Median kingdom - Knowledge

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Medes might have been in Anatolia for a brief period and even entered into a treaty with the Lydians but dismisses the idea of permanent Median control in eastern and central Anatolia in the 6th century BCE. The demise of the Urartian kingdom remains unclear due to the lack of written sources after the 640s BCE. However, there seems to be a consensus that the kingdom was destroyed by the Medes, given the accepted border at the Halys River by many scholars. It is assumed that the Medes somehow managed to extend their dominion to the west. The destruction of Urartu by external forces has conventionally been dated to around 590 BCE, based on references in the Hebrew Bible and in Neo-Babylonian chronicles. S. Kroll, however, observed that the relevant texts might refer to a geographical region rather than a political state, and he suggests instead that the Urartian state disintegrated around 640 BCE after a Scythian invasion. Without any regional structure to resist military incursions, Babylonians invaded Urartu in 608-607 BCE, and perhaps 609 BCE, and later the Medes must have asserted their authority over the region. The Nabonidus Chronicle reports a campaign of Cyrus the Great in 547 BCE to a land for which only the first character is still recognisable in the text. Although there is ongoing debate, the prevailing interpretation identifies it as Lydia, reading the damaged character as Lu-. However, in 1997,

2136:’s reign (r. 668–630 BCE), references to the Medes become very sparse. Ashurbanipal reports that three Median city lords had rebelled against Assyrian rule were defeated and brought to Nineveh during his fifth campaign in 656 BCE. This is the last mention of Medes in the Assyrian sources. The fact that the three Median rulers are described as city lords may indicate that the powers structure among the Medes at this time was the same as in the 8th century. It is unknown whether the Assyrian provinces in the Zagros, Parsua, Bīt-Hamban, Kišesim (Kār-Nergal) and Harhar (Kar-Sarrukin), were still part of the empire during Ashurbanipal's reign. Although the Assyrian sources maintain silence about the Iranians during this period, suggesting that Assyria was less concerned with them than during the reign of Esarhaddon, everything seems to indicate that the Assyrians were losing control over the provinces established in the Zagros. This could have created room for the development of a unified Median state and although Assyrian sources make no reference to a united Median territorial state that would be comparable to Assyria itself or other contemporary principalities such as Elam, Mannea or Urartu, many scholars remain reluctant to assign no historical relevance whatsoever to Herodotus' account. 1865:

Assyrian records. The Assyrian sources that provide information on the Medes never mention a unified Median state. Instead, these sources indicate a fragmented political landscape comprising small-scale entities headed by various city lords. While scholars have suggested connections between certain individuals in this milieu and the names mentioned in classical sources, all identifications based on name similarity are questionable. The Assyrian sources only offer a clear picture up to c. 650 BCE. For the subsequent period, there is a gap in quantity and quality of Assyrian sources. Historical evidence for a unified Median state comes only very late in the period, when in 615 BCE the Medes reappear in Babylonian sources led by Cyaxares. After this event, the Medes once more recede from history till 550 BCE when the Persian king Cyrus II defeats the Median king Astyages to become the paramount political figure in Iran. The history of the period c. 650–550 BCE — the apparent zenith of Median power — remains poorly understood. While Classical Greek sources claim the existence of a Median Empire during this period, tangible evidence supporting the existence of such an empire has not yet been found and contemporaneous sources from this period rarely reference the Medes.

3303:, in the articulation of the Achaemenid empire. The notion that the Median empire served as a conduit for transmitting Assyrian traditions to the Achaemenid empire, impacting various aspects of art, architecture, and administration, has been questioned due to the "nebulous nature of the Median polity." While art and architecture show less problematic evidence for this proposed transmission chain, the aspect of administration and government is where Median contributions are more doubtful. The purported transmission of Assyrian influences to the Achaemenids via the Median empire includes elements like the Assyrian postal service, the royal road, mass deportations, royal titles, the Assyrian system of provincial government, and a feudal system of land tenure. However, the Neo-Babylonian governmental and administrative system seems to have been very similar with the Neo-Assyrian system, making it a plausible link for Assyrian traditions influencing the Achaemenids. Assyrian cultural traits may have reached the Persians through north-western Iran even without the existence of a well-organized Median empire. 2693:

Babylonian sources contain two important pieces of information that align with Herodotus's account: in 615-610 BCE, the Medes, united under the leadership of Cyaxares, destroyed Assyrian capitals; in 550 BCE, the Median army, led by Astyages, defected to the Persian king Cyrus, followed by the conquest of Ecbatana. Thus, the beginning and end of an independent Median kingdom seem to be present, although the nature of such a kingdom is not necessarily equal to that described by Herodotus as a true empire foreshadowing the Achaemenid Empire. It is likely that a unified Median kingdom exerted control over a significant part of northern Iran, at least in the first half of the 6th century BCE. However, some scholars have also raised doubts about the existence of a unified, short-lived Median kingdom. Historian Mario Liverani proposed that there was no transition from city lords to regional rulers or kings; instead, there was a brief unification under a primary Median king, specifically to confront a weakened Assyria in the 610s BCE, followed by a rapid return to the previous

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and livestock economy. From Median territories, the Assyrians received tribute in the form of horses, cattle, sheep, Bactrian camels, lapis lazuli, bronze, gold, silver, and other metals, as well as linen and wool fabrics. In the favored regions of Media in the Zagros and Azerbaijan, the soil was almost entirely cultivable and capable of producing an excellent grain harvest. South of the Caspian Sea, there was a narrow strip of fertile soil covered by a dense forest, providing excellent-quality wood. The economy of the villages relied on crops such as barley, spelt, wheat bread, peas, lentils, and grapes. The densely forested mountains offered an extensive range of hunting, but animal husbandry remained noble. The sample of domestic bones in Nush-i Jan includes nine species, with sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle being the most common. There are also indications, in line with the millennia-old reputation of Media's pastures, that the aforementioned horse breeding played a significant role in the local economy.

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view suggests a loose confederation of tribes capable of causing devastating effects, such as the conquest of Assyria, but lacking centralized imperial structures, mechanisms, and bureaucracies of control. This confederation would operate through loose alliances and dependencies driven by momentarily overlapping goals and ambitions. If any organized and stable authority existed, it would likely be centered in the central Zagros region, between Lake Urmia and Elam. While this hypothesis is sustainable and plausible, it remains a probability since textual evidence is inconclusive. Although archaeological evidence supports many judgments based on textual sources, at least for the period until around 650 BCE, there is still enough uncertainty for the period after 650 BCE. Reconsidering the Medes as a confederation or coalition, rather than a "traditional" empire, aligns with the limited evidence, but such reconsideration does not necessarily diminish their importance in the history of the Ancient Near East.

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great Median families ”took him for a being of a different nature from themselves.” In normal circumstances, the monarch remained isolated in his palace, and no one could see him unless formally requesting an audience and being presented to the royal presence by an official. He was surrounded by bodyguards for personal security and rarely left his palace, relying on reports about the state of his kingdom transmitted to him occasionally by his officials. No one could laugh or spit in the royal presence or in the presence of anyone else, as such acts were considered unworthy and shameful. Having consolidated royal authority, Deioces proceeded to administer justice with severity. Legal cases were sent to him in writing, he judged them and returned them with the sentence. He established law and order by introducing "observers and listeners" throughout his kingdom, monitoring the actions of his subjects. Like other oriental rulers, the Median monarch had multiple wives and

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political counterbalance to the major powers in the west, Lydia and Babylon. The Persian victory over Media constituted a step toward glory for Cyrus II, who then achieved a series of victories and founded the Achaemenid Empire, the largest and most powerful Iranian state in history. According to classical sources, the Persian victory over the Medes in 550 BCE granted Cyrus an already established empire, extending from the Halys River to Central Asia. Thus, the Achaemenid Empire was established based on a direct inheritance from the Median Empire. Some historians, analyzing Achaemenid administrative and palace vocabulary, suggest that Median loanwords were particularly frequent in royal titulature and bureaucracy. Additionally, it is hypothesized that the Medes indirectly transmitted Assyro-Babylonian and Urartian traditions to the Persians. The inference is that Cyrus assimilated into Median traditions, given Media's previous political supremacy.

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nomads, were fierce warriors but incapable of ruling large territories for an extended period. This and other reasons lead to the conclusion that the Scythian domination was much shorter. It couldn't have been long after the Scythian attack for the Medes to begin recovering and clearing their territories of the Scythians. If the invasion occurred during the reign of Cyaxares, and not Phraortes, it is likely that less than a decade after its occurrence, the Medes were strong enough to resume their old plans and, for the second time, lead an army into Assyria. Although Herodotus's account of the Scythian interregnum is not implausible except for the duration of Scythian domination, his narrative has a legendary character and is not reliable. Despite the doubtful historicity of the Scythian interregnum, the Scythians are mentioned in Assyrian sources during the same period of the supposed interregnum.

2143:, launching an attack on the Assyrian heartland and allying with the Babylonians. Nothing in the existing Assyrian sources provide insights into how Cyaxares assumed leadership of a unified Median force since the preceding decades is marked by a scarcity of sources concerning Assyria's internal and foreign policies, creating a fragmented understanding of the second half of the 7th century BCE. Current reasoning suggests that the transition toward a unified state may have occurred in the period from 670 to 615 BCE, during the reign of Ashurbanipal or his successors. The lack of Assyrian records or other contemporary sources for this period left room for the acceptance of Herodotus's account. While the Greek historian's information about earlier periods lacks reliability, in the case of Cyaxares, his existence and role in the fall of Nineveh are corroborated by the 3023:. Their martial equipment included the spear, bow, sword, and dagger. The mountainous nature of their country and its martial character contributed to the development of suitable attire for cavalry: tight trousers typically made of leather with an extra belt for a short sword, a long tight leather tunic, a round felt helmet with cheek flaps and a neck protector, possibly covering the mouth, and a long variegated cloak thrown over the shoulders and fastened to the chest with empty sleeves hanging at the sides. The Median attire quickly gained popularity among other Iranian peoples. The presence of Median soldiers in Assyrian palaces evidently significantly influenced the restructuring of Median military tactics, adopting more advanced techniques. The Median cavalry was highly trained and well-equipped, playing a crucial role in battles against the Assyrians. 3205:(5. 52. 5) remain questionable in terms of historical Median control west of the Zagros. The primary evidence of Median presence in the Mesopotamian lowlands any time after 610 BCE revolves around Harran. The Nabonidus inscriptions indicates that Harran was vulnerable to incursions by the Medes in the 550s BCE, although this may have occurred at other times. The Medes are described by Nabonidus as responsible for the destruction of the Ehulhul in Harran and as an impediment to his desired reconstruction work there. This implies that the Medes controlled the temple and thus Harran itself. However, the Babylonian Chronicle records the conquest of Harran in 610 BCE, and implies Babylonian control there. Some scholars favors the chronicle’s account, emphasizing the propagandistic elements of Nabonidus’ inscriptions. Around 550 BCE, Cyrus conquered 2002:

begun their expansion northward according to Herodotus. A similar columned hall at Altıntepe, in eastern Turkey, may also be dated to this period. The spread of the columned hall form before the ascension of the Achaemenid Empire suggests some form of Median presence or influence in adjacent regions during the late 7th and early 6th centuries BCE. Evidence from recent excavations and surveys, suggests that permanent settlement in Media persisted beyond the late 7th century BCE. Monumental construction appears to have continued at various sites, and an early form of money was apparently in use in the heart of Media around 600 BCE. However, the Median Empire is still not a concrete archaeological fact, and its history is largely based on information provided by Herodotus and other texts directly or indirectly influenced by him.

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suggest that the organization of the Kingdom of Cyrus and his successors owes more to the Elamite legacy, which can be identified precisely, than to Median borrowings, which are very difficult to isolate. However, a major significance of the Median state, and its sway across Iran, however centralized or not, as a precursor to Achaemenid Persia cannot be overstressed. The role of Media in the Achaemenid Empire is quite peculiar. There is no definitive conclusion, but issues related to religious and social ideologies may have been the cause of this peculiarity. The Greeks tended to confuse Medes and Persians, and the term "Mede" was often used to refer to the "Persian." This terminology was the reaction of Anatolian Greeks to the successors of Cyrus II, later adopted by other Greeks, and is recurrent in the concept of

2052:(r. 745–728 BCE), Assyria began organizing provinces in conquered lands, ensuring a regular source of income and providing a base for further territorial conquests. The Assyrian borders approached Media proper when in 744 BCE, the Assyrians created, in addition to the already established province of Zamua, two more provinces called Bit Ḫamban and Parsua, where they installed governors and garrisons. In the same year, the Assyrians received tribute from the Medes and Manneans, and in 737 BCE, Tiglath-Pileser invaded Media, reaching its remote parts and demanding tribute from the "city lords" of the Medes up to the Salt Desert and Mount Bikni. In an account of this campaign, Tiglath-Pileser mentions "the provinces of the mighty Medes" and claims to have deported 6,500 people from northwest Iran to Syria and Phoenicia. 2168: 2153:. Herodotus may have advanced the events linked with the Median kings by one reign. Thus, the founder of the Median Kingdom, who united all Median tribes and build the new capital of Media, could have been Deioces' successor. Phraortes is commonly identified with Kaštaritu, who led the Median revolt against the Assyrians in 672 BCE, although some scholars tend to reject or consider this identification doubtful. Other scholars believe that the Medes were only unified under Cyaxares, who, according to Herodotus, was the son of Phraortes and began his reign around 625 BCE. From 627 BCE onward the Assyrians were definitely in serious trouble both at home and in Babylonia and, therefore, the Median kingdom most likely emerged after 627, or possibly already after 631 BCE. 2369:

had already subjugated Mannea and Urartu. Julian Reade proposed that the Babylonian Chronicle's entry for 609 BCE might refer to a Median assault on Urartu rather than a Babylonian one. This event, occurring shortly before Babylonian attacks in 608 and possibly 607 BCE, could indicate that the Babylonians provided support for Median expansion westward onto the Anatolian plateau. Another hypothesis is that, as early as 615 BCE, Cyaxares and Nabopolassar had forged a plan to destroy both Urartu and Assyria. Little is known about the end of Urartu as written sources end after 640 BCE. While the Cimmerians and the Medes are postulated as responsible for the end of Urartu, the general consensus is that Urartu was destroyed by the Medes in the late 7th century BCE.

2104:, Arbaces and Belesys rebelled against Assyria, and Arbaces emerged as the first king of Media. While names similar or identical to Deioces and Arbaces do appear in Assyrian sources, these names seem to have been common among the people on the Iranian Plateau during the Assyrian period. Thus, none of the individuals with these names can be conclusively identified as the protagonists described by the Greek historians. Although some characters in Herodotus and Ctesias can be identified with figures known in Assyrian and Babylonian sources, the narratives presented by these Greek historians deviate from the course of events found in Near Eastern sources. Consequently, it remains unknown to what extent many details in their stories reflect historical reality. 2380:, the kingdom of Lydia was emerging in Anatolia, with its capital in Sardis. The Lydian kings repelled the Cimmerian invasion and initiated an eastward offensive, gradually approaching Cappadocia. The Cimmerian power, once great and significant in Cappadocia, collapsed almost simultaneously with Urartu. This created an opportunity for the Medes, who, after conquering Urartu, entered Asia Minor, subjugating Cappadocia. This region might have been familiar to them, as Assyrian texts from the 7th century BCE describe the situation in Anatolia west of the Euphrates similarly to the Zagros region. Herodotus recounts that Cyaxares sent an embassy to Lydia to demand the extradition of Scythian fugitives from Media, but the Lydian monarch 2063:(r. 704-681 BCE) operated only on a very low-key level compared to his predecessors Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II. This may suggest that after the initial problems to control the new provinces Kar-Sarrukin and Kar-Nergal things proceeded smoothly in the eastern Assyrian territories after 713 BCE. The established dual system, involving the Assyrian provincial administration and local city lords, seems to have found an equilibrium that was mutually beneficial. The extant sources available shows the continued Assyrian control over the provinces founded by Tiglath-Pileser and Sargon, at least until the reign of Esarhaddon. In 702 BCE, Sennacherib engaged with the Medes during a campaign against the Zagros kingdom of 1965:, show significant commonalities in architecture, ceramics and small finds to be considered as arguably Median. Median settlement can be summarized as dispersed with fortified nodes controlling major plains, valley and passes. The largest sites identified in Media measure only 3-4 hectares, the size of small villages. Notably, monumental architecture found many Median sites does not appear to be integrated into larger settlements. It is difficult to reconcile this archaeological picture with the system of “city leaders” mentioned in the Assyrian sources. The capital of Media, Ecbatana, is a site of great interest for archaeological study, but excavations so far have revealed remains belonging to the 2059:(r. 722–705 BCE), Assyrian presence in Media reached its zenith. Sargon aimed to establish direct administrative control over these distant regions, following the provincial system already implemented in more accessible and nearby areas. Assyrian governors coexisted with local city lords: the former likely responsible for overseeing long-distance trade and tax collection, while the latter retained power for handling local affairs. In 716 BCE, Sargon made Harhar and Kišesim centers of new Assyrian provinces, adding to them some other territories of west Media, including Sagbita, and renamed these provinces Kar-Sarrukin and Kar-Nergal, respectively. Despite being active in the Zagros region, 1938:

Herodotus's observation about Deioces compelling the Median nobles to leave their small cities to live near the capital becomes relevant. One possible scenario suggests that Tepe Nush-i Jan underwent formal closure around 550 BCE, with informal or squatter occupation persisting until approximately 500 BCE. The revised dating implies that Tepe Nush-i Jan and potentially other sites from the Iron III period maintained formal occupation until the onset of the Achaemenid period. If this is the case, then there would be no interruption in the occupation of Median sites between 600 and 550 BCE, as suggested by some scholars, implying a breakdown of central authority in this period. According to

3270:, among others. It remains unknown how and when these areas were incorporated into the Persian Empire. An early Achaemenid list places Media in the tenth position, followed by Armenia, Cappadocia, and Eastern Iranian provinces (Parthia, Drangiana, Aria, etc.). The inclusion of Armenia and Cappadocia in a section starting with Media and then extending eastward may be interpreted as a hint in the former Median territorial extension. According to Ctesias, Cyrus’ victory over Astyages led to the submission of the Hyrcanians, Parthians, Scythians, and Bactrians to Cyrus. According to Herodotus, when Cyrus conquered Media he was confronted in the east with the task of conquering the 2111:(r. 680–669 BCE) conducted several expeditions into Iranian territory. Compared to Sargon's conquests, Esarhaddon's campaign results were rather insignificant. Most likely in 676 BCE, and certainly before 672 BCE, city lords Uppis of Partakka, Zanasana of Partukka, and Ramateia of Urakazabarna brought horses and lapis lazuli as tribute to Nineveh. These rulers who hailed from regions beyond the Assyrian Zagros provinces submitted to Esarhaddon and sought his assistance against rival city lords. This episode is followed by the deportation of two city lords from the country of Patušarri to Assyria, here Esarhaddon's activities against the "distant" Medes reached to the 2203:. A battle ensued, in which the Medes were defeated, losing their power in Asia, which was entirely taken over by the Scythians. The Scythian yoke was said to be unbearable, characterized by brutality, injustice, and high taxes. According to Herodotus, Cyaxares invited the Scythian leaders to a feast, induced them to drink until they were thoroughly intoxicated, attacked and easily killed them. Subsequently, a war ensued resulting in the defeat of the Scythians. However, it is more likely that, during this time, the Scythians voluntarily withdrew from western Iran to raid elsewhere or were simply absorbed by a rapidly developing confederation under Median hegemony. 2116:

that year, agreements were made between Esarhaddon and chiefs from various western regions of Media, ensuring their loyalty to the Assyrian king and the security of their possessions. Scholars generally view this agreement as a "vassal treaty" imposed by the Assyrian administration on recently subdued vassals. However, Mario Liverani argued that this agreement resulted from internal struggles among various Median groups and the presence of armed Median warriors in the Assyrian palace serving as bodyguards to the crown prince. The Median chiefs had to swear that their men in the Assyrian court would be loyal to Esarhaddon and his son, Ashurbanipal.

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the Assyrian heartland as claimed by later Greek sources. Herodotus (1, 106), writing about 450 BCE, that Cyaxares conquered all Assyria; whatever was meant by Assyria in this context, this may imply at most a remote suzerainty of the kind described by Herodotus (1, 134). Ctesias, around 400 BCE, mentions resettlement of Nineveh under Median rule. Xenophon, who travelled through the country in 401 BCE, regard metropolitan Assyria as part of Media. He also says that Nimrud and Nineveh were former Median cities conquered by the Persians. The relevance of these informations for the situation in the 6th century BCE is questionable. The

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administrative system introduced by the Assyrians may have persisted in the Median provinces even after the fall of Assyria. Instead of being a centralized monarchy, the Median state was more like a confederation with various rulers. The Median governance system favored a pyramidal structure of loyalty, where small rulers pledged allegiance to a provincial king, who, in turn, owed loyalty to the central court in Ecbatana. This system somewhat resembled the satrapal and feudal systems. The exercise of authority over various Iranian and non-Iranian peoples in the form of a confederation is implied by the ancient Iranian royal title "

2340: 2128:, who is prominently mentioned in oracle queries concerning Median affairs. The Assyrians perceived Kaštaritu as a political leader of substantial influence and a force to be reckoned with; Esarhaddon worried about Kaštaritu plotting with other Median city lords, mobilizing against Assyria and attacking the Assyrian strongholds and cities. The available sources don't reveal whether a peaceful or military resolution for the trouble with Kaštaritu was achieved, this silence may suggest a negative outcome. Attacks on Assyrian strongholds show that Assyria started to loose control of territory in the east under Esarhaddon's reign. 2096:

the Medes to assemble and decide to elect a king, ultimately resulting in Deioces becoming their ruler. Then, a fortress city named Ecbatana was constructed where all governing authority was centralized. However, this is not indicated in contemporary textual sources or archaeological findings. Judging by Assyrian sources, no unified Median state, as described by Herodotus for the reign of Deioces, existed in the early 7th century BCE. His account is at best a Median legend about the foundation of their kingdom. In contrast, Ctesias presents a different narrative centered around a Mede named

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evidence to indicate such. Relying on biblical sources, Zawadzki suggested Median dominance over Elam, as Elam would have been too weak after the Assyrian campaigns in the 640s. A similar conclusion, but with the acceptance of an earlier Babylonian domination, was reached by Dandamayev. Interpretations of passages from Jeremiah (Jer. 49:34-38) and Ezekiel (Ezek. 32:24-25), which hint at Elam being subjugated, are difficult and likely not intended as precise historical statements. Since textual and archaeological evidence from Iran does not lend any support to a Median domination of

3079:. This route connected the Eastern and Western worlds, linking Media to Babylon, Assyria, Armenia, and the Mediterranean in the west, as well as to Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdiana, and China in the east. Another important road connected Ecbatana with the Persian capitals, Persepolis and Pasargadae. In addition to controlling east-west trade, Media was also rich in agricultural products. The valleys of the Zagros were fertile, and Media was well-known for its crops, sheep, and goats. The country could sustain a large population and boasted many villages and some cities like 2183:. In the late 8th and early 7th centuries BCE, groups of nomadic warriors entered western Iran. Among the dominant groups were the Scythians, and their involvement in the affairs of the western plateau during the 7th century BCE may mark one of the most significant turning points in Iron Age history. Herodotus provides some details about a Scythian dominance period, the so-called Scythian interregnum in the Median dynasty. The dating of this event remains uncertain but is traditionally seen as occurring between the reigns of Phraortes and Cyaxares. Russian Iranologist 2683:

force to such effective and devastating use. Currently, two contrasting academic views exist: the traditional perspective sees Cyaxares as the king of a unified Median state confronting Assyria as an equal power, while the alternative view considers the Medes as a military force that contributed to the fall of Assyria but lacked political cohesion. The absence of relevant Assyrian evidence after 650 BCE does not rule out the existence of a broader Median authority centered in Ecbatana. Some theories suggest that tribute demands and commercial exploitation along the

2675:, and pointed to gaps in non-classical sources, especially for the first half of the 6th century BCE. Sancisi-Weerdenburg highlighted that virtually only Greek classical sources were used by modern historiography to construct Median history, and that ancient Near Eastern sources were almost fully ignored. She argued that there is no direct or substantial indirect evidence, not from Herodotus, supporting the existence of a Median Empire, and that such an empire is a Greek construction. In 2001, an international symposium was held in 3056: 2589: 3283:

recent reassessment of historical evidence, both archaeological and textual, has led many scholars to question previous notions about the territorial extent of the Medes. As a result, some scholars are removing many supposed "provinces" and "dependent kingdoms" from the composition of the "Median Empire", such as Persia, Elam, Assyria, northern Syria, Armenia, Cappadocia, Drangiana, Parthia, and Aria. Thus, the influence and territorial extent of the Median state was reduced to the territory adjacent to Ecbatana.

387: 3217: 1861:, consisting of 23 books supposedly based on Persian royal archives. Despite heavily criticizing Herodotus and accusing him of telling many lies, Ctesias follows Herodotus and also reports a long period during which the Medes ruled a vast empire. What has survived from his work is filled with romantic stories, exotic anecdotes, court gossip, and lists of questionable reliability making Ctesias one of the few ancient authors considered not very reliable. However, others have regarded him as an important source. 2321:

of the Tigris River, as well as the Harran region. This view is partially based on a text from the Babylonian king Nabonidus, indicating that the Medes dominated Harran for 54 years until the third year of his reign, and later classical sources. In this case, the Medes held Harran from 607 to 553 BCE. However, some scholars argue that the heart of Assyria and Harran remained under Babylonian control from 609 BCE until the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BCE. It is true that, judging by the

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allies. Interestingly, Herodotus mentions that the Median king Phraortes was killed around 625 BCE during an unsuccessful invasion of Assyria. There is no evidence regarding the relations between the Medes and Assyrians from 624 to 617 BCE. It is unknown whether the Medes were still geographically separated from the Assyrian heartland by the Zagros mountains and surrounding peoples, or if they were already asserting themselves in the mountainous Assyrian provinces, particularly in Mazamua (modern

69: 2016: 2032:(r. 823–811 BCE) marched against Sagbita, the "royal city" of Median chief Hanaşiruka, and conquered it. According to the Assyrian inscription, 2,300 Medes were killed, and Sagbita, along with 1,200 settlements nearby, was destroyed. This campaign was significant as Assyria henceforth imposed regular tribute on the Median tribes in horses, cattle, and handicraft products. The Assyrians now shifted the main direction of their attacks to Media, partly influenced by events around 3047:, are simpler than Herodotus's description. The Median army seems to have been based on horse archery. Trained in a variety of equestrian exercises and the use of the bow, the Medes advanced against their enemies on horseback, similar to the Scythians, and achieved their victories primarily through their skill in shooting arrows while advancing or retreating. They also used swords and spears, but the terror inspired by the Medes arose from their exceptional archery abilities. 2560:

captured him, and handed him over to Cyrus. Subsequently, Cyrus captured the Median capital of Ecbatana. The basic details of this account align with the detailed narrative of the Median king's treachery and despotism in Herodotus. That the confrontation is likely to have been longer than the concise chronicle entry conveys is indicated by an inscription from Sippar where the Babylonian king Nabonidus seems to refer to a conflict between Persians and Medes already in 553 BCE.

1825: 2497:(r. 605–562 BCE) made him the brother-in-law of the latter as well. However, not everything was well with the alliance with Babylon, and there is some evidence suggesting that Babylon may have feared the power of the Medes. The relations between Babylonia and Media seem to have deteriorated since in the 590s BCE it was expected that the Medes would invade Babylonian territory, as can be seen from the speeches of Jeremiah. According to Herodotus, Astyages married his daughter 2643: 3100: 10582: 2961:. Therefore, the term "empire" to refer to the political entity constructed by the Medes might not be suitable. The Median kingdom was probably just a loose federation of western Iranian chieftains and kings and their unity was maintained by their personal ties with the Median king, who was less an absolute monarch than a first among equals. This fits the description of other rulers "who march at the side" of the Median king mentioned in Babylonian sources. 3315: 3311:. This phenomenon likely stems from the Median nature of the territory that the Lydian king Croesus attempted to conquer and his justification for doing so, perhaps reinforced by memories of the fearsome nature of the Medes with whom his predecessor had managed to make a treaty. Besides the Greeks, Jews, Egyptians, and other peoples of the ancient world also called the Persians "Medes" and considered Persian rule a continuation of that of the Medes. 2222: 10592: 3170:, which at that point was probably a fairly small state to the south of Media. The event is described as part of a broader wave of conquest, where Phraortes and his successors systematically subdued various princedoms along the Zagros range. However, the idea that Persia had been a "vassal" of Media rests on later classical sources only and is considered rather improbable by some scholars. In the Neo-Assyrian period, the main entity north of 3235:

reservations about the existence of a Median empire, Rollinger concludes that Urartu likely survived the Median "episode" only to be conquered by Cyrus. But there might have been a period of Median supremacy or overlordship since the Behistun inscription treats revolts in the first year of Darius' reign in this region as part of the revolts in Media, dividing 'Media' into at least three parts: Media proper, Sagartia, and Urartu (Armenia).

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Lesser Zab was controlled by the Persians suggesting previous Median control of the region, whereas the territory south of this river was Babylonian. However, it's possible that the Chronicle only mentions the route taken by Cyrus because he was passing through Babylonian territory, with or without permission. Xenophon's identification of the east bank of the Tigris north of Baghdad as 'Media' and Herodotus' mention of the lowland

2471: 2529:, although there is no hard evidence to back this up. Nevertheless, the reference to a war against the Sacae might indicate continued challenges from nomadic incursions, while the narrative about the war against the Cadusians might indicate that the Medes had limited control over the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, where the Cadusians lived. Apparently, Astyages's reign was relatively undisturbed until shortly before its end. 3011: 2734:, their country, and the kings who march at their side." Nabonidus is pointing to a unitary threat, composed of components that include a plurality of kings. Jeremiah's formula may be an alternative way of expressing this, especially since the Hebrew prophet is not concerned with the complexities of the situation. The descriptions by Nabonidus and Jeremiah are consistent with Herodotus's depiction of Median dominance in 1.134: 1616: 2271:, a city little to the north of the Assyrian capital Nineveh, and then moved down the Tigris to attack Assur, which they captured before the arrival of the Babylonian army that was coming to their assistance. This collaborative effort indicates a pre-existing alliance between Nabopolassar and the Median king Cyaxares (r. 625–585 a.C.), they then met personally and formalized their relationship. The Babylonian historian 1929:" in Phase 5. A similar story is also told by the results of excavations at Baba Jan, although the excavator supports a higher chronology with the flourishing Phase III in the 9th-8th centuries and irregular occupation in the 7th century - primarily for historical reasons (alleged Assyrian and Scythian attacks). In any case, the site appears to be completely abandoned in the first half of the 6th century BCE. 3019:

the previous mixed genders led to confusion in the army on the battlefield. Before Cyaxares, it appears that the Medes went to war in tribal organization, with each chief bringing and leading their infantry and mounted troops. The king trained the forces into an army divided into tactical groups with unified weapons. The Medes used chariots less frequently and relied mainly on cavalry equipped with

2730:)' (51:27-28). The plurality of "kings" is remarkable (although the Septuagint uses the singular "king"); whether the fact that Jeremiah (25:25) also lists "all the kings of Elam and Media" among the condemned nations shows that the plural and singular are rhetorically interchangeable is debatable. A possible explanation may be found in Nabonidus's references to the " 2974: 1882:). Furthermore, the lack of clarity in the archaeological record makes it challenging to determine whether certain archaeological materials should be attributed to the Median or Achaemenid culture. Modern archaeological activity in the central area of ancient Media was especially intense and fruitful in the 1960s and 1970s, with excavations at 2255:(modern Kirkuk). In the third month of 615 BCE, the Babylonians marched directly up the Tigris and attacked Assur but were driven back. In the eighth month, the Medes were active near Arrapha, which suggests a mutual arrangement between Medes and Babylonians. Since Arrapha was very close to the principal centers of the Assyrian heartland ( 3158:

extending from the vicinity of Tehran in the east to the Halys River in the west. Thus, the "Median Empire" would have ruled over Iran, Armenia, eastern Anatolia, and northern Mesopotamia, while the Babylonians controlled southern Mesopotamia and the Levant. However, there are doubts about this assumed extensive territorial expansion.

3064:

horses. In Assyrian reliefs, the Medes are sometimes depicted wearing what appears to be sheepskin cloaks over their tunics and high-laced boots, equipment necessary for pastoral work in the plateaus where winters brought snow and intense cold. Archaeological evidence shows that the Medes possessed skilled workers in bronze and gold.

2348:

ambiguous evidence. Some posit the existence of a highly developed empire, strongly influenced by Assyrian imperial practices. In contrast, others, underscoring the lack of concrete evidence, lean towards viewing the Medes as certainly a potent force, but never developing any state institutions. It is in the period between the

2100:. Arbaces served as a general in the Assyrian army and as the governor of the Medes on behalf of the Assyrian king. He met his later ally, the Babylonian Belesys, at Nineveh, where both commanded Assyria's Median and Babylonian auxiliary troops during a year of military service. Encouraged by the weakness of the Assyrian king 1969:. The early capital city at Ecbatana is simply buried or destroyed by the substantial subsequent occupation of the site. Identification of Median sites beyond Iran is challenging, but certain ceramic and architectural features may indicate dispersed Median presence or at least some influence at sites such as 3410:

as the fifth and final one. The Greeks considered the Median state as a universal empire, whose model corresponded to the Achaemenid and, in general, the Eastern model of the state. In the Hebrew tradition, the Babylonian Empire takes the place of the Assyrian Empire. However, neither Greco-Roman nor

3229:

acknowledges a Lydo-Median war. However, he questions the Halys frontier, pointing out Herodotus's problematic description of the course of the river and the absence of historical details in the account explaining how the Halys became the border between Lydian and Median domains. He concedes that the

3224:

According to Herodotus, the Median control extended as far west as the Halys River where they allegedly shared a border with the Lydians. In contrast to the problem of who held political control over Harran, there is no contemporary sources that would attest a Median presence extending as far west as

2568:

organized a conspiracy against Astyages, and during a battle, he defected with a large part of the troops to the side of Cyrus. Astyages himself commanded the army in the battle, but the Medes were defeated, and their king was taken prisoner. The deeper cause of the Median army's rebellion might have

2563:

In Herodotus's narrative, Cyrus, in addition to being a vassal of Media, was the grandson of Astyages. Babylonian sources, however, do not mention this; they refer to Cyrus only as "the king of Anshan" (i.e., Persia), while Astyages is called the "king of the Medes". Herodotus reports that the Median

2352:

in 612 BCE and the conquest of the Median capital Ecbatana by the Persians in 550 BCE that the existence of a powerful Median Empire is postulated. However, contemporary sources about the Medes in this period are scarce. In any case, the available evidence in Babylonian and biblical sources indicates

2320:

argues against the notion that the Medes and Babylonians shared Assyrian territory; instead, the Medes simply took over the Zagros, which Assyria had already lost earlier. Until recently, it was a common opinion that, following the fall of Assyria, the Medes took possession of the Assyrian lands east

2082:

learned by example how to organize and administer themselves politically and economically so as to achieve state-like status. Frequent Assyrian attacks compelled various inhabitants of Media to cooperate and develop more effective leadership. The Assyrians valued goods from the east, such as Bactrian

2001:

in Turkmenistan. The archaeological findings at the Urartian site of Erebuni, in Armenia, has shown that a columned hall initially dated to the Achaemenid period is now likely to have been constructed in the late 7th century. This is the period following the fall of Assyria, when the Medes would have

1820:

relied solely on classical and biblical sources. Information about the Medes, as well as about the Assyrians and Babylonians, was derived from the works of classical authors such as Herodotus and their successors. They gathered information from scholarly circles within the Achaemenid Empire, but this

3306:

Due to its localization, the Persians were very prone to Elamite influence, to the point that is thought that the Persians of the time of Cyrus comprised a population descended from a blending of Iranians and Elamites. The permanence of Elamites borrowing in every aspect of social and political life

3282:

By one estimate, the area of the Median Empire might have covered a territory of just over 2,800,000 square kilometers, making it one of the largest empires in history. However, it is possible that it never exceeded the size of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which at its peak covered 1,400,000 km². A

3067:

The archaeological material from sites like Tepe Nush-i Jan and Godin Tepe, as well as Assyrian reliefs, demonstrate that in the first half of the first millennium BCE, there were urban-type settlements in various regions of Media, serving as centers for craft production and a sedentary agricultural

3018:

Little is known about the Median army, but it certainly played a significant role in Median history. In the late 7th century BCE, the Medes made notable military progress under Cyaxares, who, according to Herodotus, organized the army into special units: infantry, spearmen, archers, and horsemen, as

3001:

were a highly influential priestly caste at the court, considered honorable by both the king and the people. They served as interpreters of dreams, sorcerers, and advisors on various matters, including political affairs. They were responsible for the religious ceremonies, and high state offices were

2981:

Available information about the Median court is limited and not entirely reliable. In his charming account of the youth of Cyrus II, Herodotus suggests that the Median court included bodyguards, messengers, the "king's eye" (a kind of secret agent), and builders. Ctesias mentions the royal cupbearer

2953:

speeches dating from 593 BCE mentions "kings of Media" in the plural, alongside satraps and governors. Herodotus gives this characterization of the structure of the Median kingdom (1, 134): "... one people ruled another, but the Medes ruled over all and especially over those that dwelt nearest them,

2942:

Currently, there's a lack of direct information about the political, economic, and social structure of the Medes. However, it is likely that in many aspects, the Median administrative system resembled that of the Assyrians, under whose influence the Medes were for a long period. Some elements of the

2738:

When the Medes were in power, in the same way, the nations ruled one another. The Medes ruled all together, and (directly) those who lived closest; and these, in turn, ruled their neighbors and so on, following the same principle by which the Persians esteem others. Thus, indeed, it progressed, each

2709:

According to Matt Waters, the existing evidence shows a Median king exerting influence or authority directly or indirectly over many peoples through a hierarchical and informal system of governance, without the existence of a formal "Median Empire" — meaning a centralized and bureaucratic structure.

2687:

may have contributed to the accumulation of wealth by Median chiefs, prompting an ambitious individual to seek broader authority. Alternatively, conflicts among Median chiefs led to Assyrian intervention in 676 BCE and the oath of allegiance in 672 BCE. Assyrian concerns about potential threats from

2613:

made an attempt to seize power and restore Median independence. He claimed to be a descendant of Cyaxares and managed to seize Ecbatana in December 522 BCE. Around the same time, there was a new rebellion in Elam, and there were rebellions in adjacent provinces such as Armenia, Assyria, and Parthia.

2596:

After Astyages's defeat, the Lydian king Croesus crossed the Halys River in hopes of expanding his borders to the east. This resulted in a war, leading Lydia to be conquered by the Persians. Subsequently, Cyrus conquered Babylon, putting an end to three powers in the Ancient Near East: Media, Lydia,

2576:

and took the city's valuables to Anshan. As the extent of the territory the Medes controlled is disputed, we do not know what exactly Cyrus gained by his victory. Taking control of Media may have implied taking control of vassal states like Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Drangiana, and Aria. If Cyrus

2559:

against his Median overlord. However, the notion of Median overlordship over Persia lacks support from contemporary evidence. According to the Nabonidus Chronicle, in 550 BCE, the Median king Astyages marched with his troops against Cyrus of Persia "for conquest". However, his own soldiers revolted,

2368:

The Medes seem soon to have established a common frontier with Lydia in central Anatolia. According to Herodotus, hostilities between the Medes and Lydians began five years before a battle precisely dated by an eclipse to 585 BCE. If this account holds true, it implies that before 590 BCE, the Medes

2287:

appears on the scene; he is surely identical with the king of the Medes, although it is strange that a single cuneiform tablet should describe one people by two different terms. The combined military forces of Cyaxares and Nabopolassar laid siege to Nineveh, resulting in its fall after three months.

2233:

against Assyrian domination. Nabopolassar, governor of southern regions and leader of the revolt, was soon recognized as king of Babylon. Nabopolassar gained control of Babylon but not all of Babylonia from the Assyrians and was engaged in serious fighting, he must have been looking for any possible

2119:

Judging by Assyrian texts from the time of Esarhaddon, the situation on the Assyrian eastern borders was extremely tense. While going into the Assyrian provinces in the Zagros in order to collect tribute is routine of the various governors after 713 BCE, such missions were fraught with danger in the

1919:

conjectured that the collapse of Assyria and the gradual erosion of Scythian power might have influenced the abandonment of various fortresses, especially those located near the territorial core of Media. In another report, it was suggested that the various buildings were abandoned in different ways

3278:

in present-day Northern Afghanistan and Tajikistan. This suggest that the regions situated further west, Hyrcania, Parthia, Aria, Drangiana must have already belonged to the Medes. That Hyrcania and Parthia were possession of the Median empire is suggested by the fact that during the revolts of 522

3195:

posits that the Assyrian provinces within the Zagros, like Mazamua, and perhaps the upper Tigris regions of Tušhan and Šupria, were the only ones more suitable for Median expansion due to their familiarity to the Median territory. Nonetheless it is sometimes suggested that the Medes took control of

3090:

Assyrian texts mention wealthy Median cities, but the recorded plunder mainly consisted of weapons, cattle, donkeys, horses, camels, and occasionally lapis lazuli, obtained through Median trade further east. Around the time of their unification or shortly afterward, it seems that the Medes acquired

2601:, Media retained a privileged position, ranking second after Persia itself. Media was a large province, and its capital, Ecbatana, became one of the Achaemenid capitals and the summer residence of the Persian kings. Persian rule in Media was shaken by a major revolt at the beginning of the reign of 2194:

According to Herodotus, king Phraortes led an attack against Assyria, but the Assyrian king managed to repel the invasion, and Phraortes, along with much of his army, died in the battle. Herodotus reports that Cyaxares, wanting to avenge his father's death, marched with the army toward the Assyrian

2095:

strategically plotted to establish autocratic rule over the Medes. In a time of widespread lawlessness in Media, Deioces diligently worked to establish justice, earning a reputation as an impartial and fair judge. Eventually, he ceased administering justice, leading to chaos in Media. This prompted

1910:

The Nush-i Jan I phase, with an approximate date of 750-600 BCE, uncovered a sequence of several buildings on the site. The "Central Building" was constructed early in this phase, in the 8th century BCE, while the "Fort" and the "Western Building," the latter featuring a notable columned hall, were

1811:

Not only during the Neo-Assyrian period of the 9th through 7th centuries BCE but also for the following Neo-Babylonian and early Persian times the sources exhibit an external view of the Medes. There is not a single Median source representing a Median perspective on their own history. The available

3234:

identified the sign as Ú, the first sign of Urartu. It is likely that Cyrus, after he had conquered Media, spent several years to establish his power under regions that had been previously under Median control. However, considering the view of fragility of the Median power on its western flank and

3063:

The Medes had a pastoral lifestyle, with their primary economic activity being animal husbandry, including cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, mules, and horses. Horses were particularly prized, as Assyrian cuneiform texts on Assyrian incursions into Media show that the Medes bred an excellent breed of

2705:

concluded that, without Herodotus and the Greek tradition, it is "highly doubtful" that modern researchers would posit the existence of a Median Empire. Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg expressed this view when she said that "the Median Empire exists for us because Herodotus says it did". An alternative

2700:

While some scholars still consider Media a powerful and structured empire that would have influenced the Achaemenid Empire, concrete archaeological evidence for such an empire is lacking. Others view the Median Empire as a fiction created by Herodotus to fill a gap between the Assyrian and Persian

2682:

Around 650 BCE, information about the Assyrian provinces in the Zagros was considerably reduced, and Assyrian sources no longer mention the Medes. When the Medes reappear in contemporary records in 615 BCE, they are attacking Assyria. There is no indication of how Cyaxares brought a unified Median

2347:

By the late 7th century BCE, the Medes appear to have coalesced into a significant political entity under a monarch, as evidenced by the Medo-Babylonian conquest of Assyria. Nothing is known about the Median socio-political structure, and scholars differ sharply in what they infer from some rather

2304:

sent help to the Assyrian army that had entrenched itself in Harran. So Nabopolassar seems to have asked the Medes for help. The Medes reappeared on the scene in 610 BCE, when they joined the Babylonians for an assault on Harran. Faced with the formidable alliance, the Assyrians and their Egyptian

2023:

At the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, Median tribes began settling in the territory of future Media in western Iran. From the 9th century BCE, the Assyrians regularly invaded and plundered regions in northwest Iran, where numerous small principalities existed at that time. The first mention of the

1864:

The Assyrian royal inscriptions, dating from Shalmaneser to Esarhaddon (circa 850-670 BCE), contain the most significant set of historical information about the Medes. The Herodotean account dealing with the period before the Median king Cyaxares has been largely dismissed in favor of contemporary

3157:

In the 6th century and later, much of northern Iran and some neighboring territories were attributed to Media. This was the result of Median conquests in the second half of the 7th century BCE. It is commonly assumed that after the fall of Assyria in 612 BCE, the Medes took control of a vast area

3074:

see the Median state as a “dominant economic force” in control of the trade routes of the northern Zagros in the late 7th and 6th centuries. As Medes, being the most powerful people on the Iranian plateau in the first half of the 6th century BCE, may have demanded tribute from peoples such as the

2206:

Herodotus believed that the period from the Scythian victory over the Medes to the assassination of the Scythian leaders was exactly 28 years, but this chronology is problematic. It is highly unlikely that the Scythians could have dominated the Medes for nearly three decades. The Scythians, being

2115:

and the Salt Desert near Mount Bikni. However, unlike his predecessors, Esarhaddon does not seem to have expanded Assyrian territory in Iran. Ramateia is also mentioned in the so-called "oaths of loyalty" concluded on the occasion of the appointment of the Assyrian throne successor in 672 BCE. In

1873:

The Median period is one of the least understood periods in Iranian archaeology, and the geography of Media remains largely obscure. Any effort to identify distinctive elements of the Median material culture from the Iron Age III (c. 800-550 BCE) in the western region of Iran primarily focuses on

3107:

The borders of Media changed gradually over time, resulting in a geographical extension whose precise details remain unknown. The original territory of Media, as known by the Assyrians from the late 9th century to the early 7th century BCE, was bordered to the north by Gizilbunda, located in the

2985:

According to Herodotus, as soon as he ascended the throne, Deioces ordered the construction of a fortress city to be his capital; all governmental authority was centralized in this city, Ecbatana. He established a royal guard, and a very strict court protocol, in such a way that the heads of the

2384:

refused, leading to war between the two kingdoms. The war between the Medes and Lydians resulted in a series of conflicts over five years, with both sides experiencing alternating victories. In the sixth year of the conflict, a solar eclipse interrupted a battle, leading both sides to conclude a

3200:

records that in 547 the Persian king Cyrus passed through Arbela (modern Erbil) on his way to attack a kingdom whose name is damaged but which is often supposed to have been Lydia. It has been argued that the crossing of the Tigris downstream from Arbela is evidence that this region towards the

2577:

was indeed the grandson of Astyages as Herodotus claims, then this would explain why the Medes accepted his reign. However, it is also possible that the connection between Cyrus and Astyages was invented to justify Persian rule over the Medes. According to Ctesias, Astyages had a daughter named

1932:

The archaeological developments in Mannae appear to have been exactly the same as those in Media: flourishing settlements with public buildings in the second half of the 8th century BCE and throughout the 7th century BCE, followed by a period of irregular occupation in the first half of the 6th

2569:

been dissatisfaction with Astyages's policies. In the 6th century BCE, Iranian tribes became increasingly settled, and their leaders no longer resembled early tribal chiefs but began to behave like kings. When Astyages started punishing some of these tribal leaders, a revolt became inevitable.

1906:

also yielded productive results. The archaeological activity revealed that, during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, Median sites experienced significant growth but were depopulated in the first half of the 6th century BCE, a period presumed to be the zenith of development for the supposed Median

1797:

While it is generally accepted that the Medes played a significant role in the ancient Near East after the fall of Assyria, historians debate the existence of a Median empire or even a kingdom. Some scholars accept the existence of a powerful and organized empire that would have influenced the

3174:

was the kingdom of Ellipi, but its power seems to have declined, and it disappeared from historical records around 660 BCE. It's possible that, perhaps after the fall of Assyria, the Medes and Elamites might have filled the vacuum left by diminishing Ellipian power, but there is no historical

3291:

The formation of the Median kingdom is one of the decisive moments in Iranian history. It heralded the Aryan rise to dynastic power, shaping cultural and political life on the Iranian plateau and in other territories occupied by Iranians. Iranian peoples united for the first time, creating a

1937:

argues that the archaeological evidence from these Median sites aligns well with the evidence from Mesopotamian sources. Some scholars suggest that the abandonment of Tepe Nush-i Jan and other sites in northwest Iran may be related to the centralization of power in Ecbatana. In this context,

2692:

argues that there is not enough reason to posit the existence of a robust, independent, and unified Median kingdom at any date before 615 BCE. However, he disagrees with extending this negative assessment to the period from 615 to the mid-6th century BCE. For the period from 615 to 550 BCE,

1846:

and a geographical reach as far west as the Halys river in central Turkey. Although what he describes happened centuries earlier and he probably relied on unreliable oral accounts, his description can be correlated to some degree with the Assyrian and Babylonian sources. The Greek historian

3439:, is the year when the reign of Phraortes begins. Phraortes would have overthrown the Assyrian rule in Media and, as Herodotus states, subjugated the Persians and other peoples. As for Deioces, if he existed, he was likely a chief who began consolidating the unity of the Median tribes. 3026:

Occupying the second most important position in the Achaemenid Empire, the Medes paid less tribute but provided more soldiers to the Achaemenid army than other peoples. This is evidenced by the reliefs of Persepolis and Herodotus, as well as the fact that many Median generals, such as

3002:

likely granted to them. The court's primary entertainment was hunting, often taking place in a forest where lions, leopards, bears, boars, antelopes, gazelles, wild asses, and deer could be found. As usual, these animals were pursued on horseback and targeted with bows or spears.

3150:. If this identification is correct, it means that the Assyrians never crossed this mountain, and all the Media territory they conquered or knew was west of Hamadan. The archaeological evidence available is limited, but the easternmost site with potentially Median pottery is 2250:

In 616 BCE, the Babylonians defeated an Assyrian army on the middle Euphrates and captured Mannean forces who were helping the Assyrians. Whether the Kingdom of Mannea still existed by this time remains uncertain. In the same year, the Babylonians defeated the Assyrians near

3043:, Median soldiers did not differ much from the Persians. Both fought on horseback and on foot using spears, bows, and daggers, large wicker shields, and carrying quivers on their backs. The original characteristics of the Median army, as indicated in the Hebrew Bible and by 2585:, who then became the presumptive successor to his father-in-law. After killing Spitamas, Cyrus would have married Amytis to gain legitimacy. Although the authenticity of Ctesias's account is questionable, it is very likely that Cyrus married a daughter of the Median king. 2028:(r. 858–824 BCE) returned from a military campaign, passing through the Median territory in the Hamadan plain. The Medes formed numerous small entities under tribal chiefs, and despite subduing several Median chiefs, Assyrian kings never conquered all of Media. In 815 BCE, 2982:

as one of the positions at the Median court. When founding the Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus likely continued the organization and practices of the Median court, including forms of etiquette, ceremony, and diplomatic protocol that the Medes, in turn, inherited from Assyria.

2408:

In a few words, Herodotus states that Cyaxares subjugated all of Asia east of the river Halys, suggesting that he engaged in a series of battles with various peoples in the region to subdue them. This assertion may imply that, in addition to Cappadocia and Urartu, the

3386:

There is little doubt about this interpretation, but the problem lies precisely with the interpretation of the Median Empire, which never conquered Babylon and is only mentioned as a significant world empire in Greek texts. The book of Daniel mentions a ruler called

3133:

desert. Patusarra and Mount Bikni were probably the remotest territories of Media that the Assyrians penetrated during their greatest expansion in the second half of the 8th century and the early decades of the 7th century BCE. Scholars typically identify Bikni with

1816:, works by later Greek authors such as Herodotus and Ctesias, and some biblical texts. Before the archaeological discoveries of Assyrian and Babylonian ruins and cuneiform archives in the mid-19th century, the history of civilizations in the Near East prior to the 3391:, who supposedly conquered Babylon, but this figure is unknown in other historical sources. It is highly probable that the author of Daniel, who wrote around 165 BCE, was influenced by the Greek view of history and therefore gave Media an exaggerated importance. 3190:

from 615 to 610 is marked by three, possibly four, campaigns, each of which concluded with the sack of an important city. The Medes' departure after each conquest suggests a lack of interest in political control over the heartland of the former Assyrian empire.

2520:

During his reign, Astyages may have worked to strengthen and centralize the Median state, contrary to the will of the tribal nobility. This may have contributed to the downfall of the kingdom. According to Ctesias, the Median kings also fought wars against the

3258:, for example, are treated as separate entities. Many eastern areas that appear as parts of the Achaemenid Empire in the Behistun inscription find little or no mention in the sources relevant to the political history of the preceding fifty years, for example, 1821:

information was neither direct nor contemporary, nor was it based on solid archives or historical materials. Although no contemporary textual source has been discovered in Media, the information available in Assyrian and Babylonian sources is quite relevant.

2626:, who also claimed to be a descendant of Cyaxares, continued the rebellion but was also defeated. This is the last Median rebellion against Achaemenid rule. After the end of the Achaemenid Empire, Media continued to have great importance under the later 3091:

means to supply themselves with more substantial wealth. This is inferred from a passage in the Babylonian Chronicle from the 6th century BCE, which mentions that king Cyrus II took silver, gold, goods, and properties from Ecbatana as spoils to Anshan.

3411:

Hebrew traditions deprived Media of its prominent role in history. It's only in late Jewish and Christian literature that the second state was identified as the Medo-Persian Empire, thereby depriving the Medes of an independent role in world history.

2670:

questioned the existence of a Median Empire as a political entity possessing structures comparable to the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, or Achaemenid Empires. She cast doubts on the overall validity of our most important source, namely Herodotus's

2688:

the Medes, Scythians, and Cimmerians during this period may have created an opportunity for the emergence of a dominant leader. The attack on Assyria from 615 to 610 BCE likely played a crucial role in consolidating the authority of this leader.

1790:(r. 585–550 BCE) worked to strengthen and centralize the Median state, going against the will of tribal nobility, which may have contributed to the kingdom's downfall. In 550 BCE, the Median capital, Ecbatana, was conquered by the Persian king 2484:

Cyaxares died shortly after the treaty with the Lydians, leaving the throne to his son Astyages. Compared to Cyaxares, little is known about the reign of Astyages. His marriage to Aryenis made him the brother-in-law of the future Lydian king

1911:

added to the site throughout the 7th century BCE. These public buildings were later abandoned, and in the first half of the 6th century BCE, the site was occupied by less institutionalized populations. In one of their reports, the excavators

3112:

north of the Hamadan plain. To the west and northwest, Media did not extend beyond the Hamadan plain and was bordered by the Zagros Mountains, except in the southwest, where Media occupied the Zagros Valley, and its border extended to the

2679:, Italy, focused on the issue of the Median Empire. While no consensus was reached on the existence of a Median Empire, it was generally agreed that there was no conclusive proof for its existence. The debate continues to the present day. 2242:

is preserved and provides reasonably reliable account of events. The source is not a complete record of the history of the period, and is focused exclusively on events in Mesopotamia. After securing full control of Babylonian territory,

1924:

and Louis Levine, contains architectural structures similar to those of Nush-i Jan I and presents a similar narrative: the progressive growth of public buildings during Phases 1 to 4, followed by a period of "peaceful abandonment" and

2120:

time of Esarhaddon. This increased risk stemmed not only from traditional adversaries like the Medes and Manneans but also from the Cimmerians and Scythians active in Iran. The primary threat in the east emanated from the actions of

2954:

and these ruled over their neighbours, and they again over theirs". Some scholars assume that the later Median administrative structure evolved into a more developed form in the administrative system of the Achaemenid Empire.

2267:), all of the empire's positions in western Iran had likely already been lost. The Medes reached Nineveh by the fifth month of 614 BCE, ravaging the territory between Arrapha and Nineveh. In mid-614 BCE, the Medes captured 1762:. Media's territorial expansion led to the formation of the first Iranian empire, which at its height would have exercised authority over more than two million square kilometers, stretching from the eastern banks of the 5468: 4606: 2132:, which was made part of the province of Harhar in 716 BCE, was not under Assyrian control anymore and its city lord Dusanni is mentioned, alongside Kaštaritu, as an enemy of Assyria in several oracle queries. In 2457:, becoming an empire that stretched from Anatolia in the west to Central Asia in the east. Whatever the political role of the Medes in the east, the representation of an Indian embassy at the court of Cyaxares ( 3398:, Media comes after Assyria and before Persia, covering the period between 612 and 550 BCE. In Greek historiography, this scheme included the Assyrian Empire, Median Empire, Achaemenid Empire, and later, the 2622:). Later, the rebel was tortured and crucified in Ecbatana. After his victory, Darius could send troops to Armenia and Parthia, where his generals managed to defeat the remaining rebels. A Sagartian named 2305:

allies abandoned Harran, which was captured. After that, the Medes then departed for the last time and we know of their activities largely from classical sources. In 605 BCE, the Babylonians marched to

2083:

lapis lazuli, and the east-west trade route through Media became increasingly crucial. Trade might explain Ecbatana's rise as the central city of Media and could have triggered the unification process.

2325:, Harran remained under Babylonian rule while the Medes returned to their land. However, it is possible that some time after 609 BCE, the Medes took Harran again and remained there for a long period. 4123: 3435:

in 700 BCE. However, Herodotus also states that the Medes ruled Asia for 128 years. Therefore, the start of these 128 years would be in 678 BCE, which, according to the chronology proposed by

3075:

Persians, Armenians, Parthians, Drangians, and Arians. The importance of Media is primarily related to controlling a substantial portion of the east-west route known in the Middle Ages as the

10651: 9084: 2614:

In the spring, the Persian leader invaded Media from the west, and in May 521 BCE, defeated Phraortes. The Persian victory was complete, and Phraortes fled to Parthia but was captured in

2149:. Thus, other details regarding the chronology of his reign and his status as the king of a unified state have more credibility. According to Herodotus, Deioces was succeeded by his son 10646: 2300:. The Medes appear to be absent from the account of 611 BCE, while the Babylonians are militarily active advancing towards Syria and the upper Euphrates. The Egyptian pharaoh 9074: 2067:. This marked his only recorded direct contact with the Medes in their own territory, receiving tribute from the Medes residing outside regions controlled by the Assyrians. 3209:, which suggests that there was a region in the Western Zagros not under Median control at that time, although the exact location of Gutium remains elusive. The role of 3913: 345: 320: 306: 5200:"R. Rollinger, The Median "Empire", the End of Urartu and Cyrus' the Great Campaign in 547 BC (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16). In: Ancient West & East 7, 2009, 49-63" 3250:

seems reasonable enough, the inscription differentiates eastern regions that many would postulate as having been under Median authority based on classical sources.

3238:

Herodotus and Ctesias suggest that Median authority extended eastward, but the exact extent of the Medes' sway to the east remains uncertain. While reading Darius'

1832:

Due to the absence of written records from pre-Achaemenid Media and, until recently, the lack of archaeological evidence, the 'Median logos' of the Greek historian

2353:

that the Medes played a significant political role in the ancient Near East after the fall of Assyria. Four powers dominated the ancient Near East from then on:

2654:

was followed by the emergence of a Median empire. The Median empire was said to resemble the later Achaemenid Empire and to have ruled over a vast chunk of the

2309:

and conquered it, completely defeating the Assyrians and Egyptians. It is not clear whether the Medes also participated in this final defeat of the Assyrians.

4759:

M. Dandamaiev e È. Grantovski, “ASSYRIA i. The Kingdom of Assyria and its Relations with Iran,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, II/8, pp. 806-815, available online at

2965:

envisions Media as a territory of chiefdoms that, between 614 and 550 BCE, united their military forces under a city lord, with Ecbatana as their power base.

6632: 2792: 2078:. The application of a model of secondary state formation to the case of Media proposes that, stimulated by decades of aggressive Assyrian intrusion, Median 2994:

was commonly practiced among the wealthier and prominent classes. The main characteristics of the Median court may have been similar to the Assyrian court.

10681: 3109: 2609:. This event was followed by a series of rebellions in the Achaemenid satrapies. When Darius suppressed these rebellions and stayed in Babylon, a certain 2784: 2610: 2188: 1798:

political structures of the later Achaemenid Empire. Others argue that the Medes formed a loose confederation of tribes rather than a centralized state.

10243: 9096: 2184: 5758:

Ehsan Yarshater, “IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times,” Encyclopædia Iranica, XIII/2, pp. 212-224 and XIII/3, p. 225, disponível online em

2195:

capital, Nineveh, with the aim of destroying the city. While besieging Nineveh, the Medes were attacked by a large Scythian army under the command of

10676: 10349: 3815:

Prods Oktor Skjærvø, “IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (1) Earliest Evidence,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, XIII/4, pp. 345-348, available online at

3231: 1921: 1887: 1836:(1. 95-106) was for a long time the primary and generally accepted historical account of the ancient Medes. In his account in the first book of his 9763: 9754: 9498: 9010: 3071: 2962: 2623: 2216: 6334:

B. Kienast, « The So-Called ‘Median Empire’ », dans Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 34, 1999, p. 59-67.

2074:(“city lords”). The coalescence of broader authoritative power presumably had its origins in the interpersonal relationships among these Median 8995: 5486: 4624: 3192: 3114: 7219: 5956:

Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (ca. 550-330 B.C.): Linguistic Study of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts

2288:

After the sack of the Assyrian capital, only the Babylonians seem to have continued the campaign and a part of the Babylonian army marched on

3295:

Recently, several scholars have emphasized instead the crucial formative role played by the developed empires of the Near East, particularly

3151: 2390: 1962: 9286: 2283:. Afterwards Cyaxares and his army went home. In 613 BCE, the Medes are not mentioned in the chronicle. However, in 612 BCE, a king of the 1994: 1954: 9064: 565: 9432: 8948: 2582: 1974: 1958: 1754:(r. 625–585 BCE), the kingdom's borders were expanded to the east and west through the subjugation of neighboring peoples, such as the 2036:, where, by the late 9th century BCE, the Urartians had conquered the west and south shores of Lake Urmia and began advancing towards 1945: 1942:, the rise of Persian dominance may have been a contributing factor to the abandonment of various Median sites, including Godin Tepe. 6625: 5877:

The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire

5669: 2410: 2044:. The Assyrians could not secure victories in the six campaigns (in 809, 800, 799, 793, 792, and 788 BCE) waged against the Medes by 1644: 68: 10671: 4140: 3431:

attributes to the four Median kings (Deioces, Phraortes, Cyaxares, and Astyages) add up to 150 years, placing the beginning of the

3179:

and both biblical and Babylonian sources do not explicitly mention Media's overlordship over Elam, the idea faces much skepticism.

2167: 1933:

century BCE. Such a picture does not align with the reconstruction of a Median Empire based on classical historians. The historian

1704:

that existed from the 7th century BCE until the mid-6th century BCE and is believed to have dominated a significant portion of the

8983: 6360: 3084: 1538: 9608: 9459: 9222: 2397:. As a result, the Halys River was established as the border between the two powers. The treaty was sealed by the marriage of 10656: 10631: 9954: 9784: 9729: 9598: 9464: 8362: 8172: 7554: 6326: 6299: 6245: 6191: 6143: 6030: 6012: 5981: 5963: 5945: 5905: 5866: 5826: 5412: 5317: 5245: 5073: 4816: 4784: 4459: 4231: 4189: 4095: 3896: 3800: 3739: 3622: 3535: 9116: 9106: 6618: 3220:

In a way, the extent of the supposed Median Empire was inferred from the territorial extent of the later Achaemenid Empire.

2229:

After the death of Ashurbanipal in 631 BCE, the Assyrian Empire entered a period of political instability. In 626 BCE, the

8078: 2296:, while Cyaxares and his army returned to Media. Meanwhile the Assyrians were regrouping under a new king further west at 1743:, our knowledge of them is scant, as no inscriptions or coins have been found to throw light on their history or society. 10314: 10264: 9990: 9524: 2646:

Map of the Median Empire as generally conceived during the period of its maximum extent, but in reality very hypothetical

1716:

led to the process of unifying the Median tribes. By 612 BCE, the Medes became strong enough to overthrow the declining

9539: 9528: 9473: 9421: 9276: 9079: 8224: 7224: 5924: 5884: 5847: 9969: 9913: 9893: 9709: 9684: 9580: 9504: 9406: 9036: 8878: 6868: 6173: 5644: 9803: 6153: 10434: 10000: 6200:

Zadok, Ran (2002), "The Ethno-Linguistic Character of Northwestern Iran and Kurdistan in the Neo-Assyrian Period",

4364:

A. Panaino, « Herodotus I, 96-101: Deioces' conquest of power and the foundation of sacred royalty », in

3406:'s victory over the Seleucids in 63 BCE, Roman historians completed the concept of the four empires, including the 2048:(r. 810–781 BCE), and subsequently a long political crisis began to develop in Assyria. Later, during the reign of 1692: 10641: 10636: 10626: 9944: 9484: 9320: 9315: 9054: 8681: 7850: 3346: 1812:

textual sources on Media primarily consist of contemporary Assyrian and Babylonian texts, as well as the Persian

1005: 20: 7012: 4475: 10549: 10374: 10254: 10238: 9724: 9659: 9560: 9509: 9281: 9232: 9217: 9121: 9111: 9091: 8883: 8542: 3186:

to its territory in the aftermath of the Assyrians' defeat in a battle in 616 BCE. The Median involvement with

1572: 747: 10182: 8953: 8893: 5379: 2555:

Both Herodotus and Ctesias depict the Medo-Persian conflict as a protracted rebellion led by the Persian king

10666: 10408: 9849: 9832: 9739: 9714: 9570: 9478: 9468: 8288: 2578: 2362: 2040:. Assyria failed to halt the Urartian advance and gradually became an ally of Mannea in its struggle against 1637: 5526:

A. Sh. Shahbazi, “ASB i. In Pre-Islamic Iran,” Encyclopedia Iranica, 2/7, pp. 724-730, disponível online em

10412: 10248: 9964: 9704: 9694: 9442: 9298: 8898: 8283: 8167: 6459: 6045: 5116: 2394: 10178: 3918:

Brill's New Pauly Supplements I - Volume 1: Chronologies of the Ancient World - Names, Dates and Dynasties

10203: 10197: 10148: 9959: 9789: 9668: 9293: 8293: 7330: 6353: 1609: 1597: 436: 10621: 10418: 9879: 9744: 9212: 8990: 8888: 2667: 2230: 2139:

The Medes reappear in contemporary sources about forty years later in 615 BCE, under the leadership of

1567: 1528: 6025:, Hanbuch Der Orientalistik – Abeteilung – Der Nahe Und Der Mittlere Osten, vol. 1, 1–30: Brill, 4538: 2517:. This marriage would have taken place before 576 BCE, but there is some doubt about its historicity. 10522: 10113: 9883: 9664: 9590: 9452: 9427: 9350: 9101: 9000: 8943: 8355: 8251: 7399: 6963: 2339: 1509: 1413: 672: 6154:"The early history of the Medes and the Persians and the Achaemenid empire to the death of Cambyses" 5477: 4615: 3154:, situated 75 km west of Tehran, so it is probable that Media extended at least that far east. 10661: 10233: 10023: 9903: 9854: 9826: 9689: 9227: 9141: 8870: 8209: 8184: 8034: 7693: 7688: 5759: 3816: 3790: 3602: 2316:

and other evidence imply that most of the former Assyrian territory came under Babylonian control.

1630: 1592: 1587: 1577: 366: 102: 5483: 10464: 10438: 10429: 10299: 10259: 9863: 9799: 9759: 9494: 9345: 9202: 9161: 8419: 8276: 8157: 7698: 7651: 7594: 7293: 7237: 6985: 5541: 5402: 4941: 1813: 1155: 911: 492: 4673: 3554: 2592:

Achaemenid bas-relief from the 5th century BCE showing a Median soldier behind a Persian soldier

10554: 10193: 9934: 9889: 9613: 9575: 9303: 9059: 8298: 8199: 8194: 7882: 7830: 7750: 7683: 7587: 7572: 7465: 7232: 7186: 7027: 6914: 6655: 6346: 5698: 4621: 1920:

during the period when Median power was still on the rise. Godin Tepe's Level II, excavated by

1842:, Herodotus traces the development of a unified Median state or empire with a major capital at 1472: 975: 449: 5465: 5235: 5063: 4891:"Medes in Media, Mesopotamia and Anatolia: empire, hegemony, devolved domination or illusion?" 4603: 4449: 4179: 3525: 3213:

as a supporter of Cyrus may arise from Gutium having only recently rejected Median authority.

2588: 9842: 9794: 9769: 9489: 9237: 9015: 8933: 8550: 8507: 8229: 8189: 8002: 7877: 6941: 6931: 6890: 6861: 6000: 5895: 5608: 5527: 5456: 4594: 4085: 3358: 2546: 2433:

were subdued by Cyaxares. Later indirect evidence suggests that the Medes may have conquered

2354: 2334: 1838: 1775: 853: 773: 711: 250: 8117: 5836:

Rollinger, Robert (2021). "The Median Dilemma". In Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (eds.).

5474: 5428: 5307: 4806: 4612: 3886: 3834: 1891: 483: 10393: 10295: 10188: 10128: 10103: 10082: 10062: 10035: 9837: 9779: 9674: 9437: 9402: 9166: 8348: 8322: 8152: 8122: 7997: 7928: 7899: 7818: 7152: 6990: 6980: 5816: 4022: 3239: 2534: 2306: 2179:

In ancient times, the vast areas north of the Black and Caspian Seas were inhabited by the

2145: 1736: 1582: 8102: 5636: 5092: 2929: 1724:. However, contemporary scholarship tends to be skeptical about the existence of a united 8: 10133: 9822: 9555: 9447: 9046: 9041: 9005: 8938: 8787: 8475: 8014: 7894: 7860: 7762: 7582: 7577: 7389: 7108: 7044: 6919: 6904: 4535: 4253: 3379: 2684: 2125: 2049: 1315: 1185: 614: 410: 311: 7730: 7720: 6290:

Stronach, David (1982), "Archeology ii. Median and Achaemenid", in Yarshater, E. (ed.),

5167: 3125:. To the south, it bordered the Elamite region of Simaški, corresponding to the current 2714:

mentions 'the kings of the Medes' (51:11) and 'the kings of the Medes, their governors (

2312:

The outcome of the fall of Assyria for Median territorial expansion is unknown, but the

10497: 10459: 10404: 10399: 10304: 10219: 9859: 9719: 9679: 9519: 9514: 9412: 9397: 9156: 8958: 8779: 8748: 8641: 8398: 8127: 8107: 8090: 8041: 7906: 7715: 7666: 7599: 7517: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7404: 7374: 7266: 7164: 7032: 7007: 6279: 6225: 6114: 6078: 5723: 4391: 4157: 3395: 3243: 3176: 3040: 2514: 1518: 1305: 925: 396: 3349:, representing the ancient monarchies of the Ancient Near East that ruled the city of 2405:, son of Cyaxares, establishing a new balance of power among the Near Eastern states. 2275:

mentions that this alliance between Babylon and Media was sealed with the marriage of

10591: 10507: 10424: 10330: 10320: 10229: 10138: 10123: 10118: 10087: 10077: 10067: 10057: 10044: 9899: 9603: 9417: 9355: 9330: 9310: 9260: 9180: 9028: 8657: 8649: 8574: 8526: 8236: 8132: 8068: 8063: 7992: 7889: 7604: 7532: 7527: 7369: 7298: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7071: 7022: 6706: 6645: 6547: 6532: 6433: 6322: 6295: 6271: 6241: 6217: 6187: 6169: 6139: 6106: 6089:

Levine, Louis D. (1974-01-01), "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros-II",

6070: 6053:

Levine, Louis D. (1973-01-01), "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros: I",

6039: 6026: 6008: 5977: 5959: 5941: 5920: 5901: 5880: 5862: 5843: 5822: 5774:"Observations on the Problem of the Median Empire on the Basis of Babylonian Sources" 5715: 5661: 5563: 5408: 5313: 5241: 5069: 4812: 4780: 4455: 4227: 4185: 4149: 4091: 3892: 3796: 3735: 3618: 3531: 3375: 3368: 3210: 3187: 3126: 2800: 2655: 2598: 2494: 2280: 1857: 1817: 1747: 1709: 1687: 1345: 1245: 1235: 945: 935: 893: 793: 737: 338: 5140: 4914: 3055: 10478: 10469: 10379: 10369: 10325: 10165: 10153: 10107: 10052: 9869: 9734: 9565: 9534: 9379: 9360: 9069: 8689: 8085: 7872: 7867: 7823: 7810: 7740: 7708: 7703: 7567: 7562: 7544: 7505: 7438: 7421: 7362: 7352: 7347: 7288: 7244: 7214: 7174: 7157: 7140: 7103: 6854: 6775: 6567: 6388: 6263: 6209: 6161: 6098: 6062: 5707: 5653: 5553: 5333: 5035: 4965: 4649: 4131: 4049: 3723: 3712: 3610: 3436: 3319: 3226: 3166:

According to Herodotus, Phraortes was able extend the Median kingdom by conquering

2711: 2650:

Until the late 20th-century, scholarship generally agreed that the collapse of the

2602: 2530: 2070:

The Assyrians consistently referred to the Medes as living in settlements ruled by

1986: 1966: 1713: 1697: 1375: 1065: 1035: 6165: 4760: 10512: 10449: 10384: 10359: 10344: 10283: 10072: 9924: 9814: 9636: 9335: 9271: 9175: 9023: 8925: 8697: 8673: 8609: 8590: 8582: 8558: 8443: 8385: 8303: 8271: 8144: 8112: 8095: 8051: 8046: 8024: 8019: 7977: 7970: 7945: 7805: 7800: 7641: 7522: 7416: 7411: 7379: 7204: 7194: 7088: 7081: 7076: 7061: 7017: 6899: 6885: 6815: 6755: 6516: 6454: 6384: 5837: 4989: 4774: 4283: 3550: 3399: 3388: 3341:

portray the Medes as a potentially vicious and destructive enemy of Babylon. The

2663: 2651: 2631: 2627: 2490: 2376:

invaded the Caucasus and Anatolia. While the Cimmerians settled in the plains of

2349: 2276: 2045: 2025: 1717: 1705: 1255: 1205: 1105: 1075: 1015: 955: 873: 843: 813: 783: 578: 423: 386: 375: 263: 92: 7725: 6007:, vol. 2, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 36–148, 5935: 5471: 4609: 4415: 3651: 2642: 10616: 10354: 9874: 9699: 9187: 9151: 8814: 8732: 8665: 8246: 8241: 8204: 8179: 8162: 8073: 8058: 8029: 7987: 7835: 7795: 7790: 7745: 7671: 7631: 7621: 7611: 7426: 7305: 7199: 6948: 6810: 6583: 6449: 3861: 3708: 3432: 3342: 3259: 3135: 2749: 2689: 2550: 2510: 2317: 2029: 1934: 1912: 1746:

According to classical historiography, Media emerged as one major power of the

1365: 1045: 1025: 965: 601: 512: 119: 6610: 3614: 10610: 10585: 10489: 10474: 10444: 10389: 10269: 10224: 10173: 10143: 8846: 8740: 8705: 8427: 8327: 8214: 8009: 7982: 7955: 7933: 7911: 7678: 7661: 7646: 7490: 7443: 7431: 7357: 7249: 7123: 7118: 7093: 6975: 6805: 6275: 6221: 6110: 6074: 5719: 5665: 5632: 5567: 4341: 4153: 3130: 2944: 2450: 2422: 2172: 1852: 1783: 1674: 1444: 1433: 1175: 1095: 1055: 502: 462: 7755: 7735: 5502: 39: 10517: 10502: 10454: 10363: 9908: 9774: 9197: 9146: 8854: 8838: 8822: 8764: 8219: 7960: 7950: 7916: 7845: 7840: 7767: 7557: 7539: 7500: 7495: 7475: 7470: 7342: 7335: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7209: 7147: 7128: 7113: 7049: 6785: 5803: 5695:"Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D." 4127: 3719: 3407: 3216: 3143: 3020: 2702: 2244: 2133: 2101: 1939: 1916: 1767: 1562: 1491: 1454: 1422: 1385: 1355: 1275: 1115: 681: 6156:, in Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L.; Lewis, D. M.; Ostwald, M. (eds.), 5740: 5657: 5480: 4618: 4451:

The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume IV: the Age of Assyria

2121: 1978: 10595: 10559: 10310: 9995: 9918: 9749: 7938: 7923: 7772: 7485: 7394: 7384: 7310: 6958: 6953: 6760: 6511: 5972:

Dandamaev, M. A.; Lukonin, V. G.; Kohl, Philip L.; Dadson, D. J. (2004),

5558: 4294:. Escritura-Mísia. Sociedade Torre de Vigia de Bíblias e Tratados (1998). 2235: 2112: 2060: 2015: 1982: 1970: 1824: 1763: 1721: 1661: 1620: 1265: 1225: 985: 863: 6317:

Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1991), "Central dialects", in Yarshater, E. (ed.),

5269: 4697: 4674:"IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (1) Ear – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 4161: 3099: 9949: 9340: 8862: 8830: 8756: 8724: 8534: 7965: 7782: 7656: 7616: 7549: 6820: 6750: 6727: 6720: 6537: 6467: 6283: 6229: 6118: 6082: 5727: 5694: 4319: 3333:

The biblical texts consider Media as a significant power. The books of

3314: 3271: 3247: 3129:. To the east and southeast, Media seems to have been delimited by the 3122: 2502: 2463: 2442: 2426: 2377: 2373: 2108: 2033: 1883: 1481: 1395: 1215: 1195: 1165: 1125: 1085: 917: 883: 803: 757: 402: 3792:

The Archaeology of Iran from the Palaeolithic to the Achaemenid Empire

2533:

claims that he engaged in a long struggle with an Armenian king named

1855:

and wrote about Assyria, Media, and the Achaemenid Empire in his work

9075:

International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)

8795: 8772: 8566: 8499: 8467: 7855: 7626: 7510: 7480: 7261: 7135: 6926: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6681: 6491: 6136:

The aura of kings: legitimacy and divine sanction in Iranian kingship

5451: 5363:

Persians, Medes and Elamites, Acculturation in the Neo-Elamite Period

4589: 3979:"Notes on the Medes and Their 'Empire' from Jer. 25.25 to Hdt. 1.134" 3912:

Rollinger, Robert; Wiesehöfer, Josef; Schottky, Martin (2011-12-01).

3428: 3323: 3296: 3267: 3263: 3076: 2987: 2833: 2776: 2522: 2446: 2386: 2180: 2162: 2150: 2056: 2024:

Medes in Assyrian texts dates back to 834 BCE when the Assyrian king

1998: 1926: 1833: 1759: 1325: 1295: 1285: 995: 833: 691: 150: 6267: 6236:

Schmitt, Rüdiger (2008), "Old Persian", in Woodard, Roger D. (ed.),

6213: 6102: 6066: 5711: 5199: 4849: 4737: 4221: 4002: 3978: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3476: 2221: 1665: 33: 9985: 9325: 9207: 8459: 7256: 7039: 6997: 6936: 6780: 6696: 6691: 6557: 6506: 6501: 6416: 6404: 5588: 5362: 4890: 4135: 3474: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3458: 3456: 3338: 3255: 3044: 3028: 3010: 2991: 2950: 2905: 2881: 2659: 2573: 2565: 2556: 2506: 2470: 2458: 2434: 2430: 2414: 2402: 2381: 2301: 2289: 2279:, probably the daughter of Cyaxares, with the son of Nabopolassar, 2272: 2200: 2140: 1990: 1875: 1843: 1791: 1787: 1755: 1751: 1701: 1145: 1135: 701: 588: 188: 174: 162: 112: 82: 6308:

Lanfranchi, Giovanni B.; Roaf, Michael; Rollinger, Robert (2003).

5773: 4808:

The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period

4181:

Discovering Cyrus: The Persian Conqueror Astride the Ancient World

3950: 2238:). However, for the subsequent years from 616 to 595, much of the 10528: 8451: 7169: 7098: 7054: 6909: 6770: 6765: 6745: 6740: 6734: 6676: 6562: 6552: 6486: 3561:. Vol. XIII, Fasc. 2, pp. 212–224 and Vol. XIII, Fasc. 3, p. 225. 3350: 3327: 3275: 3251: 3202: 3183: 3147: 3059:

Horse breeding was one of the main branches of the Median economy

3039:, served in the Persian army. According to Herodotus, during the 3032: 2809: 2606: 2498: 2486: 2454: 2438: 2398: 2293: 2268: 2260: 2252: 2129: 2097: 2092: 1899: 1894:. Additionally, in the adjacent region of the ancient kingdom of 1879: 1848: 1740: 1335: 823: 654: 644: 634: 552: 525: 237: 138: 6970: 6338: 5760:

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii1-pre-islamic-times

5234:

Rollinger, Robert; Degen, Julian; Gehler, Michael (2020-06-04).

3817:

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence

3453: 10334: 9654: 8483: 7002: 6877: 6839:

indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary.

6825: 6686: 6599: 6496: 6410: 5994:(in German). Vol. 7. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 619–623. 5976:, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, p. 480, 5546:

Asia Anteriore Antica. Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Cultures

5289: 5287: 5285: 5217: 5215: 5013: 5011: 5009: 4448:

Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, Daniel T. (2023-04-14).

3759: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3751: 3607:

Archaeology, Artifacts and Antiquities of the Ancient Near East

3403: 3334: 3308: 3206: 3167: 3139: 3118: 2857: 2619: 2418: 2297: 2196: 2064: 2041: 2037: 1903: 1895: 1774:

was one of the great powers in the ancient Near East alongside

721: 624: 325: 8340: 5992:

Reallexicon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie

5429:"COURTS AND COURTIERS I. In the Median and Achaemenid periods" 4850:

The Western Expansion of the Median “Empire”: A Re-Examination

4050:"ARCHEOLOGY ii. Median and Achaemenid – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 3242:

to reconstruct a Media that under Astyages encompassed Media,

9192: 7636: 6542: 6369: 6254:

Stronach, David (1968), "Tepe Nush-i Jan: A Mound in Media",

3731: 3080: 3036: 2676: 2615: 2526: 2358: 2264: 2256: 1953:

Several excavated sites such as Godin Tepe, Tepe Nush-i Jan,

1779: 1732: 529: 6294:, vol. 2, Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 288–96, 6182:

Young, T. Cuyler (1997), "Medes", in Meyers, Eric M. (ed.),

5282: 5212: 5006: 3748: 1851:

worked as a physician in the service of the Achaemenid king

73:

Hypothetical map of the Median kingdom at its maximum extent

10652:

States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC

8972: 8435: 8371: 3911: 3579: 3300: 3171: 2998: 2973: 2343:

Hypothetical map of the maximum extent of the Median Empire

542: 6846: 6186:, vol. 3, Oxford University Press, pp. 448–450, 6160:, vol. 4, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–52, 5971: 5528:

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/asb-pre-islamic-iran

5065:

A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire, 2 Volume Set

3734:, Italy: S.a.r.g.o.n. Editrice e Libreria. pp. 1–12. 3014:

Achaemenid relief of a Median soldier, found in Persepolis

2187:

dates this event between 635 and 615 BCE, while historian

1828:

Image of the world according to Herodotus, 5th century BCE

9950:

Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)

4573: 4571: 4569: 4567: 2467:

2.4.1) seems a plausible outcome of commercial contacts.

10647:

States and territories established in the 7th century BC

4565: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4504: 4087:

From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire

2701:

Empires in his vision of a sequence of Eastern empires.

6307: 6184:

The Oxford encyclopedia of archaeology in the Near East

5818:

The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World

5746: 5635:; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). 5366: 4853: 4365: 4323: 3569: 3567: 3279:

BCE both regions supported the Median rebel Phraortes.

3103:

Original territory of the Medes before their expansion

2537:, but little credit can be given to these statements. 5801: 4544: 3789:

Matthews, Roger; Nashli, Hassan Fazeli (2022-06-30).

3524:

Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah (2010-01-08).

3508: 5233: 3564: 1728:

or state, at least for most of the 7th century BCE.

1712:. The frequent interference of the Assyrians in the 6127:

A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC

5974:

The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran

1735:managed to form a powerful kingdom stretching from 6021:Gershevitch, I. (1968), "Old Iranian Literature", 5404:A History of Ancient Persia: The Achaemenid Empire 4447: 2697:. Nevertheless, this view is not widely accepted. 1794:, marking the beginning of the Achaemenid Empire. 10608: 6312:. Padoue: S.a.r.g.o.n. Editrice e Libreria. CON. 5631: 5542:"An Archaeological View to the Mannaean Kingdom" 2739:nation ruling and being ruled (by its neighbor). 2572:After the capture of Astyages, Cyrus marched to 9011:December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum 6640: 6321:, Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 242–51, 6310:Continuity of Empire (?) Assyria, Media, Persia 6240:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 76–100, 5270:"Тюрки Передней Азии в эпоху Мидийской империи" 5062:Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (2021-08-31). 5061: 4761:http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/assyria-i 4392:"Historic Personalities of Iran: Median Empire" 3728:Continuity of Empire (?) Assyria, Media, Persia 2217:Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire 9097:2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests 8996:March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 6238:The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas 6124: 5859:Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule 5821:. Vol. 7. New York: John B. Eldan Press. 4776:Excavations at Qasrij Cliff and Khirbet Qasrij 3914:"VII. Iranian Empires and their vassal states" 3788: 3555:IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times 2210: 2010: 8879:Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 8356: 6862: 6626: 6354: 5637:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" 4023:"ART IN IRAN ii. Median Art and Architecture" 3523: 2930:Encyclopedia Iranica (Media - Median Dynasty) 2605:, who seized power after killing the usurper 1638: 9955:Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) 8319:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 5934:Henrickson, R. C. (1988), "Baba Jan Teppe", 5897:A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire 5839:A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire 4772: 3888:Ctesias' Persica in Its Near Eastern Context 3318:A handwritten Bible in Latin, on display at 2937: 10682:1st-millennium BC disestablishments in Iran 9065:2009 Iranian presidential election protests 6020: 5990:Brown, Stuart C. (1990). "Medien (Media)". 5940:, vol. 2, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 5856: 5842:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 457–473. 5589:"Urartu and the Medikos Logos of Herodotus" 5539: 2540: 1678: 9571:Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) 9433:Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran 8949:1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 8363: 8349: 6869: 6855: 6633: 6619: 6361: 6347: 5933: 4895:Ancient West & East 3 (2004) , 223-251 3600: 2957:Probably, there never was a Median empire 2247:(r. 626–605 BCE) marched against Assyria. 1645: 1631: 67: 9080:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) 5998: 5953: 5893: 5835: 5814: 5692: 5557: 5293: 5221: 5017: 4942:"IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (2) Pre-Islamic" 4738:"2003. Why did the Medes invade Assyria?" 4577: 4510: 3862:"Ctesias | Greek physician and historian" 3763: 3585: 3573: 3374:The beast with ten horns and iron teeth: 2597:and Babylon, all within a decade. In the 1874:sites near the ancient capital of Media, 1868: 10677:1st-millennium BC establishments in Iran 8899:Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) 6316: 6289: 6253: 6133: 5914: 5802:Dandamayev, M.; Medvedskaya, I. (2006). 4773:Curtis, John; Collon, Dominique (1989). 4177: 4141:Journal of the American Oriental Society 3707: 3313: 3215: 3098: 3094: 3054: 3009: 2972: 2658:for half a century until its last king, 2641: 2587: 2469: 2338: 2220: 2166: 2014: 1944: 1823: 9685:Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) 8143: 6256:The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 6235: 5400: 5117:"Amytis median and persian female name" 2156: 10609: 9223:History of democracy in classical Iran 6088: 6052: 5357: 5355: 5353: 5263: 5261: 5259: 5257: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5187: 5087: 5085: 5057: 5055: 4936: 4934: 4884: 4882: 4800: 4798: 4796: 4755: 4753: 4731: 4729: 4727: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4719: 4717: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4476:"AŠŠURBANIPAL – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 4443: 4441: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4336: 4334: 4332: 4314: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4219: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4201: 4173: 4171: 4121: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4107: 4083: 4079: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4044: 4042: 3996: 3994: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3944: 3942: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3884: 3856: 3854: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3703: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3601:Muscarella, Oscar White (2013-01-01). 3274:, a nomad people of Central Asia, and 2977:Artistic representation of noble Medes 10021: 9945:Defense Industries Organization (DIO) 9730:Iran and the World Trade Organization 9634: 9377: 9258: 8383: 8344: 6850: 6614: 6342: 6199: 6181: 6151: 5989: 5874: 5771: 5747:Lanfranchi, Roaf & Rollinger 2003 5496: 5494: 5367:Lanfranchi, Roaf & Rollinger 2003 5197: 5162: 5160: 5030: 5028: 5026: 4880: 4878: 4876: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4854:Lanfranchi, Roaf & Rollinger 2003 4844: 4842: 4840: 4838: 4836: 4834: 4832: 4830: 4828: 4804: 4529: 4523: 4498: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4376: 4374: 4366:Lanfranchi, Roaf & Rollinger 2003 4324:Lanfranchi, Roaf & Rollinger 2003 4279: 4277: 4275: 4273: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3671: 3603:"Median Art and Medizing Scholarship" 3596: 3594: 3519: 3517: 2928:All chronological estimates are from 2666:. In 1988, 1994, and 1995, historian 1801: 1750:after the collapse of Assyria. Under 236:• Medes and Babylonians conquer 216:• Median revolt against Assyria 9117:2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 9107:2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 5857:Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1991), 5500: 5305: 5267: 3646: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3182:The Median kingdom probably annexed 3117:, separating it from the kingdom of 2662:, was overthrown by his own vassal, 10350:Chicago Persian antiquities dispute 9991:Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone 9965:National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) 9764:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 9499:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 5765: 5686: 5580: 5350: 5299: 5254: 5237:Short-term Empires in World History 5184: 5082: 5052: 4982: 4958: 4931: 4793: 4750: 4714: 4629: 4432: 4329: 4297: 4198: 4168: 4104: 4066: 4039: 4000: 3991: 3963: 3931: 3851: 3769: 3427:The dates that the Greek historian 3161: 3142:. However, others identify it with 13: 8889:Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 5586: 5540:Hassanzadeh, Yousef (2023-01-25). 5491: 5157: 5023: 4888: 4859: 4825: 4468: 4371: 4270: 3976: 3948: 3822: 3668: 3591: 3514: 2505:, with whom she would have a son, 2372:In the early 7th century BCE, the 2191:dates it between 653 and 625 BCE. 2175:, Kerch, Ukraine, 4th century BCE. 1806: 14: 10693: 9960:Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) 9581:Supreme National Security Council 9407:Persian Constitutional Revolution 9037:Interim Government of Iran (1981) 8944:Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 8934:Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) 6368: 5645:Journal of World-Systems Research 5609:"The End of Lydia: 547? - Livius" 5380:"BC 788 - 550 BC - Empire Median" 4735: 4342:"DEIOCES – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 3631: 3509:Dandamayev & Medvedskaya 2006 2489:, and the marriage of his sister 2171:Scythian archers shooting with a 10590: 10581: 10580: 9556:Assembly (or Council) of Experts 4763:(accessed on September 2, 2021). 4226:. Academia.edu. pp. 39–62. 3891:. University of Wisconsin Pres. 3367:The four-headed winged leopard: 1614: 385: 343: 318: 304: 21:Middle Kingdom (disambiguation) 10672:Ancient history of the Caucasus 9755:Military equipment manufactured 9321:Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests 9085:United States withdrawal (2018) 9006:Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) 8370: 5794: 5778:Lanfranchi, Roaf, and Rollinger 5762:(accessed on October 25, 2021). 5752: 5675:from the original on 2020-07-07 5625: 5601: 5533: 5530:(accessed on November 5, 2021). 5520: 5445: 5421: 5394: 5372: 5326: 5227: 5133: 5109: 4907: 4779:. British Museum Publications. 4766: 4690: 4666: 4583: 4516: 4492: 4408: 4358: 4288:Estudo Perspicaz das Escrituras 4246: 4015: 3905: 3878: 3819:(accessed on 30 December 2012). 3809: 2743: 10315:modern / contemporary 9561:Expediency Discernment Council 8884:1908 bombardment of the Majlis 8873:Caucasus (18th–20th centuries) 8397: 6584:Monarchs of the Median dynasty 6003:, in Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.), 4536:"Media (ancient region, Iran)" 3718:. In Lanfranchi, Giovanni B.; 3544: 3421: 2968: 2637: 2225:Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 2086: 2019:Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 1731:In spite of the fact that the 200:• Accession of Phraortes 1: 9529:state-sponsorship allegations 9259: 6166:10.1017/CHOL9780521228046.002 6158:The Cambridge Ancient History 6152:Young, T. Cuyler Jr. (1988), 6125:Van De Mieroop, Marc (2015), 6005:The Cambridge History of Iran 5772:Jursa, Michael (2004-01-01). 5401:Brosius, Maria (2020-10-29). 5306:Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). 4320:An Assyrian View of the Medes 4220:Gopnik, Hilary (2021-01-22). 4178:Zaghamee, Reza (2015-09-25). 4084:Briant, Pierre (2002-01-01). 3446: 3396:theory of imperial succession 3357:The lion with eagle's wings: 2475: 762: 726: 606: 593: 570: 557: 534: 517: 467: 454: 441: 428: 415: 269: 226:• Accession of Cyaxares 204: 56: 49: 10657:Historical geography of Iran 10632:Empires and kingdoms of Iran 9986:Asaluyeh industrial corridor 9378: 9287:twin towns and sister cities 8593:Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) 8470:Mannai (10th–7th century BC) 8446:Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) 6460:Battle of the Persian Border 5917:Splendeurs de I'Empire perse 5334:"Ancient Persian Government" 4805:Kuhrt, Amélie (2013-04-15). 3713:"The Rise and Fall of Media" 3609:. Brill. pp. 999–1023. 2997:According to Herodotus, the 2401:, daughter of Alyattes, and 40: 7: 10265:Water supply and sanitation 10022: 9996:Kish Island Free Trade Zone 9635: 9055:KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) 8430:civilization (3100–2700 BC) 8384: 6876: 6781:Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) 6776:Darius the Great (Darius I) 5919:(in French). Paris: Grund. 5815:Rawlinson, George (2007) . 5309:The History of Ancient Iran 4454:. Oxford University Press. 4136:"Media and Its Discontents" 3885:Waters, Matt (2017-01-24). 3527:Birth of the Persian Empire 3225:the Halys River. Historian 2211:Fall of the Assyrian Empire 2011:Assyrian campaigns in Media 10: 10698: 9745:Economy of the Middle East 9122:2021–2022 Iranian protests 9112:2019–2020 Iranian protests 9092:2017–2018 Iranian protests 8553:Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) 6756:Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) 6134:Soudavar, Abolala (2003), 5503:"ARMY i. Pre-Islamic Iran" 5338:World History Encyclopedia 4702:World History Encyclopedia 3050: 2747: 2668:Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2544: 2332: 2328: 2214: 2160: 2005: 1666: 34: 18: 10576: 10542: 10488: 10291: 10282: 10212: 10164: 10096: 10043: 10034: 10030: 10017: 9978: 9970:National Development Fund 9933: 9890:Telecommunications and IT 9884:Anglo-Persian Oil Company 9813: 9710:Foreign direct investment 9655:Bonyad (charitable trust) 9647: 9643: 9630: 9589: 9548: 9390: 9386: 9373: 9267: 9254: 9134: 9001:1979 Khuzestan insurgency 8991:Interim Government (1979) 8970: 8918: 8911: 8807: 8717: 8634: 8625: 8602: 8519: 8412: 8405: 8396: 8392: 8379: 8312: 8264: 7781: 7185: 6884: 6834: 6705: 6662: 6653: 6592: 6576: 6525: 6479: 6442: 6426: 6397: 6377: 5894:Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). 5407:. John Wiley & Sons. 5068:. John Wiley & Sons. 3615:10.1163/9789004236691_040 3530:. Bloomsbury Publishing. 3347:vision of the four beasts 3286: 2938:Administrative management 2927: 2766: 2761: 2756: 2385:peace treaty mediated by 1708:, preceding the powerful 1679: 283: 279: 260: 247: 234: 224: 214: 198: 194: 184: 180: 168: 156: 144: 132: 128: 118: 108: 98: 88: 78: 66: 48: 28: 9720:International oil bourse 9485:Ministry of Intelligence 9070:Syrian civil war (2011–) 8894:1921 Persian coup d'état 6464:Siege of Pasargadae Hill 6443:Battles involving Persia 6044:: CS1 maint: location ( 5999:Diakonoff, I.M. (1985), 5915:Stierlin, Henri (2006). 5879:. Taylor & Francis. 5693:Taagepera, Rein (1979). 4122:Waters, Matthew (2005). 3795:. Taylor & Francis. 3414: 3364:The bear: Median Empire; 2718:), all their officials ( 2541:Conquest by the Persians 2091:According to Herodotus, 103:Ancient Iranian religion 19:Not to be confused with 10244:scientists and scholars 9750:Milad Tower and complex 9540:Women's rights movement 9535:White Revolution (1963) 9203:Peoples of the Caucasus 8545:Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) 8438:dynasties (2700–540 BC) 6427:Battles involving Lydia 5954:Tavernier, Jan (2007), 4539:Encyclopædia Britannica 4420:Encyclopedia Britannica 4124:Lanfranchi, Giovanni B. 3866:Encyclopedia Britannica 3402:was added to it. After 3005: 2493:to the Babylonian king 1949:Map of Media, from 1839 1814:inscription of Behistun 437:Shulaveri–Shomu culture 10642:6th century BC in Iran 10637:7th century BC in Iran 10627:Former empires in Asia 10555:Anti-Iranian sentiment 10550:Science and technology 10375:Intellectual movements 10255:International rankings 10239:Intellectual movements 9725:International rankings 9218:Heads of state of Iran 9024:Nojeh coup plot (1980) 8585:Empire (247 BC–AD 224) 8422:culture (3400–2000 BC) 5958:, Peeters Publishers, 5875:Bryce, Trevor (2009). 5699:Social Science History 4541:. Pesquisa em 28/04/17 4223:The Median Confederacy 3330: 3221: 3146:, immediately west of 3104: 3060: 3015: 2978: 2741: 2722:), and all the lands ( 2647: 2593: 2481: 2361:, and, further south, 2344: 2226: 2176: 2020: 1950: 1869:Archaeological sources 1829: 1770:. In this period, the 976:Masmughans of Damavand 450:Zayandeh River Culture 9843:Shetab Banking System 9833:Banking and insurance 9795:Tehran Stock Exchange 9715:Intellectual property 9060:PJAK conflict (2004–) 8833:Turcomans (1378–1508) 8825:Turcomans (1374–1468) 8774:Ilkhanate (1256–1335) 8577:Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) 8289:Medieval great powers 6821:Darius III Codomannus 5937:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5658:10.5195/jwsr.2006.369 5507:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5433:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5361:W. Henkelman, « 4946:Encyclopaedia Iranica 4889:Tuplin, Christopher. 4848:R. Rollinger, « 4027:Encyclopaedia Iranica 4003:"The Median Dark Age" 3951:"Cyrus and the Medes" 3359:Neo-Babylonian Empire 3317: 3299:and more importantly 3219: 3102: 3095:Territorial extension 3058: 3013: 2976: 2875:Scythian interregnum 2736: 2726:) of their dominion ( 2645: 2591: 2581:, who was married to 2547:Medo-Persian conflict 2474:Ancient Near East in 2473: 2342: 2335:Battle of the Eclipse 2224: 2170: 2018: 1948: 1827: 1720:in alliance with the 854:Indo-Parthian Kingdom 808:3rd-century BC–132 BC 774:Kingdom of Cappadocia 730: 6th century BC 712:Neo-Babylonian Empire 251:Battle of the Eclipse 89:Common languages 16:Ancient Iranian state 10667:History of Kurdistan 9804:Technology start-ups 9705:Environmental issues 9695:Economic Reform Plan 9609:Provincial governors 9299:Environmental issues 9047:Iran Air Flight 655 8788:Jalayirid Sultanate 8660:Caliphate (750–1258) 8502:Kingdom (652–625 BC) 8299:European colonialism 8284:Ancient great powers 6811:Artaxerxes III Ochus 6806:Artaxerxes II Mnemon 6468:Battle of Pasargadae 6413:(Shahre Rey, Tehran) 6319:Encyclopædia Iranica 6292:Encyclopædia Iranica 6138:, Mazda Publishers, 5559:10.36253/asiana-1746 5382:. globalsecurity.org 5268:Гумбатов, Гахраман. 3559:Encyclopædia Iranica 3240:Behistun Inscription 3198:Babylonian Chronicle 2501:to the Persian king 2323:Babylonian Chronicle 2314:Babylonian Chronicle 2240:Babylonian Chronicle 2231:Babylonians rebelled 2157:Scythian interregnum 2146:Babylonian Chronicle 1786:. During his reign, 1737:northern Mesopotamia 262:• Conquered by 10204:Freedom of religion 9790:Supreme Audit Court 9669:Automotive industry 9316:Iranian Balochistan 9042:1987 Mecca incident 8939:Iran crisis of 1946 8928:dynasty (1925–1979) 8857:Dynasty (1751–1794) 8798:dynasty (1338–1357) 8790:dynasty (1335–1432) 8782:dynasty (1314–1393) 8767:dynasty (1244–1381) 8751:dynasty (1077–1231) 8735:dynasty (1011–1215) 8652:Caliphate (661–750) 8644:Caliphate (632–661) 8612:Empire (AD 224–651) 8529:Empire (550–330 BC) 8510:Empire (626–539 BC) 8494:Empire (678–549 BC) 8478:Empire (911–609 BC) 8294:Modern great powers 6826:Artaxerxes V Bessus 6816:Artaxerxes IV Arses 5749:, pp. 397–406. 5240:. Springer Nature. 5198:Rollinger, Robert. 4184:. Mage Publishers. 3835:"Ctesias of Cnidus" 3380:Alexander the Great 3121:, located south of 3110:Qaflankuh Mountains 2793:Edvin A. Grantovski 2685:Great Khurasan Road 2124:, the city lord of 2050:Tiglath-Pileser III 1927:squatter occupation 1510:Contemporary period 1414:Early modern period 1316:Jalayirid Sultanate 1186:Khwarazmian dynasty 615:Neo-Assyrian Empire 493:Kura–Araxes culture 411:Baradostian culture 312:Neo-Assyrian Empire 170:• 585–550 BCE 158:• 625–585 BCE 146:• 678–625 BCE 134:• 700–678 BCE 10335:Persian New Year ( 9740:Main economic laws 9311:Iranian Azerbaijan 9213:Monarchs of Persia 9157:Persianate society 8865:Empire (1789–1925) 8849:Empire (1736–1796) 8841:Empire (1501–1736) 8817:Empire (1370–1507) 8743:Empire (1037–1194) 8708:dynasty (934–1062) 8700:dynasty (931–1090) 8692:dynasty (861–1003) 8561:Empire (312–63 BC) 8462:(c.1595–c.1155 BC) 5509:. pp. 489–499 5369:, pp. 181–231 5296:, p. 344-345. 5224:, p. 337–338. 5020:, p. 125-127. 4856:, pp. 289–320 4501:, pp. 621–622 4368:, pp. 327–338 4318:K. Radner, « 3766:, p. 213-214. 3588:, p. 338-344. 3331: 3222: 3105: 3061: 3041:Greco-Persian Wars 3016: 2979: 2648: 2594: 2515:Achaemenid dynasty 2482: 2345: 2227: 2177: 2107:The Assyrian king 2021: 1951: 1830: 1802:Historical sources 1529:Interim Government 1519:Iranian Revolution 1306:Muzaffarid dynasty 1010:864 – 14th century 1000:791 – 11th century 926:Rashidun Caliphate 748:Kingdom of Armenia 397:Prehistoric period 10622:Ancient Near East 10604: 10603: 10572: 10571: 10568: 10567: 10538: 10537: 10445:Opium consumption 10278: 10277: 10114:Ethnic minorities 10088:Iranian languages 10013: 10012: 10009: 10008: 9626: 9625: 9622: 9621: 9505:Political parties 9443:Children's rights 9428:Foreign relations 9422:2009 presidential 9369: 9368: 9331:Iranian Kurdistan 9250: 9249: 9246: 9245: 9130: 9129: 9102:COVID-19 pandemic 8961:Revolution (1979) 8907: 8906: 8727:Empire (977–1186) 8684:dynasty (864–928) 8676:dynasty (821–873) 8668:dynasty (819–999) 8621: 8620: 8537:(c.323 BC–AD 226) 8338: 8337: 8260: 8259: 8225:Polish–Lithuanian 7400:Gurjara-Pratihara 6844: 6843: 6608: 6607: 6533:Amytis of Babylon 6434:Eclipse of Thales 6328:978-0-939214-79-2 6301:978-0-933273-67-2 6247:978-0-521-68494-1 6193:978-0-19-511217-7 6145:978-1-56859-109-4 6129:, Wiley Blackwell 6032:978-90-04-00857-1 6014:978-0-521-20091-2 5983:978-0-521-61191-6 5965:978-90-429-1833-7 5947:978-0-933273-67-2 5907:978-90-04-09172-6 5868:978-90-04-09271-6 5828:978-1-931956-46-8 5808:Iranicaonline.org 5501:Shahbazi, A. Sh. 5414:978-1-119-70253-5 5319:978-3-406-09397-5 5247:978-3-658-29435-9 5121:iranicaonline.org 5093:"Cyrus the Great" 5075:978-1-119-17428-8 4818:978-1-136-01694-3 4786:978-0-7141-1123-0 4736:Reade, Julian E. 4678:iranicaonline.org 4526:, pp. 19–21) 4480:iranicaonline.org 4461:978-0-19-068763-2 4346:iranicaonline.org 4254:"Tepe Nush-e Jan" 4233:978-90-04-46064-5 4191:978-1-933823-79-9 4132:Rollinger, Robert 4097:978-1-57506-120-7 4054:iranicaonline.org 3898:978-0-299-31090-5 3802:978-1-000-57091-5 3741:978-9-990-93968-2 3724:Rollinger, Robert 3624:978-90-04-23669-1 3537:978-0-85771-092-5 3376:Macedonian Empire 3369:Achaemenid Empire 3127:Lorestan province 2935: 2934: 2899:Son of Phraortes 2827:Son of Phraortes 2710:In the 590s BCE, 2656:Ancient Near East 2599:Achaemenid Empire 2509:, connecting the 2495:Nebuchadnezzar II 2281:Nebuchadnezzar II 1898:, excavations at 1818:Achaemenid Empire 1748:ancient Near East 1710:Achaemenid Empire 1655: 1654: 1547: 1546: 1500: 1499: 1463: 1462: 1404: 1403: 1346:Afrasiyab dynasty 1246:Khorshidi dynasty 1236:Pishkinid dynasty 1126:Ghaznavid dynasty 946:Abbasid Caliphate 936:Umayyad Caliphate 902: 901: 898:550s–11th century 794:Kingdom of Pontus 738:Achaemenid Empire 702:Anshanite Kingdom 663: 662: 566:Oxus Civilization 474: 473: 359: 358: 355: 354: 351: 350: 339:Achaemenid Empire 331: 330: 10689: 10594: 10584: 10583: 10435:National symbols 10289: 10288: 10104:Iranian citizens 10041: 10040: 10032: 10031: 10019: 10018: 10001:Research centers 9690:Economic history 9645: 9644: 9632: 9631: 9566:Guardian Council 9388: 9387: 9375: 9374: 9256: 9255: 9233:Electric history 9228:Military history 9142:Ancient Persians 9050: 9049:shootdown (1988) 9032: 9019: 9016:Iranian Embassy 8986: 8975: 8973:Islamic Republic 8962: 8954:1953 coup d'état 8929: 8916: 8915: 8874: 8871:Khanates of the 8866: 8858: 8850: 8842: 8834: 8826: 8818: 8799: 8791: 8783: 8775: 8768: 8760: 8752: 8744: 8736: 8728: 8709: 8701: 8693: 8685: 8677: 8669: 8661: 8653: 8645: 8632: 8631: 8613: 8594: 8586: 8578: 8570: 8562: 8554: 8546: 8538: 8530: 8511: 8503: 8495: 8487: 8479: 8471: 8463: 8455: 8447: 8439: 8431: 8423: 8410: 8409: 8394: 8393: 8381: 8380: 8365: 8358: 8351: 8342: 8341: 8141: 8140: 7806:Austro-Hungarian 7506:Chagatai Khanate 6871: 6864: 6857: 6848: 6847: 6801:Darius II Nothus 6713: 6712: 6670: 6669: 6635: 6628: 6621: 6612: 6611: 6472:Fall of Ecbatana 6389:Iranian language 6363: 6356: 6349: 6340: 6339: 6331: 6313: 6304: 6286: 6250: 6232: 6196: 6178: 6148: 6130: 6121: 6085: 6049: 6043: 6035: 6017: 5995: 5986: 5968: 5950: 5930: 5911: 5890: 5871: 5853: 5832: 5811: 5788: 5787: 5785: 5784: 5769: 5763: 5756: 5750: 5744: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5734: 5706:(3/4): 115–138. 5690: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5680: 5674: 5641: 5629: 5623: 5622: 5620: 5619: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5595: 5584: 5578: 5577: 5575: 5574: 5561: 5537: 5531: 5524: 5518: 5517: 5515: 5514: 5498: 5489: 5449: 5443: 5442: 5440: 5439: 5425: 5419: 5418: 5398: 5392: 5391: 5389: 5387: 5376: 5370: 5359: 5348: 5347: 5345: 5344: 5330: 5324: 5323: 5303: 5297: 5291: 5280: 5279: 5277: 5276: 5265: 5252: 5251: 5231: 5225: 5219: 5210: 5209: 5207: 5206: 5195: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5178: 5164: 5155: 5154: 5152: 5151: 5137: 5131: 5130: 5128: 5127: 5113: 5107: 5106: 5104: 5103: 5089: 5080: 5079: 5059: 5050: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5032: 5021: 5015: 5004: 5003: 5001: 5000: 4986: 4980: 4979: 4977: 4976: 4962: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4952: 4938: 4929: 4928: 4926: 4925: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4901: 4886: 4857: 4846: 4823: 4822: 4802: 4791: 4790: 4770: 4764: 4757: 4748: 4747: 4745: 4744: 4733: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4708: 4694: 4688: 4687: 4685: 4684: 4670: 4664: 4663: 4661: 4660: 4646: 4627: 4587: 4581: 4575: 4542: 4533: 4527: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4490: 4489: 4487: 4486: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4445: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4426: 4412: 4406: 4405: 4403: 4402: 4388: 4369: 4362: 4356: 4355: 4353: 4352: 4338: 4327: 4326:, pp. 37–64 4316: 4295: 4281: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4264: 4250: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4240: 4217: 4196: 4195: 4175: 4166: 4165: 4119: 4102: 4101: 4081: 4064: 4063: 4061: 4060: 4046: 4037: 4036: 4034: 4033: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4010: 4009: 3998: 3989: 3988: 3986: 3985: 3974: 3961: 3960: 3958: 3957: 3946: 3929: 3928: 3926: 3925: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3882: 3876: 3875: 3873: 3872: 3858: 3849: 3848: 3846: 3845: 3831: 3820: 3813: 3807: 3806: 3786: 3767: 3761: 3746: 3745: 3717: 3705: 3666: 3665: 3663: 3662: 3648: 3629: 3628: 3598: 3589: 3583: 3577: 3571: 3562: 3551:Yarshater, Ehsan 3548: 3542: 3541: 3521: 3512: 3506: 3440: 3437:George Rawlinson 3425: 3320:Malmesbury Abbey 3227:Robert Rollinger 3211:Ugbaru of Gutium 3162:Median expansion 2923:Son of Cyaxares 2754: 2753: 2632:Parthian empires 2603:Darius the Great 2531:Moses of Chorene 2480: 2477: 2185:Edvin Grantovsky 1967:Sassanian period 1698:political entity 1682: 1681: 1669: 1668: 1647: 1640: 1633: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1588:Military history 1578:Economic history 1556:Related articles 1539:Islamic Republic 1515: 1514: 1478: 1477: 1419: 1418: 1376:Kar-Kiya dynasty 1296:Chobanid dynasty 1286:Ilkhanate Empire 1066:Sallarid dynasty 1036:Saffarid dynasty 922: 921: 767: 764: 732:–11th century AD 731: 728: 692:Scythian Kingdom 678: 677: 608: 595: 572: 559: 536: 519: 489: 488: 469: 456: 443: 430: 417: 407: 406: 389: 379: 361: 360: 347: 346: 335: 334: 322: 321: 308: 307: 301: 300: 285: 284: 274: 271: 209: 206: 71: 61: 58: 54: 51: 43: 37: 36: 26: 25: 10697: 10696: 10692: 10691: 10690: 10688: 10687: 10686: 10662:Ancient Armenia 10607: 10606: 10605: 10600: 10564: 10534: 10513:Rap and hip-hop 10484: 10465:Public holidays 10450:Persian gardens 10439:Imperial Anthem 10430:National Jewels 10385:Iranian studies 10274: 10208: 10160: 10092: 10053:Persian (Farsi) 10026: 10005: 9974: 9936: 9929: 9864:Pharmaceuticals 9809: 9800:Venture capital 9775:Rial (currency) 9760:Nuclear program 9639: 9618: 9585: 9544: 9495:Nuclear program 9460:Judicial system 9382: 9365: 9336:Iranian plateau 9263: 9242: 9126: 9048: 9030: 9017: 8985:History (1979–) 8984: 8976: 8971: 8966: 8960: 8927: 8903: 8872: 8864: 8856: 8848: 8840: 8832: 8824: 8816: 8803: 8797: 8789: 8781: 8773: 8766: 8758: 8750: 8742: 8734: 8726: 8713: 8707: 8699: 8691: 8683: 8675: 8667: 8659: 8651: 8643: 8627: 8617: 8611: 8598: 8592: 8584: 8576: 8568: 8560: 8552: 8544: 8536: 8528: 8515: 8509: 8508:Neo-Babylonian 8501: 8493: 8486:(860 BC–590 BC) 8485: 8477: 8469: 8461: 8454:(c.2300–675 BC) 8453: 8445: 8437: 8429: 8421: 8401: 8388: 8375: 8369: 8339: 8334: 8323:American Empire 8308: 8304:African empires 8256: 8139: 7831:Central African 7777: 7595:Romano-Germanic 7181: 6915:Middle Assyrian 6888: 6880: 6875: 6845: 6840: 6830: 6710: 6709: 6701: 6667: 6666: 6658: 6649: 6639: 6609: 6604: 6588: 6572: 6521: 6517:Darius the Mede 6475: 6455:Battle of Hyrba 6438: 6422: 6393: 6385:Median language 6373: 6367: 6337: 6329: 6302: 6268:10.2307/3258384 6248: 6214:10.2307/4300620 6194: 6176: 6146: 6103:10.2307/4300506 6067:10.2307/4300482 6037: 6036: 6033: 6023:Iranian Studies 6015: 5984: 5966: 5948: 5927: 5908: 5887: 5869: 5850: 5829: 5797: 5792: 5791: 5782: 5780: 5770: 5766: 5757: 5753: 5745: 5741: 5732: 5730: 5712:10.2307/1170959 5691: 5687: 5678: 5676: 5672: 5639: 5630: 5626: 5617: 5615: 5607: 5606: 5602: 5593: 5591: 5587:Steele, Laura. 5585: 5581: 5572: 5570: 5538: 5534: 5525: 5521: 5512: 5510: 5499: 5492: 5450: 5446: 5437: 5435: 5427: 5426: 5422: 5415: 5399: 5395: 5385: 5383: 5378: 5377: 5373: 5360: 5351: 5342: 5340: 5332: 5331: 5327: 5320: 5304: 5300: 5292: 5283: 5274: 5272: 5266: 5255: 5248: 5232: 5228: 5220: 5213: 5204: 5202: 5196: 5185: 5176: 5174: 5166: 5165: 5158: 5149: 5147: 5139: 5138: 5134: 5125: 5123: 5115: 5114: 5110: 5101: 5099: 5091: 5090: 5083: 5076: 5060: 5053: 5044: 5042: 5034: 5033: 5024: 5016: 5007: 4998: 4996: 4988: 4987: 4983: 4974: 4972: 4964: 4963: 4959: 4950: 4948: 4940: 4939: 4932: 4923: 4921: 4913: 4912: 4908: 4899: 4897: 4887: 4860: 4847: 4826: 4819: 4803: 4794: 4787: 4771: 4767: 4758: 4751: 4742: 4740: 4734: 4715: 4706: 4704: 4696: 4695: 4691: 4682: 4680: 4672: 4671: 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Eisenbrauns. 4082: 4067: 4058: 4056: 4048: 4047: 4040: 4031: 4029: 4021: 4020: 4016: 4007: 4005: 4001:Nijssen, Daan. 3999: 3992: 3983: 3981: 3975: 3964: 3955: 3953: 3947: 3932: 3923: 3921: 3910: 3906: 3899: 3883: 3879: 3870: 3868: 3860: 3859: 3852: 3843: 3841: 3833: 3832: 3823: 3814: 3810: 3803: 3787: 3770: 3762: 3749: 3742: 3715: 3709:Liverani, Mario 3706: 3669: 3660: 3658: 3650: 3649: 3632: 3625: 3599: 3592: 3584: 3580: 3572: 3565: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3522: 3515: 3507: 3454: 3449: 3444: 3443: 3426: 3422: 3417: 3400:Seleucid Empire 3389:Darius the Mede 3289: 3232:Joachim Oelsner 3164: 3138:, northeast of 3097: 3053: 3008: 2971: 2940: 2851:Son of Deioces 2801:I. M. Diakonoff 2752: 2746: 2664:Cyrus the Great 2652:Assyrian Empire 2640: 2553: 2545:Main articles: 2543: 2478: 2389:of Babylon and 2350:fall of Nineveh 2337: 2331: 2219: 2213: 2165: 2159: 2089: 2046:Adad-nirari III 2026:Shalmaneser III 2013: 2008: 1961:, Baba Jan and 1922:T. Cuyler Young 1888:Tepe Nush-i Jan 1871: 1809: 1807:Textual sources 1804: 1766:in Anatolia to 1718:Assyrian Empire 1706:Iranian plateau 1651: 1621:Iran portal 1615: 1613: 1612: 1604: 1603: 1602: 1593:Women's history 1557: 1549: 1548: 1512: 1502: 1501: 1475: 1465: 1464: 1416: 1406: 1405: 1256:Qutlugh-Khanids 1206:Atabegs of Yazd 1106:Rawadid dynasty 1076:Ziyarid dynasty 1016:Tahirid dynasty 914: 912:Medieval period 904: 903: 888:6th century–785 874:Sasanian Empire 844:Kings of Persis 814:Parthian Empire 784:Seleucid Empire 765: 729: 675: 673:Imperial period 665: 664: 579:Akkadian Empire 526:Lullubi Kingdom 486: 476: 475: 424:Zarzian culture 399: 377: 370: 344: 319: 305: 272: 266: 264:Cyrus the Great 253: 240: 227: 217: 207: 201: 171: 159: 147: 135: 74: 59: 52: 44: 38: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10695: 10685: 10684: 10679: 10674: 10669: 10664: 10659: 10654: 10649: 10644: 10639: 10634: 10629: 10624: 10619: 10602: 10601: 10599: 10598: 10588: 10577: 10574: 10573: 10570: 10569: 10566: 10565: 10563: 10562: 10557: 10552: 10546: 10544: 10540: 10539: 10536: 10535: 10533: 10532: 10525: 10520: 10515: 10510: 10505: 10500: 10494: 10492: 10486: 10485: 10483: 10482: 10472: 10467: 10462: 10457: 10452: 10447: 10442: 10432: 10427: 10422: 10416: 10402: 10397: 10387: 10382: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10357: 10352: 10347: 10342: 10328: 10323: 10318: 10308: 10302: 10292: 10286: 10280: 10279: 10276: 10275: 10273: 10272: 10267: 10262: 10257: 10252: 10246: 10241: 10236: 10227: 10222: 10216: 10214: 10210: 10209: 10207: 10206: 10201: 10191: 10186: 10176: 10170: 10168: 10162: 10161: 10159: 10158: 10157: 10156: 10151: 10146: 10141: 10136: 10131: 10126: 10121: 10111: 10100: 10098: 10094: 10093: 10091: 10090: 10085: 10080: 10075: 10070: 10065: 10060: 10055: 10049: 10047: 10038: 10028: 10027: 10015: 10014: 10011: 10010: 10007: 10006: 10004: 10003: 9998: 9993: 9988: 9982: 9980: 9976: 9975: 9973: 9972: 9967: 9962: 9957: 9952: 9947: 9941: 9939: 9931: 9930: 9928: 9927: 9922: 9916: 9911: 9906: 9897: 9887: 9877: 9872: 9867: 9857: 9852: 9847: 9846: 9845: 9840: 9830: 9819: 9817: 9811: 9810: 9808: 9807: 9797: 9792: 9787: 9782: 9777: 9772: 9767: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9742: 9737: 9732: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9672: 9662: 9657: 9651: 9649: 9641: 9640: 9628: 9627: 9624: 9623: 9620: 9619: 9617: 9616: 9614:Supreme Leader 9611: 9606: 9601: 9595: 9593: 9587: 9586: 9584: 9583: 9578: 9576:Local councils 9573: 9568: 9563: 9558: 9552: 9550: 9546: 9545: 9543: 9542: 9537: 9532: 9522: 9517: 9512: 9507: 9502: 9492: 9487: 9482: 9476: 9471: 9462: 9457: 9456: 9455: 9453:Women's rights 9450: 9445: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9415: 9410: 9400: 9394: 9392: 9384: 9383: 9371: 9370: 9367: 9366: 9364: 9363: 9358: 9353: 9348: 9343: 9338: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9313: 9308: 9307: 9306: 9304:Climate change 9296: 9291: 9290: 9289: 9284: 9274: 9268: 9265: 9264: 9252: 9251: 9248: 9247: 9244: 9243: 9241: 9240: 9235: 9230: 9225: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9205: 9200: 9195: 9190: 9188:Jiroft culture 9185: 9184: 9183: 9176:Iranic peoples 9173: 9172: 9171: 9170: 9169: 9164: 9152:Persianization 9149: 9144: 9138: 9136: 9132: 9131: 9128: 9127: 9125: 9124: 9119: 9114: 9109: 9104: 9099: 9094: 9089: 9088: 9087: 9077: 9072: 9067: 9062: 9057: 9052: 9044: 9039: 9034: 9026: 9021: 9013: 9008: 9003: 8998: 8993: 8988: 8980: 8978: 8968: 8967: 8965: 8964: 8956: 8951: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8931: 8922: 8920: 8913: 8909: 8908: 8905: 8904: 8902: 8901: 8896: 8891: 8886: 8881: 8876: 8868: 8860: 8852: 8844: 8836: 8828: 8820: 8811: 8809: 8805: 8804: 8802: 8801: 8793: 8785: 8777: 8770: 8762: 8759:(1135/36-1225) 8754: 8746: 8738: 8730: 8721: 8719: 8715: 8714: 8712: 8711: 8703: 8695: 8687: 8679: 8671: 8663: 8655: 8647: 8638: 8636: 8629: 8623: 8622: 8619: 8618: 8616: 8615: 8606: 8604: 8600: 8599: 8597: 8596: 8588: 8580: 8572: 8569:(c.295–220 BC) 8564: 8556: 8548: 8540: 8532: 8523: 8521: 8517: 8516: 8514: 8513: 8505: 8497: 8489: 8481: 8473: 8465: 8457: 8449: 8441: 8433: 8428:Proto-Elamite 8425: 8416: 8414: 8407: 8403: 8402: 8390: 8389: 8377: 8376: 8368: 8367: 8360: 8353: 8345: 8336: 8335: 8333: 8332: 8331: 8330: 8325: 8316: 8314: 8310: 8309: 8307: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8280: 8279: 8268: 8266: 8262: 8261: 8258: 8257: 8255: 8254: 8249: 8244: 8239: 8234: 8233: 8232: 8222: 8217: 8212: 8207: 8202: 8197: 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8176: 8175: 8170: 8160: 8155: 8149: 8147: 8138: 8137: 8136: 8135: 8130: 8125: 8120: 8115: 8105: 8100: 8099: 8098: 8088: 8083: 8082: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8061: 8056: 8055: 8054: 8049: 8039: 8038: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8007: 8006: 8005: 8000: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7974: 7973: 7968: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7943: 7942: 7941: 7936: 7926: 7921: 7920: 7919: 7914: 7904: 7903: 7902: 7897: 7887: 7886: 7885: 7880: 7870: 7865: 7864: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7833: 7828: 7827: 7826: 7821: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7787: 7785: 7779: 7778: 7776: 7775: 7770: 7765: 7760: 7759: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7718: 7713: 7712: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7676: 7675: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7609: 7608: 7607: 7602: 7592: 7591: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7536: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7515: 7514: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7488: 7483: 7478: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7462: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7436: 7435: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7409: 7408: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7366: 7365: 7360: 7355: 7345: 7340: 7339: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7303: 7302: 7301: 7296: 7286: 7285: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7259: 7254: 7253: 7252: 7242: 7241: 7240: 7235: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7191: 7189: 7187:Post-classical 7183: 7182: 7180: 7179: 7178: 7177: 7167: 7162: 7161: 7160: 7155: 7145: 7144: 7143: 7133: 7132: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7085: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7059: 7058: 7057: 7052: 7042: 7037: 7036: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6994: 6993: 6988: 6986:Middle Kingdom 6983: 6973: 6968: 6967: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6946: 6945: 6944: 6942:Neo-Babylonian 6939: 6934: 6932:Old Babylonian 6924: 6923: 6922: 6917: 6907: 6902: 6896: 6894: 6882: 6881: 6874: 6873: 6866: 6859: 6851: 6842: 6841: 6835: 6832: 6831: 6829: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6731: 6724: 6716: 6714: 6703: 6702: 6700: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6673: 6671: 6660: 6659: 6654: 6651: 6650: 6638: 6637: 6630: 6623: 6615: 6606: 6605: 6603: 6602: 6596: 6594: 6590: 6589: 6587: 6586: 6580: 6578: 6574: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6529: 6527: 6523: 6522: 6520: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6483: 6481: 6477: 6476: 6474: 6473: 6470: 6465: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6450:Persian Revolt 6446: 6444: 6440: 6439: 6437: 6436: 6430: 6428: 6424: 6423: 6421: 6420: 6414: 6408: 6401: 6399: 6395: 6394: 6392: 6391: 6381: 6379: 6375: 6374: 6366: 6365: 6358: 6351: 6343: 6336: 6335: 6332: 6327: 6314: 6305: 6300: 6287: 6262:(3): 177–186, 6258:, New Series, 6251: 6246: 6233: 6197: 6192: 6179: 6174: 6149: 6144: 6131: 6122: 6086: 6050: 6031: 6018: 6013: 5996: 5987: 5982: 5969: 5964: 5951: 5946: 5931: 5926:978-2700015249 5925: 5912: 5906: 5891: 5886:978-0415394857 5885: 5872: 5867: 5854: 5849:978-1119174288 5848: 5833: 5827: 5812: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5790: 5789: 5764: 5751: 5739: 5685: 5652:(2): 219–229. 5633:Turchin, Peter 5624: 5600: 5579: 5532: 5519: 5490: 5444: 5420: 5413: 5393: 5371: 5349: 5325: 5318: 5298: 5294:Rollinger 2021 5281: 5253: 5246: 5226: 5222:Rollinger 2021 5211: 5183: 5156: 5132: 5108: 5081: 5074: 5051: 5022: 5018:Diakonoff 1985 5005: 4981: 4957: 4930: 4906: 4858: 4824: 4817: 4792: 4785: 4765: 4749: 4713: 4689: 4665: 4628: 4582: 4578:Rawlinson 2007 4543: 4528: 4515: 4513:, p. 109. 4511:Diakonoff 1985 4503: 4491: 4467: 4460: 4431: 4416:"Ancient Iran" 4407: 4370: 4357: 4328: 4296: 4284:"Medos, Média" 4269: 4245: 4232: 4197: 4190: 4167: 4148:(4): 517–533. 4103: 4096: 4065: 4038: 4014: 3990: 3977:Waters, Matt. 3962: 3949:Waters, Matt. 3930: 3904: 3897: 3877: 3850: 3821: 3808: 3801: 3768: 3764:Rollinger 2021 3747: 3740: 3667: 3630: 3623: 3590: 3586:Rollinger 2021 3578: 3574:Dandamaev 1989 3563: 3543: 3536: 3513: 3451: 3450: 3448: 3445: 3442: 3441: 3433:Median dynasty 3419: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3384: 3383: 3372: 3365: 3362: 3343:book of Daniel 3288: 3285: 3163: 3160: 3136:Mount Damavand 3096: 3093: 3052: 3049: 3007: 3004: 2970: 2967: 2939: 2936: 2933: 2932: 2925: 2924: 2921: 2918: 2915: 2912: 2909: 2901: 2900: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2888: 2885: 2877: 2876: 2873: 2870: 2867: 2864: 2861: 2853: 2852: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2829: 2828: 2825: 2822: 2819: 2816: 2813: 2805: 2804: 2796: 2788: 2785:George Cameron 2780: 2771: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2750:Median dynasty 2748:Main article: 2745: 2742: 2690:David Stronach 2639: 2636: 2551:Media (region) 2542: 2539: 2511:Median dynasty 2479: 600 BCE 2330: 2327: 2318:Mario Liverani 2215:Main article: 2212: 2209: 2189:George Cameron 2158: 2155: 2088: 2085: 2030:Shamshi-Adad V 2012: 2009: 2007: 2004: 1935:Mario Liverani 1913:David Stronach 1870: 1867: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1800: 1726:Median kingdom 1653: 1652: 1650: 1649: 1642: 1635: 1627: 1624: 1623: 1606: 1605: 1601: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1573:Heads of state 1570: 1565: 1559: 1558: 1555: 1554: 1551: 1550: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1535: 1534: 1531: 1525: 1524: 1521: 1513: 1508: 1507: 1504: 1503: 1498: 1497: 1494: 1488: 1487: 1484: 1476: 1471: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1461: 1460: 1457: 1451: 1450: 1447: 1441: 1440: 1437: 1429: 1428: 1425: 1417: 1412: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1402: 1401: 1398: 1392: 1391: 1388: 1382: 1381: 1378: 1372: 1371: 1368: 1366:Timurid Empire 1362: 1361: 1358: 1352: 1351: 1348: 1342: 1341: 1338: 1332: 1331: 1328: 1322: 1321: 1318: 1312: 1311: 1308: 1302: 1301: 1298: 1292: 1291: 1288: 1282: 1281: 1278: 1272: 1271: 1268: 1262: 1261: 1258: 1252: 1251: 1248: 1242: 1241: 1238: 1232: 1231: 1228: 1222: 1221: 1218: 1212: 1211: 1208: 1202: 1201: 1198: 1192: 1191: 1188: 1182: 1181: 1178: 1172: 1171: 1168: 1162: 1161: 1158: 1156:Nasrid dynasty 1152: 1151: 1148: 1142: 1141: 1138: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1122: 1121: 1118: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1102: 1101: 1098: 1092: 1091: 1088: 1082: 1081: 1078: 1072: 1071: 1068: 1062: 1061: 1058: 1052: 1051: 1050:pre-879 – 1215 1048: 1046:Ghurid dynasty 1042: 1041: 1038: 1032: 1031: 1028: 1026:Samanid Empire 1022: 1021: 1018: 1012: 1011: 1008: 1006:Alid dynasties 1002: 1001: 998: 992: 991: 988: 982: 981: 978: 972: 971: 968: 962: 961: 958: 952: 951: 948: 942: 941: 938: 932: 931: 928: 915: 910: 909: 906: 905: 900: 899: 896: 890: 889: 886: 880: 879: 876: 870: 869: 866: 860: 859: 856: 850: 849: 846: 840: 839: 836: 830: 829: 826: 820: 819: 816: 810: 809: 806: 800: 799: 796: 790: 789: 786: 780: 779: 776: 770: 769: 760: 754: 753: 750: 744: 743: 740: 734: 733: 724: 718: 717: 714: 708: 707: 704: 698: 697: 694: 688: 687: 684: 676: 671: 670: 667: 666: 661: 660: 657: 651: 650: 647: 641: 640: 637: 631: 630: 627: 621: 620: 617: 611: 610: 604: 602:Avestan period 598: 597: 591: 585: 584: 581: 575: 574: 568: 562: 561: 555: 549: 548: 545: 539: 538: 532: 522: 521: 515: 513:Jiroft culture 509: 508: 505: 499: 498: 495: 487: 484:Ancient period 482: 481: 478: 477: 472: 471: 470:5th millennium 465: 459: 458: 457:6th millennium 452: 446: 445: 439: 433: 432: 426: 420: 419: 413: 400: 395: 394: 391: 390: 382: 381: 372: 371: 364: 357: 356: 353: 352: 349: 348: 341: 332: 329: 328: 323: 315: 314: 309: 297: 296: 291: 281: 280: 277: 276: 267: 261: 258: 257: 254: 248: 245: 244: 241: 235: 232: 231: 228: 225: 222: 221: 218: 215: 212: 211: 202: 199: 196: 195: 192: 191: 186: 185:Historical era 182: 181: 178: 177: 172: 169: 166: 165: 160: 157: 154: 153: 148: 145: 142: 141: 136: 133: 130: 129: 126: 125: 122: 116: 115: 110: 106: 105: 100: 96: 95: 90: 86: 85: 80: 76: 75: 72: 64: 63: 46: 45: 32: 30:Median kingdom 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10694: 10683: 10680: 10678: 10675: 10673: 10670: 10668: 10665: 10663: 10660: 10658: 10655: 10653: 10650: 10648: 10645: 10643: 10640: 10638: 10635: 10633: 10630: 10628: 10625: 10623: 10620: 10618: 10615: 10614: 10612: 10597: 10593: 10589: 10587: 10579: 10578: 10575: 10561: 10558: 10556: 10553: 10551: 10548: 10547: 10545: 10541: 10531: 10530: 10526: 10524: 10521: 10519: 10516: 10514: 10511: 10509: 10506: 10504: 10501: 10499: 10496: 10495: 10493: 10491: 10487: 10480: 10476: 10473: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10451: 10448: 10446: 10443: 10440: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10420: 10417: 10414: 10410: 10409:news agencies 10406: 10403: 10401: 10398: 10395: 10391: 10388: 10386: 10383: 10381: 10378: 10376: 10373: 10371: 10368: 10365: 10361: 10358: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10340: 10338: 10332: 10329: 10327: 10324: 10322: 10319: 10316: 10312: 10309: 10306: 10303: 10301: 10297: 10294: 10293: 10290: 10287: 10285: 10281: 10271: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10261: 10258: 10256: 10253: 10250: 10247: 10245: 10242: 10240: 10237: 10235: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10217: 10215: 10211: 10205: 10202: 10199: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10184: 10180: 10177: 10175: 10172: 10171: 10169: 10167: 10163: 10155: 10152: 10150: 10147: 10145: 10142: 10140: 10137: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10127: 10125: 10122: 10120: 10117: 10116: 10115: 10112: 10109: 10105: 10102: 10101: 10099: 10095: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10079: 10076: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10054: 10051: 10050: 10048: 10046: 10042: 10039: 10037: 10033: 10029: 10025: 10020: 10016: 10002: 9999: 9997: 9994: 9992: 9989: 9987: 9984: 9983: 9981: 9977: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9963: 9961: 9958: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9946: 9943: 9942: 9940: 9938: 9932: 9926: 9923: 9920: 9917: 9915: 9912: 9910: 9907: 9905: 9901: 9898: 9895: 9891: 9888: 9885: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9865: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9851: 9848: 9844: 9841: 9839: 9836: 9835: 9834: 9831: 9828: 9824: 9821: 9820: 9818: 9816: 9812: 9805: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9793: 9791: 9788: 9786: 9783: 9781: 9778: 9776: 9773: 9771: 9770:Privatization 9768: 9765: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9733: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9670: 9666: 9663: 9661: 9658: 9656: 9653: 9652: 9650: 9646: 9642: 9638: 9633: 9629: 9615: 9612: 9610: 9607: 9605: 9602: 9600: 9597: 9596: 9594: 9592: 9588: 9582: 9579: 9577: 9574: 9572: 9569: 9567: 9564: 9562: 9559: 9557: 9554: 9553: 9551: 9547: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9533: 9530: 9526: 9523: 9521: 9518: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9500: 9496: 9493: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9480: 9477: 9475: 9472: 9470: 9466: 9463: 9461: 9458: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9440: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9423: 9419: 9416: 9414: 9411: 9408: 9404: 9401: 9399: 9396: 9395: 9393: 9389: 9385: 9381: 9376: 9372: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9305: 9302: 9301: 9300: 9297: 9295: 9292: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9279: 9278: 9275: 9273: 9270: 9269: 9266: 9262: 9257: 9253: 9239: 9238:Years in Iran 9236: 9234: 9231: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9189: 9186: 9182: 9179: 9178: 9177: 9174: 9168: 9165: 9163: 9162:Turco-Persian 9160: 9159: 9158: 9155: 9154: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9143: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9133: 9123: 9120: 9118: 9115: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9086: 9083: 9082: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9031:War (1980–88) 9027: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9002: 8999: 8997: 8994: 8992: 8989: 8987: 8982: 8981: 8979: 8974: 8969: 8963: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8924: 8923: 8921: 8917: 8914: 8910: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8890: 8887: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8875: 8869: 8867: 8861: 8859: 8853: 8851: 8845: 8843: 8837: 8835: 8829: 8827: 8823:Qara Qoyunlu 8821: 8819: 8813: 8812: 8810: 8806: 8800: 8794: 8792: 8786: 8784: 8778: 8776: 8771: 8769: 8763: 8761: 8755: 8753: 8747: 8745: 8739: 8737: 8731: 8729: 8723: 8722: 8720: 8716: 8710: 8704: 8702: 8696: 8694: 8688: 8686: 8680: 8678: 8672: 8670: 8664: 8662: 8656: 8654: 8648: 8646: 8640: 8639: 8637: 8633: 8630: 8624: 8614: 8608: 8607: 8605: 8601: 8595: 8589: 8587: 8581: 8579: 8573: 8571: 8565: 8563: 8557: 8555: 8549: 8547: 8541: 8539: 8533: 8531: 8525: 8524: 8522: 8520:550 BC–AD 224 8518: 8512: 8506: 8504: 8498: 8496: 8490: 8488: 8482: 8480: 8476:Neo-Assyrian 8474: 8472: 8466: 8464: 8458: 8456: 8450: 8448: 8442: 8440: 8434: 8432: 8426: 8424: 8418: 8417: 8415: 8411: 8408: 8404: 8400: 8395: 8391: 8387: 8382: 8378: 8373: 8366: 8361: 8359: 8354: 8352: 8347: 8346: 8343: 8329: 8328:Soviet empire 8326: 8324: 8321: 8320: 8318: 8317: 8315: 8313:Miscellaneous 8311: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8278: 8275: 8274: 8273: 8270: 8269: 8267: 8263: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8231: 8228: 8227: 8226: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8216: 8213: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8193: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8165: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8150: 8148: 8146: 8142: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8124: 8121: 8119: 8116: 8114: 8111: 8110: 8109: 8106: 8104: 8101: 8097: 8094: 8093: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8066: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8044: 8043: 8040: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8012: 8011: 8008: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7995: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7972: 7969: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7948: 7947: 7944: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7931: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7912:German Empire 7910: 7909: 7908: 7905: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7892: 7891: 7888: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7875: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7838: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7816: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7788: 7786: 7784: 7780: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7723: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7681: 7680: 7677: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7654: 7653: 7652:Turco-Persian 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7606: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7597: 7596: 7593: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7560: 7559: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7519: 7516: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7493: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7464: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7441: 7440: 7437: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7414: 7413: 7410: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7392: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7308: 7307: 7304: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7291: 7290: 7287: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7264: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7251: 7248: 7247: 7246: 7243: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7230: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7192: 7190: 7188: 7184: 7176: 7173: 7172: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7150: 7149: 7146: 7142: 7139: 7138: 7137: 7134: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7064: 7063: 7060: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7047: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7010: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6978: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6951: 6950: 6947: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6929: 6928: 6925: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6912: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6872: 6867: 6865: 6860: 6858: 6853: 6852: 6849: 6838: 6833: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6736: 6732: 6730: 6729: 6725: 6723: 6722: 6718: 6717: 6715: 6708: 6704: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6674: 6672: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6643: 6636: 6631: 6629: 6624: 6622: 6617: 6616: 6613: 6601: 6598: 6597: 6595: 6591: 6585: 6582: 6581: 6579: 6575: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6530: 6528: 6526:Other Medians 6524: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6484: 6482: 6480:Kings/Satraps 6478: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6447: 6445: 6441: 6435: 6432: 6431: 6429: 6425: 6418: 6415: 6412: 6409: 6406: 6403: 6402: 6400: 6396: 6390: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6376: 6371: 6364: 6359: 6357: 6352: 6350: 6345: 6344: 6341: 6333: 6330: 6324: 6320: 6315: 6311: 6306: 6303: 6297: 6293: 6288: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6252: 6249: 6243: 6239: 6234: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6198: 6195: 6189: 6185: 6180: 6177: 6175:9781139054317 6171: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6150: 6147: 6141: 6137: 6132: 6128: 6123: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6087: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6051: 6047: 6041: 6034: 6028: 6024: 6019: 6016: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5997: 5993: 5988: 5985: 5979: 5975: 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Routledge. 4810: 4809: 4801: 4799: 4797: 4788: 4782: 4778: 4777: 4769: 4762: 4756: 4754: 4739: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4720: 4718: 4703: 4699: 4693: 4679: 4675: 4669: 4655: 4651: 4645: 4643: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4626: 4623: 4620: 4617: 4614: 4611: 4608: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4579: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4560: 4558: 4556: 4554: 4552: 4550: 4548: 4540: 4537: 4532: 4525: 4519: 4512: 4507: 4500: 4495: 4481: 4477: 4471: 4463: 4457: 4453: 4452: 4444: 4442: 4440: 4438: 4436: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4397: 4393: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4379: 4377: 4375: 4367: 4361: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4335: 4333: 4325: 4321: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4259: 4255: 4249: 4235: 4229: 4225: 4224: 4216: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4193: 4187: 4183: 4182: 4174: 4172: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4142: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4128:Roaf, Michael 4125: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4099: 4093: 4089: 4088: 4080: 4078: 4076: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4055: 4051: 4045: 4043: 4028: 4024: 4018: 4004: 3997: 3995: 3980: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3952: 3945: 3943: 3941: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3919: 3915: 3908: 3900: 3894: 3890: 3889: 3881: 3867: 3863: 3857: 3855: 3840: 3836: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3818: 3812: 3804: 3798: 3794: 3793: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3765: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3720:Roaf, Michael 3714: 3710: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3657: 3653: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3626: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3595: 3587: 3582: 3575: 3570: 3568: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3547: 3539: 3533: 3529: 3528: 3520: 3518: 3510: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3459: 3457: 3452: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3424: 3420: 3412: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3390: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3370: 3366: 3363: 3360: 3356: 3355: 3354: 3352: 3348: 3345:mentions the 3344: 3340: 3336: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3310: 3304: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3284: 3280: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3236: 3233: 3228: 3218: 3214: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3189: 3185: 3180: 3178: 3173: 3169: 3159: 3155: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3131:Dasht-e Kavir 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3111: 3101: 3092: 3088: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3072:Hilary Gopnik 3069: 3065: 3057: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3024: 3022: 3021:Nisean horses 3012: 3003: 3000: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2983: 2975: 2966: 2964: 2963:Maria Brosius 2960: 2959:strictu sensu 2955: 2952: 2948: 2946: 2945:king of kings 2931: 2926: 2922: 2919: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2908: 2907: 2903: 2902: 2898: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2883: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2871: 2868: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2859: 2855: 2854: 2850: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2835: 2831: 2830: 2826: 2823: 2820: 2817: 2814: 2812: 2811: 2807: 2806: 2803: 2802: 2797: 2795: 2794: 2789: 2787: 2786: 2781: 2779: 2778: 2773: 2772: 2769: 2764: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2740: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2707: 2704: 2698: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2673:Medikos Logos 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2644: 2635: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2624:Tritantechmes 2621: 2617: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2590: 2586: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2567: 2561: 2558: 2552: 2548: 2538: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2518: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2472: 2468: 2466: 2465: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2406: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2370: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2351: 2341: 2336: 2326: 2324: 2319: 2315: 2310: 2308: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2248: 2246: 2241: 2237: 2232: 2223: 2218: 2208: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2174: 2173:composite bow 2169: 2164: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2094: 2084: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2017: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1947: 1943: 1941: 1936: 1930: 1928: 1923: 1918: 1914: 1908: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1866: 1862: 1860: 1859: 1854: 1853:Artaxerxes II 1850: 1845: 1841: 1840: 1835: 1826: 1822: 1819: 1815: 1799: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1772:Median empire 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1714:Zagros region 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1694: 1689: 1685: 1676: 1672: 1663: 1659: 1648: 1643: 1641: 1636: 1634: 1629: 1628: 1626: 1625: 1622: 1611: 1608: 1607: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1560: 1553: 1552: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1526: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1505: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1474: 1473:Modern period 1469: 1468: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1448: 1446: 1445:Afsharid Iran 1443: 1442: 1438: 1435: 1434:Hotak dynasty 1431: 1430: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1409: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1393: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1383: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1373: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1363: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1353: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1343: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1333: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1303: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1293: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1283: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1273: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1263: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1253: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1243: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1233: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1213: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1193: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1183: 1179: 1177: 1176:Seljuk Empire 1174: 1173: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1163: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1143: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1113: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1099: 1097: 1096:Buyid dynasty 1094: 1093: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1059: 1057: 1056:Sajid dynasty 1054: 1053: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1033: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1023: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1013: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1003: 999: 997: 994: 993: 989: 987: 984: 983: 979: 977: 974: 973: 969: 967: 964: 963: 959: 957: 954: 953: 949: 947: 944: 943: 939: 937: 934: 933: 929: 927: 924: 923: 920: 919: 913: 908: 907: 897: 895: 892: 891: 887: 885: 882: 881: 877: 875: 872: 871: 867: 865: 862: 861: 857: 855: 852: 851: 848:132 BC–224 AD 847: 845: 842: 841: 838:141 BC–222 AD 837: 835: 832: 831: 828:147 BC–224 AD 827: 825: 822: 821: 818:247 BC–224 AD 817: 815: 812: 811: 807: 805: 802: 801: 797: 795: 792: 791: 787: 785: 782: 781: 778:320s BC–17 AD 777: 775: 772: 771: 766: 323 BC 761: 759: 756: 755: 752:331 BC–428 AD 751: 749: 746: 745: 742:550 BC–330 BC 741: 739: 736: 735: 725: 723: 720: 719: 716:626 BC–539 BC 715: 713: 710: 709: 706:635 BC–550 BC 705: 703: 700: 699: 695: 693: 690: 689: 685: 683: 682:Median Empire 680: 679: 674: 669: 668: 658: 656: 653: 652: 648: 646: 643: 642: 638: 636: 633: 632: 628: 626: 623: 622: 618: 616: 613: 612: 605: 603: 600: 599: 592: 590: 587: 586: 582: 580: 577: 576: 569: 567: 564: 563: 556: 554: 551: 550: 546: 544: 541: 540: 533: 531: 527: 524: 523: 516: 514: 511: 510: 506: 504: 503:Proto-Elamite 501: 500: 496: 494: 491: 490: 485: 480: 479: 466: 464: 463:Dalma culture 461: 460: 453: 451: 448: 447: 440: 438: 435: 434: 431:20,000–10,000 427: 425: 422: 421: 418:36,000–18,000 414: 412: 409: 408: 405: 404: 398: 393: 392: 388: 384: 383: 380: 374: 373: 368: 363: 362: 342: 340: 337: 336: 333: 327: 324: 317: 316: 313: 310: 303: 302: 299: 298: 295: 292: 290: 287: 286: 282: 278: 268: 265: 259: 255: 252: 246: 242: 239: 233: 229: 223: 219: 213: 203: 197: 193: 190: 187: 183: 179: 176: 173: 167: 164: 161: 155: 152: 149: 143: 140: 137: 131: 127: 123: 121: 117: 114: 111: 107: 104: 101: 97: 94: 91: 87: 84: 81: 77: 70: 65: 47: 42: 27: 22: 10543:Other topics 10527: 10455:Persian name 10394:Islamization 10336: 10296:Architecture 10249:universities 10194:Zoroastrians 10189:Christianity 10179:Baháʼí Faith 10129:Azerbaijanis 10036:Demographics 9850:Construction 9838:Central Bank 9780:Space Agency 9675:Child labour 9510:Principlists 9490:Cyberwarfare 9438:Human rights 9403:Constitution 9198:Azerbaijanis 9167:Indo-Persian 9147:Greater Iran 9018:siege (1980) 8977:1979–present 8628:early modern 8626:Medieval and 8491: 8420:Kura-Araxes 8079:Contemporary 7929:Indo-Persian 7917:Nazi Germany 7861:Contemporary 7763:Vijayanagara 7662:Great Seljuk 7573:Thessalonica 7501:Golden Horde 7141:Carthaginian 7066: 6920:Neo-Assyrian 6905:Neo-Sumerian 6836: 6786:Artaxerxes I 6733: 6726: 6719: 6711:(550–330 BC) 6668:(728–550 BC) 6663: 6641: 6318: 6309: 6291: 6259: 6255: 6237: 6205: 6201: 6183: 6157: 6135: 6126: 6094: 6090: 6058: 6054: 6022: 6004: 5991: 5973: 5955: 5936: 5916: 5896: 5876: 5858: 5838: 5817: 5807: 5795:Bibliography 5781:. Retrieved 5777: 5767: 5754: 5742: 5731:. Retrieved 5703: 5697: 5688: 5677:. Retrieved 5649: 5643: 5627: 5616:. Retrieved 5612: 5603: 5592:. Retrieved 5582: 5571:. Retrieved 5549: 5545: 5535: 5522: 5511:. Retrieved 5506: 5461: 5455: 5447: 5436:. Retrieved 5432: 5423: 5403: 5396: 5384:. Retrieved 5374: 5365: », in 5341:. Retrieved 5337: 5328: 5312:. C.H.Beck. 5308: 5301: 5273:. Retrieved 5236: 5229: 5203:. Retrieved 5175:. Retrieved 5171: 5148:. Retrieved 5144: 5135: 5124:. Retrieved 5120: 5111: 5100:. Retrieved 5096: 5064: 5043:. Retrieved 5039: 4997:. Retrieved 4993: 4984: 4973:. Retrieved 4969: 4960: 4949:. Retrieved 4945: 4922:. Retrieved 4918: 4915:"Cappadocia" 4909: 4898:. Retrieved 4894: 4852: », in 4807: 4775: 4768: 4741:. Retrieved 4705:. Retrieved 4701: 4692: 4681:. Retrieved 4677: 4668: 4657:. Retrieved 4653: 4599: 4593: 4585: 4531: 4518: 4506: 4494: 4483:. Retrieved 4479: 4470: 4450: 4423:. Retrieved 4419: 4410: 4399:. Retrieved 4395: 4360: 4349:. 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Retrieved 3655: 3606: 3581: 3558: 3546: 3526: 3423: 3408:Roman Empire 3393: 3385: 3332: 3305: 3294: 3290: 3281: 3237: 3223: 3197: 3193:Julian Reade 3181: 3165: 3156: 3144:Mount Alvand 3115:Garrin range 3106: 3089: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3025: 3017: 2996: 2984: 2980: 2958: 2956: 2949: 2941: 2920:585−550 BCE 2917:584−550 BCE 2914:585−550 BCE 2911:585−550 BCE 2904: 2896:625−585 BCE 2893:620−584 BCE 2890:625−585 BCE 2887:625−585 BCE 2880: 2869:635−615 BCE 2866:653−625 BCE 2856: 2848:678−625 BCE 2845:640−620 BCE 2842:675−653 BCE 2839:647−625 BCE 2832: 2824:700−678 BCE 2821:672−640 BCE 2818:728−675 BCE 2815:700−647 BCE 2808: 2799: 2791: 2782: 2775: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2744:Organization 2737: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2708: 2703:Karen Radner 2699: 2694: 2681: 2672: 2649: 2595: 2571: 2562: 2554: 2519: 2483: 2462: 2407: 2371: 2367: 2346: 2322: 2313: 2311: 2284: 2249: 2245:Nabopolassar 2239: 2228: 2205: 2193: 2178: 2144: 2138: 2134:Ashurbanipal 2118: 2106: 2102:Sardanapalus 2090: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2069: 2054: 2022: 1997:in Iraq and 1977:in Armenia, 1952: 1940:Stuart Brown 1931: 1917:Michael Roaf 1909: 1872: 1863: 1856: 1837: 1831: 1810: 1796: 1771: 1768:Central Asia 1745: 1730: 1725: 1700:centered in 1691: 1683: 1670: 1657: 1656: 1583:LGBT history 1543:1979–present 1492:Pahlavi Iran 1455:Zand dynasty 1423:Safavid Iran 1386:Qara Qoyunlu 1276:Kurt dynasty 1116:Hasanwayhids 916: 894:Qarinvandids 798:281 BC–62 BC 788:312 BC–63 BC 401: 294:Succeeded by 293: 288: 10560:Tehrangeles 10523:Traditional 10260:Nationality 10198:persecution 10183:persecution 10134:Circassians 10083:Neo-Aramaic 10063:Azerbaijani 9935:State-owned 9860:Health care 9823:Agriculture 9660:Brain drain 9599:Ambassadors 9294:Earthquakes 8831:Aq Qoyunlu 8780:Muzaffarid 8757:Eldiguzids 8749:Anushtegin 8575:Kingdom of 8551:Kingdom of 8543:Kingdom of 8535:Atropatene 8527:Achaemenid 8468:Kingdom of 8413:3400–539 BC 7667:Khwarezmian 7600:Carolingian 7405:Rashtrakuta 7109:Shaishunaga 7008:Hellenistic 6991:New Kingdom 6981:Old Kingdom 6761:Cambyses II 6656:Family tree 6512:Cyaxares II 5460:, Livro I, 5168:"Medes (2)" 5141:"Phraortes" 4966:"Drangiana" 4598:, Livro I, 3152:Tepe Ozbaki 2969:Royal court 2732:Ummān-manda 2638:Historicity 2391:Syennesis I 2285:ummān-manda 2236:Suleimaniya 2113:Caspian Sea 2087:Unification 2061:Sennacherib 1989:in Turkey, 1987:Tille Höyük 1971:Nor Armavir 1963:Tepe Ozbaki 1764:Halys River 1722:Babylonians 1662:Old Persian 1266:Mihrabanids 1226:Hazaraspids 986:Baduspanids 864:Paratarajas 858:19 AD–224/5 376:History of 289:Preceded by 10611:Categories 10460:Philosophy 10419:newspapers 10400:Literature 10305:architects 10300:Achaemenid 10220:Corruption 9680:Corruption 9520:Reformists 9515:Propaganda 9413:Corruption 9398:Censorship 9341:Lake Urmia 9029:Iran–Iraq 8725:Ghaznavid 8603:AD 224–651 8567:Frataraka 8399:Prehistory 8237:Portuguese 8118:Revival Le 8108:Vietnamese 7751:Later Tran 7721:Vietnamese 7617:Singhasari 7605:Holy Roman 7229:Bulgarian 7165:Satavahana 7136:Phoenician 7072:Achaemenid 7033:Indo-Greek 7013:Macedonian 6927:Babylonian 6751:Cambyses I 6728:Ariaramnes 6721:Achaemenes 6707:Achaemenid 6646:Achaemenid 6538:Artembares 6419:(Nahavand) 6208:: 89–151, 6097:: 99–124, 5783:2024-01-19 5733:2020-10-11 5679:2020-07-07 5618:2024-01-19 5613:Livius.org 5594:2024-01-28 5573:2024-01-21 5513:2021-08-15 5438:2021-10-07 5343:2021-10-26 5275:2023-01-08 5205:2023-12-16 5177:2020-06-02 5172:Livius.org 5150:2020-08-09 5145:Livius.org 5126:2021-04-07 5102:2020-12-28 5097:Livius.org 5045:2020-06-05 5040:Livius.org 5036:"Astyages" 4999:2020-12-03 4994:Livius.org 4975:2020-12-03 4970:Livius.org 4951:2021-10-07 4924:2020-11-11 4919:Livius.org 4900:2020-10-18 4743:2024-01-12 4707:2021-09-23 4683:2020-08-05 4659:2020-06-08 4654:Livius.org 4650:"Cyaxares" 4524:Young 1988 4499:Brown 1990 4485:2020-11-07 4425:2020-08-07 4401:2020-06-05 4351:2020-08-09 4263:2021-11-29 4258:Livius.org 4239:2023-12-19 4059:2020-07-30 4032:2022-10-08 4008:2024-01-18 3984:2024-01-09 3956:2024-01-09 3924:2024-02-06 3871:2020-06-30 3844:2021-07-18 3839:Livius.org 3661:2020-06-15 3656:Livius.org 3447:References 3272:Massagetae 3123:Kermanshah 2988:concubines 2695:status quo 2503:Cambyses I 2464:Cyropaedia 2427:Mossynoeci 2378:Cappadocia 2374:Cimmerians 2333:See also: 2307:Carchemish 2161:See also: 2109:Esarhaddon 2034:Lake Urmia 1995:Tell Gubba 1955:Moush Tepe 1884:Godin Tepe 1482:Qajar Iran 1396:Aq Qoyunlu 1380:1370s–1592 1216:Salghurids 1196:Eldiguzids 1166:Shabankara 1140:990/1–1117 884:Zarmihrids 804:Fratarakas 758:Atropatene 696:652–625 BC 686:678–550 BC 273: 550 208: 678 109:Government 60: 550 53: 678 10425:Mythology 10331:Calendars 10321:Astronomy 10230:Education 10139:Georgians 10124:Assyrians 10119:Armenians 10045:Languages 9937:companies 9900:Transport 9880:Petroleum 9665:Companies 9604:President 9591:Officials 9525:Terrorism 9474:Air Force 9418:Elections 9356:Provinces 9351:Mountains 9261:Geography 9181:languages 8919:1925–1979 8847:Afsharid 8808:1370–1925 8796:Chobanid 8690:Saffarid 8642:Rashidun 8610:Sasanian 8591:Kings of 8583:Parthian 8559:Seleucid 8500:Scythian 8460:Kassites 8444:Akkadian 8230:Couronian 7868:Ethiopian 7856:Manchukuo 7811:Brazilian 7657:Ghaznavid 7627:Srivijaya 7578:Trebizond 7563:Byzantine 7545:North Sea 7540:Norwegian 7528:Almoravid 7511:Ilkhanate 7481:Majapahit 7454:Muromachi 7363:Solomonic 7348:Ethiopian 7262:Caliphate 7195:Aragonese 7023:Ptolemaic 6796:Sogdianus 6791:Xerxes II 6682:Phraortes 6492:Phraortes 6407:(Hamadan) 6276:0026-1521 6222:0578-6967 6111:0578-6967 6075:0578-6967 5900:. BRILL. 5861:, BRILL, 5720:0145-5532 5666:1076-156X 5568:2611-8912 5552:: 13–46. 5464:, 99-100 5457:Histories 5452:Herodotus 4698:"Assyria" 4595:Histories 4590:Herodotus 4154:0003-0279 3429:Herodotus 3324:Wiltshire 3297:Babylonia 3268:Arachosia 3264:Drangiana 3177:Khuzestan 3077:Silk Road 2834:Phraortes 2777:Herodotus 2728:memshalah 2611:Phraortes 2523:Cadusians 2447:Drangiana 2387:Labynetus 2357:, Media, 2199:, son of 2181:Scythians 2163:Scythians 2151:Phraortes 2126:Kār-Kaššî 2122:Kaštaritu 2080:bēl ālāni 2076:bēl ālāni 2072:bēl ālāni 2057:Sargon II 1999:Ulug Depe 1979:Altıntepe 1839:Histories 1834:Herodotus 1760:Armenians 1496:1925–1979 1486:1789–1925 1459:1751–1794 1449:1736–1796 1439:1722–1729 1427:1501–1736 1400:1468–1508 1390:1406–1468 1370:1370–1507 1360:1359–1596 1356:Mar'ashis 1350:1349–1504 1340:1335–1357 1330:1337–1376 1326:Sarbadars 1320:1337–1376 1310:1335–1393 1300:1335–1357 1290:1256–1335 1280:1244–1396 1270:1236–1537 1260:1223-1306 1250:1184-1597 1240:1155–1231 1230:1155–1424 1220:1148–1282 1210:1141–1319 1200:1135–1225 1190:1077–1231 1180:1037–1194 1170:1030–1355 1160:1029–1236 1150:1008–1141 996:Justanids 966:Bavandids 834:Characene 596:1500–1155 583:2400–2150 573:2400–1700 560:2550-2020 520:3100–2200 507:3200–2700 497:3400–2000 444:6000–5000 151:Phraortes 99:Religion 10586:Category 10479:football 10470:Scouting 10380:Iranians 10370:Folklore 10166:Religion 10078:Georgian 10058:Armenian 9919:shipping 9914:railways 9904:airlines 9870:Industry 9735:Taxation 9549:Councils 9465:Military 9380:Politics 9361:Wildlife 9326:Caucasus 9208:Persians 9135:See also 8959:Iranian 8926:Pahlavi 8839:Safavid 8815:Timurid 8718:977–1432 8698:Ziyarid 8674:Tahirid 8666:Samanid 8658:Abbasid 8650:Umayyad 8635:632–1090 8452:Lullubi 8436:Elamite 8210:Japanese 8173:Scottish 8153:American 8145:Colonial 8074:Imperial 8042:Moroccan 7978:Japanese 7956:Afsharid 7815:Burmese 7801:Austrian 7756:Later Le 7731:Early Le 7716:Venetian 7642:Tiwanaku 7555:Hellenic 7518:Moroccan 7449:Kamakura 7439:Japanese 7422:Saffarid 7375:Georgian 7289:Chalukya 7267:Rashidun 7257:Calakmul 7225:Bruneian 7104:Haryanka 7082:Sasanian 7077:Parthian 7028:Bactrian 7018:Seleucid 6998:Goguryeo 6976:Egyptian 6910:Assyrian 6900:Akkadian 6891:Colonies 6697:Astyages 6692:Cyaxares 6558:Harpagus 6507:Astyages 6502:Cyaxares 6417:Laodicea 6405:Ecbatana 6378:Language 6061:: 1–27, 6040:citation 5670:Archived 5475:(ael/fr) 5386:July 30, 4990:"Arians" 4613:(ael/fr) 4162:20064424 4134:(eds.). 3726:(eds.). 3711:(2003). 3553:(2004). 3339:Jeremiah 3256:Hyrcania 3248:Sagartia 3045:Xenophon 3029:Harpagus 2992:polygamy 2951:Jeremiah 2906:Astyages 2882:Cyaxares 2712:Jeremiah 2660:Astyages 2628:Seleucid 2618:(modern 2583:Spitamas 2574:Ecbatana 2566:Harpagus 2564:general 2557:Cyrus II 2535:Tigranes 2525:and the 2507:Cyrus II 2459:Xenophon 2443:Sagartia 2435:Hyrcania 2431:Tibareni 2415:Macrones 2403:Astyages 2382:Alyattes 2302:Necho II 2290:Nasibina 2273:Berossus 2201:Bartatua 2141:Cyaxares 1991:Qizkapan 1975:Arinberd 1959:Gunespan 1907:Empire. 1892:Baba Jan 1878:(modern 1876:Ecbatana 1844:Ecbatana 1792:Cyrus II 1788:Astyages 1756:Persians 1752:Cyaxares 1702:Ecbatana 1696:) was a 1688:Akkadian 1610:Timeline 1568:Monarchs 1146:Kakuyids 1136:Annazids 1130:977–1186 1120:959–1095 1110:955–1070 1100:934–1062 1086:Ilyasids 1080:930–1090 1070:919–1062 1040:861–1003 990:665–1598 970:651–1349 956:Dabuyids 950:750–1258 609:1500–500 589:Kassites 547:2700–539 537:3100-675 403:BCE / BC 367:a series 365:Part of 189:Iron Age 175:Astyages 163:Cyaxares 113:Monarchy 83:Ecbatana 10529:Ey Iran 10477: ( 10437: ( 10413:student 10411: ( 10407: ( 10392: ( 10360:Cuisine 10345:Fashion 10333: ( 10313: ( 10298: ( 10284:Culture 10232: ( 10196: ( 10181: ( 10154:Turkmen 10106: ( 10097:Peoples 10068:Kurdish 10024:Society 9925:Tourism 9902: ( 9892: ( 9882: ( 9862: ( 9855:Defense 9825: ( 9815:Sectors 9802: ( 9762: ( 9667: ( 9648:General 9637:Economy 9527: ( 9497: ( 9467: ( 9420: ( 9405: ( 9391:General 9346:Islands 9282:largest 9272:Borders 8741:Seljuk 8733:Ghurid 8682:Alavid 8492:Median 8484:Urartu 8406:Ancient 8386:History 8277:largest 8272:Empires 8252:Swedish 8247:Spanish 8242:Russian 8205:Italian 8180:Chinese 8168:English 8163:British 8158:Belgian 8133:Vietnam 8123:Tay son 8069:Tsarist 8064:Russian 8059:Ottoman 8025:Dzungar 8020:Khoshut 7993:Mexican 7988:Maratha 7971:Pahlavi 7951:Safavid 7946:Iranian 7873:Haitian 7836:Chinese 7796:Ashanti 7768:Wagadou 7694:Eastern 7689:Western 7672:Timurid 7632:Tibetan 7622:Songhai 7612:Serbian 7533:Almohad 7523:Idrisid 7427:Samanid 7417:Tahirid 7412:Iranian 7390:Kannauj 7370:Genoese 7306:Chinese 7299:Eastern 7294:Western 7282:Fatimid 7277:Abbasid 7272:Umayyad 7245:Burmese 7205:Ayyubid 7200:Angevin 7170:Xianbei 7158:Eastern 7153:Western 7099:Magadha 7062:Iranian 7055:Xiongnu 7040:Hittite 6949:Chinese 6937:Kassite 6886:Ancient 6878:Empires 6837:Italics 6771:Gaumata 6766:Smerdis 6746:Cyrus I 6741:Teispes 6735:Arsames 6677:Deioces 6593:Related 6568:Mandane 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Brill 3652:"Medes" 3394:In the 3351:Babylon 3328:England 3276:Bactria 3252:Parthia 3244:Armenia 3203:Matiene 3188:Assyria 3184:Mannaea 3148:Hamadan 3051:Economy 3033:Mazares 2810:Deioces 2607:Gaumata 2513:to the 2499:Mandane 2487:Croesus 2455:Bactria 2439:Parthia 2411:Ibenans 2399:Aryenis 2395:Cilicia 2355:Babylon 2329:Empire? 2294:Rasappa 2269:Tarbisu 2261:Nineveh 2253:Arrapha 2130:Saparda 2098:Arbaces 2093:Deioces 2006:History 1900:Hasanlu 1880:Hamadan 1858:Persica 1849:Ctesias 1776:Babylon 1741:Bactria 1336:Injuids 1090:932–968 1060:889–929 1030:819–999 1020:821–873 980:651–760 960:642–760 940:661–750 930:632-661 918:CE / AD 878:224–651 868:125–300 824:Elymais 768:–226 AD 659:720-670 655:Saparda 649:750-521 645:Zikirti 639:850–616 635:Mannaea 629:860–590 619:911–609 553:Marhaši 256:585 BCE 249:• 243:612 BCE 238:Nineveh 230:625 BCE 220:672 BCE 139:Deioces 79:Capital 10596:Portal 10355:Cinema 10337:Nowruz 10234:higher 10108:abroad 10073:Hebrew 9979:Places 9875:Mining 9700:Energy 9277:Cities 9193:Aryans 8912:Modern 8863:Qajar 8706:Buyid 8374:topics 8215:Mongol 8200:German 8195:French 8185:Danish 8128:Dainam 8103:Tongan 8091:Somali 8086:Sokoto 8052:'Alawi 8030:Kalmyk 8010:Mongol 8003:Second 7983:Korean 7934:Mughal 7924:Indian 7907:German 7900:Second 7890:French 7883:Second 7819:Second 7791:Afghan 7783:Modern 7709:Kyrgyz 7704:Uighur 7699:Second 7679:Turkic 7647:Toltec 7583:Epirus 7568:Nicaea 7491:Mongol 7444:Yamato 7380:Huetar 7238:Second 7175:Rouran 7124:Shunga 7119:Maurya 7094:Kushan 7067:Median 7045:Hunnic 7003:Harsha 6687:Madyes 6664:Median 6642:Median 6600:Medism 6548:Gubaru 6497:Madyes 6411:Rhagae 6398:Cities 6372:topics 6370:Median 6325: 6298: 6282: 6274: 6244: 6228: 6220: 6190: 6172: 6142: 6117: 6109: 6081: 6073: 6029: 6011: 5980: 5962: 5944: 5923: 5904: 5883: 5865: 5846: 5825: 5726: 5718: 5664: 5566: 5411: 5316: 5244: 5072: 4815: 4783: 4602:, 102 4458: 4230: 4188: 4160: 4152: 4094: 3895: 3799: 3738: 3621: 3534: 3404:Pompey 3335:Isaiah 3309:Medism 3287:Legacy 3207:Gutium 3168:Persia 3140:Tehran 3119:Ellipi 3035:, and 2990:, and 2858:Madyes 2763:Period 2716:pechah 2620:Tehran 2579:Amytis 2491:Amytis 2423:Marres 2419:Mushki 2298:Harran 2277:Amytis 2265:Arbela 2263:, and 2197:Madyes 2065:Ellipi 2055:Under 2042:Urartu 2038:Mannea 1904:Ziwiye 1896:Mannea 1890:, and 1782:, and 1693:Mādāya 1667:𐎶𐎠𐎭 722:Sogdia 625:Urartu 369:on the 326:Urartu 124: 93:Median 35:𐎶𐎠𐎭 10617:Medes 10490:Music 10475:Sport 10405:Media 10390:Islam 10326:Blogs 10270:Women 10225:Crime 10213:Other 10174:Islam 10144:Kurds 9909:metro 9827:fruit 9785:Setad 8855:Zand 8765:Kart 8265:Lists 8220:Omani 8190:Dutch 8096:Isaaq 8047:Saadi 8015:Oirat 7998:First 7966:Qajar 7895:First 7878:First 7851:China 7824:Third 7684:First 7637:Tikal 7588:Morea 7558:Roman 7476:Latin 7471:Khmer 7466:Kanem 7432:Buyid 7358:Zagwe 7353:Aksum 7343:Chola 7250:First 7233:First 7220:Bornu 7215:Benin 7210:Aztec 7148:Roman 7129:Gupta 7114:Nanda 7050:White 6648:kings 6577:Lists 6543:Datis 6280:JSTOR 6226:JSTOR 6115:JSTOR 6079:JSTOR 5724:JSTOR 5673:(PDF) 5640:(PDF) 4158:JSTOR 3732:Padua 3716:(PDF) 3415:Notes 3085:Gabae 3081:Rages 3037:Datis 2758:Ruler 2724:eretz 2720:sagan 2677:Padua 2616:Rages 2527:Sacae 2363:Egypt 2359:Lydia 2257:Assur 1784:Egypt 1780:Lydia 1733:Medes 1684:Mēdía 1680:Μηδία 1675:Greek 1658:Media 530:Zamua 120:Kings 10518:Rock 10503:Jazz 10498:Folk 10364:wine 10149:Jews 9479:Navy 9469:Army 9448:LGBT 8372:Iran 8035:Bogd 7961:Zand 7939:Sikh 7846:Qing 7841:Ming 7773:Wari 7741:Tran 7726:Dinh 7496:Yuan 7486:Mali 7395:Pala 7385:Inca 7336:Yuan 7326:Song 7321:Liao 7316:Tang 7089:Kush 6971:Dʿmt 6644:and 6323:ISBN 6296:ISBN 6272:ISSN 6242:ISBN 6218:ISSN 6202:Iran 6188:ISBN 6170:ISBN 6140:ISBN 6107:ISSN 6091:Iran 6071:ISSN 6055:Iran 6046:link 6027:ISBN 6009:ISBN 5978:ISBN 5960:ISBN 5942:ISBN 5921:ISBN 5902:ISBN 5881:ISBN 5863:ISBN 5844:ISBN 5823:ISBN 5716:ISSN 5662:ISSN 5564:ISSN 5487:(es) 5484:(en) 5481:(en) 5478:(en) 5469:(el) 5466:(pt) 5462:Clio 5409:ISBN 5388:2020 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