1499:
125:
31:
1612:
intervention from the crown put crippling laws for the protection of
Spanish goods and services. Mercantilist protectionist policy in Spain caused the long-run failure of the Castilian textile industry as the efficiency severely dropped off with each passing year due to the production being held at a specific level. Spain's heavily protected industries led to famines as much of its agricultural land was required to be used for sheep instead of grain. Much of their grain was imported from the Baltic region of Europe which caused a shortage of food in the inner regions of Spain. Spain limiting the trade of their colonies is one of the causes that led to the
1511:
barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling, which became a favourite
American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish, or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses to benefit the government. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on the
1397:
2663:
1449:. It sought to derive the maximum material benefit from the colony, for the homeland, with a minimum of colonial investment in the colony itself. The ideology was embodied in New France through the establishment under Royal Charter of a number of corporate trading monopolies including La Compagnie des Marchands, which operated from 1613 to 1621, and the Compagnie de Montmorency, from that date until 1627. It was in turn replaced by La
2675:
1121:
3028:. Keynes reiterated that the doctrines advocated for by mercantilism aided the improvement of both the domestic and foreign outlay—domestic because the policies lowered the domestic rate of interest, and investment by foreigners by tending to create a favorable balance of trade. Keynes and other economists of the 20th century also realized that the balance of payments is an important concern. Keynes also supported
1560:
2935:
1271:, in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. Thus, any system of policies that benefited one group would by definition harm the other, and there was no possibility of economics being used to maximize the commonwealth, or common good. Mercantilists' writings were also generally created to rationalize particular practices rather than as investigations into the best policies.
1427:. Under Colbert, the French government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports. Protectionist policies were enacted that limited imports and favored exports. Industries were organized into guilds and monopolies, and production was regulated by the state through a series of more than one thousand directives outlining how different products should be produced.
2961:, who in 1699 wrote, "Gold and Silver are indeed the Measures of Trade, but that the Spring and Original of it, in all nations is the Natural or Artificial Product of the Country; that is to say, what this Land or what this Labour and Industry Produces." The critique that mercantilism was a form of rent seeking has also seen criticism, as scholars such as
2953:
its value would slowly rise. Eventually, it would no longer be cost-effective to export goods from the high-price country to the low-price country, and the balance of trade would reverse. Mercantilists fundamentally misunderstood this, long arguing that an increase in the money supply simply meant that everyone gets richer.
1262:
would later do for classical economics. Rather, each mercantilist writer tended to focus on a single area of the economy. Only later did non-mercantilist scholars integrate these "diverse" ideas into what they called mercantilism. Some scholars thus reject the idea of mercantilism completely, arguing
270:
was based on the principle that the state should rule in the economic realm as it did in the diplomatic, and that the interests of the state as identified by the king were superior to those of merchants and of everyone else. Mercantilist economic policies aimed to build up the state, especially in an
2982:
Scholars are also divided over the cause of mercantilism's end. Those who believe the theory was simply an error hold that its replacement was inevitable as soon as Smith's more accurate ideas were unveiled. Those who feel that mercantilism amounted to rent-seeking hold that it ended only when major
2792:
and modern accounting. This accounting made extremely clear the inflow and outflow of trade, contributing to the close scrutiny given to the balance of trade. New markets and new mines propelled foreign trade to previously inconceivable volumes, resulting in "the great upward movement in prices" and
1697:
In France, the triangular trade method was integral in the continuation of mercantilism throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. In order to maximize exports and minimize imports, France worked on a strict
Atlantic route: France, to Africa, to the Americas and then back to France. By bringing African
1667:
of this era, as many nations expended significant effort to conquer new colonies that would be sources of gold (as in Mexico) or sugar (as in the West Indies), as well as becoming exclusive markets. European power spread around the globe, often under the aegis of companies with government-guaranteed
1651:
Mercantilism was the economic version of warfare using economics as a tool for warfare by other means backed up by the state apparatus and was well suited to an era of military warfare. Since the level of world trade was viewed as fixed, it followed that the only way to increase a nation's trade was
2956:
The importance placed on bullion was also a central target, even if many mercantilists had themselves begun to de-emphasize the importance of gold and silver. Adam Smith noted that at the core of the mercantile system was the "popular folly of confusing wealth with money", that bullion was just the
2952:
Hume famously noted the impossibility of the mercantilists' goal of a constant positive balance of trade. As bullion flowed into one country, the supply would increase, and the value of bullion in that state would steadily decline relative to other goods. Conversely, in the state exporting bullion,
1518:
British mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary. British mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade. A wide array of regulations were put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports. Tariffs were placed on imports and
1164:
Most of the
European economists who wrote between 1500 and 1750 are today generally described as mercantilists; this term was initially used solely by critics, such as Mirabeau and Smith, but historians proved quick to adopt it. Originally the standard English term was "mercantile system". The word
1430:
To encourage industry, foreign artisans and craftsmen were imported. Colbert also worked to decrease internal barriers to trade, reducing internal tariffs and building an extensive network of roads and canals. Colbert's policies were quite successful, and France's industrial output and the economy
2760:
merchants and governments developed and enforced mercantilist policies. Merchants benefited greatly from the enforced monopolies, bans on foreign competition, and poverty of the workers. Governments benefited from the high tariffs and payments from the merchants. Whereas later economic ideas were
1510:
With respect to its colonies, British mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other
European powers. The government protected its merchants—and kept foreign ones out—through trade
1611:
Spain benefited from mercantilism early on as it brought a large amount of precious metals such as gold and silver into their treasury by way of the new world. In the long run, Spain's economy collapsed as it was unable to adjust to the inflation that came with the large influx of bullion. Heavy
2983:
power shifts occurred. In
Britain, mercantilism faded as the Parliament gained the monarch's power to grant monopolies. While the wealthy capitalists who controlled the House of Commons benefited from these monopolies, Parliament found it difficult to implement them because of the high cost of
1575:
The other nations of Europe also embraced mercantilism to varying degrees. The
Netherlands, which had become the financial centre of Europe by being its most efficient trader, had little interest in seeing trade restricted and adopted few mercantilist policies. Mercantilism became prominent in
2767:
offers a third explanation for mercantilism. European trade exported bullion to pay for goods from Asia, thus reducing the money supply and putting downward pressure on prices and economic activity. The evidence for this hypothesis is the lack of inflation in the
British economy until the
1538:
Mercantilism taught that trade was a zero-sum game, with one country's gain equivalent to a loss sustained by the trading partner. Overall, however, mercantilist policies had a positive impact on
Britain, helping to transform the nation into the world's dominant trading power and a
3019:
affirmed that motivating the production process was as significant as encouraging consumption, which benefited the new mercantilism. Keynes also affirmed that in the post-classical period the primary focus on gold and silver supplies (bullion) was rational. During the era before
2957:
same as any other commodity, and that there was no reason to give it special treatment. More recently, scholars have discounted the accuracy of this critique. They believe Mun and
Misselden were not making this mistake in the 1620s, and point to their followers Josiah Child and
1330:
Mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of Europe in the early modern period, and most states embraced it to a certain degree. Mercantilism was centred on England and France, and it was in these states that mercantilist policies were most often enacted.
1263:
that it gives "a false unity to disparate events". Smith saw the mercantile system as an enormous conspiracy by manufacturers and merchants against consumers, a view that has led some authors, especially Robert E. Ekelund and Robert D. Tollison, to call mercantilism "a
3100:
which employed economic fallacy to build up a structure of imperial state power, as well as special subsidy and monopolistic privilege to individuals or groups favored by the state. Thus, mercantilism held exports should be encouraged by the government and imports
2775:
A fourth explanation lies in the increasing professionalisation and technification of the wars of the era, which turned the maintenance of adequate reserve funds (in the prospect of war) into a more and more expensive and eventually competitive business.
1211:, were merchants, while many of the writers from other countries were public officials. Beyond mercantilism as a way of understanding the wealth and power of nations, Mun and Misselden are noted for their viewpoints on a wide range of economic matters.
93:, especially on manufactured goods, were almost universally a feature of mercantilist policy. Before it fell into decline, mercantilism was dominant in modernized parts of Europe and some areas in Africa from the 16th to the 19th centuries, a period of
2787:
as the focus of power. Technological changes in shipping and the growth of urban centers led to a rapid increase in international trade. Mercantilism focused on how this trade could best aid the states. Another important change was the introduction of
3010:
Adam Smith criticized the mercantile doctrine that prioritized production in the economy; he maintained that consumption was of prime significance. Additionally, the mercantile system was well liked by the traders as it was what is now referred to as
1207:. Themes also existed in writers from the German historical school from List, as well as followers of the American and British systems of free-trade, thus stretching the system into the 19th century. However, many British writers, including Mun and
1701:
Mercantilism as a weapon has continued to be used by nations through the 21st century by way of modern tariffs as it puts smaller economies in a position to conform to the larger economies goals or risk economic ruin due to an imbalance in trade.
2968:
The first school to completely reject mercantilism was the physiocrats, who developed their theories in France. Their theories also had several important problems, and the replacement of mercantilism did not come until Adam Smith published
1694:, who analyzed mercantilism as having three components: "settler colonialism, capitalist slavery, and economic nationalism," and further noted that slavery was "partly a condition and partly a result of the success of settler colonialism."
3164:
For instance, imagine that Portugal was a more efficient producer of wine than England, yet in England, cloth could be produced more efficiently than it could in Portugal. Thus if Portugal specialized in wine and England in cloth,
3564:, p. 47. "According to Adam Smith, the main architect of the mercantile system of economic thinking was the English writer and tradesman Thomas Mun (1571–1641). His main published writings appear in two short treatises,
1274:
Mercantilist domestic policy was more fragmented than its trade policy. While Adam Smith portrayed mercantilism as supportive of strict controls over the economy, many mercantilists disagreed. The early modern era was one of
1599:
had long been interested in mercantilist policies, but the vast and decentralized nature of their empire made implementing such notions difficult. Some constituent states of the empire did embrace mercantilism, most notably
1431:
grew considerably during this period, as France became the dominant European power. He was less successful in turning France into a major trading power, and Britain and the Dutch Republic remained supreme in this field.
3112:, as they greatly expanded the British merchant fleet and played a central role in turning Britain into the world's naval and economic superpower from the 18th century onward. Some economists thus feel that protecting
213:, 1549: "We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them." The period featured various but often disjointed efforts by the court of
124:
2869:
describes mercantilism as the period of the worldwide development of European commerce, which began in the 15th century with the voyages of Portuguese and Spanish explorers to Africa, Asia, and the New World.
1543:. One domestic policy that had a lasting impact was the conversion of "wastelands" to agricultural use. Mercantilists believed that to maximize a nation's power, all land and resources had to be used to their
182:, yet mercantilist writers emphasize the circulation of money and reject hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a
2897:
were the founding fathers of anti-mercantilist thought. A number of scholars found important flaws with mercantilism long before Smith developed an ideology that could fully replace it. Critics like Hume,
2804:
and on local exchanges between individuals. Mercantilism was closely aligned with the other theories and ideas that began to replace the medieval worldview. This period saw the adoption of the very
1408:
Mercantilism arose in France in the early 16th century soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in French politics. In 1539, an important decree banned the import of woolen goods from
3049:, writing within a Keynesian framework, wrote of mercantilism, "With employment less than full and Net National Product suboptimal, all the debunked mercantilist arguments turn out to be valid."
3572:(1664). Adam Smith picked out this last tract – published posthumously after Mun's death, but probably written during the late 1620s – as the archetype of mercantilist texts; its manifesto."
1660:, can be linked directly to mercantilist theories. Most wars had other causes but they reinforced mercantilism by clearly defining the enemy, and justified damage to the enemy's economy.
217:(r. 1558–1603) to develop a naval and merchant fleet capable of challenging the Spanish stranglehold on trade and of expanding the growth of bullion at home. Queen Elizabeth promoted the
2990:
Mercantilist regulations were steadily removed over the course of the 18th century in Britain, and during the 19th century, the British government fully embraced free trade and Smith's
1322:, which predicted that mankind would outgrow its resources. The idea of mercantilism was to protect the markets as well as maintain agriculture and those who were dependent upon it.
2979:. Smith spent a considerable portion of the book rebutting the arguments of the mercantilists, though often these are simplified or exaggerated versions of mercantilist thought.
2915:
also points towards the heart of the anti-mercantilist critique: that the wealth of the world is not fixed, but is created by human labor (represented embryonically by Locke's
1283:; some mercantilists supported these, but others acknowledged the corruption and inefficiency of such systems. Many mercantilists also realized that the inevitable results of
2994:
economics. On the continent, the process was somewhat different. In France, economic control remained in the hands of the royal family, and mercantilism continued until the
167:, which first began to quantify large-scale trade accurately, marked mercantilism's birth as a codified school of economic theories. The Italian economist and mercantilist
3108:
In specific instances, protectionist mercantilist policies also had an important and positive impact on the state that enacted them. Adam Smith, for instance, praised the
89:
Mercantilism promotes government regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting and bolstering state power at the expense of rival national powers. High
1687:
by European powers early in the 17th century, mercantile theory gained a new and wider significance, in which its aim and ideal became both national and imperialistic.
3105:
Rothbard viewed mercantilism not as a coherent economic theory but rather a series of post-hoc rationalizations for various economic policies by interested parties.
2821:. The mercantilist idea of all trade as a zero-sum game, in which each side was trying to best the other in a ruthless competition, was integrated into the works of
5031:
4454:
4450:
1267:
society". To a certain extent, mercantilist doctrine itself made a general theory of economics impossible. Mercantilists viewed the economic system as a
1531:, and mercantilist policies (such as forbidding trade with other European powers and enforcing bans on smuggling) were a major irritant leading to the
1462:
1151:
2800:
theorists. The goal of these thinkers was to find an economic system compatible with Christian doctrines of piety and justice. They focused mainly on
1643:(Peter the Great) attempted to pursue mercantilism, but had little success because of Russia's lack of a large merchant class or an industrial base.
1453:, created in 1627 by King Louis XIII, and the Communauté des habitants in 1643. These were the first corporations to operate in what is now Canada.
1498:
2965:
in the 1930s pointed out that merchant mercantilists such as Mun understood that they would not gain by higher prices for English wares abroad.
1419:
Over the rest of the 16th century, further protectionist measures were introduced. The height of French mercantilism is closely associated with
2273:
1623:
During the economic collapse of the 17th century, Spain had little coherent economic policy, but French mercantilist policies were imported by
3498:
1251:
That opportunities be constantly sought for selling a country's surplus manufactures to foreigners, so far as necessary, for gold and silver.
1245:
That where certain imports are indispensable they be obtained at first hand, in exchange for other domestic goods instead of gold and silver.
271:
age of incessant warfare, and theorists charged the state with looking for ways to strengthen the economy and to weaken foreign adversaries.
202:
supplanted the heavy emphasis on money, accompanied by a shift in focus from the capacity to carry on wars to promoting general prosperity.
2705:
55:
that is designed to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy. In other words, it seeks to maximize the accumulation of
229:
1698:
slaves to labor in the New World, their labor value increased, and France capitalized upon the market resources produced by slave labor.
5345:
1191:
Mercantilist literature also extended beyond England. Italy and France produced noted writers of mercantilist themes, including Italy's
1233:
That all raw materials found in a country be used in domestic manufacture, since finished goods have a higher value than raw materials.
5024:
2843:'s work in 17th-century France came to exemplify classical mercantilism. In the English-speaking world, its ideas were criticized by
2756:, portrays mercantilism not as a mistake, but rather as the best possible system for those who developed it. This school argues that
1172:
The bulk of what is commonly called "mercantilist literature" appeared in the 1620s in Great Britain. Smith saw the English merchant
4921:
990:
5154:
2723:
1144:
3292:
4841:
4823:
4805:
4787:
4760:
4623:
4605:
4587:
4566:
4544:
4526:
4508:
4489:
4404:
4353:
4335:
4317:
4294:
4276:
4258:
4024:
3894:
3773:
3481:
3453:
3428:
3238:
67:
4871:
5463:
5017:
3140:
3039:. The similarities between Keynesianism (and its successor ideas) and mercantilism have sometimes led critics to call them
1483:
being another major proponent. In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the
2726:(1715–1789) had used "mercantilism" earlier. Mercantilism functioned as the economic counterpart of the older version of
4439:
The rise of the European economy: an economic history of continental Europe from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century
1180:(1664), which Smith considered the archetype or manifesto of the movement. Perhaps the last major mercantilist work was
5433:
2761:
often developed by academics and philosophers, almost all mercantilist writers were merchants or government officials.
579:
1258:
Other than Von Hornick, there were no mercantilist writers presenting an overarching scheme for the ideal economy, as
2200:
1491:
and the steadily increasing power of Parliament. Government-controlled monopolies were common, especially before the
1137:
514:
17:
3326:
5498:
2698:
97:. Some commentators argue that it is still practised in the economies of industrializing countries, in the form of
4501:
The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present
3096:
Mercantilism, which reached its height in the Europe of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was a system of
4460:
2789:
1515:, which both protected the colonies of Britain but was vital in capturing the colonies of other European powers.
1423:, finance minister for 22 years in the 17th century, to the extent that French mercantilism is sometimes called
5169:
2999:
680:
263:
1628:
1450:
5488:
5283:
5194:
5132:
2464:
2122:
1632:
1125:
1020:
740:
730:
5278:
3024:, an increase in gold and silver was one of the ways of mercantilism increasing an economy's reserve or the
5438:
5391:
5059:
4414:
4392:
2741:
Scholars debate over why mercantilism dominated economic ideology for 250 years. One group, represented by
2514:
2504:
1378:
1050:
109:
30:
1310:
The mercantilists saw a large population as a form of wealth that made possible the development of bigger
5493:
5408:
5381:
5268:
5199:
5122:
5040:
4914:
4553:
Magnusson, Lars G. (2003), "Mercantilism", in Samuels, Warren J.; Biddle, Jeff E.; Davis, Jon B. (eds.),
2998:. In Germany, mercantilism remained an important ideology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when the
2911:
2691:
2210:
2147:
2080:
2058:
1690:
The connection between communism and mercantilism has been explored by Marxist economist and sociologist
1215:
254:
Numerous French authors helped cement French policy around statist mercantilism in the 17th century, as
5413:
5401:
3344:
2861:. Mercantilism was rejected by Britain and France by the mid-19th century. The British Empire embraced
2519:
2035:
1440:
3307:
3522:
3035:
As of 2010, the word "mercantilism" remains a pejorative term, often used to attack various forms of
2293:
1980:
1520:
973:
901:
322:
218:
143:(from the 15th to the 18th centuries). Evidence of mercantilistic practices appeared in early-modern
86:. Mercantilist theory varies in sophistication from one writer to another and has evolved over time.
71:
2865:
and used its power as the financial center of the world to promote the same. The Guyanese historian
5564:
5418:
5335:
5273:
5054:
3113:
2899:
2567:
2263:
2110:
1949:
1923:
1845:
1790:
1669:
509:
255:
105:
98:
3369:
1523:
removed foreign merchants from being involved England's domestic trade. British policies in their
1176:(1571–1641) as a major creator of the mercantile system, especially in his posthumously published
221:
in Parliament and issued orders to her navy for the protection and promotion of English shipping.
171:
is considered to have written one of the first treatises on political economy with his 1613 work,
5523:
5443:
5340:
5330:
5318:
5308:
5081:
4634:
The rise of commercial empires: England and the Netherlands in the Age of Mercantilism, 1650–1770
4371:
4235:
3839:
3383:
3029:
2818:
2459:
2105:
2100:
2090:
1785:
1673:
1589:
1300:
1075:
1025:
906:
634:
504:
94:
1239:
That all exports of gold and silver be prohibited and all domestic money be kept in circulation.
5323:
5293:
5261:
5204:
5114:
4907:
4598:
The Great Frontier War: Britain, France, and the Imperial Struggle for North America, 1607–1755
4303:
2612:
2489:
2283:
2142:
2073:
1960:
1918:
1230:
That every little bit of a country's soil be utilized for agriculture, mining or manufacturing.
1085:
484:
238:
England's Treasure by Foreign Trade or the Balance of Foreign Trade is the Rule of Our Treasure
214:
191:
4998:
3763:
3744:
3414:
2805:
5559:
5448:
5396:
5371:
5179:
5159:
4968:
3174:
2984:
2971:
2944:
2924:
2916:
2894:
2858:
2849:
2840:
2731:
2592:
2577:
2499:
2479:
2434:
2331:
2190:
2180:
2152:
2025:
2015:
1943:
1420:
1401:
1204:
1080:
725:
415:
385:
370:
283:
259:
4451:"Notes on Mercantilism, the Usury Laws, Stamped Money and the Theories of Under-Consumption"
4248:
2749:
remained opaque to people at the time, as they simply lacked the required analytical tools.
1938:
1620:. The culmination of all of these policies led to Spain defaulting in 1557, 1575, and 1596.
1519:
bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely. The
1307:
were seen to inevitably lead to vice and laziness, and would result in harm to the economy.
1254:
That no importation be allowed if such goods are sufficiently and suitably supplied at home.
274:
In Europe, academic belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late-18th century after the
5533:
5513:
5453:
5288:
5236:
4993:
4558:
3518:
2796:
Prior to mercantilism, the most important economic work done in Europe was by the medieval
2642:
2597:
2572:
2539:
2243:
2238:
2175:
2170:
1928:
1765:
1577:
1544:
1181:
985:
793:
690:
654:
499:
432:
380:
183:
70:
deficit or reach a current account surplus, and it includes measures aimed at accumulating
49:
3268:
135:
Mercantilism became the dominant school of economic thought in Europe throughout the late
8:
5518:
5313:
5246:
5216:
5142:
5137:
5104:
4701:
4446:
3833:
3469:
3067:
3016:
2976:
2829:
view of the world, and some of the most stridently mercantilist legislation, such as the
2356:
2278:
2233:
2228:
2095:
2085:
1985:
1795:
1760:
1718:
1605:
1581:
1532:
1506:
were fought between the English and the Dutch for control over the seas and trade routes.
1292:
1288:
1095:
1040:
1035:
968:
958:
644:
479:
291:
267:
195:
140:
4469:
3363:
1445:
France imposed its mercantilist philosophy on its colonies in North America, especially
205:
England began the first large-scale and integrative approach to mercantilism during the
5298:
5241:
4988:
4690:
4682:
4481:
4473:
4430:
4307:
3178:
3173:
if they traded. This is an example of the reciprocal benefits of trade (whether due to
2920:
2909:
In 1690, Locke argued that prices vary in proportion to the quantity of money. Locke's
2602:
2562:
2439:
2288:
2253:
2040:
2000:
1955:
1875:
1830:
1810:
1613:
1596:
1484:
1311:
1100:
1060:
931:
836:
455:
437:
427:
420:
275:
1471:
government (1640–60). Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the
5508:
5428:
5366:
5359:
5189:
4948:
4889:
4837:
4819:
4801:
4783:
4766:
4756:
4694:
4619:
4601:
4583:
4562:
4540:
4522:
4504:
4485:
4400:
4349:
4331:
4313:
4290:
4287:
Mercantilism as a Rent-Seeking Society: Economic Regulation in Historical Perspective
4272:
4254:
4020:
3890:
3769:
3477:
3449:
3424:
3135:
2995:
2813:
2753:
2735:
2667:
2534:
2401:
2391:
2336:
2258:
2132:
2117:
1995:
1965:
1895:
1885:
1820:
1640:
1624:
1528:
1492:
1248:
That as much as possible, imports be confined to raw materials that can be finished .
953:
705:
685:
472:
465:
460:
225:
199:
3446:
Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650–1800, (Volume 1)
2906:
undermined much of mercantilism and it steadily lost favor during the 18th century.
1222:, detailed a nine-point program of what he deemed effective national economy in his
5376:
4983:
4953:
4748:
4674:
4426:
3420:
3220:
3145:
3053:
2958:
2469:
2444:
2396:
2376:
2321:
2298:
2248:
2127:
2030:
2020:
2010:
1975:
1865:
1815:
1805:
1800:
1706:
are often dependent on such tariffs and restrictions hurting the opposing economy.
1691:
1657:
1653:
1564:
1503:
1208:
946:
881:
866:
818:
808:
802:
775:
760:
531:
494:
75:
2779:
Mercantilism developed at a time of transition for the European economy. Isolated
5538:
5458:
5303:
5251:
5209:
5127:
4875:
4865:
4834:
The Ancién Regime in Europe: government and society in the major states 1648–1789
4740:
4728:
4724:
4575:
4328:
Tackling the Poverty of Nations: Why So Many Are Poor and What We Can Do About It
4212:
3185:
a zero-sum game of cutthroat competition, because both sides can benefit from it.
3109:
3089:
3085:
3075:
3057:
3040:
3025:
2834:
2830:
2727:
2679:
2524:
2429:
2386:
2366:
2361:
2351:
2346:
2268:
2063:
1524:
1476:
1468:
1416:. The next year, a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion.
1359:
1192:
1166:
1070:
1030:
995:
891:
851:
846:
813:
659:
639:
629:
619:
604:
584:
519:
405:
330:
206:
113:
52:
4580:
John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace
3910:
1295:
of the working population; laborers and farmers were to live at the "margins of
266:
from 1665 to 1683 who revised the tariff system and expanded industrial policy.
4752:
4744:
4662:
3802:
3130:
3046:
2801:
2746:
2632:
2617:
2587:
2509:
2005:
1850:
1840:
1770:
1755:
1750:
1617:
1540:
1480:
1276:
1055:
871:
765:
609:
286:
through the activities of the East India Company, in light of the arguments of
79:
38:
5009:
2371:
5553:
5468:
5423:
5386:
5174:
5064:
4978:
4943:
4770:
4732:
4201:
3530:
3036:
2991:
2928:
2886:
2866:
2854:
2822:
2797:
2622:
2494:
2454:
2326:
1990:
1890:
1870:
1585:
1304:
1196:
1105:
1090:
896:
886:
876:
861:
841:
770:
614:
536:
447:
410:
400:
390:
279:
168:
60:
224:
Authors noted most for establishing the English mercantilist system include
5149:
4973:
4369:
Heckscher, Eli F. (1936) "Revisions in Economic History: V. Mercantilism."
4223:
3079:
3012:
2784:
2757:
2745:, sees mercantilism as simply a straightforward, common-sense system whose
2544:
2484:
2411:
1880:
1472:
1349:
1284:
1264:
980:
856:
720:
715:
710:
695:
649:
624:
599:
594:
541:
241:
1368:
Promoting manufacturing and industry through research or direct subsidies.
1358:
Forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships, as per, for example, the
298:(in power from 1799 to 1814/1815). The British Parliament's repeal of the
82:. Historically, such policies might have contributed to war and motivated
5184:
5099:
3416:
How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500–1850
3021:
2962:
2808:
2769:
2742:
2627:
2529:
2449:
2205:
1900:
1855:
1825:
1780:
1664:
1319:
1296:
1045:
1000:
963:
941:
936:
549:
524:
303:
209:(1558–1603). An early statement on national balance of trade appeared in
164:
136:
83:
4644:
3765:
International Political Economy: Perspectives on Global Power and Wealth
3225:
Mercantilism and the Economic History of the Early Modern Atlantic World
1396:
5354:
5256:
5089:
4963:
4958:
4686:
4537:
The Origins of Scientific Economics: English Economic Thought 1660–1776
4377:
3873:
The French Atlantic triangle: literature and culture of the slave trade
3857:
The French Atlantic triangle: literature and culture of the slave trade
3526:
2939:
2903:
2882:
2878:
2862:
2844:
2764:
2719:
2607:
2316:
2137:
2068:
1726:
1631:
also followed some mercantilist financial policies during the reign of
1512:
1488:
1446:
1424:
1391:
1280:
1259:
1219:
1200:
1173:
375:
343:
307:
287:
233:
187:
179:
160:
4798:
A Concise History of Economic Thought: From Mercantilism to Monetarism
5503:
4884:
4346:
European Economic History: From Mercantilism to Maastricht and Beyond
3116:, while causing short-term harm, can be beneficial in the long term.
2780:
2647:
2637:
2582:
2406:
2341:
2185:
1933:
1740:
1703:
1568:
1463:
Economic history of the United Kingdom § The age of mercantilism
1242:
That all imports of foreign goods be discouraged as much as possible.
1065:
589:
554:
489:
353:
348:
299:
56:
4678:
3308:"U.S. tech group urges global action against Chinese "mercantilism""
3052:
Some other systems that copy several mercantilist policies, such as
1291:. One notion that mercantilists widely agreed upon was the need for
5528:
5164:
4711:
4705:
3062:
2890:
2474:
2381:
1835:
1745:
1567:
in the North Atlantic, in which raw materials were imported to the
1548:
1413:
1268:
1226:
of 1684, which comprehensively sums up the tenets of mercantilism:
442:
295:
1559:
3206:
History of the domestic and foreign commerce of the United States
3125:
3097:
2975:
in 1776. This book outlines the basics of what is today known as
2826:
2662:
1775:
1601:
798:
574:
156:
4899:
3761:
1668:
monopolies in certain defined geographical regions, such as the
4652:
2674:
1684:
1677:
1636:
1339:
1120:
926:
144:
129:
90:
4885:
An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
4616:
A History of Economic Theory: Classic Contributions, 1720–1980
4206:
Colbert, Mercantilism and the French Quest for the Asian Trade
3412:
2718:
The term "mercantile system" was used by its foremost critic,
3835:
History of domestic and foreign commerce of the United States
3071:
1860:
1409:
148:
4364:
New Economics: Keynes' Influence on Theory And Public Policy
3688:
3686:
3499:"Insights From Doctrinal History. Mercantilists. Classicals"
3269:"Mercantilism: A Lesson for Our Times? | Murray N. Rothbard"
2934:
1652:
to take it from another. A number of wars, most notably the
1299:". The goal was to maximize production, with no concern for
104:
With the efforts of supranational organizations such as the
1608:
had perhaps the most rigidly controlled economy in Europe.
1315:
236:(1571–1641), who first articulated the Elizabethan system (
152:
2927:(although this idea was only fully fleshed out in 1817 by
3683:
2793:
an increase in "the volume of merchant activity itself".
1355:
Banning the export of gold and silver, even for payments.
2825:. This dark view of human nature also fit well with the
3216:
3214:
1571:
and then processed and redistributed to other colonies.
282:, a major trading nation, and the establishment of the
211:
Discourse of the Common Wealth of this Realm of England
3566:
A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies
1563:
Mercantilism helped create trade patterns such as the
1547:, and this era thus saw projects like the draining of
4456:
The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money
3831:
3060:. In an essay appearing in the May 14, 2007 issue of
2919:). Mercantilists failed to understand the notions of
1467:
In England, mercantilism reached its peak during the
173:
A Short Treatise on the Wealth and Poverty of Nations
3545:
3543:
3541:
3211:
4665:(May 1964), "Theoretical notes on trade problems",
4289:, College Station: Texas A&M University Press,
3468:
3078:
trade policy that threatened to undermine the post–
294:. French economic policy liberalized greatly under
4582:, Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press,
4348:(1st ed.), Copenhagen Business School Press,
4267:Ekelund, Robert B. Jr.; HĂ©bert, Robert F. (1997),
3746:Seeds of Liberty: The Genesis of the American Mind
3032:in the economy as necessary, as did mercantilism.
4618:, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press,
3938:
3936:
3538:
3443:
2752:The second school, supported by scholars such as
41:, completed in 1639 at the height of mercantilism
5551:
4795:
4516:
4285:Ekelund, Robert B.; Tollison, Robert D. (1981),
4271:(4th ed.), Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press,
3990:
3954:
3871:Miller, C. L. 2008. "Introduction." pp. 1–39 in
3641:
3605:
3250:
3248:
1345:Forbidding colonies to trade with other nations.
1303:. Extra money, free time, and education for the
155:regarding control of the Mediterranean trade in
5039:
4284:
4076:
3838:. Carnegie Institution of Washington. pp.
3629:
3617:
3293:"Macroeconomic effects of Chinese mercantilism"
1318:. Opposite to mercantilism was the doctrine of
1236:That a large, working population be encouraged.
59:within the country and use those resources for
4555:A Companion to the History of Economic Thought
4247:Ekelund, Robert B.; HĂ©bert, Robert F. (1975),
3933:
3921:
3361:
5025:
4915:
4467:
4266:
4246:
4217:Civilization and Capitalism 15th–18th Century
4039:
3927:
3855:Miller, C. L. 2008. "Introduction." p. 14 in
3665:
3593:
3245:
2699:
1145:
258:(reigned 1643–1715) followed the guidance of
4814:Walters, Robert S.; Blake, David H. (1976),
4813:
4517:Landreth, Harry; Colander, David C. (2002),
4459:, London: Palgrave Macmillan, archived from
4309:Economics in Perspective: A Critical History
4161:
4017:International Business Management Text Cases
1527:led to friction with the inhabitants of the
4228:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History
3832:Emory Richard Johnson; et al. (1915).
3768:(4th ed.). Routledge. pp. 128ff.
3762:Frieden, Jeffry A.; Lake, David A. (2014).
3266:
2783:estates were being replaced by centralized
5032:
5018:
4922:
4908:
4796:Vaggi, Gianni; Groenewegen, Peter (2003),
4521:(4th ed.), Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
4436:
4051:Referenced to Davenant, 1771 , p. 171, in
3677:
2833:of 1651, was enacted by the government of
2706:
2692:
1152:
1138:
4816:The Politics of Global Economic Relations
4700:
4661:
4552:
4503:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
4441:, New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers
4382:
4302:
4149:
4064:
4052:
3978:
3911:"Mercantilism: Definition & Examples"
3887:Regulating the British Economy, 1660–1850
3581:
3561:
3549:
3254:
1576:Central Europe and Scandinavia after the
1400:French finance minister and mercantilist
1377:Restricting domestic consumption through
1374:Maximizing the use of domestic resources.
4831:
4650:
4574:
4415:"Mercantilism: Past, Present and Future"
4173:
4125:
3800:
3692:
3474:Money and the Market in India, 1100–1700
3365:The National System of Political Economy
3355:
2933:
2768:Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, when
1627:with some success. Ottoman Grand Vizier
1558:
1497:
1395:
123:
29:
4818:, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
4782:(3rd ed.), Duke University Press,
4777:
4613:
4412:
4269:A History of Economic Theory and Method
4250:A History of Economic Theory and Method
4211:
4002:
3942:
3819:
3413:Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy (2009).
3387:
3305:
3181:). In modern economic theory, trade is
1646:
14:
5552:
4849:
4667:The Review of Economics and Statistics
4631:
4595:
4534:
4498:
4445:
4361:
4343:
4222:
4185:
4137:
4112:
4100:
4088:
3966:
3788:
3728:
3704:
3653:
3568:(1621) and perhaps the more important
2873:
1165:"mercantilism" came into English from
5195:Marxian critique of political economy
5013:
4903:
4723:
4654:Mercantilism: A Lesson for Our Times?
4478:The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics
4325:
4014:
3884:
3867:
3865:
3851:
3849:
3757:
3755:
3739:
3737:
3239:The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics
3092:of economics, describes it this way:
178:Mercantilism in its simplest form is
112:have assumed a greater importance in
66:The policy aims to reduce a possible
4397:The Century of Revolution, 1603–1714
4391:
4200:
3889:. Farnham: Ashgate Pub. p. 83.
3716:
3570:England's Treasure by Forraign Trade
3496:
3345:"Learning from Chinese Mercantilism"
3141:Neorealism (international relations)
306:in 1846 symbolized the emergence of
4868:Englands Treasure by Forraign Trade
4657:, Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar
3306:Martina, Michael (March 16, 2017).
1683:With the establishment of overseas
1342:, especially on manufactured goods.
27:Economic policy emphasizing exports
24:
4854:, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul
4737:The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
4431:10.1111/j.1467-9957.1974.tb00098.x
4215:(1979), "The Wheels of Commerce",
4194:
3862:
3846:
3752:
3734:
3082:international economic structure.
1554:
1224:Austria Over All, If She Only Will
25:
5576:
4929:
4859:
3327:"Why Do All Roads Lead To China?"
1456:
1126:Business and economics portal
5499:History of macroeconomic thought
5324:Neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis
4800:, New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
4413:Johnson, Harky G. (March 1974),
3324:
2673:
2661:
1495:, but were often controversial.
1214:The Austrian lawyer and scholar
1119:
251:–1699) then developed further.
4778:Spiegel, Henry William (1991),
4643:24#94 (1939), pp. 129–135
4242:, Oxford University Press, 2014
4179:
4167:
4155:
4143:
4131:
4118:
4106:
4094:
4082:
4070:
4058:
4045:
4033:
4008:
3996:
3984:
3972:
3960:
3948:
3903:
3878:
3825:
3813:
3794:
3782:
3722:
3710:
3698:
3671:
3659:
3647:
3635:
3623:
3611:
3599:
3587:
3575:
3555:
3490:
3462:
3437:
3406:
3393:
3376:
3158:
1186:Principles of Political Economy
4780:The growth of economic thought
3525:gave way to the classicism of
3337:
3318:
3299:
3285:
3260:
3230:
3198:
3000:historical school of economics
264:Controller-General of Finances
198:concerns irrelevant. In time,
13:
1:
5489:Critique of political economy
4344:Hansen, E. Damsgaard (2001),
3401:The European World: A history
3236:"Mercantilism," Laura LaHaye
3192:
2948:is an attack on mercantilism.
2931:) and the benefits of trade.
2465:Critique of political economy
2123:Critique of political economy
1434:
1021:Commons-based peer production
741:Socialism of the 21st century
245:
5397:Rational expectations theory
4639:Rees, J. F. "Mercantilism"
4437:Kellenbenz, Hermann (1976),
4312:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
3991:Landreth & Colander 2002
3955:Landreth & Colander 2002
3642:Landreth & Colander 2002
3606:Landreth & Colander 2002
3314:– via www.reuters.com.
3074:was pursuing an essentially
3056:, are also sometimes called
2515:Periodizations of capitalism
1379:non-tariff barriers to trade
1334:The policies have included:
110:non-tariff barriers to trade
108:to reduce tariffs globally,
7:
5494:History of economic thought
5041:Schools of economic thought
4999:Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick
4707:China's Wrong Turn on Trade
4519:History of Economic Thought
4387:, London: Allen & Unwin
4362:Harris, Seymour E. (1950),
4077:Ekelund & Tollison 1981
3630:Ekelund & Tollison 1981
3618:Ekelund & Tollison 1981
3476:. Oxford University Press.
3119:
2211:Simple commodity production
1629:KemankeĹź Kara Mustafa Pasha
1451:Compagnie des Cent-Associés
1325:
1216:Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick
1169:in the early-19th century.
10:
5581:
5414:New neoclassical synthesis
5402:Real business-cycle theory
4753:10.4135/9781412965811.n198
4383:Heckscher, Eli F. (1935),
4376:7#1 1936, pp. 44–54.
3444:Abhay Kumar Singh (2006).
3267:kanopiadmin (2017-02-15).
2520:Perspectives on capitalism
1709:
1676:(operating in present-day
1592:being notable proponents.
1460:
1441:Economic history of Canada
1438:
1389:
1348:Monopolizing markets with
310:as an alternative system.
119:
5481:
5225:
5113:
5080:
5073:
5047:
4939:
4850:Wilson, Charles (1963) ,
4651:Rothbard, Murray (1997),
4535:Letwin, William (2003) ,
4499:Landes, David S. (1997),
4326:Grant, R. George (2009),
4253:, New York: McGraw–Hill,
4230:, Oxford University Press
4040:Ekelund & HĂ©bert 1975
4015:Dutta, Bholanath (2010).
3928:Ekelund & HĂ©bert 1975
3801:Rothbard, Murray (2010).
3666:Ekelund & HĂ©bert 1975
3594:Ekelund & HĂ©bert 1997
3005:
1586:Jacob Kettler of Courland
1404:served for over 20 years.
1385:
1218:, one of the pioneers of
1199:(1580–?) and, in France,
1178:Treasure by Foreign Trade
515:Socialist-oriented market
313:
219:Trade and Navigation Acts
4832:Williams, E. N. (1999),
4399:(2nd ed.), Nelson,
4226:(2003), "Mercantilism",
4162:Walters & Blake 1976
3875:. Duke University Press.
3859:. Duke University Press.
3506:Richmond Federal Reserve
3448:. Northern Book Centre.
3151:
2857:with his explanation of
2847:with the publication of
2790:double-entry bookkeeping
1791:Economic interventionism
1670:Dutch East India Company
1663:Mercantilism fueled the
1287:and price ceilings were
106:World Trade Organization
99:economic interventionism
5524:Post-autistic economics
4372:Economic History Review
4304:Galbraith, John Kenneth
4240:Encyclopædia Britannica
3915:Encyclopedia Britannica
3803:"Mercantilism in Spain"
3368:. A.M. Kelley. p.
3362:Friedrich List (1916).
3054:Japan's economic system
3030:government intervention
2819:international relations
2811:and the primacy of the
2460:Criticism of capitalism
1614:separation of the Dutch
1590:Christian IV of Denmark
1279:and government-imposed
290:(1723–1790) and of the
192:floating exchange rates
95:proto-industrialization
5262:Modern Monetary Theory
4632:Omrund, David (2003),
4614:Niehans, JĂĽrg (1990),
4468:LaHaye, Laura (2008).
3103:
2949:
2490:Exploitation of labour
2201:Primitive accumulation
1572:
1507:
1405:
132:
42:
5346:Keynes–Marx synthesis
4969:Jean-Baptiste Colbert
4739:. Thousand Oaks, CA:
4539:, London: Routledge,
4419:The Manchester School
3885:Gauci, Perry (2011).
3094:
3066:, business columnist
2985:group decision making
2972:The Wealth of Nations
2945:The Wealth of Nations
2937:
2925:comparative advantage
2917:labor theory of value
2895:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
2859:comparative advantage
2853:in 1776 and later by
2850:The Wealth of Nations
2841:Jean-Baptiste Colbert
2732:divine right of kings
2668:Capitalism portal
2480:Culture of capitalism
2435:Capitalist propaganda
2191:Industrial Revolution
2181:Commercial Revolution
1562:
1501:
1421:Jean-Baptiste Colbert
1402:Jean-Baptiste Colbert
1399:
1365:Subsidies on exports.
1188:, published in 1767.
260:Jean Baptiste Colbert
127:
33:
5534:World-systems theory
5514:Mainstream economics
5454:Technocracy movement
5434:Saltwater/freshwater
4994:James Denham-Steuart
4747:. pp. 326–328.
4702:Samuelson, Robert J.
4559:Blackwell Publishing
4480:. Indianapolis, IN:
4447:Keynes, John Maynard
3517:the mercantilism of
3497:Humphrey, Thomas M.
3295:. December 31, 2009.
3227:(Cambridge UP, 2001)
3169:states would end up
2831:Navigation Ordinance
2643:Right-libertarianism
2573:Classical liberalism
2540:Venture philanthropy
2176:Capitalism and Islam
2171:Age of Enlightenment
1766:Capital accumulation
1674:Hudson's Bay Company
1647:Wars and imperialism
1545:highest and best use
1051:Newly industrialized
794:Collective ownership
655:Vertical archipelago
292:classical economists
194:have since rendered
184:growing money-supply
5519:Heterodox economics
5247:Capability approach
5123:American (National)
5105:School of Salamanca
4836:, London: Pimlico,
4596:Nester, R. (2000),
4474:Henderson, David R.
3695:, pp. 177–183.
3470:Sanjay Subrahmanyam
3399:Jerome Blum et al.
3088:, representing the
3068:Robert J. Samuelson
3017:John Maynard Keynes
2977:classical economics
2874:End of mercantilism
2680:Business portal
1796:Economic liberalism
1786:Competitive markets
1606:Frederick the Great
1597:Holy Roman Emperors
1582:Christina of Sweden
1533:American Revolution
1293:economic oppression
1036:Inclusive Democracy
141:early-modern period
5155:English historical
4989:Ferdinando Galiani
4874:2006-10-23 at the
4484:pp. 340–343.
4482:Liberty Fund, Inc.
3822:, pp. 93–118.
3382:Now attributed to
3179:absolute advantage
2950:
2921:absolute advantage
2440:Capitalist realism
1831:Goods and services
1811:Fictitious capital
1573:
1508:
1412:and some parts of
1406:
974:Material balancing
456:Buddhist economics
276:East India Company
133:
84:colonial expansion
43:
5547:
5546:
5509:Political economy
5477:
5476:
5409:New institutional
5382:Neo-Schumpeterian
5190:Marxist economics
5170:German historical
5007:
5006:
4949:Gerard de Malynes
4895:Wealth of Nations
4890:Project Gutenberg
4843:978-0-7126-5934-5
4825:978-0-13-684712-0
4807:978-0-333-99936-3
4789:978-0-8223-0973-4
4762:978-1-4129-6580-4
4625:978-0-8018-3834-7
4607:978-0-275-96772-7
4589:978-0-19-829236-4
4568:978-0-631-22573-7
4546:978-0-415-31329-2
4528:978-0-618-13394-9
4510:978-0-521-09418-4
4491:978-0-86597-666-5
4406:978-0-17-712002-2
4393:Hill, Christopher
4355:978-87-630-0017-8
4337:978-1-4363-3582-9
4319:978-0-395-35572-5
4296:978-0-89096-120-9
4278:978-1-57766-381-2
4260:978-0-07-019143-3
4103:, vol. 2, p. 484.
4026:978-81-7446-867-3
3981:, pp. 33–34.
3917:. 22 August 2023.
3896:978-0-7546-9762-6
3775:978-1-134-59595-2
3748:(1948) pp. 204ff.
3596:, pp. 40–41.
3483:978-0-521-25758-9
3455:978-81-7211-201-1
3430:978-90-474-2997-5
3136:Money-free market
3114:infant industries
2996:French Revolution
2772:came into vogue.
2754:Robert B. Ekelund
2747:logical fallacies
2736:absolute monarchy
2716:
2715:
2535:Spontaneous order
2505:History of theory
2148:New institutional
2118:Market monetarism
2053:Economic theories
1886:Supply and demand
1821:Free price system
1658:Franco-Dutch Wars
1578:Thirty Years' War
1529:Thirteen Colonies
1525:American colonies
1493:English Civil War
1162:
1161:
672:By regional model
466:Sabbath economics
226:Gerard de Malynes
200:industrial policy
72:monetary reserves
35:Seaport at sunset
18:Mercantile system
16:(Redirected from
5572:
5539:Economic systems
5078:
5077:
5060:Medieval Islamic
5034:
5027:
5020:
5011:
5010:
4984:Charles Davenant
4954:Edward Misselden
4924:
4917:
4910:
4901:
4900:
4892:
4855:
4846:
4828:
4810:
4792:
4774:
4725:Smith, George H.
4720:
4719:
4718:
4697:
4658:
4647:; historiography
4636:
4628:
4610:
4592:
4576:Markwell, Donald
4571:
4549:
4531:
4513:
4495:
4464:
4442:
4433:
4409:
4388:
4366:
4358:
4340:
4322:
4299:
4281:
4263:
4243:
4231:
4224:Brezis, Elise S.
4219:
4213:Braudel, Fernand
4208:
4189:
4183:
4177:
4171:
4165:
4159:
4153:
4147:
4141:
4135:
4129:
4122:
4116:
4110:
4104:
4098:
4092:
4086:
4080:
4074:
4068:
4062:
4056:
4049:
4043:
4037:
4031:
4030:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3931:
3925:
3919:
3918:
3907:
3901:
3900:
3882:
3876:
3869:
3860:
3853:
3844:
3843:
3829:
3823:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3780:
3779:
3759:
3750:
3741:
3732:
3726:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3702:
3696:
3690:
3681:
3675:
3669:
3663:
3657:
3651:
3645:
3639:
3633:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3609:
3603:
3597:
3591:
3585:
3579:
3573:
3559:
3553:
3547:
3536:
3535:
3514:
3512:
3503:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3466:
3460:
3459:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3421:Brill Publishers
3410:
3404:
3397:
3391:
3384:Sir Thomas Smith
3380:
3374:
3373:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3351:. March 2, 2016.
3341:
3335:
3334:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3303:
3297:
3296:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3279:
3264:
3258:
3252:
3243:
3234:
3228:
3221:John J. McCusker
3218:
3209:
3202:
3186:
3162:
3146:Crony capitalism
3076:neo-mercantilist
3058:neo-mercantilist
2959:Charles Davenant
2708:
2701:
2694:
2678:
2677:
2666:
2665:
2470:Critique of work
2445:Capitalist state
2128:Critique of work
2011:Regulated market
1913:Economic systems
1866:Private property
1816:Financial market
1806:Entrepreneurship
1801:Economic surplus
1714:
1713:
1692:Giovanni Arrighi
1654:Anglo-Dutch Wars
1580:(1618–48), with
1565:triangular trade
1504:Anglo-Dutch Wars
1195:(1544–1617) and
1154:
1147:
1140:
1124:
1123:
882:Municipalization
867:Financialization
837:Collectivization
819:Social ownership
809:Private property
803:Common ownership
761:Common ownership
575:Closed (autarky)
532:State capitalism
510:Socialist market
495:Market socialist
331:Economic systems
318:
317:
250:
247:
231:
78:, especially of
76:balance of trade
37:, a painting by
21:
5580:
5579:
5575:
5574:
5573:
5571:
5570:
5569:
5565:Economic policy
5550:
5549:
5548:
5543:
5473:
5459:Thermoeconomics
5230:21st centuries)
5229:
5227:
5221:
5109:
5069:
5055:Ancient schools
5043:
5038:
5008:
5003:
4935:
4928:
4893:: Adam Smith's
4882:
4876:Wayback Machine
4862:
4844:
4826:
4808:
4790:
4763:
4716:
4714:
4704:(17 May 2007),
4679:10.2307/1928178
4663:Samuelson, Paul
4626:
4608:
4590:
4569:
4547:
4529:
4511:
4492:
4407:
4356:
4338:
4320:
4297:
4279:
4261:
4234:
4197:
4195:Further reading
4192:
4184:
4180:
4172:
4168:
4160:
4156:
4148:
4144:
4136:
4132:
4123:
4119:
4111:
4107:
4099:
4095:
4087:
4083:
4075:
4071:
4063:
4059:
4050:
4046:
4038:
4034:
4027:
4019:. Excel Books.
4013:
4009:
4001:
3997:
3989:
3985:
3977:
3973:
3965:
3961:
3953:
3949:
3941:
3934:
3926:
3922:
3909:
3908:
3904:
3897:
3883:
3879:
3870:
3863:
3854:
3847:
3830:
3826:
3818:
3814:
3807:Mises Institute
3799:
3795:
3787:
3783:
3776:
3760:
3753:
3742:
3735:
3727:
3723:
3715:
3711:
3703:
3699:
3691:
3684:
3678:Kellenbenz 1976
3676:
3672:
3664:
3660:
3652:
3648:
3640:
3636:
3628:
3624:
3616:
3612:
3604:
3600:
3592:
3588:
3580:
3576:
3560:
3556:
3548:
3539:
3510:
3508:
3501:
3495:
3491:
3484:
3467:
3463:
3456:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3423:. p. 174.
3411:
3407:
3398:
3394:
3381:
3377:
3360:
3356:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3323:
3319:
3304:
3300:
3291:
3290:
3286:
3277:
3275:
3273:Mises Institute
3265:
3261:
3253:
3246:
3235:
3231:
3219:
3212:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3190:
3189:
3163:
3159:
3154:
3122:
3110:Navigation Acts
3090:Austrian School
3086:Murray Rothbard
3041:neomercantilism
3026:supply of money
3008:
3002:was paramount.
2912:Second Treatise
2876:
2835:Oliver Cromwell
2728:political power
2712:
2672:
2660:
2653:
2652:
2558:
2550:
2549:
2525:Post-capitalism
2430:Anti-capitalism
2425:
2417:
2416:
2312:
2304:
2303:
2224:
2216:
2215:
2166:
2158:
2157:
2054:
2046:
2045:
2036:State-sponsored
1914:
1906:
1905:
1771:Capital markets
1736:
1712:
1649:
1557:
1555:Other countries
1521:Navigation Acts
1469:Long Parliament
1465:
1459:
1443:
1437:
1394:
1388:
1371:Limiting wages.
1360:Navigation Acts
1328:
1193:Giovanni Botero
1158:
1118:
1111:
1110:
1076:Post-industrial
1071:Post-capitalist
1031:Hunter-gatherer
1016:
1008:
1007:
922:
914:
913:
892:Nationalization
852:Demutualization
847:Corporatization
832:
824:
823:
814:State ownership
789:
781:
780:
756:
748:
747:
673:
665:
664:
635:Robinson Crusoe
570:
569:By coordination
562:
561:
546:Traditionalist
406:Neomercantilist
366:
358:
339:
316:
248:
232:1585–1641) and
215:Queen Elizabeth
207:Elizabethan Era
159:. However, the
122:
114:neomercantilism
68:current account
53:economic policy
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5578:
5568:
5567:
5562:
5545:
5544:
5542:
5541:
5536:
5531:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5485:
5483:
5479:
5478:
5475:
5474:
5472:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5419:Organizational
5416:
5411:
5406:
5405:
5404:
5399:
5389:
5384:
5379:
5374:
5369:
5367:Neo-Malthusian
5364:
5363:
5362:
5352:
5351:
5350:
5349:
5348:
5343:
5333:
5328:
5327:
5326:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5284:Disequilibrium
5281:
5276:
5274:Constitutional
5271:
5266:
5265:
5264:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5233:
5231:
5223:
5222:
5220:
5219:
5214:
5213:
5212:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5160:French liberal
5157:
5152:
5147:
5146:
5145:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5119:
5117:
5111:
5110:
5108:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5086:
5084:
5075:
5071:
5070:
5068:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5051:
5049:
5045:
5044:
5037:
5036:
5029:
5022:
5014:
5005:
5004:
5002:
5001:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4940:
4937:
4936:
4933:
4927:
4926:
4919:
4912:
4904:
4898:
4897:
4879:
4878:
4861:
4860:External links
4858:
4857:
4856:
4847:
4842:
4829:
4824:
4811:
4806:
4793:
4788:
4775:
4761:
4745:Cato Institute
4733:Hamowy, Ronald
4729:"Mercantilism"
4721:
4698:
4673:(2): 145–154,
4659:
4648:
4637:
4629:
4624:
4611:
4606:
4593:
4588:
4572:
4567:
4557:, Malden, MA:
4550:
4545:
4532:
4527:
4514:
4509:
4496:
4490:
4470:"Mercantilism"
4465:
4443:
4434:
4410:
4405:
4389:
4380:
4367:
4359:
4354:
4341:
4336:
4323:
4318:
4300:
4295:
4282:
4277:
4264:
4259:
4244:
4236:"Mercantilism"
4232:
4220:
4209:
4202:Ames, Glenn J.
4196:
4193:
4191:
4190:
4178:
4166:
4154:
4150:Samuelson 1964
4142:
4130:
4117:
4115:, p. 321.
4105:
4093:
4081:
4069:
4065:Magnusson 2003
4057:
4053:Magnusson 2003
4044:
4032:
4025:
4007:
3995:
3983:
3979:Galbraith 1987
3971:
3959:
3947:
3932:
3920:
3902:
3895:
3877:
3861:
3845:
3824:
3812:
3793:
3781:
3774:
3751:
3733:
3721:
3709:
3697:
3682:
3670:
3658:
3646:
3634:
3622:
3620:, p. 154.
3610:
3598:
3586:
3582:Magnusson 2003
3574:
3562:Magnusson 2003
3554:
3550:Magnusson 2003
3537:
3489:
3482:
3461:
3454:
3436:
3429:
3405:
3403:(1970) p. 279.
3392:
3388:Braudel (1979)
3375:
3354:
3336:
3317:
3298:
3284:
3259:
3255:Samuelson 2007
3244:
3229:
3210:
3204:Johnson et al
3196:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3187:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3131:British Empire
3128:
3121:
3118:
3047:Paul Samuelson
3007:
3004:
2875:
2872:
2802:microeconomics
2714:
2713:
2711:
2710:
2703:
2696:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2670:
2655:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2633:Ordoliberalism
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2559:
2556:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2510:Market economy
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2426:
2424:Related topics
2423:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2296:
2294:State monopoly
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2066:
2061:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1851:Liberalization
1848:
1843:
1841:Invisible hand
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1756:Businessperson
1753:
1751:Business cycle
1748:
1743:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1730:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1711:
1708:
1648:
1645:
1618:Spanish Empire
1604:, which under
1569:mother country
1556:
1553:
1541:global hegemon
1481:Robert Walpole
1479:periods, with
1461:Main article:
1458:
1457:United Kingdom
1455:
1439:Main article:
1436:
1433:
1390:Main article:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1356:
1353:
1346:
1343:
1327:
1324:
1277:letters patent
1256:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1160:
1159:
1157:
1156:
1149:
1142:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1113:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1086:Resource-based
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1017:
1014:
1013:
1010:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1004:
1003:
998:
993:
983:
978:
977:
976:
971:
966:
961:
951:
950:
949:
944:
939:
929:
923:
920:
919:
916:
915:
912:
911:
910:
909:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
872:Liberalization
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
833:
830:
829:
826:
825:
822:
821:
816:
811:
806:
796:
790:
788:Property types
787:
786:
783:
782:
779:
778:
773:
768:
763:
757:
754:
753:
750:
749:
746:
745:
744:
743:
737:Latin America
735:
734:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
700:
699:
698:
693:
688:
683:
674:
671:
670:
667:
666:
663:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
607:
602:
597:
592:
587:
582:
577:
571:
568:
567:
564:
563:
560:
559:
558:
557:
552:
544:
539:
534:
529:
528:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
477:
476:
475:
470:
469:
468:
458:
450:
445:
440:
435:
430:
425:
424:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
373:
367:
364:
363:
360:
359:
357:
356:
351:
346:
340:
337:
334:
333:
327:
326:
315:
312:
256:King Louis XIV
249: 1630/31
121:
118:
80:finished goods
74:by a positive
39:Claude Lorrain
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5577:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5557:
5555:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5486:
5484:
5480:
5470:
5469:Social credit
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5444:Structuralist
5442:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5424:Public choice
5422:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5394:
5393:
5392:New classical
5390:
5388:
5387:Neoliberalism
5385:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5377:Neo-Ricardian
5375:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5365:
5361:
5358:
5357:
5356:
5353:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5338:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5325:
5322:
5321:
5320:
5317:
5316:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5309:Institutional
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5263:
5260:
5259:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5234:
5232:
5224:
5218:
5215:
5211:
5208:
5207:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5144:
5141:
5140:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5120:
5118:
5116:
5112:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5087:
5085:
5083:
5079:
5076:
5072:
5066:
5065:Scholasticism
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5035:
5030:
5028:
5023:
5021:
5016:
5015:
5012:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4979:William Petty
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4944:Antonio Serra
4942:
4941:
4938:
4934:
4932:Mercantilists
4931:
4925:
4920:
4918:
4913:
4911:
4906:
4905:
4902:
4896:
4891:
4887:
4886:
4881:
4880:
4877:
4873:
4870:
4869:
4866:Thomas Mun's
4864:
4863:
4853:
4848:
4845:
4839:
4835:
4830:
4827:
4821:
4817:
4812:
4809:
4803:
4799:
4794:
4791:
4785:
4781:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4713:
4709:
4708:
4703:
4699:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4655:
4649:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4635:
4630:
4627:
4621:
4617:
4612:
4609:
4603:
4599:
4594:
4591:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4573:
4570:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4551:
4548:
4542:
4538:
4533:
4530:
4524:
4520:
4515:
4512:
4506:
4502:
4497:
4493:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4466:
4463:on 2008-12-19
4462:
4458:
4457:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4435:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4411:
4408:
4402:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4381:
4379:
4375:
4373:
4368:
4365:
4360:
4357:
4351:
4347:
4342:
4339:
4333:
4329:
4324:
4321:
4315:
4311:
4310:
4305:
4301:
4298:
4292:
4288:
4283:
4280:
4274:
4270:
4265:
4262:
4256:
4252:
4251:
4245:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4198:
4188:, p. 64.
4187:
4182:
4176:, p. 43.
4175:
4174:Rothbard 1997
4170:
4163:
4158:
4151:
4146:
4139:
4134:
4127:
4126:Markwell 2006
4121:
4114:
4109:
4102:
4097:
4090:
4085:
4078:
4073:
4067:, p. 54.
4066:
4061:
4055:, p. 53.
4054:
4048:
4042:, p. 43.
4041:
4036:
4028:
4022:
4018:
4011:
4004:
3999:
3993:, p. 53.
3992:
3987:
3980:
3975:
3969:, p. 10.
3968:
3963:
3957:, p. 43.
3956:
3951:
3945:, p. 19.
3944:
3939:
3937:
3930:, p. 61.
3929:
3924:
3916:
3912:
3906:
3898:
3892:
3888:
3881:
3874:
3868:
3866:
3858:
3852:
3850:
3841:
3837:
3836:
3828:
3821:
3816:
3808:
3804:
3797:
3791:, p. 15.
3790:
3785:
3777:
3771:
3767:
3766:
3758:
3756:
3749:
3747:
3743:Max Savelle,
3740:
3738:
3731:, p. 54.
3730:
3725:
3719:, p. 32.
3718:
3713:
3707:, p. 65.
3706:
3701:
3694:
3693:Williams 1999
3689:
3687:
3680:, p. 29.
3679:
3674:
3668:, p. 36.
3667:
3662:
3656:, p. 31.
3655:
3650:
3644:, p. 48.
3643:
3638:
3631:
3626:
3619:
3614:
3608:, p. 44.
3607:
3602:
3595:
3590:
3584:, p. 50.
3583:
3578:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3558:
3552:, p. 46.
3551:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3534:
3532:
3531:David Ricardo
3528:
3524:
3523:James Steuart
3520:
3507:
3500:
3493:
3485:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3465:
3457:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3432:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3417:
3409:
3402:
3396:
3389:
3385:
3379:
3371:
3367:
3366:
3358:
3350:
3346:
3340:
3332:
3328:
3325:Pham, Peter.
3321:
3313:
3309:
3302:
3294:
3288:
3274:
3270:
3263:
3256:
3251:
3249:
3241:
3240:
3233:
3226:
3222:
3217:
3215:
3207:
3201:
3197:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3161:
3157:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3123:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3042:
3038:
3037:protectionism
3033:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3003:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2992:laissez-faire
2988:
2986:
2980:
2978:
2974:
2973:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2947:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2932:
2930:
2929:David Ricardo
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2913:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2887:Edward Gibbon
2884:
2880:
2871:
2868:
2867:Walter Rodney
2864:
2860:
2856:
2855:David Ricardo
2852:
2851:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2823:Thomas Hobbes
2820:
2816:
2815:
2814:raison d'Ă©tat
2810:
2807:
2806:Machiavellian
2803:
2799:
2794:
2791:
2786:
2785:nation-states
2782:
2777:
2773:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2759:
2755:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2709:
2704:
2702:
2697:
2695:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2623:Neoliberalism
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2568:Authoritarian
2566:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2495:Globalization
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2455:Crisis theory
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2311:Intellectuals
2308:
2307:
2300:
2299:Technological
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2091:Institutional
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1951:
1950:Laissez-faire
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1924:Authoritarian
1922:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1891:Surplus value
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1871:Privatization
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1715:
1707:
1705:
1699:
1695:
1693:
1688:
1686:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1659:
1655:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1619:
1615:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1595:The Habsburg
1593:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1570:
1566:
1561:
1552:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1516:
1514:
1505:
1500:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1487:, limited by
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1464:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1432:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1380:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1332:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1306:
1305:lower classes
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1289:black markets
1286:
1282:
1278:
1272:
1270:
1269:zero-sum game
1266:
1261:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1197:Antonio Serra
1194:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1182:James Steuart
1179:
1175:
1170:
1168:
1155:
1150:
1148:
1143:
1141:
1136:
1135:
1133:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1081:Post-scarcity
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1026:Expeditionary
1024:
1022:
1019:
1018:
1012:
1011:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
988:
987:
984:
982:
979:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
956:
955:
952:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
934:
933:
930:
928:
925:
924:
918:
917:
908:
905:
904:
903:
902:Socialization
900:
898:
897:Privatization
895:
893:
890:
888:
887:Mutualization
885:
883:
880:
878:
877:Marketization
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
862:Expropriation
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
842:Communization
840:
838:
835:
834:
828:
827:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
804:
800:
797:
795:
792:
791:
785:
784:
777:
774:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
758:
752:
751:
742:
739:
738:
736:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
703:
701:
697:
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
678:
676:
675:
669:
668:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
591:
588:
586:
583:
581:
580:Decentralized
578:
576:
573:
572:
566:
565:
556:
553:
551:
548:
547:
545:
543:
540:
538:
537:Social credit
535:
533:
530:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
505:Participatory
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
482:
481:
478:
474:
471:
467:
464:
463:
462:
459:
457:
454:
453:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
422:
419:
417:
416:Social market
414:
412:
411:Protectionist
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
391:Laissez-faire
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
378:
377:
374:
372:
369:
368:
362:
361:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
341:
336:
335:
332:
329:
328:
324:
320:
319:
311:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
284:British India
281:
280:Mughal Bengal
277:
272:
269:
265:
261:
257:
252:
243:
239:
235:
227:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
203:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
176:
174:
170:
169:Antonio Serra
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
131:
128:Merchants in
126:
117:
115:
111:
107:
102:
100:
96:
92:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
64:
62:
58:
54:
51:
47:
40:
36:
32:
19:
5560:Mercantilism
5294:Evolutionary
5226:Contemporary
5205:Neoclassical
5150:Distributist
5095:Mercantilism
5094:
5082:Early modern
4974:Josiah Child
4930:
4894:
4883:
4867:
4852:Mercantilism
4851:
4833:
4815:
4797:
4779:
4736:
4715:, retrieved
4706:
4670:
4666:
4653:
4640:
4633:
4615:
4597:
4579:
4554:
4536:
4518:
4500:
4477:
4461:the original
4455:
4438:
4422:
4418:
4396:
4385:Mercantilism
4384:
4370:
4363:
4345:
4327:
4308:
4286:
4268:
4249:
4239:
4227:
4216:
4205:
4181:
4169:
4157:
4145:
4140:, p. 3.
4133:
4120:
4108:
4096:
4091:, p. 6.
4084:
4072:
4060:
4047:
4035:
4016:
4010:
4003:Spiegel 1991
3998:
3986:
3974:
3962:
3950:
3943:Niehans 1990
3923:
3914:
3905:
3886:
3880:
3872:
3856:
3834:
3827:
3820:Spiegel 1991
3815:
3806:
3796:
3784:
3764:
3745:
3724:
3712:
3700:
3673:
3661:
3649:
3637:
3632:, p. 9.
3625:
3613:
3601:
3589:
3577:
3569:
3565:
3557:
3516:
3509:. Retrieved
3505:
3492:
3473:
3464:
3445:
3439:
3415:
3408:
3400:
3395:
3386:; quoted in
3378:
3364:
3357:
3348:
3339:
3330:
3320:
3311:
3301:
3287:
3276:. Retrieved
3272:
3262:
3237:
3232:
3224:
3205:
3200:
3182:
3170:
3166:
3160:
3107:
3104:
3101:discouraged.
3095:
3084:
3080:World War II
3061:
3051:
3045:
3034:
3013:rent seeking
3009:
2989:
2981:
2970:
2967:
2955:
2951:
2943:
2910:
2908:
2900:Dudley North
2877:
2848:
2839:
2812:
2795:
2778:
2774:
2763:
2758:rent-seeking
2751:
2740:
2717:
2545:Wage slavery
2485:Evergreening
2196:Mercantilism
2195:
2143:Neoclassical
1971:Mercantilist
1970:
1948:
1881:Rent seeking
1846:Visible hand
1700:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1662:
1650:
1622:
1610:
1594:
1574:
1537:
1517:
1509:
1466:
1444:
1429:
1418:
1407:
1350:staple ports
1333:
1329:
1309:
1273:
1265:rent-seeking
1257:
1223:
1213:
1190:
1185:
1177:
1171:
1163:
991:Peer-to-peer
986:Self-managed
921:Coordination
857:Deregulation
542:Distributist
396:Mercantilist
395:
278:annexed the
273:
253:
242:Josiah Child
237:
223:
210:
204:
177:
172:
134:
103:
88:
65:
46:Mercantilism
45:
44:
34:
5449:Supply-side
5372:Neo-Marxian
5185:Marginalism
5115:Late modern
5100:Physiocrats
4600:, Praeger,
4330:, Xlibris,
4186:Hansen 2001
4138:Wilson 1963
4113:Harris 1950
4101:Brezis 2003
4089:Wilson 1963
3967:Wilson 1963
3789:Wilson 1963
3729:Nester 2000
3705:Hansen 2001
3654:Landes 1997
3175:comparative
3070:wrote that
3022:paper money
2963:Jacob Viner
2809:realpolitik
2770:paper money
2743:Jacob Viner
2628:Objectivism
2613:Libertarian
2530:Speculation
2450:Consumerism
2284:Progressive
2223:Development
2206:Physiocracy
2153:Supply-side
1961:Libertarian
1939:Free-market
1919:Anglo-Saxon
1901:Wage labour
1856:Marginalism
1826:Free market
1781:Corporation
1665:imperialism
1320:physiocracy
1301:consumption
1297:subsistence
1096:Traditional
1046:Manorialism
1041:Information
1015:Other types
1001:Open access
964:Cybernetics
706:Anglo-Saxon
691:Singaporean
650:Underground
645:Subsistence
550:Corporatist
525:Syndicalist
485:Communalist
371:Associative
365:By ideology
338:Major types
304:Robert Peel
165:Renaissance
137:Renaissance
50:nationalist
5554:Categories
5429:Regulation
5355:Monetarism
5341:Circuitism
5289:Ecological
5257:Chartalism
5237:Behavioral
5180:Manchester
5175:Malthusian
5133:Birmingham
5090:Cameralism
5074:Modern era
5048:Pre-modern
4964:Jean Bodin
4959:Thomas Mun
4717:2007-12-06
3527:David Hume
3278:2018-09-11
3193:References
3171:better off
2940:Adam Smith
2904:John Locke
2883:David Hume
2879:Adam Smith
2863:free trade
2845:Adam Smith
2798:scholastic
2765:Monetarism
2720:Adam Smith
2608:Liberalism
2593:Humanistic
2578:Democratic
2557:Ideologies
2392:Schumpeter
2138:Monetarist
2069:Chartalism
2016:Regulatory
1991:Neoliberal
1944:Humanistic
1727:Capitalism
1704:Trade wars
1513:Royal Navy
1489:common law
1447:New France
1435:New France
1425:Colbertism
1392:Colbertism
1281:monopolies
1260:Adam Smith
1220:Cameralism
1201:Jean Bodin
1174:Thomas Mun
1101:Transition
1061:Plantation
969:Indicative
831:Transition
681:East Asian
452:Religious
428:Democratic
401:Neoliberal
386:Democratic
376:Capitalist
344:Capitalism
308:free trade
288:Adam Smith
268:Colbertism
234:Thomas Mun
188:Fiat money
180:bullionism
161:empiricism
5504:Economics
5439:Stockholm
5314:Keynesian
5279:Cracovian
5228:(20th and
5217:Socialist
5200:Mutualism
5143:Ricardian
5138:Classical
4771:750831024
4695:154149792
4395:(1980) ,
3717:Hill 1980
3390:, p. 204.
2648:Third Way
2638:Privatism
2598:Inclusive
2583:Dirigisme
2377:von Mises
2264:Illiberal
2244:Corporate
2239:Community
2186:Feudalism
2096:Keynesian
2086:Classical
1929:Corporate
1741:Austerity
1633:Ibrahim I
1616:from the
1485:Continent
1209:Misselden
1066:Plutonomy
947:Regulated
776:Voluntary
702:European
555:Feudalism
500:Mutualist
490:Communist
480:Socialist
461:Christian
381:Corporate
354:Communism
349:Socialism
300:Corn Laws
240:), which
61:one-sided
57:resources
5529:Degrowth
5464:Virginia
5304:Freiburg
5299:Feminist
5252:Carnegie
5242:Buddhist
5210:Lausanne
5165:Georgism
5128:Austrian
4872:Archived
4727:(2008).
4712:Newsweek
4578:(2006),
4449:(1936),
4425:: 1–17,
4306:(1987),
4204:(1996),
4005:, ch. 8.
3521:and Sir
3519:John Law
3472:(1998).
3120:See also
3063:Newsweek
2938:Much of
2891:Voltaire
2724:Mirabeau
2475:Cronyism
2387:Rothbard
2362:Marshall
2347:Friedman
2279:Merchant
2234:Consumer
2229:Advanced
2064:Austrian
2059:American
1986:National
1981:Monopoly
1934:Dirigist
1836:Investor
1746:Business
1735:Concepts
1719:a series
1717:Part of
1685:colonies
1656:and the
1625:Philip V
1549:The Fens
1414:Flanders
1326:Policies
954:Planning
605:Informal
590:Dirigist
443:Georgist
438:Feminist
323:a series
321:Part of
296:Napoleon
139:and the
63:trade.
5482:Related
5269:Chicago
4735:(ed.).
4687:1928178
4641:History
4476:(ed.).
3511:14 June
3312:Reuters
3126:Autarky
3098:statism
2827:Puritan
2603:Liberal
2563:Anarcho
2500:History
2332:Malthus
2327:Ricardo
2289:Rentier
2274:Marxist
2254:Finance
2165:Origins
2133:Marxist
2081:Chicago
2041:Welfare
2001:Private
1956:Liberal
1776:Company
1761:Capital
1710:Origins
1672:or the
1641:Peter I
1602:Prussia
1340:tariffs
1312:markets
1205:Colbert
996:Sharing
959:In kind
907:Marxist
799:Commons
766:Private
755:Sectors
726:Rhenish
696:Keralan
686:Chinese
660:Virtual
640:Sharing
630:Planned
620:Natural
585:Digital
473:Islamic
433:Fascist
421:Welfare
163:of the
157:bullion
120:History
91:tariffs
5360:Market
4840:
4822:
4804:
4786:
4769:
4759:
4693:
4685:
4645:online
4622:
4604:
4586:
4565:
4543:
4525:
4507:
4488:
4403:
4378:online
4352:
4334:
4316:
4293:
4275:
4257:
4023:
3893:
3772:
3480:
3452:
3427:
3331:Forbes
3242:(2008)
3208:p. 37.
3006:Legacy
2781:feudal
2722:, but
2402:Weaver
2397:Veblen
2372:Walras
2367:Pareto
2357:Keynes
2259:Global
2026:Social
1996:Nordic
1966:Market
1876:Profit
1678:Canada
1639:under
1637:Russia
1588:, and
1477:Stuart
1386:France
1316:armies
1285:quotas
1167:German
1056:Palace
932:Market
927:Barter
771:Public
731:Soviet
716:Nordic
711:German
677:Asian
610:Market
314:Theory
302:under
262:, his
196:specie
151:, and
145:Venice
130:Venice
5336:Post-
4731:. In
4691:S2CID
4683:JSTOR
4472:. In
3502:(PDF)
3152:Notes
3072:China
2412:Coase
2407:Weber
2352:Hayek
2317:Smith
2249:Crony
2111:Post-
2031:State
2021:Rhine
1976:Mixed
1896:Value
1861:Money
1473:Tudor
1410:Spain
1338:High
1106:World
1091:Token
981:Price
721:Dutch
615:Mixed
520:State
448:Green
149:Genoa
48:is a
5319:Neo-
4838:ISBN
4820:ISBN
4802:ISBN
4784:ISBN
4767:OCLC
4757:ISBN
4741:Sage
4620:ISBN
4602:ISBN
4584:ISBN
4563:ISBN
4541:ISBN
4523:ISBN
4505:ISBN
4486:ISBN
4401:ISBN
4350:ISBN
4332:ISBN
4314:ISBN
4291:ISBN
4273:ISBN
4255:ISBN
4124:See
4021:ISBN
3891:ISBN
3842:–37.
3770:ISBN
3529:and
3513:2018
3478:ISBN
3450:ISBN
3425:ISBN
3349:PIIE
3167:both
2923:and
2902:and
2893:and
2734:and
2382:Rand
2342:Marx
2322:Mill
2269:Late
2101:Neo-
1502:The
1475:and
1314:and
1203:and
942:Open
937:Free
625:Open
600:Gift
595:Dual
190:and
153:Pisa
5331:New
4888:at
4749:doi
4675:doi
4427:doi
3370:265
3183:not
3177:or
2942:'s
2817:in
2618:Neo
2588:Eco
2337:Say
2106:New
2074:MMT
2006:Raw
1680:).
1184:'s
230:fl.
5556::
4765:.
4755:.
4743:;
4710:,
4689:,
4681:,
4671:46
4669:,
4561:,
4453:,
4423:42
4421:,
4417:,
4238:,
3935:^
3913:.
3864:^
3848:^
3840:35
3805:.
3754:^
3736:^
3685:^
3540:^
3515:.
3504:.
3419:.
3347:.
3329:.
3310:.
3271:.
3247:^
3223:,
3213:^
3043:.
3015:.
2987:.
2889:,
2885:,
2881:,
2837:.
2738:.
2730::
1721:on
1635:.
1584:,
1551:.
1535:.
325:on
246:c.
186:.
175:.
147:,
116:.
101:.
5033:e
5026:t
5019:v
4923:e
4916:t
4909:v
4773:.
4751::
4677::
4494:.
4429::
4374:,
4164:.
4152:.
4128:.
4079:.
4029:.
3899:.
3809:.
3778:.
3533:.
3486:.
3458:.
3433:.
3372:.
3333:.
3281:.
3257:.
2707:e
2700:t
2693:v
1381:.
1362:.
1352:.
1153:e
1146:t
1139:v
805:)
801:(
244:(
228:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.