yucatán recognizing Mexican sovereignty over Chan Santa Cruz in exchange for Mexican recognition of Chan Santa Cruz leader

2563:

General Plutarco Elías Calles, as with Obregón and other revolutionary generals, became a military leader during the Revolution. He allied with organized labor movement led by

2035:, with telegraph lines built along track beds. Rural policemen and their horses could be put on trains and sent to remote areas to suppress rebellions and re-establish order. 5125: 5060: 5030: 2309: 1380:, and to seize the port of Veracruz. Virtually the entire Mexican Navy was captured at Veracruz by December 1838. Mexico declared war on France. The French withdrew in 1839. 724: 5140: 5135: 5045: 5080: 5010: 3402:

1994: The Zapatista rebellion in Chiapas protests the PRI's dominance of political power and the government's indifference to the fate of peasants and indigenous peoples.

3100: 1130: 5130: 2447:

characterized by major unsuccessful rebellions, resulting in much loss of life, evidence that power struggles continued well after the Constitutionalists came to power.

2417:, 1914–1918. The period 1914–15 was the height of the civil war to oust the Huerta regime. Both Huerta and Carranza opposed the U.S. naval incursion into Mexico in 1914 2178:

in 1915, with his Villa's Northern Division shrinking to practically nothing. But both Villa and Zapata were able to wage guerrilla warfare against the Carranza regime.

3050:

began in 1964 and ended in 1982. It was produced by the Mexican governments who killed, tortured, and disappeared dissidents and political opponents. It involved the

1678:, a colloquial name for people of non-Maya ancestry that settled in the region. Nowadays "Yucatecos" is the demonym given to people who live in the state of Yucatán. 1148:

Agustín de Iturbide, royalist officer turned insurgent leader. Author of the Plan of Iguala, Emperor Agustín I, forced to abdicate and later shot returning to Mexico

2953:

Military participation was very limited in the end, but Mexico proved a key ally to sustain the domestic economy and industry of the United States during war. The

2734:

played an important role in crushing the rebellion. The U.S. supported the Mexican government in the conflict, allowing it to buy war materiel against the rebels.

780:

unintentionally introduced to the mainland by a black slave; the disease disproportionately affected the indigenous populations, since they had no immunity to it.

3718: 473:

being military generals since 1946. The fact of Mexico's civilian control of the military is in contrast the situation in many other countries in Latin America.

1748:

also became the name of the largest of the independent Maya states, as well as the name of the capital town. The followers of the Cross were known as "Cruzob".

410:(1846–48). With the overthrow of Santa Anna in 1855 and the installation of a government of political liberals, Mexico briefly had civilian heads of state. The 4593: 1562:

might also attempt to occupy the area. He linked up with Anglo colonists in Northern California controlled by the U.S. Army. Meanwhile, U.S. army troops under

1265:

By agreement of both heads the Plan de Casa Mata was proclaimed on February 1, 1823. This plan did not recognize the Empire and requested the meeting of a new

994:

and indigenous peoples were legally lower in standing with unequal access to justice and usually lived in dire poverty. Spain's debility at the start of the

2237:

at the constituent convention. The constitution was more radical than Carranza and his civilian advisors wanted, but it was promulgated on 5 February 1917.

2913:. Manuel Ávila Camacho called Congress for an extraordinary session and Mexico officially declared war on the Axis powers on 22 May 1942. Former President 1725:

Maya troops, not realizing the unique strategic advantage of their situation, had left the lines to plant their crops, planning to return after planting.

597:. In the Flower wars the primary objective was to injure or capture the enemy, rather than killing as in Western warfare. Prisoners-of-war were ritually 2885:

condemned the German invasions of 1939 and 1940 across Europe and extended its recognition to the governments in exile. Mexico broke relations with the

1858:

sought to establish equality before the law, so that the abolition of fueros, the special privileges of corporate groups, were abolished, including the

1154: 456:

fighting men, most of whom with no formal military training but were natural soldiers, now fought against each other in a civil war of the winners. The

1515:. During this period, many of the territories in the north were lost to the United States. Santa Anna was the nation's leader during the conflict with 390:(1810–21) saw royalist and insurgent armies battling to a stalemate in 1820. That stalemate ended with the royalist military officer turned insurgent, 3058:. The authoritarian party that ruled the country for 71 years before being removed in 2000. The presidencies that took place during the time were of 1597:

on February 22, 1847. Meanwhile, rather than reinforce Taylor's army for a continued advance, President Polk sent a second army under U.S. general

525:, which coalesced in the fifteenth century C.E., but smaller-scale conquests affected the rise and fall of civilizations before that. As early as 1304:. Spain initiated military efforts to reconquer it during the 1820s. A criollo military officer who emerged as a hero of Mexican nationalism was 585:

Prior to Spanish colonization, in the 15th century, several wars ensued between the Aztecs and several other native tribes. Alliances between the

4262: 3281:

1837–1841: Revolts favoring federalism over the centralizing constitution imposed by Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1836 occur in much of Mexico.

1854:

tried to find a middle ground between the nation's Liberals and Conservatives. During Comonfort's presidency a new Constitution was drafted. The

2297: 4313: 4972: 2489:

Adolfo de la Huerta held the presidency from May to December 1920. He took significant action regarding the military in this period. General

2017:

General Díaz came to the presidency by coup, and then there was an election after the fact. The thirty years of his presidency, known as the

836:

indigenous were incorporated into the Spanish colonial empire as vassals of the crown. There were few rebellions. An exception was the 1541

3348:

1914: Constitutionalist Army defeats Huerta's Federal Army, which is then dissolved. Villa breaks with Carranza, loosely allies with Zapata.

2893:

on 7 December 1941. Mexico extended rights of the U.S. Navy and participated in a Joint Defense Commission with the U.S. On May 1942 German

2636:, who negotiated an accord between the Catholic Church and the government, with the Church no longer backing armed rebellion. When General 439:

largely ineffective fighting force. When revolts broke out in 1910–11 against his regime, a rebel forces scored decisive victories over the

1636:, signed on February 2, 1848, ended the war and gave the USA undisputed control of Texas as well as California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of 3083:

chose violence to maintain the status quo when given the choices between repression and negotiation, political stasis, or transformation.

1445:, when Santa Anna ordered troops to go there and disarm the militia. The war leaned heavily in favor of the rebels after they had won the 1170: 1862:. Such reforms were unacceptable to the leadership of the clergy and the Conservatives, Comonfort and members of his administration were 1820:

led a provisional government after Santa Anna's final resignation, and the Revolution of Ayutla became one of the leading factors in the

1311:

The attempts to reconquer Mexico were not successful, but not until 28 December 1836 did Spain recognize the independence of Mexico. The

356: 3335:

and Pancho Villa in Ciudad Juárez. Madero demobilizes the revolutionary forces that brought him to power and retains the Federal Army.

692:

depicting the Spanish-Tlaxcalan army, with Cortés and La Malinche, along with an African slave in front the meeting with Aztec emperor

2174:

with Carranza. Villa had a loose alliance with Zapata, with each operating in their own military zones. Obregón defeated Villa in the

4909: 4892:

Serrano, Mónica. "The Armed Branch of the State: Civil-Military Relations in Mexico." Journal of Latin American Studies vol 27. 1995.

4666: 1756:

recognized the Chan Santa Cruz Maya as a de facto independent nation, in part because of the major trade between Chan Santa Cruz and

1080:, equality, and Catholicism as its core principles. He persuaded insurgent leader Guerrero to join them. Together they formed the 4995: 960:

enters Mexico City. The Army was formed out of the Spanish troops led by Agustín de Iturbide and the Mexican insurgent troops of

3278:

1835: Rebels seeking independence for Texas fight the regular army at the Alamo. In 1836 the Texas Republic becomes independent.

2360: 280: 5150: 4889:, David Roonfeldt, ed. La Jolla CA: Center for United States-Mexican Studies. University of California, San Diego, 1984, 33-49. 4130: 1816:. The revolution sustained much support among intellectuals. This tension led to the final resignation of Santa Anna in 1855. 1062:

The large-scale insurgency for independence in the north was suppressed, but insurgents in southern Mexico, particularly under

5105: 4594:"Remembering Mexico's Dirty War 50 Years After Tlatelolco/Recordando la Guerra Sucia de México 50 años después de Tlatelolco" 4174: 4061: 3016: 2985: 2336: 593:

had become central to these pre colonial wars. Several of these conflicts were evolved to an organized warfare, known as the

489: 4362: 3305:

1854: Mexico sells 77,700 km (nearly 30,000 square miles) of northern Sonora and Chihuahua to the United States in the

1652:. In return, Mexico received $ 18,250,000, equivalent to $ 643 million in 2023 dollars, total for the cost of the war. 4945: 2947: 1888: 1570:, and Kearny led a small force to California where, after some initial reverses, he united with naval reinforcements under 1287: 1255:, initiating his government in fight with the Congress. Later he dissolved Congress and ordered opposing deputies to jail. 716: 680: 424: 220: 165: 83: 4715: 4544:""Killing Two Condors with One Stone: The War on Drugs, Counterinsurgency, and the State of Siege in Northwestern Mexico"" 1550:

After the declaration of war, U.S. forces invaded Mexican territory on several fronts. In the Pacific, the U.S. Navy sent

976:

Events in the late 18th and early 19th centuries may be best summed as to have caused the fight against the Spanish. The

5241: 1979:

of Maximilian Hapsburg that had been propped up by the French government. After Juárez died in office of a heart attack,

1918: 1315:

was signed in Madrid by the Mexican Commissioner Miguel Santa María and the Spanish state minister José María Calatrava.

2580:

left the presidency, he borrowed state funds that enabled him to expand his agricultural enterprises in Sonora. General

4228: 3055: 2881:, but this would quickly change with the outbreak of World War II. While still neutral, President and military general 1938:

Although the French, then considered one of the most efficient armies of the world, suffered an initial defeat in the

4981: 4965: 4859: 4690: 3726: 3051: 3025: 2846: 2823: 2679: 2324: 762:, which the Aztecs had been unable to conquer. The Spanish benefited from another type of ally, an indigenous woman, 146: 2813:, wryly known as the "unknown soldier," for his undistinguished revolutionary record. Retired revolutionary general 4786: 3331:

1910–11: Challenge of multiple revolutionary groups to the Díaz regime and the Federal Army; victory of Maderistas

3232: 3160: 2186:

Although Carranza held the capital, local revolutionary generals controlled a number of regions of Mexico, such as

295: 4760: 4458: 5180: 2867: 2567:. Calles sought to reorganize the army and downsize its huge proportion of the national budget, choosing General 1901:

in 1862. The battle was an inspirational event for wartime Mexico, and slowed the French advanced to Mexico City.

844:

was suppressed by armed Spaniards and their loyal Tlaxcalan allies led by the highest Spanish administrator, the

349: 377:

within that nation's territory, dating from before the arrival of Europeans in 1519 to the present era. Mexican

3032:, which had separated from Mexico and joined the United States. All of the convoy's participants were unarmed. 2287:(folk songs) to come out of the Revolution, in which an unnamed revolutionary sang of his undying love for the 2090: 423:. The Conservative military lost on the battlefield. But Conservatives sought another solution, supporting the 1590: 1512: 1431: 1305: 1230: 1176: 403: 3418: 3152: 3110:

During the war, there were an estimated 1,200 disappearances without a trace. Mexico, pressured into joining

2960:

Although most countries in the Western Hemisphere eventually entered the war on the Allies' side, Mexico and

1441:

Revolts erupted throughout several states after Santa Anna's rise to power. The revolution in Texas began in

118: 2233:

discipline of soldiers and other matters, the military court was retained following the argument of General

1059:

took command of the royal forces, he won a series of decisive victories against Hidalgo's insurgent forces.

5005: 4958: 2827: 2776: 2116: 1855: 1081: 957: 399: 1980: 1975:

during the French Intervention, challenged civilian liberal president Benito Juárez following fall of the

1329: 406:, under whom the Mexican military were defeated by Texas insurgents for independence in 1836 and then the 5065: 4885:

Nunn, Frederick M. "On the role of the Military in Twentieth-Century Latin America: The Mexican Case" in

4094: 3292: 2950:; where Australian, Filipino and more American personnel also participated on the ground and in the sea. 1730: 1633: 1026: 947: 387: 317: 305: 93: 2783:

also returned. It was the end of dominance of the Sonoran revolutionary generals from Mexican politics.

2727: 2348: 1701:

The Maya revolt reached its peak of success in the spring of 1848 by driving the Europeans from all the

1200:

for more information). A revolt against Iturbide in 1823 established the United Mexican States. In 1824

508:

Depictions of one of the first battles in the war between Bonampak and Yaxchilan during the 6th century

5015: 4199: 3607: 3096: 2840: 1491: 342: 188: 39: 3742: 2535:

prevailing. Many rebel generals were executed, including Alvarado, Estrada, Maycotte, Manuel Diéguez,

2123:

forced Madero to resign and he was subsequently murdered. General Huerta became president of Mexico.

5055: 3139: 2878: 2819: 2772: 1333: 1251:

In May 1822, using military riots and pressures, Iturbide had taken the power and designated himself

1031: 253: 2877:

Foreign relations with the United States and the United Kingdom reached a critical low in 1938 when

2536: 2268: 2022: 1262:

was spared due to an agreement between Antonio López de Santa Anna and the rebel general Echávarri.

660:, the traditional capital of the Aztec Empire, gradually became the dominant power in the alliance. 5025: 3288: 3067: 2430: 2406: 1734: 1520: 1486: 1357: 407: 268: 133: 28: 3385: 2934:

This group comprised more than 300 volunteers who trained in the United States and fought against

2465: 2195: 1956: 1011: 19: 4076: 3448: 3236: 3226: 2532: 2422: 1579: 1077: 1007: 2882: 2831:

1950s established conditions for a particularly stable pattern of civilian-military relations."

2703: 2657: 2490: 2208: 1744:

center of the Maya resistance and the rebellion came to be infused with religious significance.

1686: 1661: 630: 4740: 3521: 3506: 3475: 3396: 2939: 2316: 2229: 2136: 2071: 1813: 1473:, a nation that teetered between collapse and invasion from Mexico until it was annexed by the 1300:

Spain did not reconcile itself to the loss of its valuable colony, refusing to acknowledge the

872:

to place soldiers permanently to protect the trunk lines. The Spanish "war of blood and fire" (

743:), and constituting themselves as the city council. They chose Hernán Cortés as their captain. 610: 477: 457: 111: 59: 4568: 2814: 2803: 2731: 2707: 2674: 1245: 391: 2792: 2715: 2706:

revolted against Calles and interim president Portes Gil. Five generals, Escobar (Coahuila),

2633: 2380: 1976: 1952: 1618: 1614: 1594: 1575: 1543: 1532: 1458: 1435: 1399: 1205: 1044: 504: 183: 3059: 2851: 2581: 2516: 2217: 2204: 2131:

The reaction to this was an uprising in the north of Mexico, with the Governor of Coahuila,

1352:

district of Mexico City had been ruined by looting Mexican officers in 1828. He appealed to

4930: 3423: 2974: 2914: 2903: 2810: 2755: 2637: 1801: 1710: 1567: 1361: 1266: 1242: 1197: 470: 98: 68: 4434: 4410: 4363:"Mexican students protest for greater democracy, 1968 | Global Nonviolent Action Database" 1702: 1108:

Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, "father of Mexican independence" for his 1810 insurgency

1093: 1089: 671:

groups that inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, were never conquered by the Aztecs.

274: 8: 4338: 4233: 3656: 3438: 3363: 3268: 3111: 3001: 2826:

in 1946, no longer having a sector for the army. No military men sought office after the

2723: 2687: 2469: 2461: 2434: 2392: 2158: 2132: 2103: 2075: 1586: 1523:(1846–48). One of the memorable battles of the U.S. invasion of 1847 was when a group of 1427: 1002:

allowed several creole rebels to take advantage of the situation. Thus, leaders such as

904: 783:

The Spaniards surrounded and laid siege to the inhabitants of the Aztec's island capital

538: 509: 465: 461: 448: 383: 290: 4289: 2780: 2767: 2405:

during the Mexican Revolution. The city was the site of two separate engagements in the

2234: 1983:

became president. Díaz then challenged him when Lerdo ran for election; Díaz issued the

1377: 1085: 4914: 4648: 4522: 4514: 4386: 3611: 3443: 3253: 3249: 2719: 2711: 2628: 2524: 2261: 2063: 2044: 2032: 1876: 1805: 1706: 1625: 1602: 1571: 1446: 1414:

The Texan struggle for independence marked the beginning of a conflict with the modern

1259: 1234: 1201: 1161: 1121: 1003: 990:

been passed over for high posts in the civil and ecclesiastical structures; mixed-race

884: 849: 740: 736: 609:

was also a center feature to this type of warfare. Historical accounts such as that of

590: 444: 434:

was part of the new Mexican military, a hero of the Mexican victory over the French on

198: 4940: 3063: 2191: 1369: 570: 516:

Before the arrival of Europeans in 1492, there were many large-scale civilizations in

4855: 4652: 4640: 4526: 4506: 4238: 4170: 4057: 3722: 3428: 3413: 3381: 3342: 3318: 3047: 3041: 3022: 2863: 2763: 2699: 2690:(1930-32); and Abelardo Rodríguez (1932–34), with the real power held by Calles, the 2683: 2624: 2520: 2221: 2187: 2166: 2120: 1893: 1847: 1721: 1606: 1563: 1524: 1500: 1470: 1301: 1252: 1217: 1190: 935: 606: 452: 420: 263: 210: 48: 24: 4950: 2144: 1931: 1772: 1771:

as "Governor" of the "State" of Chan Santa Cruz, but the following year there was a

1714: 700: 488:. Recent developments in the Mexican military include their suppression of the 1994 4630: 4498: 4435:"TLATELOLCO MASSACRE: DECLASSIFIED U.S. DOCUMENTS ON MEXICO AND THE EVENTS OF 1968" 4411:"TLATELOLCO MASSACRE: DECLASSIFIED U.S. DOCUMENTS ON MEXICO AND THE EVENTS OF 1968" 3433: 3306: 3194: 3190: 3172: 3115: 3075: 2921: 2540: 2502: 2457: 2200: 2175: 1984: 1972: 1947: 1939: 1927: 1898: 1423: 1394: 1389: 1292: 1063: 1035: 961: 826:

Indians battle with the Caxcanes in the 1541 Mixtón War. Source: Lienzo de Tlaxcala

773: 728: 708: 689: 653: 493: 485: 395: 378: 300: 285: 123: 2926: 2568: 1968: 1923: 1809: 1056: 888: 431: 415: 4935: 4838:

Popular Politics and Rebellion in Mexico: Manuel Lozada and La Reforma, 1855–1876

4619:"The Last Door: Political Prisoners and the Use of Torture in Mexico's Dirty War" 4263:"Luis Echeverria, a Mexican leader who was blamed for massacres, dies at age 100" 3004: 2954: 2943: 2682:(PRI). Three men held the presidency during what would have been Obregón's term: 2564: 2528: 2414: 2272: 2162: 2079: 1863: 1768: 1745: 1442: 1258:

Several insurrections arose in the provinces and were later crushed by the army.

1068: 995: 987: 924: 806:) they brought with them, to which the natives had no immunity, and which became 602: 598: 258: 204: 3257: 2555: 2054: 1817: 648:, breaking the balance of power between city states. Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and 4922:, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington 3663:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1952 (republished 1969) 3552: 3488: 3332: 3214: 3177: 2935: 2898: 2418: 2388: 2135:

declaring the Huerta regime illegitimate and becoming the "First Chief" of the

2112: 2108: 2095: 1907: 1753: 1598: 1559: 1462: 1365: 1073: 1034:

called to his rural parishioners in the pueblo of Dolores for an uprising. The

999: 978: 968: 865: 626: 469:

force. The Mexican military has been under civilian government control with no

215: 4502: 3661:

Soldiers, Indians, & Silver: The Northward Advance of New Spain, 1550–1600

3351:

1915: Civil war. Obregón defeats Villa in 1915, Constitutionalists take power.

3341:

1913-14: Military coup against Madero. Revolutionary forces forming to oppose

2822:, the son of a revolutionary general, to be its candidate. The PRM became the 2640:

became president of Mexico in 1940, he declared himself a Christian believer (

1787:

Miguel Negrete part of the military, during the civil wars of the 19th century

554: 530: 5235: 4644: 4510: 4242: 2547:. It also strengthened the labor and peasant counterpoises to the military." 2402: 2154: 2070:

pitted against the coalition of revolutionary forces in northern Mexico, the

2027: 2009: 1943: 1833: 1551: 1474: 1450: 1015: 795:

provided advantages. The Spanish were further aided in their conquest by the

645: 481: 435: 332: 2750: 2652: 2397: 2303:

Federal Army General Victoriano, President of Mexico following the 1913 coup

1962: 1946:

holiday) they eventually defeated loyalist government forces led by General

1795: 837: 3645:

The War for Mexico's West: Indians and Spaniards in New Galicia, 1524–1550.

3392: 3371: 3021:

In September 2005 Mexican army convoys traveled to the U.S. to help in the

2890: 2871: 2859: 2798: 2616: 2591:

Map of the Cristero War, showing regions where Cristero outbreaks occurred.

2413:

With the Revolution still being fought, Mexico remained neutral during the

2384: 2140: 2067: 1671: 1593:

personally marched north to fight Taylor but was defeated at the battle of

1019: 952: 917: 784: 748: 732: 693: 657: 634: 622: 618: 522: 440: 225: 2409:, a series of military engagements along the border during the Revolution. 1585:

The main force led by Taylor continued across the Rio Grande, winning the

1531:) fought to the death against a large army of experienced soldiers in the 4925: 4873:

Mexican Militarism: The Political Rise and Fall of the Revolutionary Army

3182: 3119: 2909: 2886: 2855:

Mexican boats attacked and sunk by German submarines during World War II.

1764: 1690: 1610: 1538: 1466: 1454: 1052: 891:, Spanish general, won victories against insurgents of the Hidalgo revolt 641: 594: 526: 517: 4667:"Rosendo Radilla case: new investigations in Atoyac de Álvarez | Mexico" 4635: 4618: 3054:(PRI) which was supported by the US government, left-wing students, and 2001: 637:

to the west. Between them, they controlled the whole Lake Texcoco area.

574: 4518: 4486: 3640: 3591: 2730:

joined the rebellion. Calles himself led troops against the rebels and

2366: 2276: 2249: 2058:

Porfirio Díaz ca. 1910 when he was 80 years old and in power since 1876

2018: 1996: 1867: 1821: 1645: 1629: 1605:

by sea, to begin an invasion of the country's heartland. Scott won the

1555: 1415: 1373: 1324: 1048: 916:

men were part of companies and there were some light- and dark-skinned

856: 832: 664: 411: 193: 160: 154: 128: 4919: 2481: 2150: 1838: 1694: 1136:

Vicente Guerrero, insurgent general who signed onto the Plan of Iguala

685: 550: 4814: 4284: 4282: 3299: 2275:

are often considered heroines to Mexico today. Today, references to "

1871: 1850:, leader of the self-described Moderates, was elected president. The 1667: 908: 861: 796: 578: 562: 88: 27:, military cadets who died in 1847, defending Mexico City during the 4387:"Tlatelolco Massacre | 1968: A Global Year of Student Driven Change" 2497: 1913: 1546:

in 1847. The battle saw American soldiers outflank Mexican soldiers.

1184: 1120:

Father José María Morelos, Mexican insurgent. 1812 portrait, now in

3338:

1911-13: Federal Army suppresses revolts against the Madero regime.

3264: 2695: 2573: 2544: 2284: 2257: 1681: 1637: 1496: 1349: 1337: 1226: 1222: 869: 823: 813: 807: 803: 792: 777: 763: 759: 752: 704: 649: 546: 243: 4279: 2984:

One recent event in the military history of Mexico is that of the

2587: 1763:

Negotiations in 1883 led to a treaty signed on 11 January 1884 in

1457:(commonly called Béxar at the time). The war ended in 1836 at the 4787:"IContributors to UN Peacekeeping Operations by Country and Post" 4167:

Inside the state: the bracero program, immigration, and the I.N.S

4131:"World War II: Mexican Air Force Helped Liberate the Philippines" 4083:, Leslie Bethell, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991. 3453: 3131: 2989: 1783: 1649: 1641: 845: 841: 799: 768: 566: 4054:

La política exterior de México durante la Segunga Guerra Mundial

2664: 1842:

Sóstenes Rocha the most conspicuous soldier in the liberal army.

1281: 879: 4897:

Disorder and Progress: Bandits, Police, and Mexican Development

4761:"In historic U-turn, Mexico to join U.N. peacekeeping missions" 4056:. Política. Oaxaca México: Universidad del Mar Plaza y Valdés. 3773:

Disorder and Progress: Bandits, Police, and Mexican Development

3555:. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, vol. 1, pp. 251–254. 3080: 2961: 2894: 2181: 1757: 1508: 1353: 1345: 900: 896: 2795:

as well as expropriation of foreign-owned petroleum in 1938.

2550: 1241:

on February 1, 1823, as a start of their efforts to overthrow

855:

The indigenous groups in northern Mexico, collectively called

398:, to join in a unified movement for independence, forming the 4487:"Operation Intercept: The International Politics of Pressure" 4229:"Details of Mexico's Dirty Wars From 1960s to 1980s Released" 3955:

Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution, 1919-1936

3029: 2254: 1516: 1419: 1407: 1270: 991: 929: 913: 818: 668: 586: 558: 542: 3582:

Marcus, Joyce. "Conquests: Pre-Hispanic Period", pp. 252–53.

1519:, which declared itself independent in 1836, and during the 1273:, and almost all the provinces had been united to the plan. 617:

Perhaps the most famous of the Native Mexican states is the

4569:"Mexico opening memorials to 'dirty war' torture, killings" 1775:

in Chan Santa Cruz, and the treaty was declared cancelled.

1528: 2694:(maximum chief). The period is now generally known as the 2126: 1507:

The dominant figure of the second quarter of 19th century

1426:. Battles associated with the conflict with Texas include 1030:

royal government. When it was discovered, secular priest

4314:"Mexico's Everyday War: Guerrero and the Trials of Peace" 3271:, stimulating political unrest throughout Spain's empire. 2450: 1967:

Juárez's republic was restored. However, liberal General

1963:

Restored Republic under Juárez and the overthrow of Lerdo

1796:

Overthrow of Santa Anna in the Revolution of Ayutla, 1855

941: 374: 4716:"Mexico's president opens archives on 'dirty war period" 4079:. "The rise and fall of Cardenismo, c. 1930– c.1946" in 3377:

1928: Unsuccessful revolt by Generals Gómez and Serrano.

3325:

achieved under Juárez and encourages foreign investment.

2441: 982:, or American-born rather than Spaniards born in Spain ( 553:. The Mayan conflict also included vassal states in the 3618:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1982, pp. 79–80 3359:

Amended many times, this constitution remains in force.

3239:

in 2019, which has been involved with border security.

3007:(1994–2000) refused most of the demands of the rebels. 2668:

General Joaquín Amaro, who implemented military reforms

4845:

Generals in the Palacio: The Military in Modern Mexico

4691:"Mexico: Ex-President Charged in 'Dirty War' Killings" 3384:, unsuccessful revolt by a number of generals against 3181:

Mexican soldiers raid a house reportedly owned by the

2979: 1364:(1780–1853), the king sent a fleet under Rear Admiral 907:, prompted the Spanish crown to protect its colony of 4980: 4155:

Knight, "The rise and fall of Cardenismo" pp. 302–03.

3672:

Archer, Christon I. "Military: Bourbon New Spain" in

3473:

Archer, Christon I. “Military: Bourbon New Spain” in

2476: 2401:

American and Mexican soldiers guarding the border in

2279:" are made as a symbol of pride among Mexican women. 2224:

also to have their forces under the Ministry of War.

652:

formed a "Triple Alliance" that came to dominate the

4854:. Westport CT: Praeger Security International 2005. 3717:

Orozco, Fernando; Orozco, Orozco Linares L. (1996).

1670:

lasted from 1847 to 1901, and began as a war of the

1628:, signed on January 13, 1847, ended the fighting in 1422:, and its independence from Mexico and the state of 4882:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1957 M.. 4875:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1968. 4833:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1977. 3547:Marcus, Joyce. "Conquests: Pre-Hispanic Period" in 3256:. In 1521 Cortés and his indigenous allies conquer 2745: 2460:to succeed him. Revolutionary generals in Sonora, 2085: 2049: 1558:and claim it for the U.S. because of concerns that 1402:in 1836, was a decisive battle that saw the end of 810:, killing large portions of the native population. 394:persuading the guerrilla leader of the insurgency, 4459:"A Victory for the Truth about Mexico's Dirty War" 4189:Knight, "The rise and fall of Cardenismo," p. 305. 4119:Knight, "The rise and fall of Cardenismo," p. 303. 3564:Marcus, "Conquests: Pre-Hispanic Period", p. 252. 2897:torpedoed and sank two Mexican oil tankers in the 2644:), and armed conflict over religion was at an end. 1959:, by the forces loyal to President Benito Juárez. 1713:and a stronghold between the road from Mérida and 1655: 1480: 3957:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1961, 436-444 3743:"Tratado Definitivo de Paz entre Mexico y España" 3685:Archer, "Military: Bourbon New Spain", pp. 901–02 3573:Marcus: "Conquests: Pre-Hispanic Period", p. 252. 2498:Postrevolutionary military under Obregón, 1920-24 1882: 1348:cook, Monsieur Remontel, claimed his shop in the 1185:First Mexican Empire and its overthrow, 1822–1823 5233: 4128: 4051: 3698:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1957. 3647:Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2010 3549:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures 1368:to declare a blockade of all Mexican ports from 814:Colonial-era control without a standing military 727:exploring southeast Mexico in 1517, followed by 499: 4868:. College Station TX: Texas A&M Press 1997. 2879:Mexico seized and nationalized its oil industry 2722:(Chihuahua), led some 17,000 troops in revolt. 2342:General Alvaro Obregón, Carranza's best general 2078:, and the armed peasantry in the south, led by 2038: 1601:in March, which was transported to the port of 3676:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 898–900. 2515:generals supported the rebel cause, including 2369:, women participants in the Mexican Revolution 2220:, and commander of the Army of the Southeast, 1383: 629:, the most powerful of these city states were 484:nations to send combat troops to serve in the 4966: 4899:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1981. 4840:. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press 2015 4815:National Guard of Mexico website (in Spanish) 4738: 3775:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1981. 3758:Archer, Christon I. "Military: 1821–1914" in 3707:Archer, "Military: Bourbon New Spain", p. 903 3504:Archer, Christon I. “Military: 1821–1914” in 1705:, with the exception of the walled cities of 1282:Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico, 1821–29 880:Establishment of a standing military, 18th c. 674: 350: 16:Armed conflicts within the nation's territory 3716: 2647: 2182:Carranza and the revolutionary army, 1916-18 1827: 1778: 1296:Capitulation of San Juan de Ulua, anonymous. 447:(1910–1920). Díaz resigned in May 1911, but 4880:The "Fuero Militar" in New Spain, 1764–1800 3696:The "Fuero Militar" in New Spain, 1764–1800 3159:On March 1, 2019, the President of Mexico, 2551:Calles presidency and the military, 1924-28 2330:General Pancho Villa, Division of the North 1930:, left, Maximiian, center, Mexican General 1870:, from December 1857 to January 1861. This 1866:and a revolt was declared. This led to the 1164:, first president of the Republic of Mexico 4973: 4959: 4920:A Continent Divided: The U.S. – Mexico War 4031:Serrano, Mónica. "Military: 1914–1996" in 3519:Serrano, Mónica. "Military: 1914–1996" in 3208: 3010: 2315:Venustiano Carranza, "First Chief" of the 2157:of rebel soldiers in the coup against the 357: 343: 4852:Mexico's Military on the Democratic Stage 4847:. New York: Oxford University Press 1992. 4634: 4616: 4222: 4220: 3762:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 909. 2889:following its attack on the U.S. base at 2240: 1990: 1987:, successfully overthrowing him in 1876. 1438:, which allowed secession to take place. 711:(1576) account of the conquest of Mexico. 621:. In the 13th and 14th centuries, around 4164: 4035:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 911 3176: 2858: 2850: 2797: 2749: 2663: 2651: 2586: 2554: 2501: 2480: 2396: 2283:was the title of one of the most famous 2260:sent to combat among the men during the 2149: 2089: 2053: 2008: 2000: 1942:on May 5, 1862 (now commemorated as the 1912: 1892: 1837: 1782: 1680: 1537: 1490: 1393: 1328: 1291: 1179:came to dominate Mexico for thirty years 1076:, calling for political independence, a 967: 964:, fought for independence against Spain. 951: 883: 817: 707:depicted by an indigenous scribe in the 699: 684: 503: 18: 4093:Minster, Christopher (April 16, 2018). 4092: 3598:. Prentice Hall 2003, p. 53, pp. 73–96 3495:. New York: HarperCollins 1997, p. 510. 2127:Formation of the Constitutionalist Army 2119:, President Díaz's nephew, and General 1875:City and the Liberals headquartered in 464:and the military leadership of General 5234: 4226: 4217: 4169:. After the law. New York: Routledge. 3284:1845: The United States annexes Texas. 2451:The last successful military coup 1920 2102:Although revolutionary forces brought 942:Mexican War of Independence, 1810–1821 696:. The facing page is no longer extant. 656:, and then extended its power beyond. 4954: 4831:The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760–1810 4538: 4536: 4484: 4480: 4478: 4095:"Mexican Involvement in World War II" 4047: 4045: 4043: 4041: 3017:Mexican response to Hurricane Katrina 2986:Zapatista Army of National Liberation 2468:, and Alvaro Obregón promulgated the 2442:Era of the Post Revolution, 1920–1946 1376:, to bombard the coastal fortress of 998:, and an inability to control itself 490:Zapatista Army of National Liberation 4866:The Mexican National Army, 1822–1852 3193:has participated in efforts against 3035: 2968: 2938:in the Pacific theatre. The Mexican 1889:Second French intervention in Mexico 1288:Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico 972:Flag of the Army of Three Guarantees 717:Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire 681:Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire 4982:Military history of North America 3596:The Early History of Greater Mexico 3213:Mexico has deployed troops for the 3166: 2980:1994 Zapatista Rebellion in Chiapas 2870:flying over the Philippines during 2013:Ruralan policeman on board a train. 1919:The Execution of Emperor Maximilian 1461:(about 20 miles east of modern-day 1318: 868:initially used the construction of 840:, where an uprising in what is now 640:The Aztecs hired themselves out as 13: 4823: 4617:McCormick, Gladys (January 2017). 4533: 4475: 4129:Aviation History (June 12, 2006). 4038: 3328:1901: End of Caste War of Yucatán. 3220: 3199:Operaciones contra el narcotrafico 2477:Interim President and the military 2374: 2139:. Two brilliant natural soldiers, 1804:was an 1854 plan to overthrow the 1124:in the Museo Nacional de Historia. 14: 5253: 4903: 4052:Velázquez Flores, Rafael (2007). 3052:Institutional Revolutionary Party 2847:Latin America during World War II 2824:Institutional Revolutionary Party 2779:, former governor of Sonora, and 2680:Institutional Revolutionary Party 1685:An oil painting depiction of the 1495:American military forces bombard 1276: 986:) had since the eighteen-century 460:under the civilian leadership of 5096:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 4887:The Modern Mexican Military: A - 4796:. United Nations. April 30, 2018 4339:"The Dawn of Mexico's Dirty War" 4290:"The Dawn of Mexico's Dirty War" 3321:, which ends in liberal victory. 2946:of the United States during the 2845:For additional information, see 2746:Lázaro Cárdenas and the military 2359: 2347: 2335: 2323: 2308: 2296: 2086:Military and the Madero, 1911-13 2062:The decade-long conflict of the 2050:Revolutionary forces defeat Díaz 1169: 1153: 1141: 1129: 1113: 1101: 326: 58: 4808: 4779: 4753: 4732: 4708: 4683: 4659: 4610: 4586: 4561: 4451: 4427: 4403: 4379: 4355: 4331: 4306: 4255: 4192: 4183: 4158: 4149: 4122: 4113: 4086: 4070: 4025: 4012: 3999: 3986: 3973: 3960: 3947: 3934: 3921: 3908: 3895: 3882: 3869: 3856: 3843: 3830: 3817: 3804: 3791: 3778: 3765: 3752: 3735: 3710: 3701: 3688: 3679: 3666: 3650: 3634: 3621: 3601: 3585: 2834: 1733:for the territory taken in the 1689:. The conflict was between the 1656:Caste War of Yucatán, 1847–1901 1481:Mexican–American War, 1846–1848 1334:Bombardment of San Juan de Ulúa 1014:started revolutions throughout 923:In the eighteenth century, the 822:Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza and 4200:"What Was Mexico's Dirty War?" 3576: 3567: 3558: 3541: 3528: 3513: 3498: 3482: 3467: 2660:led a failed rebellion in 1929 1883:French Intervention, 1862–1867 1430:, where federal troops led by 1221:was formulated to abolish the 725:Francisco Hernández de Córdoba 443:in the opening chapter of the 1: 4767:. Reuters. September 24, 2014 3719:"Fechas históricas de México" 3460: 3419:List of wars involving Mexico 3362:1923: Unsuccessful revolt by 3140:The National Security Archive 2948:liberation of the Philippines 2207:, Carranza's son-in-law, and 2005:General Porfirio Díaz in 1867 1589:in September 1846. President 1525:young Military College cadets 1434:defeated the Texans, and the 500:Pre-Hispanic era, before 1519 425:French intervention in Mexico 5221:United States Virgin Islands 4741:"Military history of Mexico" 3267:dethrones the Spanish king, 3145: 2809:Cárdenas chose the moderate 2039:Mexican Revolution 1910–1920 1808:regime by the revolutionary 1453:, and successfully captured 1313:Santa María–Calatrava Treaty 1082:Army of the Three Guarantees 1000:during its French occupation 958:Army of the Three Guarantees 731:in 1518. The most important 400:Army of the Three Guarantees 7: 4910:William Lamport's Rebellion 4794:United Nations Peacekeeping 4227:Forero, Juan (2006-11-22). 3406: 3366:against Obregón and Calles. 3293:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 3242: 3233:Andrés Manuel López Obrador 3161:Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador 2597: Large-scale outbreaks 1731:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 1634:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 1621:and occupying the capital. 1591:Antonio López de Santa Anna 1513:Antonio López de Santa Anna 1432:Antonio López de Santa Anna 1384:Texas Revolution, 1835–1836 1306:Antonio López de Santa Anna 1231:Antonio López de Santa Anna 1177:Antonio López de Santa Anna 948:Mexican War of Independence 404:Antonio López de Santa Anna 388:Mexican War of Independence 10: 5258: 5242:Military history of Mexico 4485:Craig, Richard B. (1980). 4391:1968.blackstudies.ucsb.edu 3536:Mexico: Biography of Power 3493:Mexico: Biography of Power 3224: 3170: 3126: 3039: 3014: 2972: 2844: 2841:Mexico during World War II 2838: 2702:broke out, led by General 2559:Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles 2378: 2042: 1994: 1886: 1831: 1659: 1484: 1387: 1322: 1285: 1188: 945: 678: 675:Spanish conquest of Mexico 371:military history of Mexico 5196:Saint Pierre and Miquelon 5114: 4988: 4503:10.1017/S0034670500031995 4463:www.justiceinitiative.org 4367:nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu 4081:Mexico Since Independence 3099:(PDLP) kidnapped senator 3086: 2773:Vicente Lombardo Toledano 2648:Maximato and the military 2161:during the February 1913 2033:railway network in Mexico 1981:Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada 1828:The Reform War, 1857–1860 1779:Era of the Liberal Reform 1613:, winning the battles of 1527:(now considered national 903:, the Philippines in the 254:Petroleum nationalization 5216:Turks and Caicos Islands 4165:Calavita, Kitty (1992). 3235:established the Mexican 2609: Sporadic outbreaks 2603: Moderate outbreaks 1697:, and the Mexican state. 874:guerra de sangre y fuego 414:that were instituted by 269:Mexican Movement of 1968 89:Viceroyalty of New Spain 4864:DePalo, William A. Jr. 3627:Lockhart and Schwartz, 3298:1847: The start of the 3227:National Guard (Mexico) 3209:U.N. Peacekeeping, 2014 3101:Rubén Figueroa Figueroa 3011:Hurricane Katrina, 2005 2828:Miguel Henríquez Guzmán 2354:General Emiliano Zapata 1720:The Yucatecan governor 1212:, which means Victory. 1078:constitutional monarchy 496:, and border security. 492:in Chiapas, control of 476:Mexico stood among the 408:U.S. invasion of Mexico 147:Second Federal Republic 5146:British Virgin Islands 4491:The Review of Politics 4033:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3760:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3674:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3522:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3507:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3476:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3449:Mexican National Guard 3217:peacekeeping efforts. 3186: 2874: 2868:201st Fighter Squadron 2856: 2806: 2758: 2669: 2661: 2611: 2560: 2507: 2486: 2423:invade northern Mexico 2410: 2317:Constitutionalist Army 2269:Dolores Jiménez y Muro 2170: 2137:Constitutionalist Army 2099: 2072:Constitutionalist Army 2059: 2014: 2006: 1991:Porfiriato (1876–1911) 1935: 1926:1868. Mexican General 1902: 1843: 1814:New Orleans, Louisiana 1788: 1698: 1547: 1504: 1411: 1341: 1297: 973: 965: 892: 827: 712: 697: 611:Juan Bautista de Pomar 513: 478:Allies of World War II 458:Constitutionalist Army 221:Occupation of Veracruz 31: 5086:Saint Kitts and Nevis 4137:. World History Group 3395:, on the side of the 3386:Plutarco Elías Calles 3180: 2924:contributed with the 2862: 2854: 2801: 2793:land reform in Mexico 2753: 2698:. In March 1929, the 2667: 2655: 2634:Dwight Whitney Morrow 2590: 2558: 2505: 2484: 2466:Plutarco Elías Calles 2400: 2381:Mexico in World War I 2196:Plutarco Elías Calles 2165:that brought General 2153: 2093: 2057: 2012: 2004: 1953:Cerro de las Campanas 1916: 1896: 1841: 1786: 1684: 1544:Battle of Cerro Gordo 1541: 1533:Battle of Chapultepec 1494: 1459:Battle of San Jacinto 1436:Battle of San Jacinto 1400:Battle of San Jacinto 1397: 1332: 1295: 1206:Our Lady of Guadalupe 1012:Antonio José de Sucre 971: 955: 928:establishment of the 887: 821: 703: 688: 507: 184:Second Mexican Empire 22: 4936:Mexican Independence 4931:Wars of Independence 4926:Mexican–American War 4829:Archer, Christon I. 3657:Powell, Philip Wayne 3424:Mexican Armed Forces 3391:1942: Mexico enters 3289:Mexican–American War 3260:, the Aztec capital. 2975:Mexican Armed Forces 2940:201 Fighter Squadron 2930:, also known as the 2883:Manuel Ávila Camacho 2820:Miguel Alemán Valdés 2811:Manuel Avila Camacho 2777:José María Maytorena 2704:José Gonzalo Escobar 2658:José Gonzalo Escobar 2638:Manuel Avila Camacho 2431:Mexican–American War 2230:constitution in 1917 1856:Constitution of 1857 1812:during his exile in 1802:Revolution of Ayutla 1735:Mexican–American War 1687:Caste War of Yucatán 1662:Caste War of Yucatán 1568:Santa Fe, New Mexico 1521:Mexican–American War 1499:in 1847, during the 1487:Mexican–American War 1449:, captured the fort 1362:Anastasio Bustamante 1267:Constituent Congress 1229:. In December 1822, 1198:First Mexican Empire 644:in wars between the 306:Coronavirus pandemic 281:1982 economic crisis 134:Mexican–American War 5101:Trinidad and Tobago 4996:Antigua and Barbuda 4878:McAlister, Lyle C. 4836:Brittsan, Zachary. 4739:profilpelajar.com. 4636:10.1017/tam.2016.80 4318:www.crisisgroup.org 4234:The Washington Post 4018:quoted in Lieuwen, 4007:Yesterday in Mexico 3953:Dulles, John W.F., 3694:McAlister, Lyle C. 3629:Early Latin America 3616:Early Latin America 3439:Mexican Indian Wars 3364:Adolfo de la Huerta 3291:. In the resulting 3112:Operation Intercept 3068:Jose Lopez Portillo 2815:Juan Andreu Almazán 2804:Juan Andreu Almazán 2732:Juan Andreu Almazán 2724:Francisco I. Madero 2688:Pascual Ortiz Rubio 2572:presidency and the 2537:Manuel García Vigil 2485:Adolfo de la Huerta 2470:Plan of Agua Prieta 2462:Adolfo de la Huerta 2435:Zimmermann Telegram 2393:Zimmermann Telegram 2133:Venustiano Carranza 2104:Francisco I. Madero 2076:Venustiano Carranza 1609:and marched toward 1587:Battle of Monterrey 1246:Agustín de Iturbide 1225:and to establish a 1027:War of Independence 510:Tikal-Calakmul wars 480:and was one of two 471:President of Mexico 462:Venustiano Carranza 449:Francisco I. Madero 392:Agustín de Iturbide 291:Mexican peso crisis 166:French intervention 119:Centralist Republic 94:War of Independence 5036:Dominican Republic 4915:Mexican Revolution 4895:Vanderwood, Paul. 4850:Camp, Roderic Ai. 4843:Camp, Roderic Ai. 4695:Human Rights Watch 4439:nsarchive2.gwu.edu 4415:nsarchive2.gwu.edu 4343:nsarchive2.gwu.edu 4294:nsarchive2.gwu.edu 4020:Mexican Militarism 3994:Mexican Militarism 3981:Mexican Militarism 3968:Mexican Militarism 3942:Mexican Militarism 3929:Mexican Militarism 3916:Mexican Militarism 3903:Mexican Militarism 3890:Mexican Militarism 3877:Mexican Militarism 3864:Mexican Militarism 3851:Mexican Militarism 3838:Mexican Militarism 3825:Mexican Militarism 3812:Mexican Militarism 3799:Mexican Militarism 3786:Mexican Militarism 3771:Vanderwood, Paul. 3612:Stuart B. Schwartz 3444:Mexican Revolution 3231:The government of 3187: 3060:Gustavo Diaz Ordaz 2944:5th Air Force unit 2875: 2857: 2807: 2759: 2716:Francisco Urbalejo 2712:Francisco R. Manzo 2670: 2662: 2629:Enrique Gorostieta 2612: 2582:Abelardo Rodríguez 2561: 2525:Fortunato Maycotte 2508: 2487: 2411: 2262:Mexican Revolution 2218:Jacinto B. Treviño 2171: 2100: 2064:Mexican Revolution 2060: 2045:Mexican Revolution 2015: 2007: 1936: 1903: 1844: 1789: 1699: 1626:Treaty of Cahuenga 1572:Robert F. Stockton 1548: 1505: 1447:Battle of Gonzales 1412: 1406:Mexican-rule over 1342: 1298: 1235:Guadalupe Victoria 1202:Guadalupe Victoria 1162:Guadalupe Victoria 1122:Chapultepec Castle 1092:, 16 September in 1051:, Valladolid, and 1008:José de San Martín 974: 966: 893: 850:Antonio de Mendoza 828: 713: 698: 667:, a wide range of 633:to the south, and 514: 445:Mexican Revolution 32: 5229: 5228: 5118:other territories 4176:978-0-9827504-8-3 4063:978-970-722-614-2 3429:Mexican Dirty War 3414:History of Mexico 3382:Escobar Rebellion 3343:Victoriano Huerta 3319:War of the Reform 3097:Party of the Poor 3095:In May 1974, the 3048:Mexican Dirty War 3042:Mexican Dirty War 3036:Mexican Dirty War 3023:Hurricane Katrina 2969:Post World War II 2904:Potrero del Llano 2864:P-47D Thunderbolt 2764:Saturnino Cedillo 2700:Escobar Rebellion 2684:Emilio Portes Gil 2625:Victoriano Huerta 2533:Francisco Serrano 2521:Salvador Alvarado 2433:(1846–1848). The 2222:Salvador Alvarado 2188:Saturnino Cedillo 2167:Victoriano Huerta 2159:Madero government 2121:Victoriano Huerta 1848:Ignacio Comonfort 1722:Miguel Barbachano 1703:Yucatán Peninsula 1607:Siege of Veracruz 1564:Stephen W. Kearny 1511:was the dictator 1501:siege of the city 1471:Republic of Texas 1344:In 1838 a French 1302:Treaty of Cordoba 1239:Plan de Casa Mata 1218:Plan de Casa Mata 1191:Plan de Casa Mata 1094:Córdoba, Veracruz 1090:Treaty of Córdoba 453:Victoriano Huerta 367: 366: 333:Mexico portal 275:La Década Perdida 264:Mexican Dirty War 248:(1928–1934) 211:Plan of Guadalupe 205:La decena trágica 189:Restored Republic 84:Spanish-Aztec War 5249: 5186:Saint Barthélemy 5116:Dependencies and 4989:Sovereign states 4975: 4968: 4961: 4952: 4951: 4946:Battle of Puebla 4817: 4812: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4791: 4783: 4777: 4776: 4774: 4772: 4757: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4747: 4736: 4730: 4729: 4727: 4726: 4712: 4706: 4705: 4703: 4702: 4687: 4681: 4680: 4678: 4677: 4663: 4657: 4656: 4638: 4614: 4608: 4607: 4605: 4604: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4580: 4565: 4559: 4558: 4556: 4555: 4540: 4531: 4530: 4482: 4473: 4472: 4470: 4469: 4455: 4449: 4448: 4446: 4445: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4422: 4421: 4407: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4397: 4383: 4377: 4376: 4374: 4373: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4349: 4335: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4325: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4300: 4286: 4277: 4276: 4274: 4273: 4259: 4253: 4252: 4250: 4249: 4224: 4215: 4214: 4212: 4211: 4196: 4190: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4162: 4156: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4126: 4120: 4117: 4111: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4090: 4084: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4049: 4036: 4029: 4023: 4016: 4010: 4003: 3997: 3990: 3984: 3977: 3971: 3964: 3958: 3951: 3945: 3938: 3932: 3925: 3919: 3912: 3906: 3899: 3893: 3886: 3880: 3873: 3867: 3860: 3854: 3847: 3841: 3834: 3828: 3821: 3815: 3808: 3802: 3795: 3789: 3782: 3776: 3769: 3763: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3739: 3733: 3732: 3714: 3708: 3705: 3699: 3692: 3686: 3683: 3677: 3670: 3664: 3654: 3648: 3638: 3632: 3625: 3619: 3605: 3599: 3589: 3583: 3580: 3574: 3571: 3565: 3562: 3556: 3545: 3539: 3532: 3526: 3517: 3511: 3502: 3496: 3486: 3480: 3471: 3434:Mexican Drug War 3307:Gadsden Purchase 3195:drug trafficking 3191:Mexican military 3173:Mexican Drug War 3167:Mexican Drug War 3116:Operation Condor 3066:(1970-1976) and 3056:Guerrilla groups 2922:Mexican airforce 2781:José Vasconcelos 2768:Francisco Múgica 2708:Jesús M. Aguirre 2608: 2602: 2596: 2473:four-year term. 2458:Ignacio Bonillas 2363: 2351: 2339: 2327: 2312: 2300: 2235:Francisco Múgica 2201:Benjamin G. Hill 2176:Battle of Celaya 2066:saw the Mexican 1985:Plan of Tuxtepec 1973:Battle of Puebla 1971:, a hero of the 1948:Ignacio Zaragoza 1940:Battle of Puebla 1899:Battle of Puebla 1758:British Honduras 1465:) where General 1424:Coahuila y Tejas 1390:Texas Revolution 1378:San Juan de Ulúa 1319:Pastry War, 1838 1173: 1157: 1145: 1133: 1117: 1105: 1067:monarch and for 1064:Vicente Guerrero 1036:Grito de Dolores 962:Vicente Guerrero 905:Seven Years' War 774:Codex Azcatitlan 729:Juan de Grijalva 709:Florentine Codex 690:Codex Azcatitlan 654:Valley of Mexico 494:narcotrafficking 486:Second World War 430:Liberal General 396:Vicente Guerrero 384:Seven Years' War 379:military history 359: 352: 345: 331: 330: 329: 301:Mexican drug war 286:Chiapas conflict 249: 124:Texas Revolution 62: 52: 34: 33: 23:Monument to the 5257: 5256: 5252: 5251: 5250: 5248: 5247: 5246: 5232: 5231: 5230: 5225: 5119: 5117: 5110: 4984: 4979: 4906: 4871:Liewen, Edwin. 4826: 4824:Further reading 4821: 4820: 4813: 4809: 4799: 4797: 4789: 4785: 4784: 4780: 4770: 4768: 4759: 4758: 4754: 4745: 4743: 4737: 4733: 4724: 4722: 4714: 4713: 4709: 4700: 4698: 4689: 4688: 4684: 4675: 4673: 4665: 4664: 4660: 4615: 4611: 4602: 4600: 4592: 4591: 4587: 4578: 4576: 4567: 4566: 4562: 4553: 4551: 4542: 4541: 4534: 4483: 4476: 4467: 4465: 4457: 4456: 4452: 4443: 4441: 4433: 4432: 4428: 4419: 4417: 4409: 4408: 4404: 4395: 4393: 4385: 4384: 4380: 4371: 4369: 4361: 4360: 4356: 4347: 4345: 4337: 4336: 4332: 4323: 4321: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4298: 4296: 4288: 4287: 4280: 4271: 4269: 4261: 4260: 4256: 4247: 4245: 4225: 4218: 4209: 4207: 4198: 4197: 4193: 4188: 4184: 4177: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4150: 4140: 4138: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4114: 4104: 4102: 4091: 4087: 4075: 4071: 4064: 4050: 4039: 4030: 4026: 4017: 4013: 4004: 4000: 3991: 3987: 3978: 3974: 3965: 3961: 3952: 3948: 3939: 3935: 3926: 3922: 3913: 3909: 3900: 3896: 3887: 3883: 3874: 3870: 3861: 3857: 3848: 3844: 3835: 3831: 3822: 3818: 3809: 3805: 3796: 3792: 3783: 3779: 3770: 3766: 3757: 3753: 3745: 3741: 3740: 3736: 3729: 3715: 3711: 3706: 3702: 3693: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3671: 3667: 3655: 3651: 3639: 3635: 3626: 3622: 3608:Lockhart, James 3606: 3602: 3590: 3586: 3581: 3577: 3572: 3568: 3563: 3559: 3546: 3542: 3533: 3529: 3518: 3514: 3503: 3499: 3489:Krauze, Enrique 3487: 3483: 3472: 3468: 3463: 3458: 3409: 3245: 3229: 3223: 3221:Border security 3211: 3175: 3169: 3148: 3129: 3089: 3064:Luis Echeverria 3044: 3038: 3019: 3013: 3005:Ernesto Zedillo 2982: 2977: 2971: 2955:Bracero Program 2915:Lázaro Cárdenas 2866:of the Mexican 2849: 2843: 2837: 2756:Lázaro Cárdenas 2748: 2720:Marcelo Caraveo 2718:(Durango), and 2650: 2619:(also known as 2610: 2606: 2604: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2592: 2565:Luis N. Morones 2553: 2529:Enrique Estrada 2517:Cándido Aguilar 2500: 2479: 2453: 2444: 2415:First World War 2395: 2377: 2375:World War I era 2370: 2364: 2355: 2352: 2343: 2340: 2331: 2328: 2319: 2313: 2304: 2301: 2273:Hermila Galindo 2246: 2205:Cándido Aguilar 2192:San Luis Potosí 2184: 2163:Ten Tragic Days 2129: 2088: 2080:Emiliano Zapata 2052: 2047: 2041: 2023:Manuel González 1999: 1993: 1965: 1906:engaged in its 1891: 1885: 1836: 1830: 1798: 1781: 1769:Crescencio Poot 1746:Chan Santa Cruz 1664: 1658: 1489: 1483: 1443:Gonzales, Texas 1392: 1386: 1327: 1321: 1290: 1284: 1279: 1193: 1187: 1180: 1174: 1165: 1158: 1149: 1146: 1137: 1134: 1125: 1118: 1109: 1106: 996:Napoleonic Wars 988:Bourbon reforms 950: 944: 882: 816: 683: 677: 549:erupted on the 502: 412:Liberal Reforms 375:armed conflicts 363: 327: 325: 311: 310: 259:Mexican miracle 247: 239: 231: 230: 179: 171: 170: 149: 139: 138: 114: 104: 103: 79: 71: 50: 43: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5255: 5245: 5244: 5227: 5226: 5224: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5206:Sint Eustatius 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5151:Cayman Islands 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5122: 5120: 5115: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4992: 4990: 4986: 4985: 4978: 4977: 4970: 4963: 4955: 4949: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4917: 4912: 4905: 4904:External links 4902: 4901: 4900: 4893: 4890: 4883: 4876: 4869: 4862: 4848: 4841: 4834: 4825: 4822: 4819: 4818: 4807: 4778: 4752: 4731: 4720:news.yahoo.com 4707: 4682: 4671:pbi-mexico.org 4658: 4609: 4585: 4560: 4532: 4497:(4): 556–580. 4474: 4450: 4426: 4402: 4378: 4354: 4330: 4305: 4278: 4254: 4216: 4191: 4182: 4175: 4157: 4148: 4135:HistoryNet.com 4121: 4112: 4085: 4069: 4062: 4037: 4024: 4011: 3998: 3985: 3972: 3959: 3946: 3933: 3920: 3907: 3894: 3881: 3868: 3855: 3842: 3829: 3816: 3803: 3790: 3777: 3764: 3751: 3734: 3727: 3721:(in Spanish). 3709: 3700: 3687: 3678: 3665: 3649: 3633: 3620: 3600: 3584: 3575: 3566: 3557: 3553:David Carrasco 3540: 3527: 3512: 3497: 3481: 3465: 3464: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3436: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3416: 3410: 3408: 3405: 3404: 3403: 3400: 3389: 3378: 3375: 3367: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3349: 3346: 3339: 3336: 3333:Pascual Orozco 3329: 3326: 3322: 3314: 3310: 3303: 3296: 3285: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3272: 3261: 3244: 3241: 3237:National Guard 3225:Main article: 3222: 3219: 3215:United Nations 3210: 3207: 3171:Main article: 3168: 3165: 3147: 3144: 3138:Published on " 3128: 3125: 3088: 3085: 3040:Main article: 3037: 3034: 3015:Main article: 3012: 3009: 2981: 2978: 2970: 2967: 2936:Imperial Japan 2839:Main article: 2836: 2833: 2747: 2744: 2649: 2646: 2605: 2599: 2593: 2552: 2549: 2506:Alvaro Obregón 2499: 2496: 2478: 2475: 2452: 2449: 2443: 2440: 2419:Tampico Affair 2389:Tampico Affair 2376: 2373: 2372: 2371: 2365: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2346: 2344: 2341: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2322: 2320: 2314: 2307: 2305: 2302: 2295: 2245: 2239: 2209:Pablo González 2183: 2180: 2145:Alvaro Obregón 2128: 2125: 2113:Bernardo Reyes 2109:Pascual Orozco 2096:Pascual Orozco 2087: 2084: 2051: 2048: 2043:Main article: 2040: 2037: 1995:Main article: 1992: 1989: 1964: 1961: 1932:Miguel Miramón 1887:Main article: 1884: 1881: 1864:excommunicated 1832:Main article: 1829: 1826: 1797: 1794: 1780: 1777: 1754:United Kingdom 1660:Main article: 1657: 1654: 1599:Winfield Scott 1485:Main article: 1482: 1479: 1388:Main article: 1385: 1382: 1366:Charles Baudin 1358:Louis-Philippe 1323:Main article: 1320: 1317: 1286:Main article: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1277:Early Republic 1275: 1189:Main article: 1186: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1175: 1168: 1166: 1159: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1128: 1126: 1119: 1112: 1110: 1107: 1100: 1074:Plan of Iguala 1039:for violence. 1032:Miguel Hidalgo 946:Main article: 943: 940: 925:Bourbon regime 881: 878: 866:Chichimeca War 815: 812: 733:Conquistadores 679:Main article: 676: 673: 627:Anahuac Valley 577:, and briefly 539:series of wars 501: 498: 482:Latin American 466:Álvaro Obregón 365: 364: 362: 361: 354: 347: 339: 336: 335: 322: 321: 313: 312: 309: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 278: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 240: 237: 236: 233: 232: 229: 228: 223: 218: 216:Tampico Affair 213: 208: 201: 196: 194:The Porfiriato 191: 186: 180: 177: 176: 173: 172: 169: 168: 163: 158: 150: 145: 144: 141: 140: 137: 136: 131: 126: 121: 115: 112:First Republic 110: 109: 106: 105: 102: 101: 96: 91: 86: 80: 77: 76: 73: 72: 67: 64: 63: 55: 54: 45: 44: 37: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5254: 5243: 5240: 5239: 5237: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5123: 5121: 5113: 5107: 5106:United States 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4993: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4976: 4971: 4969: 4964: 4962: 4957: 4956: 4953: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4907: 4898: 4894: 4891: 4888: 4884: 4881: 4877: 4874: 4870: 4867: 4863: 4861: 4860:0-275-98810-4 4857: 4853: 4849: 4846: 4842: 4839: 4835: 4832: 4828: 4827: 4816: 4811: 4795: 4788: 4782: 4766: 4762: 4756: 4742: 4735: 4721: 4717: 4711: 4696: 4692: 4686: 4672: 4668: 4662: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4613: 4599: 4595: 4589: 4574: 4570: 4564: 4549: 4545: 4539: 4537: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4481: 4479: 4464: 4460: 4454: 4440: 4436: 4430: 4416: 4412: 4406: 4392: 4388: 4382: 4368: 4364: 4358: 4344: 4340: 4334: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4295: 4291: 4285: 4283: 4268: 4264: 4258: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4235: 4230: 4223: 4221: 4205: 4201: 4195: 4186: 4178: 4172: 4168: 4161: 4152: 4136: 4132: 4125: 4116: 4100: 4099:ThoughtCo.com 4096: 4089: 4082: 4078: 4073: 4065: 4059: 4055: 4048: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4034: 4028: 4021: 4015: 4008: 4002: 3995: 3989: 3982: 3976: 3969: 3963: 3956: 3950: 3943: 3937: 3930: 3924: 3917: 3911: 3904: 3898: 3891: 3885: 3878: 3872: 3865: 3859: 3852: 3846: 3839: 3833: 3826: 3820: 3813: 3807: 3800: 3794: 3787: 3781: 3774: 3768: 3761: 3755: 3748:(in Spanish). 3744: 3738: 3730: 3728:9789683802958 3724: 3720: 3713: 3704: 3697: 3691: 3682: 3675: 3669: 3662: 3658: 3653: 3646: 3642: 3637: 3630: 3624: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3604: 3597: 3593: 3588: 3579: 3570: 3561: 3554: 3550: 3544: 3537: 3531: 3524: 3523: 3516: 3509: 3508: 3501: 3494: 3490: 3485: 3478: 3477: 3470: 3466: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3430: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3411: 3401: 3398: 3397:Allied Powers 3394: 3390: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3368: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3340: 3337: 3334: 3330: 3327: 3323: 3320: 3315: 3311: 3308: 3304: 3301: 3297: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3273: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3250:Hernán Cortés 3247: 3246: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3228: 3218: 3216: 3206: 3202: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3164: 3162: 3157: 3154: 3143: 3141: 3136: 3133: 3124: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3108: 3104: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3084: 3082: 3077: 3071: 3070:(1976-1982). 3069: 3065: 3062:(1964-1970), 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3043: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3026:relief effort 3024: 3018: 3008: 3006: 3003: 2999: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2976: 2966: 2963: 2958: 2956: 2951: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2932:Aztec Eagles. 2929: 2928: 2923: 2918: 2916: 2912: 2911: 2906: 2905: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2853: 2848: 2842: 2832: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2816: 2812: 2805: 2800: 2796: 2794: 2788: 2784: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2769: 2765: 2757: 2752: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2676: 2675:Arnulfo Gómez 2666: 2659: 2654: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2589: 2585: 2583: 2577: 2575: 2570: 2569:Joaquín Amaro 2566: 2557: 2548: 2546: 2542: 2541:Rafael Buelna 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2512: 2504: 2495: 2492: 2483: 2474: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2448: 2439: 2436: 2432: 2426: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2408: 2404: 2403:Ambos Nogales 2399: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2368: 2362: 2357: 2350: 2345: 2338: 2333: 2326: 2321: 2318: 2311: 2306: 2299: 2294: 2293: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2256: 2252: 2251: 2244: 2238: 2236: 2231: 2225: 2223: 2219: 2213: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2179: 2177: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2155:Urban warfare 2152: 2148: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2124: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2097: 2092: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2056: 2046: 2036: 2034: 2030: 2029: 2024: 2020: 2011: 2003: 1998: 1988: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1977:French empire 1974: 1970: 1969:Porfirio Díaz 1960: 1958: 1954: 1949: 1945: 1944:Cinco de Mayo 1941: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1924:Édouard Manet 1921: 1920: 1915: 1911: 1909: 1900: 1895: 1890: 1880: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1868:War of Reform 1865: 1861: 1860:fuero militar 1857: 1853: 1849: 1840: 1835: 1834:War of Reform 1825: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1810:Benito Juárez 1807: 1803: 1793: 1785: 1776: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1761: 1759: 1755: 1749: 1747: 1741: 1738: 1736: 1732: 1726: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1683: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1663: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1622: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1552:John D. Sloat 1545: 1540: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1502: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1478: 1476: 1475:United States 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1439: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1381: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1326: 1316: 1314: 1309: 1307: 1303: 1294: 1289: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1263: 1261: 1256: 1254: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1219: 1213: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1192: 1178: 1172: 1167: 1163: 1156: 1151: 1144: 1139: 1132: 1127: 1123: 1116: 1111: 1104: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1086:Juan O'Donojú 1083: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1058: 1057:Félix Calleja 1054: 1050: 1046: 1040: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1016:Latin America 1013: 1009: 1005: 1004:Simón Bolívar 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 980: 970: 963: 959: 954: 949: 939: 937: 933: 932: 931:fuero militar 926: 921: 919: 915: 910: 906: 902: 898: 890: 889:Félix Calleja 886: 877: 875: 871: 867: 863: 858: 853: 851: 847: 843: 839: 834: 825: 820: 811: 809: 805: 801: 798: 794: 788: 786: 781: 779: 775: 770: 765: 761: 757: 756: 750: 744: 742: 738: 737:Hernán Cortés 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 715:The two-year 710: 706: 702: 695: 691: 687: 682: 672: 670: 666: 661: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 638: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 615: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 583: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 534: 532: 528: 524: 519: 511: 506: 497: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 474: 472: 467: 463: 459: 454: 450: 446: 442: 437: 436:Cinco de Mayo 433: 432:Porfirio Díaz 428: 426: 422: 417: 416:Benito Juárez 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 380: 376: 372: 360: 355: 353: 348: 346: 341: 340: 338: 337: 334: 324: 323: 320: 319: 315: 314: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 276: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 246: 242: 241: 235: 234: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 206: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 181: 175: 174: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 156: 152: 151: 148: 143: 142: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 116: 113: 108: 107: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 85: 82: 81: 78:The New Spain 75: 74: 70: 69:Pre-Columbian 66: 65: 61: 57: 56: 53: 47: 46: 41: 36: 35: 30: 29:U.S. invasion 26: 21: 5211:Sint Maarten 5191:Saint Martin 5070: 4896: 4886: 4879: 4872: 4865: 4851: 4844: 4837: 4830: 4810: 4798:. Retrieved 4793: 4781: 4769:. Retrieved 4764: 4755: 4744:. Retrieved 4734: 4723:. Retrieved 4719: 4710: 4699:. Retrieved 4697:. 2004-07-22 4694: 4685: 4674:. Retrieved 4670: 4661: 4629:(1): 57–81. 4626: 4623:The Americas 4622: 4612: 4601:. Retrieved 4597: 4588: 4577:. Retrieved 4575:. 2019-06-11 4572: 4563: 4552:. Retrieved 4550:. 2018-11-01 4547: 4494: 4490: 4466:. Retrieved 4462: 4453: 4442:. Retrieved 4438: 4429: 4418:. Retrieved 4414: 4405: 4394:. Retrieved 4390: 4381: 4370:. Retrieved 4366: 4357: 4346:. Retrieved 4342: 4333: 4322:. Retrieved 4320:. 2020-05-04 4317: 4308: 4297:. Retrieved 4293: 4270:. Retrieved 4266: 4257: 4246:. Retrieved 4232: 4208:. Retrieved 4206:. 2019-03-11 4203: 4194: 4185: 4166: 4160: 4151: 4139:. Retrieved 4134: 4124: 4115: 4103:. Retrieved 4098: 4088: 4080: 4077:Knight, Alan 4072: 4053: 4032: 4027: 4019: 4014: 4006: 4001: 3993: 3988: 3980: 3975: 3967: 3962: 3954: 3949: 3941: 3936: 3928: 3923: 3915: 3910: 3902: 3897: 3889: 3884: 3876: 3871: 3863: 3858: 3850: 3845: 3837: 3832: 3824: 3819: 3811: 3806: 3798: 3793: 3785: 3780: 3772: 3767: 3759: 3754: 3737: 3712: 3703: 3695: 3690: 3681: 3673: 3668: 3660: 3652: 3644: 3636: 3628: 3623: 3615: 3603: 3595: 3587: 3578: 3569: 3560: 3548: 3543: 3535: 3530: 3520: 3515: 3505: 3500: 3492: 3484: 3474: 3469: 3393:World War II 3372:Cristero War 3258:Tenochtitlán 3230: 3212: 3203: 3198: 3188: 3158: 3149: 3137: 3130: 3109: 3105: 3094: 3090: 3076:declassified 3072: 3045: 3020: 3000: 2994: 2983: 2959: 2952: 2931: 2927:201 Squadron 2925: 2919: 2908: 2902: 2891:Pearl Harbor 2876: 2872:World War II 2835:World War II 2808: 2789: 2785: 2760: 2740: 2736: 2710:(Veracruz), 2691: 2671: 2642:soy creyente 2641: 2621:La Cristiada 2620: 2617:Cristero War 2613: 2578: 2562: 2513: 2509: 2488: 2454: 2445: 2427: 2412: 2385:Pancho Villa 2288: 2280: 2265: 2248: 2247: 2242: 2241:Role of the 2226: 2214: 2185: 2172: 2141:Pancho Villa 2130: 2101: 2068:Federal Army 2061: 2026: 2016: 1966: 1937: 1917: 1904: 1859: 1851: 1845: 1818:Juan Álvarez 1799: 1790: 1762: 1750: 1742: 1739: 1727: 1719: 1700: 1675: 1674:against the 1665: 1623: 1584: 1549: 1506: 1440: 1413: 1403: 1343: 1310: 1299: 1264: 1257: 1250: 1238: 1216: 1214: 1209: 1194: 1061: 1041: 1024: 1020:independence 984:Peninsulares 983: 977: 975: 930: 922: 918:Afro-Mexican 894: 873: 854: 829: 789: 785:Tenochtitlan 782: 754: 749:Aztec Empire 745: 720: 714: 694:Moctezuma II 662: 658:Tenochtitlan 639: 635:Azcapotzalco 623:Lake Texcoco 619:Aztec Empire 616: 584: 541:between the 535: 523:Aztec Empire 515: 475: 441:Federal Army 429: 373:encompasses 370: 368: 316: 296:PRI downfall 273: 244: 226:Cristero War 203: 153: 99:First Empire 5181:Puerto Rico 5091:Saint Lucia 5041:El Salvador 4941:Mexican War 4101:. ThoughtCo 3641:Altman, Ida 3592:Altman, Ida 3302:of Yucatan. 3287:1846–1848: 3183:Gulf Cartel 3120:Vicente Fox 3114:(1969) and 2995:comunicados 2942:joined the 2910:Faja de Oro 2887:Axis Powers 2762:support of 2728:Raúl Madero 2726:'s brother 2692:jefe máximo 2686:(1928–30), 1928:Tomás Mejía 1910:(1861–65). 1773:coup d'état 1765:Belize City 1691:Maya people 1619:Chapultepec 1615:Cerro Gordo 1611:Mexico City 1595:Buena Vista 1580:Los Angeles 1467:Sam Houston 1455:San Antonio 1237:signed the 1088:signed the 1069:three years 1053:Guadalajara 920:companies. 899:, Cuba and 802:(primarily 793:harquebuses 642:mercenaries 607:Cannibalism 595:Flower wars 555:Petén Basin 531:Monte Albán 527:Teotihuacan 518:Mesoamerica 49:History of 5176:Montserrat 5171:Martinique 5166:Guadeloupe 5021:Costa Rica 4746:2022-11-14 4725:2022-11-14 4701:2022-11-14 4676:2022-11-14 4603:2022-11-14 4579:2022-11-14 4554:2022-11-14 4468:2022-11-14 4444:2022-11-14 4420:2022-11-14 4396:2022-11-14 4372:2022-11-14 4348:2022-11-14 4324:2022-11-14 4299:2022-11-14 4272:2022-11-14 4248:2022-11-14 4210:2022-11-14 4204:WorldAtlas 3918:, p. 92-93 3461:References 3345:'s regime. 3269:Charles IV 2993:newspaper 2973:See also: 2791:including 2714:(Sonora), 2545:caudillism 2407:Border War 2379:See also: 2367:Soldaderas 2281:La Adelita 2277:La Adelita 2266:soldaderas 2250:Soldaderas 2243:soldaderas 2117:Félix Díaz 2115:, General 2019:Porfiriato 1997:Porfiriato 1822:Reform War 1806:Santa Anna 1646:New Mexico 1630:California 1574:to occupy 1556:California 1554:to occupy 1416:U.S. state 1374:Rio Grande 1325:Pastry War 1049:Guanajuato 1045:San Miguel 1018:to attain 857:Chichimeca 838:Mixtón war 833:encomienda 665:Chichimeca 603:Aztec gods 599:sacrificed 589:state and 199:Revolution 161:Reform War 155:La Reforma 129:Pastry War 25:Boy Heroes 5161:Greenland 5076:Nicaragua 5051:Guatemala 4653:151546388 4645:0003-1615 4527:145434552 4511:0034-6705 4243:0190-8286 4009:, 680-681 3992:Lieuwen, 3979:Lieuwen, 3966:Lieuwen, 3940:Lieuwen, 3927:Lieuwen, 3914:Lieuwen, 3901:Lieuwen, 3888:Lieuwen, 3875:Lieuwen, 3862:Lieuwen, 3849:Lieuwen, 3836:Lieuwen, 3823:Lieuwen, 3810:Lieuwen, 3797:Lieuwen, 3784:Lieuwen, 3594:, et al. 3538:, p. 510. 3510:, 904–910 3479:, 898–904 3300:Caste War 3252:lands at 3146:Aftermath 3002:President 2291:Adelita. 2289:soldadera 1957:Querétaro 1908:civil war 1872:civil war 1852:Moderados 1676:Yucatecos 1668:Caste War 1576:San Diego 1566:occupied 1477:in 1845. 1428:the Alamo 1025:Mexico's 870:presidios 862:Zacatecas 824:Tlaxcalan 797:Old World 753:Nahuatl: 631:Culhuacan 579:Yaxchilan 563:Dos Pilas 521:with the 421:civil war 178:1864–1928 5236:Category 5126:Anguilla 5061:Honduras 5031:Dominica 5006:Barbados 4005:Dulles, 3996:, 113-18 3970:, 106-07 3866:, 61-62. 3534:Krauze, 3407:See also 3313:freedom. 3265:Napoleon 3254:Veracruz 3243:Timeline 3185:in 2012. 2907:and the 2696:Maximato 2627:regime, 2574:Maximato 2491:González 2285:corridos 2258:soldiers 2094:General 1877:Veracruz 1846:In 1855 1707:Campeche 1638:Colorado 1603:Veracruz 1497:Veracruz 1451:La Bahía 1404:de facto 1356:'s King 1350:Tacubaya 1340:in 1838. 1338:Veracruz 1260:Veracruz 1227:republic 1223:monarchy 1210:Victoria 1160:General 979:Criollos 936:cabildos 808:pandemic 804:smallpox 800:diseases 778:epidemic 764:Malinche 760:Tlaxcala 755:altepetl 741:Veracruz 721:entradas 705:Smallpox 650:Tlacopan 575:Quiriguá 557:such as 547:Calakmul 318:Timeline 245:Maximato 40:a series 38:Part of 5156:Curaçao 5141:Bonaire 5136:Bermuda 5066:Jamaica 5046:Grenada 5001:Bahamas 4800:June 5, 4771:June 5, 4765:Reuters 4573:AP NEWS 4519:1406640 4141:June 4, 4105:June 4, 3944:, 97-98 3931:, 91-92 3905:, 86-87 3892:, 85-86 3879:, 75-78 3853:, 40-45 3840:, 45-47 3827:, 40-41 3814:, 37-39 3801:, 36-37 3631:, p. 80 3454:Rurales 3275:Church. 3197:. The 3132:Torture 3127:Torture 2990:Chiapas 2895:U-boats 2771:leader 2074:led by 2028:rurales 1695:Yucatán 1693:of the 1650:Wyoming 1642:Arizona 1560:Britain 1463:Houston 1372:to the 1370:Yucatán 1253:Emperor 1243:Emperor 846:viceroy 842:Jalisco 769:Nahuatl 669:nomadic 625:in the 591:Texcoco 567:Naranjo 551:Yucatán 5081:Panama 5071:Mexico 5016:Canada 5011:Belize 4858: 4651: 4643: 4525: 4517: 4509: 4241: 4173: 4060: 3725: 3551:, ed. 3380:1929: 3355:Villa. 3263:1808: 3248:1519: 3087:Events 3081:regime 2962:Brazil 2901:: the 2607: 2601: 2595: 2539:, and 2391:, and 1934:right. 1711:Mérida 1648:, and 1632:. The 1529:heroes 1509:Mexico 1354:France 1346:pastry 1208:, and 992:castas 909:Mexico 901:Manila 897:Havana 848:, Don 646:Nahuas 238:Modern 51:Mexico 42:on the 5131:Aruba 5056:Haiti 4790:(PDF) 4649:S2CID 4598:NACLA 4548:LACIS 4523:S2CID 4515:JSTOR 4022:, 120 3983:, 111 3788:, 8-9 3746:(PDF) 3525:, 911 3030:Texas 2802:Gen. 2754:Gen. 2656:Gen. 2255:women 2253:were 1715:Sisal 1517:Texas 1420:Texas 1408:Texas 1271:Texas 914:casta 758:) of 587:Aztec 571:Sacul 559:Copan 543:Tikal 5201:Saba 5026:Cuba 4856:ISBN 4802:2018 4773:2018 4641:ISSN 4507:ISSN 4267:WAMU 4239:ISSN 4171:ISBN 4143:2018 4107:2018 4058:ISBN 3723:ISBN 3610:and 3189:The 3153:NGOs 3046:The 2920:The 2899:Gulf 2519:and 2271:and 2143:and 1897:The 1800:The 1709:and 1672:Maya 1666:The 1624:The 1617:and 1578:and 1542:The 1398:The 1336:off 1233:and 1215:The 1010:and 956:The 735:was 663:The 545:and 529:and 369:The 4631:doi 4499:doi 2190:in 1418:of 860:in 601:to 5238:: 4792:. 4763:. 4718:. 4693:. 4669:. 4647:. 4639:. 4627:74 4625:. 4621:. 4596:. 4571:. 4546:. 4535:^ 4521:. 4513:. 4505:. 4495:42 4493:. 4489:. 4477:^ 4461:. 4437:. 4413:. 4389:. 4365:. 4341:. 4316:. 4292:. 4281:^ 4265:. 4237:. 4231:. 4219:^ 4202:. 4133:. 4097:. 4040:^ 3659:. 3643:. 3614:, 3491:, 2527:, 2464:, 2387:, 2383:, 2203:, 1955:, 1922:, 1824:. 1760:. 1717:. 1644:, 1640:, 1582:. 1248:. 1096:. 1047:, 1022:. 1006:, 852:. 605:. 573:, 569:, 565:, 561:, 4974:e 4967:t 4960:v 4804:. 4775:. 4749:. 4728:. 4704:. 4679:. 4655:. 4633:: 4606:. 4582:. 4557:. 4529:. 4501:: 4471:. 4447:. 4423:. 4399:. 4375:. 4351:. 4327:. 4302:. 4275:. 4251:. 4213:. 4179:. 4145:. 4109:. 4066:. 3731:. 3399:. 3388:. 3374:. 3309:. 2169:. 1503:. 1410:. 512:. 358:e 351:t 344:v

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Knowledge

Military history of Mexico

Index