Makuria - Knowledge

2206:, who seems to have been the viceroy in that region after it was annexed to Makuria. The Eparch's records make clear that he was also responsible for trade and diplomacy with the Egyptians. Early records make it seem like the Eparch was appointed by the king, but later ones indicate that the position had become hereditary. The elite of Makuria was drawn from noblemen who the Islamic sources called "princes". It was them who constituted the courtiers, military commanders and bishops. They were apparently powerful enough to openly exlaim their discontent and even depose the ruler if they were unhappy with him, despite claims in Islamic sources that the power of the Makurian king was absolute. A selected few of them, the elders, constituted a council that assisted the king in his decision making. The elders aside it was also the queenmother who bore a key role in advising the king. In 1292 an unnamed Makurian king is even reported to have claimed that "it was only the women who direct the kings " 1277:. The latter conquered Qasr Ibrim in January 1173, reportedly sacking it, taking many prisoners, pillaging the church and converting it into a mosque. Afterward, he sent an emissary to the Makurian king, Moses Georgios, intending to answer a previously requested peace treaty with a pair of arrows. Probably ruling over both Makuria and Alodia, Moses Georgios was a man confident in his ability to resist the Egyptians, stamping with hot iron a cross on the emissary's hand. Turan Shah withdrew from Nubia but left a detachment of Kurdish troops in Qasr Ibrim, which would raid Lower Nubia for the next two years. Archaeological evidence links them with the destruction of the cathedral of Faras, Abdallah Nirqi and Debeira West. In 1175 a Nubian army finally arrived to confront the invaders at Adindan. Before battle, however, the Kurdish commander drowned while crossing the Nile, resulting in the retreat of Saladin's troops out of Nubia. Afterwards there was peace for another 100 years. 130: 1875: 1863: 2503: 1848: 1887: 1567:, who is mentioned in a 1463 document and in an inscription from 1484. Perhaps it was under Joel when the kingdom witnessed a last, brief renaissance. After the death or deposition of king Joel the kingdom might have collapsed. The cathedral of Faras came out of use after the 15th century, just as Qasr Ibrim was abandoned by the late 15th century. The palace of Gebel Adda came out of use after the 15th century as well. In 1518, there is one last mention of a Nubian ruler, albeit it is unknown where he resided and if he was Christian or Muslim. However, in 2023 Adam Simmons pointed to the existence in the 1520s of Christian Nubian Queen Gaua. There were no traces of an independent Christian kingdom when the Ottomans occupied 809: 2031: 1768:. The royal court employed Nobiin despite being located in Dongolawi-speaking territory. By the eight century Nobiin had been codified based on the Coptic alphabet, but it was not until the 11th century when Nobiin had established itself as language of administrative, economic and religious documents. The rise of Nobiin overlapped with the decline of the Coptic language in both Makuria and Egypt. It has been suggested that before the rise of Nobiin as a literary language, Coptic served as official administrative language, but this seems doubtful; Coptic literary remains are virtually absent in the Makurian heartland. In Nobadia, however, Coptic was fairly widespread, probably even serving as a 1985: 2043: 457: 2086: 2012: 156: 1829: 1929: 1620: 443: 2055: 1177: 1108:. In 834 al-Mu'tasim ordered that the Egyptian Arab Bedouins, who had been declining as a military force since the rise of the Abbasids, were not to receive any more payments. Discontented and dispossessed, they pushed southwards. The road into Nubia was, however, blocked by Makuria: while there existed communities of Arab settlers in Lower Nubia the great mass of the Arab nomads was forced to settle among the Beja, driven also by the motivation to exploit the local gold mines. In the mid-9th century the Arab adventurer al-Umari hired a private army and settled at a mine near 1417:

Makuria a vassal of Egypt, and a Mamluk garrison was stationed in Dongola. A few years later, Shamamun, another member of the Makurian royal family, led a rebellion against Shekanda to restore Makurian independence. He eventually defeated the Mamluk garrison and took the throne in 1286 after separating from Egypt and betraying the peace deal. He offered the Egyptians an increase in the annual Baqt payments in return for scrapping the obligations to which Shekanda had agreed. The Mamluk armies were occupied elsewhere, and the Sultan of Egypt agreed to this new arrangement.

720: 2293: 849:, a people originally from Kordofan that had settled in the Nile Valley in the 4th century AD. Thus, a new Makurian society and state emerged by the 5th century. In the late 5th century one of the first Makurian kings moved the power base of the still-developing kingdom from Napata to further downstream, where the fortress of Dongola, the new seat of the royal court, was founded and which soon developed a vast urban district. Many more fortresses were built along the banks of the Nile, probably not intended to serve a military purpose, but to foster urbanization. 2190:. Shinnie speculates that the later form may have actually been used throughout, and that the early Arab writers merely misunderstood the situation and incorrectly described Makurian succession as similar to what they were used to. A Coptic source from the mid 8th century refers to king Cyriacos as "orthodox Abyssinian king of Makuria" as well as "Greek king", with "Abyssinian" probably reflecting the Miaphysite Coptic church and "Greek" the Byzantine Orthodox one. In 1186 king Moses Georgios called himself "king of Alodia, Makuria, Nobadia, Dalmatia and Axioma." 1953: 2124: 1293: 934: 2431: 2243: 2278: 1902: 1433: 2067: 1997: 1225: 1328:. The Nubian army destroyed the town, causing “a blow to the very heart of Islam”. A punitive Mamluk expedition was sent in response, but did not pass beyond the second cataract. Three years later the Makurians attacked and destroyed Aswan, but this time Mamluk Sultan Baybars responded with a well-equipped army setting off from Cairo in early 1276, accompanied by a cousin of king David named Mashkouda or Shekanda. The Mamluks defeated the Nubians in three battles at Gebel Adda, Meinarti and finally at the 1914: 1973: 1246: 1045: 1372:, first displayed as Muslims and later, after the 12th century and with increasing knowledge of Nubia, as Christians. Contacts between crusaders and western pilgrims on the one side and Nubians on the other occurred in Jerusalem, where European accounts from the 12th–14th centuries attest the existence of a Nubian community, and also, if not primarily in Egypt, where many Nubians were living and where European merchants were highly active. Perhaps there also existed a Nubian community in 2568:, though Egyptian coins were common in the north. Makurian trade with Egypt was of great importance. From Egypt a wide array of luxury and manufactured goods were imported. The main Makurian export was slaves. The slaves sent north were not from Makuria itself, but rather from further south and west in Africa. Little is known about Makurian trade and relations with other parts of Africa. There is some archaeological evidence of contacts and trade with the areas to the west, especially 1817: 2557: 1941: 797: 1020:. In that year, John the Deacon claims, the Umayyad governor of Egypt imprisoned the Coptic Patriarch, resulting in a Makurian invasion and siege of Fustat, the Egyptian capital, after which the Patriarch was released. This episode has been referred to as “Christian Egyptian propaganda”, although it is still likely that Upper Egypt was subject to a Makurian campaign, perhaps a raid. Nubian influence in Upper Egypt would remain strong. Three years later, in 750, after the 1089:

few months after Georgios arrived in Baghdad he, described as educated and well-mannered, managed to convince the caliph of remitting the Nubian debts and reducing the Baqt payments to a three-year rhythm. In 836 or early 837 Georgios returned to Nubia. After his return a new church was built in Dongola, the Cruciform Church, which had an approximate height of 28 metres (92 ft) and came to be the largest building in the entire kingdom. A new palace, the so-called

1129: 2464: 1717: 1421: 2170: 1340: 2398: 1258: 910: 1144:, killing and enslaving many people. Five years later the Makurians attacked Aswan, but were subsequently chased as far south as Qasr Ibrim. A new Makurian attack on Aswan followed immediately, which was answered by another Egyptian retaliation, this time capturing Qasr Ibrim. This did not put a hold on Makurian aggression and between 962–964 they again attacked, this time pushing as far north as 1117:, but he was abandoned by his army and was forced to flee to Alodia. The Makurian king then sent another son, Zacharias, who worked together with al-Umari to kill Nyuti before eventually defeating al-Umari himself and pushing him into the desert. Afterward, al-Umari attempted to establish himself in Lower Nubia, but was soon pushed out again before finally being murdered during the reign of the 1501: 921:, presumably during the 620s, but before 642. Before the Sasanian invasion, Nobatia used to have strong ties with Egypt and was thus hit hard by its fall. Perhaps it was also invaded by the Sasanians itself: some local churches from that period show traces of destruction and subsequent rebuilding. Thus weakened, Nobatia fell to Makuria, making Makuria extend as far north as 2455:, the Islamic head tax enforced on non-Muslims, was established after the Mamluk invasion of 1276 and Makuria was periodically governed by Muslim kings since Abdallah Barshambu, the majority of the Nubians remained Christian. The actual Islamization of Nubia began in the late 14th century, with the arrival of the first in a series of Muslim teachers propagating Islam. 1772:. Coptic also served as the language of communication with Egypt and the Coptic Church. Coptic refugees escaping Islamic persecution settled in Makuria, while Nubian priests and bishops would have studied in Egyptian monasteries. Greek, the third language, was of great prestige and used in religious context, but does not seem to have been actually spoken (similar to 1538: 2702:(ancient Ptolemais in Libya), which was a part of the patriarch of Alexandria's title: "archbishop of the great city of Alexandria and the city of Babylon (Cairo), and Nobadia, Alodia, Makuria, Dalmatia and Axioma (Axum)." It has been proposed that there was some confusion in the 1186 document between the titles of the king and the patriarch. 1600:. Another small kingdom was the Kingdom of Kokka, probably founded in the 17th century in the no-mans-land between the Ottoman Empire in the north and the Funj in the south. Its organization and rituals bore clear similarities to those of Christian times. Eventually the kings themselves were Christians until the 18th century. 2265:, its counterpart in Egypt, disappeared. In the 5th century the Nubians went so far as to launch an invasion of Egypt when the Christians there tried to turn some of the main temples into churches. A portion of the Nubian population seemingly remained pagan as late as the 10th century, for el-Aswani reported that " 1795:. This large building had been completely filled with sand preserving a series of paintings. Similar, but less well preserved, paintings have been found at several other sites in Makuria, including palaces and private homes, giving an impression of Makurian art. The style and content was heavily influenced by 1490:, who is dated to the mid 14th century. The attestations of Siti's reign, all Nubian in nature, show that he still exercised control/influence over a vast territory from Lower Nubia to Kordofan, suggesting that his kingdom entered the second half of the 14th century centralized, powerful and Christian. 2156:

Latrines were a common sight in Nubian domestic buildings. In Dongola all houses had ceramic toilets. Some houses in Cerra Matto (Serra East) featured privies with ceramic toilets, which were connected to a small chamber with a stone-lined clean out window to the outside and a brick ventilation flue.

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During the second half of the 11th century, Makuria saw great cultural and religious reforms, referred to as "Nubization". The main initiator has been suggested to have been Georgios, the archbishop of Dongola and hence the head of the Makurian church. He seems to have popularized the Nubian language

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described Georgios and his retinue in some detail, writing that Georgios rode a camel, wielded a sceptre and a golden cross in his hands and that a red umbrella was carried over his head. He was accompanied by a bishop, horsemen and slaves, and to his left and right were young men wielding crosses. A

905:

and declaring its good relationship with the Byzantines. Unlike Nobatia in the north (with which Makuria seemed to have been in enmity) and Alodia in the south Makuria embraced the Chalcedonian doctrine. The early ecclesiastical architecture at Dongola confirms the close relations maintained with the

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in Makuria. According to Adams there are only three archaeological sites that are certainly monastic. All three are fairly small and quite Coptic, leading to the possibility that they were set up by Egyptian refugees rather than indigenous Makurians. Since the 10th/11th century the Nubians had their

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states that Makuria then embraced the rival Byzantine Christianity. Archaeological evidence seems to point to a rapid conversion brought about by an official adoption of the new faith. Millennia-old traditions such as the building of elaborate tombs, and the burying of expensive grave goods with the

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Archaeological evidence in this period finds a number of Christian ornaments in Nubia, and some scholars feel that this implies that conversion from below was already taking place. Others argue that it is more likely that these reflected the faith of the manufacturers in Egypt rather than the buyers

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the Fatimid dynasty, which signaled new hostilities between Egypt and Nubia. The following year, a Makurian army pillaged Aswan and advanced even further north. It is not clear if this campaign was intended to aid the Fatimids or was merely a raid exploiting the unstable situation in Egypt, although

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described how two competing missions were sent to Nubia, with the Miaphysite arriving first in, and converting, the northern kingdom of Nobatia in 543. While the Nobatian king refused Justinian's mission to travel further south archaeological records might suggest that Makuria converted still in the

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In Dongola, there was no larger number of Muslims until the end of the 13th century. Before that date, Muslim residents were limited to merchants and diplomats. In the late 10th century, when al-Aswani came to Dongola, there was, despite being demanded in the Baqt, still no mosque; he and around 60

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did in 722. This same period saw Melkite Makuria absorb the Coptic Nobatia, historians have long wondered why the conquering state adopted the religion of its rival. It is fairly clear that Egyptian Coptic influence was far stronger in the region, and that Byzantine power was fading, and this might

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One house in Dongola featured a vaulted bathroom, fed by a system of pipes attached to a water tank. A furnace heated up both the water and the air, which was circulated into the richly decorated bathroom via flues in the walls. The monastic complex of Hambukol is thought to have had a room serving

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and women enjoyed a high social standing. The matrilineal succession gave the queen mother and the sister of the current king as forthcoming queen mother great political relevance. This importance is attested by the fact that she constantly appears in legal documents. Another female political title

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1300. The legend concerning Nubia reads: “The people who live here are called the Nubians. This people always go naked. They are honest and devout Christians. They are rich in gold and live on trade. They have three kings and the same number of bishops. They pay frequent visits to Jerusalem in vast

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in eastern Makuria. After a confrontation between both parties, al-Umari occupied Makurian territories along the Nile. King Georgios I sent an elite force commanded by his son in law, Nyuti, but he failed to defeat the Arabs and rebelled against the crown himself. King Georgios then sent his oldest

2447:. Arabic documents from Qasr Ibrim confirm that these Muslims had their own communal judiciary, but still regarded the Eparch of Nobatia as their suzerain. It seems likely that they had own mosques, though none have been identified archaeologically, with a possible exception being in Gebel Adda. 1517:

in Lower Nubia. The usurper then killed the nobility of the Banu Ja'd, probably because he could not trust them anymore, and destroyed and pillaged Dongola, then traveled to Gebel Adda to ask his uncle for forgiveness. Thus Dongola was left to the Banu Ja'd and Gebel Adda became the new capital.

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claim that the contemporary Makurian kings were Muslims belonging to the Banu Khanz, while the general population remained Christian. Al-Umari also points out that Makuria was still dependent on the Mamluk Sultan. On the other hand, he also remarks that the Makurian throne was seized in turns by

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near the first cataract. A new bishopric was founded in Faras in around 630 and two new cathedrals styled after the basilica of Dongola were built in Faras and Qasr Ibrim. It is not known what happened to the royal Nobatian family after the unification, but it is recorded that Nobatia remained a

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Women had access to education and there is evidence that, like in Byzantine Egypt, female scribes existed. Private land tenure was open to both men and women, meaning that both could own, buy and sell land. Transfers of land from mother to daughter were common. They could also be the patrons of

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in medieval Europe). Lastly, Arabic was used from the 11th and 12th centuries, superseding Coptic as language of commerce and diplomatic correspondences with Egypt. Furthermore, Arab traders and settlers were present in northern Nubia, although the spoken language of the latter appears to have

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Both the usurper and the rightful heir, and most likely even the king that was killed during the usurpation, were Christian. Now residing in Gebel Adda, the Makurian kings continued their Christian traditions. They ruled over a reduced rump state with a confirmed north–south extension of around

1452:

The ascension of the Muslim king Abdallah Barshambu and his transformation of the throne hall into a mosque has often been interpreted as the end of Christian Makuria. This conclusion is erroneous, since Christianity evidently remained vital in Nubia. While not much is known about the following

1449:. While ruling, his tribe, the Banu Khanz, acted a puppet dynasty of the Mamluks. King Karanbas tried to wrestle control from Kanz ad-Dwala in 1323 and eventually seized Dongola, but was ousted just one year later. He retreated to Aswan for another chance to seize the throne, but it never came. 1440:

After a period of peace, King Karanbas defaulted on these payments, and the Mamluks again occupied the kingdom in 1312. This time, a Muslim member of the Makurian dynasty was placed on the throne. Sayf al-Din Abdullah Barshambu began converting the nation to Islam and in 1317 the throne hall of

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times the treaty was expanded by regulating the safety of Nubians in Egypt and Muslims in Makuria. While some modern scholars view the Baqt as a submission of Makuria to the Muslims it is clear that it was not: the exchanged goods were of equal value and Makuria was recognized as an independent

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were of great economic importance. It is possible that their breeding and marketing was controlled by the central administration. A great assemblage of 13th century cattle bones from Old Dongola has been linked with a mass slaughter by the invading Mamluks, who attempted to weaken the Makurian

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Internal difficulties seem to have also hurt the kingdom. King David's cousin Shekanda claimed the throne and traveled to Cairo to seek the support of the Mamluks. They agreed and took over Nubia in 1276, and placed Shekanda on the throne. The Christian Shekanda then signed an agreement making

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confluence, Makuria seemed to have maintained a dynastic union, as according to the accounts of Arab geographers from the 10th century and Nubian sources from the 12th century. Archaeological evidence shows an increased Makurian influence on Alodian art and architecture from the 8th century.

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to the Makurian king Georgios III. Georgios accepted the first request of the emissary, the resumption of the Baqt, but declined the second one, the conversion to Islam, after a lengthy discussion with his bishops and learned men, and instead invited the Fatimid governor of Egypt to embrace

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Zakharias, presumably already quite powerful during the lifetime of Ioannes, was the husband of a sister of Ioannes. The matrilinear Nubian succession demanded that only the son of the king's sister could be the next king, hence making Zakharias an illegitimate king in contrast to his son

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The Baqt guaranteed the security of Muslims travelling in Makuria, but prohibited their settlement in the kingdom. However, the latter point was, not maintained: Muslim migrants, probably merchants and artisans, are confirmed to have settled in Lower Nubia from the 9th century and to have

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Shinnie refers to Nubian pottery as the "richest indigenous pottery tradition on the African continent." Scholars divide the pottery into three eras. The early period, from 550 to 650 according to Adams, or to 750 according to Shinnie, saw fairly simple pottery similar to that of the late

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was signed to prevent further Arab invasions in exchange for 360 slaves each year that lasted until the 13th century. The period from the 9th to 11th century saw the peak of Makuria's cultural development: a brisk construction activity resulted in the construction of buildings like the

1368:, western Europe grew increasingly aware of the existence of Christian Nubia during the 12th and 13th centuries until in the early 14th century, there were even proposals to ally with the Nubians for another crusade against the Mamluks. Nubian characters also start to be featured in 711:

travelers and historians who passed through Nubia during this period. These accounts are often problematic as many of the Arab writers were biased against their Christian neighbors. These works generally focus on only the military conflicts between Egypt and Nubia. One exception is

1237:, probably becoming one of the most important ones in the entire kingdom. In the same period Makuria also began to adopt a new royal dress and regalia and perhaps also Nubian terminology in administration and titles, all suggested to have initially come from Alodia in the south. 1280:

There are no records from travelers to Makuria from 1172 to 1268, and the events of this period have long been a mystery, although modern discoveries have shed some light on this era. During this period Makuria seems to have entered a steep decline. The best source on this is

1468:, which relies on an anonymous traveller from the mid-14th century, it is claimed that the "Kingdom of Dongola" was inhabited by Christians and that its royal banner was a cross on white background (see flag). Epigraphical evidence reveals the names of three Makurian kings: 1016:. Zacharias, Merkurios' son and successor, renounced his claim to the throne and went into a monastery, but maintained the right to proclaim a successor. Within a few years there were three different kings and several Muslim raids until before 747, the throne was seized by 2495:, that was introduced in the Roman period and helped increase yields and population density. Settlement patterns indicate that land was divided into individual plots rather than as in a manorial system. The peasants lived in small villages composed of clustered houses of 6433: 828:

and the great Nile bend of the fourth/fifth cataract, has been proposed to have seceded from Kush already in the 3rd century. Here, a homogenous and relatively isolated culture dubbed as "pre-Makuria" developed. During the 4th and 5th centuries, the region of

2483:. The methods used were generally the same that had been used for millennia. Small plots of well irrigated land were lined along the banks of the Nile, which would be fertilized by the river's annual flooding. One important technological advance was the 2217:

noted that before the king responded to his mission he met with a council of bishops. El-Aswani described a highly centralized state, but other writers state that Makuria was a federation of thirteen kingdoms presided over by the great king at Dongola.

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In 1365, there occurred yet another short, but disastrous civil war. The current king was killed in battle by his rebelling nephew, who had allied himself with the Banu Ja'd tribe. The brother of the deceased king and his retinue fled to a town called

762:

launched a massive effort to do as much archaeological work as possible before the flooding occurred. Thousands of experts were brought from around the world over the next few years. Some of the more important Makurian sites looked at were the city of

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Borowski, Tomasz (2019). "Placed in the Midst of Enemies? Material Evidence for the Existence of Maritime Cultural Networks Connecting Fourteenth-Century Famagusta with Overseas Regions in Europe, Africa and Asia". In Walsh, Michael J. K. (ed.).

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influences. The late period during Makuria's decline saw domestic production again fall in favour of imports from Egypt. Pottery produced in Makuria became less ornate, but better control of firing temperatures allowed different colours of clay.

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As of 2019, around 650 murals distributed over 25 sites have been recorded, with more paintings still awaiting publication. One of the most important discoveries of the rushed work prior to the flooding of Lower Nubia was the Cathedral of

1184:. Nubian influence is not only suggested by the horned headgear the dignitary is wearing, resembling that of Nobadian eparchs, but also by the style of the painting itself, executed in a Nubian style common during the 10th-12th centuries. 1168:

outside of Dongola with drums and trumpets, though not without the discontent of some of his subjects. Relations between Makuria and Fatimid Egypt were to remain peaceful, as the Fatimids needed the Nubians as allies against their

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similar to the Nile Valley upstream of Al Dabbah. Historical and linguistic evidence confirms that the locals were predominantly Nubian-speaking until the 19th century, with a language closely related to the Nile-Nubian dialects.

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Little is known about government below the king. A wide array of officials, generally using Byzantine titles, are mentioned, but their roles are never explained. One figure who is well-known, thanks to the documents found at

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The kingdom was at its peak between the 9th and 11th centuries. During the reign of king Ioannes in the early 9th century, relations with Egypt were cut and the Baqt ceased to be paid. Upon Ioannes' death in 835 an

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Today, the Nubian language is in the process of being replaced by Arabic. Furthermore, the Nubians have increasingly started to claim to be Arabs descending from Abbas, disregarding their Christian Nubian past.

155: 6256:"The Letter of an Ethiopian King to King George II of Nubia in the framework of the ecclesiastic correspondence between Axum, Nubia and the Coptic Patriarchate in Egypt and of the events of the 10th Century AD" 1663:, Mirafab and the "Ja'alin proper". Among them, Nubian remained a spoken language until the 19th century. North of the Al Dabbah developed three Nubian sub-groups: The Kenzi, who, before the completion of the 1592:

held in Dongola failed to mention them as well. These new kings of Dongola were probably confronted with waves of Arab migrations and thus were too weak to conquer the Makurian splinter state of Lower Nubia.

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was decided is not clear. Early writers indicate it was from father to son. After the 11th century, however, it seems clear that Makuria was using the uncle-to-sister's-son system favoured for millennia in

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churches and wall paintings. Inscriptions from the cathedral of Faras indicate that around every second wall painting had a female sponsor. An inscription from Faras suggests that women could also serve as

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as written language to counter the growing influence of Arabic in the Coptic Church and introduced the cult of dead rulers and bishops as well as indigenous Nubian saints. A new, unique church was built in

747:, these documents have long been deciphered. However, the vast majority of them are works dealing with religion or legal records that are of little use to historians. The largest known collection, found at 674:

and the shift of trade routes led to the state's decline in the 13th and 14th century. In the 1310s and 1320s it was briefly ruled by Muslim kings. Due to a civil war in 1365, the kingdom was reduced to a

1679:, the southernmost of the remaining Nile Valley Nubians. Some count the Danagla to the Ja'alin, since the Danagla also claim to belong to that Arab tribe, but they in fact still speak a Nubian language, 1886: 1462:

Muslims and Christians. Indeed, an Ethiopian monk who travelled through Nubia in around 1330, Gadla Ewostatewos, states that the Nubian king, who he claims to have met in person, was Christian. In the

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in the south, which, previously being Alodia's northernmost province, had by this period become a kingdom of its own. The king of al-Abwab, however, handed David over to Baybars, who had him executed.

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Zielinska, Dobrochna; Tsakos, Alexandros (2019). "Representations of Archangel Michael in Wall Paintings from Medieval Nubia". In Ingvild Sælid Gilhus; Alexandros Tsakos; Marta Camilla Wright (eds.).

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Theory I places that event at the time of the Sasanian invasion, theory II at the time between the first and second Arab invasion, i.e. 642 and 652, and the third at the turn of the seventh century.

1497:. Archaeology confirms a rapid decline of the Christian Nubian civilization since then. Due to their small population the plague might have cleansed entire landscapes from its Nubian inhabitants. 601:. The capital of Dongola was founded around 500 and soon after, in the mid-6th century, Makuria converted to Christianity. Probably in the early 7th century Makuria annexed its northern neighbour 2357:

have played a role. Historians are also divided on whether this was the end of the Melkite/Coptic split as there is some evidence that a Melkite minority persisted until the end of the kingdom.

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invasions similar to what the Mamluks were dealing with. Other factors for the decline of Nubia might have been the change of African trade routes and a severe dry period between 1150 and 1500.

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emissary arrived, demanding the Makurian payment of the missing 14 annual payments and threatening with war if the demands are not met. Thus confronted with a demand for more than 5000 slaves,

6494:Ägypten und sein Umfeld in der Spätantike. Vom Regierungsantritt Diokletians 284/285 bis zur arabischen Eroberung des Vorderen Orients um 635-646. Akten der Tagung vom 7.-9.7.2011 in Münster 1847: 1312:

in 1260. In 1265 a Mamluk army allegedly raided Makuria as far south as Dongola while also expanding southwards along the African Red Sea coast, thus threatening the Nubians. In 1272 king

984:, textiles etc.), an exchange typical for historical North East African states and perhaps being a continuation of terms already existing between the Nubians and Byzantines. Probably in 2030: 2102:. It also saw much of Nubian pottery imported from Egypt rather than produced domestically. Adams feels this trade ended with the invasion of 652; Shinnie links it to the collapse of 1546:

100 km, albeit it might have been larger in reality. Located in a strategically irrelevant periphery, the Mamluks left the kingdom alone. In the sources this kingdom appears as

1828: 833:, located near the fourth cataract and formerly being one of the most important political and sacred places of Kush, served as the center for a new regional elite buried in large 6373:Łajtar, Adam; Płóciennik, Tomasz (2011). "A man from Provence on the Middle Nile: A graffito in the Upper Church at Banganarti". In Łajtar, Adam; van der Vliet, Jacques (eds.). 1651:, who travelled through Nubia in the early 16th century. They are now divided into several sub-tribes, which are, from Al Dabbah to the conjunction of the Blue and White Nile: 2451:

other Muslims had to pray outside of the city. It is not until 1317, with the conversion of the throne hall by Abdallah Barshambu, when a mosque is firmly attested. While the

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This might be a reference to the original three kingdoms of Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia, unless the author was implying the semi-autonomous status of Nobatia within Makuria.

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Godlewski, Wlodzimierz (2013c). "The Kingdom of Makuria in the 7th century. The struggle for power and survival". In Christian Julien Robin; Jérémie Schiettecatte (eds.).

129: 956:. In 641 or 642 the Arabs sent a first expedition into Makuria. While it is not clear how far south it penetrated, it was eventually defeated. A second invasion led by 1596:

It is possible that some petty kingdoms that continued the Christian Nubian culture developed in the former Makurian territory, for example on Mograt island, north of

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and hence the Mamluk Sultan did not allow Latins to travel to Nubia as he was afraid that they might convince the Nubians to start a war, although in the contemporary

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In the 7th century, Makuria annexed its northern neighbour Nobatia. While there are several contradicting theories, it seems likely that this occurred soon after the

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dead were abandoned, and temples throughout the region seem to have been converted to churches. Churches eventually were built in virtually every town and village.

6730:

Osypinska, Marta (2015). "Animals: archaeozoological research on the osteological material from the Citadel". In Włodzimierz Godlewski; Dorota Dzierzbicka (eds.).

1445:. This was not accepted by other Makurian leaders and the nation fell into civil war and anarchy later that year. Barshambu was eventually killed and succeeded by 5966:

Danys, Katarzyna; Zielinska, Dobrochna (2017). "Alwan art. Towards an insight into the aesthetics of the Kingdom of Alwa through the painted pottery decoration".

2042: 7049:

von den Brincken, Anna-Dorothee (2014). "Spuren Nubiens in der abendländischen Universalkartographie im 12. bis 15. Jahrhundert". In Dlugosz, Magdalena (ed.).

1708:

of previous eras. Modern scholars understand that this was due to cultural differences, and that the Makurians actually had rich and vibrant arts and culture.

864:

by converting them to Christianity, the Byzantine state religion. The imperial court, however, was divided in two sects, believing in two different natures of

7391: 6891: 1984: 727:

at the state of its excavation in the early 1960s. The discovery of the church and its magnificent paintings revolutionized the knowledge of Christian Nubia.

6871:

Seignobos, Robin (2014). "Nubia and Nubians in Medieval Latin Culture. The Evidence of Maps (12th-14th cent.)". In Anderson, Julie R; Welsby, Derek (eds.).

1928: 804:

field of Tanqasi (late 3rd—first half of the 6th century). Since then, many new tumuli have been noted there, although most of them still await excavation.

7487:

The chronology of the eastern chapels in the Upper Church at Banganarti. Some observations on the genesis of "apse portraits" in Nubian royal iconography

1205:

Meanwhile, evidence for contact with Christian Ethiopia is surprisingly scarce. An exceptional case was the mediation of Georgios III between Patriarch

6201:

Hagen, Joost (2009). "Districts, Towns and Other Locations of Medieval Nubia and Egypt, Mentioned in the Coptic and Old Nubian Texts from Qasr Ibrim".

1200:

as well as oral traditions. With the southern Nubian kingdom of Alodia, with which Makuria shared its border somewhere between Abu Hamad and the Nile-

2110:. In this middle era, which lasted until around 1100, the pottery was painted with floral and zoomorphic scenes and showed distinct Umayyad and even 779:

Nubia. All of these sites are in what was Nobatia; the only major archaeological site in Makuria itself is the partial exploration of the capital at

1028:, the last Umayyad Caliph, fled to Nubia and asked Kyriakos for asylum, although without success. In around 760 Makuria was probably visited by the 1008:”, the state seems to have been reorganized and Miaphysite Christianity to have become the official creed. He probably also founded the monumental 2502: 2723: 2054: 1913: 1181: 598: 6984:

Simmons, Adam (2019). "The Changing Depiction of the Nubian king in Crusader Songs in an Age of Expanding Knowledge". In Benjamin Weber (ed.).

6639: 2066: 2011: 1480: 6142: 1556:

was, before the Makurian court shifted its seat to Gebel Adda, just a vasal kingdom of Makuria, but it is now accepted that it was merely the

1469: 6492:

Lohwasser, Angelika (2013). "Das „Ende von Meroe". Gedanken zur Regionalität von Ereignissen". In Feder, Frank; Lohwasser, Angelika (eds.).

716:, an Egyptian diplomat who traveled to Dongola when Makuria was at the height of its power in the 10th century and left a detailed account. 968:. While they damaged parts of the town they could not penetrate the walls of the citadel. Muslim sources highlight the skill of the Nubian 285: 268: 897:

recorded that in around 568 Makuria had “received the faith of Christ”. In 573 a Makurian delegation arrived in Constantinople, offering

2389:. The bishops were appointed by the Patriarch, not the king, though they seem to have largely been local Nubians rather than Egyptians. 845:. There was a significant population growth accompanied by social transformations, resulting in the absorption of the Kushites into the 5833:

al-Suriany, Bigoul (2013). "Identification of the Monastery of the Nubians in Wadi al-Natrun". In Gawdat Gabra; Hany N. Takla (eds.).

2344:

After this point the exact course of Makurian Christianity is much disputed. It is clear that by c. 710 Makuria had become officially

1588:

By the early 15th century, there is mention of a king of Dongola, most likely independent from the influence of the Egyptian sultans.

1148:. Parts of Upper Egypt apparently remained occupied by Makuria for several years. Ikhshidid Egypt eventually fell in 969, when it was 7031: 2580:

seem probable, but there are only few evidences. There seem to have been important political relations between Makuria and Christian

1799:, and also showed influence from Egyptian Coptic art and from Palestine. Mainly religious in nature, it depicts many of the standard 842: 7120: 6099: 7569: 7003:

Smidt, W. (2005). "An 8th century Chinese fragment on the Nubian and Abyssinian kingdoms". In Walter Raunig; Steffen Wenig (eds.).

6006:

Fritsch, Emmanuel (2018). "The Origins and Meanings of the Ethiopian Circular Church". In Robin Griffith-Jones, Eric Fernie (ed.).

6821:"La frontière entre le bilād al-islām et le bilād al-Nūba : enjeux et ambiguïtés d'une frontière immobile (VIIe-XIIe siècle)" 6025:

Gazda, M (2005). "Mameluke invasions on Nubia in the 13th Century. Some Thoughts on Political Interrelations in the Middle East".

1996: 2386: 2352:; the king of Makuria became the defender of the patriarch of Alexandria, occasionally intervening militarily to protect him, as 2349: 1901: 743:

extended with some Coptic symbols and some symbols unique to Nubian. Written in a language that is closely related to the modern

5947:

Chojnacki, Stanislaw (2005). "Wandgemälde, Ikonen, Manuskripte, Kreuze und anderes liturgisches Gerät". In Walter Raunig (ed.).

1104:

east of Nubia. As a result, they had to submit to the Caliph, thus expanding nominal Muslim authority over much of the Sudanese

707:

to the south, but there are still many gaps in our knowledge. The most important source for the history of the area is various

6079: 1756:. Nubian was represented by two dialects, with Nobiin being said to have been spoken in the Nobadia province in the north and 1052:

28 x 37,3 x 34,8m. It served as a source of inspiration not only for many Nubian, but even Ethiopian churches like the famous

731:

The Nubians were a literate society, and a fair body of writing survives from the period. These documents were written in the

7559: 7357: 7338: 7261: 7135: 7100: 6965: 6942: 6777: 6739: 6628: 6592: 6382: 6363: 6307: 6131: 6112: 6055: 5937: 5918: 5823: 5804: 3764: 1940: 1001: 972:

in repelling the invasion. With both sides being unable to decide the battle in their favour, abi Sarh and the Makurian king

957: 1816: 1273:

the latter seems more likely, as the Makurians apparently soon withdrew. To deal with the Nubians, Saladin sent his brother

7564: 6770:

Between the Cataracts: Proceedings of the 11th Conference of Nubian Studies, Warsaw, 27 August – 2 September 2006. Part One

2345: 1704:

Christian Nubia was historicaly considered to be something of a backwater, because their graves were small and lacking the

1221:. Such travellers also transmitted knowledge of Nubian architecture, which influenced several medieval Ethiopian churches. 230: 2267:

ome of them do not know the Creator and adore the Sun and the Day; some others adore whatever they like; trees or animals.

1446: 6080:"Archbishop Georgios of Dongola. Socio-political change in the kingdom of Makuria in the second half of the 11th century" 5814:

Adams, William Y. (1991). "The United Kingdom of Makouria and Nobadia: A Medieval Nubian Anomaly". In W.V. Davies (ed.).

6676: 7380: 7289: 6993: 6880: 6702: 6284: 5996: 5842: 7418:"Royal ornaments of a late antique African kingdom, Early Makuria, Nubia (AD 450–550). Early Makuria Research Project" 2257:

One of the most debated issues among scholars is over the religion of Makuria. Up to the 5th century the old faith of

1972: 7406: 7242: 7058: 6906: 6809: 6501: 6482: 6015: 5956: 5890: 5861: 1464: 1393: 1048:

Reconstruction of the 9th century "Cruciform Church" of Dongola. It was the largest church in the kingdom, measuring

138: 808: 6339:

Kołosowska, Elżbieta; El-Tayeb, Mahmoud (2007). "Excavations at the Kassinger Bahri Cemetery Sites HP45 and HP47".

1253:(r. 1155–1190), who probably ruled over both Makuria and Alodia and who confronted Saladin during the early 1170s. 812:

Burial within a tumulus of the tumulus field of Kassinger Bahri (second half of the 4th century–early 6th century)

7579: 7574: 2177:

Makuria was a monarchy ruled by a king based in Dongola. The king was also considered a priest and could perform

7510: 6802:

Qasr Ibrim, between Egypt and Africa. Studies in Cultural Exchange (NINO Symposium, Leiden, 11–12 December 2009)

6330:

Kropacek, L. (1997). "Nubia from the late twelfth century to the Funj conquest in the early fifteenth century".

3754: 1493:

It was also in the mid 14th century, more particularly after 1347, when Nubia would have been devastated by the

691:. The former Makurian territories south of the 3rd cataract, including Dongola, had been annexed by the Islamic 7308: 7077: 7012:

Spaulding, Jay (1995). "Medieval Christian Nubia and the Islamic World: A Reconsideration of the Baqt Treaty".

6573: 6244: 5516: 1760:

in the Makurian heartland, although in the Islamic period Nobiin is also attested to have been employed by the

1188:

The kingdom of Makuria was, at least temporarily, exercising influence over the Nubian-speaking populations of

160:

The Kingdom of Makuria at its maximum territorial extent around 960, after a raid that reached as far north as

2589: 1453:

decades, it seems that there were both Muslim and Christian kings on the Makurian throne. Both the traveller

1269: 1206: 993:. The Baqt would remain in force for more than six centuries, although at times interrupted by mutual raids. 7399:

Aegyptus et Nubia Christiana. The Włodzimierz Godlewski Jubilee Volume on the Occasion of his 70 th Birthday

7051:

Vom Troglodytenland ins Reich der Scheherazade. Archäologie, Kunst und Religion zwischen Okzident und Orient

6899:

Aegyptus et Nubia Christiana. The Włodzimierz Godlewski Jubilee Volume on the Occasion of his 70 th Birthday

6712:

Ochała, Grzegorz (2023). "Female diaconate in medieval Nubia: Evidence from a wall inscription from Faras".

679:

that lost much of its southern territories, including Dongola. The last recorded king, probably residing in

7369:"Les évêches Nubiens: Nouveaux témoinages. La source de la liste de Vansleb et deux autres textes méconnus" 6916:

Shinnie, P.L. (1971). "The Culture of Medieval Nubia and its Impact on Africa". In Yusuf Fadl Hasan (ed.).

6800:

Ruffini, Giovanni (2013). "Newer light on the Kingdom of Dotawo". In J. van der Vliet; J. L. Hagen (eds.).

6186: 2443:

intermarried with the locals, thus laying the foundation for a small Muslim population as far south as the

2402: 1357: 918: 216: 6986:

Croisades en Africa. Les expeditions occidentales à destination du continent africain, XIIIe-VVIe siècles

980:. Initially it was a ceasefire also containing an annual exchange of goods (Makurian slaves for Egyptian 222: 6512: 824:

was collapsing. The region which would later constitute Makuria, i.e. the Nile Valley between the third

7301:

Nubian Studies. 1998. Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference of Nubian Studies, August 20–26

6666:

Ochala, Grzegorz (2011). "A King of Makuria in Kordofan". In Adam Lajtar, Jacques van der Vliet (ed.).

6219: 1140:

in Egypt, relations between Makuria and Egypt worsened: in 951 a Makurian army marched against Egypt's

7589: 7554: 7433:

Baadj, Amar (2014). "The Political Context of the Egyptian Gold Crisis during the Reign of Saladin".

7299:

Godlweski, Wlodzimierz (2004). "The Rise of Makuria (late 5th-8th cent.)". In Timothy Kendall (ed.).

2680:

The claim of complete nakedness should not be taken for a fact, as it reflects an ancient stereotype.

2615: 2603: 2262: 2227: 1250: 1149: 869: 252: 2471:

The main economic activity in Makuria was agriculture, with farmers growing several crops a year of

2385:, it appears that no national church was established and all seven bishops reported directly to the 1803:. Also illustrated are a number of Makurian kings and bishops, with noticeably darker skin than the 7584: 7147:

The Fourth Cataract and Beyond. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference for Nubian Studies

7089:

The Fourth Cataract and Beyond: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference for Nubian Studies

6873:

The Fourth Cataract and Beyond: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference for Nubian Studies

6421:"A Christian King in Africa. The Image of Christian Nubian Rulers in Internal and External Sources" 6299: 2161:

as a steam bath. The Ghazali monastery in Wadi Abu Dom also might have featured several bathrooms.

1640: 1329: 1305: 1213:

emperor Anbessa Wudem or his successor Dil Ne’ad. Ethiopian monks travelled through Nubia to reach

1070: 6603: 4788:

Adam Simmons, 'A Short Note on Queen Gaua: A New Last Known Ruler of Dotawo (r. around 1520-6)?',

1384: 6565: 6166: 2661:, which remained a battle zone contested by both parties until the Arab conquest of Aswan in 652. 2085: 17: 2606:. However, there is little evidence of much other interaction between the two Christian states. 7254:

Kings and Pilgrims. St. Raphael Church II at Banganarti, mid-eleventh to mid-eighteenth century

2585: 2317: 1425: 1114: 1090: 1082: 990: 946: 877: 624: 534: 6046:

Godlewski, Wlodzimierz (1991). "The Birth of Nubian Art: Some Remarks". In W.V. Davies (ed.).

1401:

traders were present in Dongola. A text was found in Qasr Ibrim apparently mixing Nubian with

2414: 2277: 1406: 1074: 1005: 873: 825: 590: 514: 952:. A Byzantine request for help remained unanswered by the Nubians due to conflicts with the 7087:

Welsby, Derek (2014). "The Kingdom of Alwa". In Julie R. Anderson; Derek A. Welsby (eds.).

6957: 5796: 2251: 2106:

rule in 750. After this domestic production increased, with a major production facility at

997: 860:

mounted a policy of expansion. The Nubians were part of his plan to win allies against the

719: 6842:

Seignobos, Robin (2012). "The other Ethiopia: Nubia and the crusade (12th-14th century)".

8: 2599: 2581: 2353: 2214: 2182: 1733: 1619: 1333: 1160: 1017: 772: 732: 713: 683:, lived in the late 15th century. Makuria had finally disappeared by the 1560s, when the 45: 7282:

The Archaeology of Medieval Islamic Frontiers: From the Mediterranean to the Caspian Sea

1485: 1176: 7450: 7212: 7092: 1757: 1680: 1410: 1085: 1021: 775:'s work at the town of Debeira West, which gave important information on daily life in 6734:. Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw. pp. 259–271. 6560:

Holymen of the Blue Nile: The Making of an Arab-Islamic Community in the Nilotic Sudan

6237:

Die Jallaba und die Nuba Nordkordofans. Händler, Soziale Distinktion und Sudanisierung

2657:

Recently it has been suggested that the Arabs fought the Nubians not in Nubia, but in

1687:, which was still a part of Makuria as late as the 1330s, also underwent a linguistic 1635:

started to assume an Arabic identity and the Arabic language, eventually becoming the

1537: 1474: 758:

in 1964 threatened to flood what had once been the northern half of Makuria. In 1960,

7442: 7402: 7376: 7353: 7334: 7304: 7285: 7257: 7238: 7177: 7145:

Wozniak, Magdalena (2014). "Royal Iconography: Contribution to the Sudy of Costume".

7131: 7096: 7073: 7054: 7037: 6989: 6961: 6938: 6921: 6902: 6876: 6859: 6805: 6792: 6773: 6735: 6698: 6654: 6624: 6588: 6569: 6558: 6544: 6497: 6478: 6448: 6378: 6359: 6303: 6280: 6263: 6240: 6223: 6153: 6127: 6108: 6051: 6034: 6011: 5992: 5975: 5952: 5933: 5914: 5886: 5857: 5838: 5819: 5800: 3760: 2648:

It has also been argued that the bishopric was not founded, but merely reestablished.

2539: 2286: 2247: 1892: 1398: 1373: 1224: 1156: 1137: 1066: 1053: 1009: 985: 938: 7331:

Pachoras, Faras, The wall paintings from the Cathedrals of Aetios, Paulos and Petros

7216: 7070:

The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile

2430: 2292: 7549: 7202: 7167: 7119:

Williams, Bruce B.; Heidorn, Lisa; Tsakos, Alexander; Then-Obłuska, Joanna (2015).

6851: 6828: 6688: 6534: 6524: 6405: 4793: 2620: 2588:

successfully intervened on behalf of the unnamed ruler at that time, and persuaded

2337: 2309: 2123: 2002: 1804: 1494: 1432: 1402: 1313: 1297: 1210: 961: 933: 853: 852:

Already at the time of the foundation of Dongola contacts were maintained with the

671: 663: 632: 631:, arts like wall paintings and finely crafted and decorated pottery flourished and 192: 3599: 1292: 6353: 5314: 2325: 2187: 2127:

Makurian princess protected by Virgin Mary and Christ Child, Faras (12th century)

1745: 1741: 1458: 1122: 949: 889: 817: 744: 724: 636: 606: 582: 525: 409: 196: 93: 2036:

Old Nubian manuscript from Serra East (973) showing some richly robed individual

960:

followed in 651/652, when the attackers pushed as far south as Dongola. Dongola

6638:

Obłuski, Artur; Godlewski, Włodzimierz; Kołątaj, Wojciech; et al. (2013).

6187:"Ein nubischer Erlöser-König: Kus in syrischen Apokalypsen des 7. Jahrhunderts" 2419: 2242: 2178: 2132: 2072: 1919: 1761: 1749: 1729: 1684: 1589: 1572: 1564: 1245: 1217:, a graffito from the church of Sonqi Tino testifies its visit by an Ethiopian 1105: 1097: 1077:

crowned king, probably to increase his prestige, and sent him to the caliph in

1000:, who lived in the late 7th and early 8th century and whom the Coptic biograph 894: 755: 740: 692: 656: 640: 505: 436: 292: 200: 69: 7207: 7190: 7172: 7156:"Early Makuria Research Project. Excavations at Tanqasi: first season in 2018" 7155: 6765:"Enemy brothers: Kinship and relationship between Meroites and Nubians (Noba)" 7543: 7525: 7512: 7446: 7392:"La liste des conquêtes nubiennes de Baybars selon Ibn Šadd ād (1217 – 1285)" 7280:

Eger, Jana (2019). "The Land of Tari and Some New Thoughts on Its Location".

7181: 7041: 6925: 6892:"La liste des conquêtes nubiennes de Baybars selon Ibn Šadd ād (1217 – 1285)" 6863: 6677:"Multilingualism in Christian Nubia: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches" 6658: 6653:. Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw: 248–272. 6640:"The Mosque Building in Old Dongola. Conservation and revitalization project" 6548: 6529: 6452: 6267: 6157: 6038: 5979: 2543: 2444: 1838: 1800: 1796: 1769: 1765: 1656: 1648: 684: 575: 7112:

Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche

6855: 6294:

Jakobielski, S (1992). "Christian Nubia at the Height of its Civilization".

6227: 6065:

Godlewski, Wlodzimierz (2002). "Introduction to the Golden Age of Makuria".

635:

grew to become the prevalent written language. Other written languages were

7401:(in French). Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology. pp. 553–577. 6901:(in French). Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology. pp. 553–577. 6150:

Ein Forscherleben zwischen den Welten. Zum 80. Geburtstag von Steffen Wenig

2577: 2313: 2099: 1963: 1388: 1369: 1347:

between the 12th and 15th centuries. The peak of this awareness marked the

1201: 1141: 1081:

to negotiate. His travel drew much attention at the time. The 12th-century

1044: 1029: 1013: 881: 865: 450: 2556: 1180:

13th-century depiction of a dignitary in the northern Ethiopian church of

913:

Ground plan of the "Old Church" in Dongola, founded in the mid-6th century

796: 7502: 6833: 6820: 6143:"Dongola Capital of early Makuria: Citadel – Rock Tombs – First Churches" 5425: 3722: 2658: 2523: 2492: 2378: 2321: 1959: 1834: 1705: 1688: 1568: 1454: 1348: 1344: 1282: 1170: 1165: 1128: 1101: 953: 838: 780: 776: 688: 652: 586: 563: 545: 172: 7454: 6216:

The Arabs and the Sudan. From the seventh to the early sixteenth century

5900:

Bowersock, G. W.; Brown, Peter; Grabar, Oleg (2000). "Nubian language".

2463: 1716: 1628: 767:

and its cathedral, excavated by a team from Poland; the British work at

6539: 2370: 2297: 2195: 1853: 1725: 1636: 1604: 1557: 1514: 1274: 1234: 1197: 1164:

Christianity. Afterwards, he granted al-Aswani permission to celebrate

1153: 768: 748: 680: 676: 628: 491: 344: 179: 6693: 6410: 6393: 4880: 4878: 4797: 4344: 1420: 7321:

Monks and bishops in Old Dongola, and what their costumes can tell us

7130:. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 130–143. 2480: 2406: 2328:

reports that the Monophysites successfully converted the kingdoms of

2111: 1668: 1664: 1632: 1597: 1575:

had come into possession of Upper Nubia south of the third cataract.

1376: 1343:

Growing aware of Christian Nubia, the Europeans included it in their

1214: 1132:

Mural from Sonqi Tino showing King Georgios II (r. late 10th century)

1109: 1025: 973: 861: 857: 594: 422: 275: 7485: 7474: 7463: 7417: 7319: 6764: 6420: 6318: 6255: 6152:. Mitteilungen der Sudanarchäologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin E.v. 6107:. Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw. 5854:

Sprachwandel durch Sprachkontakt am Beispiel des Nubischen im Niltal

5520: 4839: 4458: 2169: 1228:

The 11th-century Banganarti church, initiated by Archbishop Georgios

7373:

Nubian Voices II. New Texts and Studies on Christian Nubian Culture

7368: 6461: 5911:

The Rise of a Capital: Al-Fusṭāṭ and Its Hinterland, 18-132/639-750

4875: 4581: 4545: 4400: 4398: 2699: 2569: 2565: 2496: 2435: 2382: 2366: 2308:

Certain conversion came with a series of 6th-century missions. The

2157:

Biconical pieces of clay served as the equivalent of toilet paper.

1934:

Theophany and bishop, Abdallah Nirqi (late 10th-early 11th century)

1652: 1644: 1365: 1356:

crowds, carrying with them a lot of wealth which is offered to the

1339: 1189: 1118: 1057: 965: 667: 551: 245: 6583:

Michalowski, K. (1990). "The Spreading of Christianity in Nubia".

2774: 2564:

Makurian trade was largely by barter as the state never adopted a

2397: 1868:

Apostle Saints Peter and John (8th-first half of the 10th century)

647:. Makuria also maintained close dynastic ties with the kingdom of 7371:. In Adam Lajtar; Grzegorz Ochala; Jacques van der Vliet (eds.). 7118: 6475:

Les églises historiques du Tigray. The Ancient Churches of Tigrai

5883:

Famagusta Maritima. Mariners, Merchants, Pilgrims and Mercenaries

5320: 4281: 3894: 2527: 2519: 2511: 2329: 2203: 2103: 1676: 1660: 1608: 1409:

and in Banganarti there has been noted an inscription written in

1309: 1286: 1266: 1257: 1078: 1033: 969: 902: 846: 834: 801: 602: 578:, and the kingdom is sometimes known by the name of its capital. 548: 5437: 4998: 4446: 4395: 3978: 3819: 3659: 2813: 6637: 6008:

Tomb and Temple. Re-Imagining the Sacred Buildings of Jerusalem

4938: 4533: 4356: 4215: 3990: 3930: 3605: 2825: 2803: 2801: 2573: 2549: 2531: 2476: 2472: 2333: 2312:

dispatched an official party to try to convert the kingdoms to

2210: 2199: 2145: 1753: 1548: 1532: 1442: 1380: 1317: 1193: 1145: 927: 922: 830: 759: 736: 704: 648: 644: 204: 161: 6952:

Shinnie, P.L. (1978). "Christian Nubia.". In J.D. Fage (ed.).

6732:

Dongola 2012-2014. Fieldwork, conservation and site management

6604:"The winter seasons of 2013 and 2014 in the Ghazali monastery" 5696: 5133: 5121: 4950: 4383: 4017: 2140:("daughter"), perhaps some type of provincial representative. 1479:

and Abdallah Kanz ad-Dawla, both ruling during the 1330s, and

1196:, as is suggested by an account of the 10th century traveller 989:

state, being one of the few to beat back the Arabs during the

909: 7191:"A decorated bronze censer from the Cathedral in Old Dongola" 5145: 4499: 4497: 4410: 4373: 4371: 4179: 4007: 4005: 3478: 3476: 3437: 3127: 2594: 2515: 2484: 2452: 2374: 2282: 2258: 2107: 1792: 1773: 1672: 1500: 1325: 1218: 981: 898: 885: 821: 764: 559: 555: 479: 475: 6988:. Presses universitaires du Midi Méridiennes. pp. 25–. 6033:. Gdansk Archaeological MuseumGdansk Archaeological Museum. 4470: 3461: 2861: 2849: 2798: 2467:

A Makurian dancing mask as depicted on a mural from Dongola.

2320:

reportedly conspired to delay the party to allow a group of

2048:

Detail of a manuscript from Serra East showing a sitting man

1436:

Arabic stela commemorating the conversion of the throne hall

1413:

dating to the second half of the 13th century/14th century.

616:

army invaded, but it was repulsed and a treaty known as the

5756: 5636: 5449: 5242: 5230: 4641: 4509: 4101: 4077: 4029: 3906: 3565: 3563: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3038: 2890: 2888: 2786: 2488: 1521: 1321: 977: 708: 618: 613: 7235:

The Archangel Michael in Africa. History, Cult and Persona

5732: 5720: 5708: 5672: 5582: 5570: 5326: 5290: 5278: 5254: 5073: 4974: 4760: 4758: 4743: 4677: 4665: 4653: 4629: 4617: 4494: 4368: 4332: 4305: 4145: 4143: 4118: 4116: 4002: 3884: 3882: 3676: 3674: 3512: 3473: 2953: 2951: 2542:

from palm fibre. Also important was the gold mined in the

996:

The 8th century was a period of consolidation. Under king

926:

separate entity within the unified kingdom governed by an

7476:

Rayonnement de Byzance: Le costume royal en Nubie (Xe s.)

7350:

The Wall Paintings from the Monastery on Kom H in Dongola

5949:

Das christliche Äthiopien. Geschichte, Architektur, Kunst

5768: 5599: 5597: 5377: 5343: 5341: 5302: 5208: 5206: 5204: 5191: 5189: 4902: 4863: 4721: 4719: 4706: 4704: 4422: 4322: 4320: 4269: 4244: 4242: 3918: 3855: 2535: 2213:

might have played a role in the governance of the state.

1895:

with sword, Faras (9th-first quarter of the 10th century)

5614: 5612: 5164: 5162: 5160: 5109: 5085: 5049: 5039: 5037: 4521: 3954: 3831: 3797: 3795: 3635: 3623: 3611: 3587: 3560: 3283: 3223: 3199: 3139: 3115: 3086: 2963: 2924: 2885: 1880:

Warrior saint with spear and shield, Faras (9th century)

53: 7435:

The International Journal of African Historical Studies

7224:

Zabkar, Louis (1963). "The Eparch of Nobatia as King".

7201:. Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology: 773–786. 5744: 5534: 5485: 5365: 5353: 5266: 5218: 5174: 4803: 4755: 4593: 4259: 4257: 4191: 4140: 4113: 4065: 4041: 3966: 3879: 3843: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3671: 3647: 3548: 3488: 3391: 3389: 3387: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3259: 3211: 3187: 3151: 3074: 3062: 3028: 3026: 2999: 2975: 2948: 2936: 2912: 2560:

Financial transaction scene from Dongola (12th century)

2365:

The Makurian church was divided into seven bishoprics:

1159:. Immediately afterward the Fatimids sent the emissary 1093:, was also built, showing strong Byzantine influences. 6714:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

6174:

Internet-Beiträge zur Ägyptologie und Sudanarchäologie

5932:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 418. 5660: 5624: 5594: 5401: 5338: 5201: 5186: 5097: 5010: 4986: 4914: 4851: 4827: 4770: 4716: 4701: 4689: 4605: 4569: 4557: 4482: 4434: 4317: 4293: 4239: 4203: 4155: 4089: 3942: 3536: 3360: 3271: 2837: 2584:

to the south-east. For instance, in the 10th century,

2409:, which during the Crusades was owned by Nubian monks. 2060:

Old Nubian manuscript from Qasr Ibrim showing a bishop

1946:

Magi on horseback, Faras (late 10th–early 11th century

906:

empire, trade between the two states was flourishing.

627:, the great cruciform church (both in Dongola) or the 6975:

Shinnie, P.L. (1965). "New Light on Medieval Nubia".

5927: 5870: 5609: 5558: 5546: 5497: 5473: 5413: 5389: 5157: 5061: 5034: 5022: 4962: 4890: 4815: 4731: 4167: 4128: 4053: 3792: 3734: 3425: 3175: 3050: 2750: 2075:

and boatman on an Old Nubian manuscript found in Edfu

6720: 5951:(in German). Schnell und Steiner. pp. 171–250. 5899: 5648: 5461: 4926: 4884: 4551: 4254: 4227: 3867: 3773: 3698: 3686: 3575: 3524: 3500: 3449: 3401: 3384: 3372: 3348: 3331: 3319: 3307: 3295: 3247: 3235: 3163: 3103: 3023: 3011: 2987: 2900: 2873: 2780: 2738: 2017:

Warrior saint, Meinarti (late 13th-mid 14th century)

1332:. David fled upstream the Nile, eventually entering 539: 101: 7014:

International Journal of African Historical Studies

6749:Plumley, J. Martin (1983). "Qasr Ibrim and Islam". 6670:. Journal of Juristic Papyrology. pp. 149–156. 6192:. In Sophia G. Vashalomidze, Lutz Greisiger (ed.). 5684: 3807: 3756:

Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia

3710: 3413: 2762: 751:, does contain some valuable governmental records. 519: 77: 6763: 6668:Nubian Voices. Studies in Christian Nubian Culture 6557: 6466:Nubian Voices. Studies in Christian Nubian Culture 6375:Nubian Voices. Studies in Christian Nubian Culture 6338: 2831: 2698:"Dalmatia" or "Damaltia" is probably an error for 1607:took control of Nubia and part of Egypt above the 1513:in the Arabic sources, most likely identical with 6510: 6462:"Qasr Ibrim's last land sale, AD 1463 (EA 90225)" 6394:"An Unexpected Guest in the Church of Sonqi Tino" 2530:, metalworking, and the widespread production of 1990:Nubian dignitary and Christ, Faras (12th century) 1096:In 831 a punitive campaign of the Abbasid caliph 791: 7541: 7053:(in German). Frank & Timme. pp. 43–52. 7048: 6425:The Good Christian Ruler in the First Millennium 6372: 6124:Les préludes de l'Islam. Ruptures et continuités 6048:Egypt and Africa: Nubia from Prehistory to Islam 5816:Egypt and Africa: Nubia from Prehistory to Islam 4539: 4464: 4452: 4404: 4362: 4350: 2510:Important industries included the production of 2413:Unlike in Egypt, there is not much evidence for 1822:Christ, Abu Oda (second half of the 7th century) 1671:, the Mahasi, who settled between Maharraqa and 1387:claimed that the Nubians had sympathies for the 1285:, writing in the 14th century, who blamed it on 568: 495: 37: 7329:Jakobielski, Stefan; et al., eds. (2017). 7232: 6319:"The Medieval Arabic Documents from Qasr Ibrim" 5835:Christianity and Monasticism in Aswan and Nubia 5139: 5127: 703:Makuria is much better known than its neighbor 7503:History of Sudan at Encyclopedia of the Orient 7375:(in French). Raphael Taubenschlag Foundation. 7153: 7128:The Oriental Institute 2014–2015 Annual Report 5965: 5871:Beckingham, C.F.; Huntingford, G.W.B. (1961). 5851: 5004: 3900: 2819: 2807: 1907:Madonna and Christ Child, Faras (10th century) 1614: 1552:. Until recently it was commonly assumed that 1541:Minimum extension of the late Makurian kingdom 1240: 893:first half of the 6th century. The chronicler 585:in the 4th century, it originally covered the 7121:"Oriental Institute Nubian Expedition (OINE)" 6789:Medieval Nubia. A Social and Economic History 6472: 3825: 1261:Reconstruction of the domed church of Adindan 1209:and some Ethiopian monarch, perhaps the late 976:eventually met and drew up a treaty known as 816:By the early 4th century, if not before, the 7397:. In A. Łajtar; A. Obłuski; I. Zych (eds.). 7036:. Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. 6897:. In A. Łajtar; A. Obłuski; I. Zych (eds.). 6477:. Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations. 6418: 6391: 6341:Gdańsk Archaeological Museum African Reports 6296:UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume III 6148:. In Angelika Lohwasser; Pawel Wolf (eds.). 6101:Dongola-ancient Tungul. Archaeological guide 5989:The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan 5443: 5431: 3984: 3912: 1039: 856:. In the 530s, the Byzantines under Emperor 581:Coming into being after the collapse of the 85: 7303:. Northeastern University. pp. 52–72. 6582: 6332:UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume IV 6293: 5837:. Saint Mark Foundation. pp. 257–264. 5762: 5455: 2022: 1856:, Faras (8th-first half of the 9th century) 1428:, which was converted into a mosque in 1317 1316:marched east and attacked the port town of 651:to the south and exerted some influence in 61: 7154:Wyzgol, Maciej; El-Tayeb, Mahmoud (2018). 6587:. Vol. II. University of California. 6167:"Das Ende der christlich-nubischen Reiche" 6121: 6097: 6077: 5832: 5678: 5588: 5576: 5308: 4023: 4011: 3996: 3617: 3593: 3569: 3467: 3229: 3145: 3121: 3097: 2969: 2957: 2942: 2261:seems to have remained strong, even while 1922:, Faras (last quarter of the 10th century) 1526: 1304:Matters would change with the rise of the 154: 7206: 7171: 7011: 6954:The Cambridge History of Africa. Volume 2 6889: 6870: 6841: 6832: 6818: 6729: 6692: 6538: 6528: 6491: 6409: 6253: 6184: 6164: 6140: 6064: 6045: 5946: 5774: 5642: 5383: 5151: 5115: 4416: 4389: 4377: 4287: 4275: 4185: 3960: 3936: 3837: 3680: 3653: 3518: 3494: 2981: 2894: 2867: 2855: 2792: 2506:A Nubian saqiya wheel in the 19th century 1777:gradually shifted from Arabic to Nubian. 1722:Liber Institutionis Michaelis Archangelis 1720:A page from an Old Nubian translation of 1192:, the region between the Nile Valley and 7251: 6473:Lepage, Clade; Mercier, Jacques (2005). 6329: 5879: 4809: 4599: 4527: 4476: 4197: 2555: 2501: 2462: 2429: 2396: 2360: 2291: 2276: 2241: 2168: 2122: 2084: 1966:, Faras (first half of the 11th century) 1715: 1647:. The Ja'alin were already mentioned by 1618: 1536: 1522:Terminal period (1365–late 15th century) 1499: 1431: 1419: 1338: 1291: 1256: 1244: 1223: 1175: 1127: 1043: 932: 908: 807: 795: 718: 7465:L'influence byzantine dans l'art nubien 7422:Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 7237:. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 79–94. 7195:Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 7160:Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 7144: 7029: 7020: 6983: 6974: 6951: 6932: 6920:. Khartoum University. pp. 42–50. 6915: 6799: 6786: 6748: 6721:O'Fahey, R. S.; Spaulding, Jay (1974). 6647:Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 6618: 6608:Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 6601: 6419:Lajtar, Adam; Ochala, Grzegorz (2021). 6392:Lajtar, Adam; Ochala, Grzegorz (2017). 6194:Der christliche Orient und seine Umwelt 6087:Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 6005: 5986: 5908: 5750: 5540: 5491: 5371: 5359: 5272: 5248: 5236: 5224: 5180: 5168: 4764: 4737: 4647: 4515: 4428: 4149: 4122: 4107: 4083: 4071: 4047: 4035: 3972: 3542: 3482: 3431: 3366: 3301: 3277: 3205: 2843: 2756: 1578: 14: 7542: 7348:Martens-Czarnecka, Małgorzata (2011). 7223: 7188: 7109: 7086: 7067: 6711: 6674: 6665: 6555: 6511:Martens-Czarnecka, Malgorzata (2015). 6459: 6431: 5738: 5726: 5714: 5702: 5666: 5630: 5603: 5467: 5407: 5347: 5332: 5296: 5284: 5260: 5212: 5195: 5103: 5091: 5079: 5067: 5055: 5043: 5028: 5016: 4992: 4980: 4956: 4944: 4920: 4857: 4845: 4833: 4776: 4749: 4725: 4710: 4695: 4683: 4671: 4659: 4635: 4623: 4611: 4587: 4575: 4563: 4503: 4488: 4440: 4338: 4326: 4311: 4299: 4248: 4221: 4209: 4161: 4134: 4095: 4059: 3948: 3924: 3888: 3873: 3861: 3801: 3752: 3740: 3728: 3704: 3692: 3665: 3581: 3554: 3530: 3506: 3443: 3395: 3378: 3354: 3342: 3325: 3313: 3289: 3265: 3253: 3241: 3217: 3193: 3181: 3169: 3157: 3133: 3109: 3080: 3068: 3056: 3044: 3032: 3017: 3005: 2993: 2918: 2906: 2879: 2744: 2721: 7002: 6761: 6234: 6213: 6200: 6024: 5813: 5790: 5618: 5564: 5552: 5503: 5479: 5419: 5395: 4968: 4932: 4908: 4896: 4869: 4821: 4263: 4233: 4173: 3849: 3813: 3786: 3716: 3641: 3629: 3455: 3419: 3407: 2930: 2768: 2336:, but that Makuria remained hostile. 1978:Elaborate cross, Faras (11th century) 1740:Four languages were used in Makuria: 945:Between 639 and 641 the Muslim Arabs 136:The flag of Makuria according to the 6323:Qasr Ibrim, between Egypt and Africa 6316: 6274: 5690: 5654: 1837:inserted into a Pharaonic painting, 1724:from the 9th–10th century, found at 6681:Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies 6513:"The Christian Nubia and the Arabs" 6398:Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies 6351: 4790:Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies 3731:, pp. 99–100, notes 16 and 17. 2664: 2526:. Smaller local industries include 874:official denomination of the empire 529: 86: 24: 7272: 6875:. Peeters Pub. pp. 989–1005. 6687:. Journal of Juristic Papyrology. 6621:The Monasteries and Monks of Nubia 6496:. Harrassowitz. pp. 275–290. 6441:The Journal of Juristic Papyrology 5902:A Guide to the Postclassical World 3746: 2781:Bowersock, Brown & Grabar 2000 2590:Patriarch Philotheos of Alexandria 2250:on a mid-19th century painting by 1383:. In the mid-14th century pilgrim 1136:During the rule of the autonomous 1004:approvingly refers to as “the new 958:Abd Allah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi al-Sarh 25: 7601: 7496: 7033:Oriental Sources concerning Nubia 7007:. Harrassowitz. pp. 124–136. 6377:. Taubenschlag. pp. 95–120. 5852:Bechhaus-Gerst, Marianne (1996). 3753:Lobban, Richard A. (2003-12-09). 2131:The Christian Nubian society was 2005:, Old Dongola (12th–13th century) 1623:Nubians of the early 19th century 1465:Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms 1394:Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms 311:Queen Gaua (new last known ruler) 139:Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms 7284:. University Press of Colorado. 6585:UNESCO General History of Africa 6098:Godlewski, Włodzimierz (2013b). 6078:Godlewski, Wlodzimierz (2013a). 5818:. London: British Museum Press. 5509: 4782: 2692: 2683: 2674: 2118: 2065: 2053: 2041: 2029: 2010: 1995: 1983: 1971: 1951: 1939: 1927: 1912: 1900: 1885: 1873: 1861: 1846: 1827: 1815: 1785: 1249:Mural from Faras depicting King 941:manuscript from the 16th century 800:19th century ground plan of the 455: 441: 427: 402: 128: 7570:Christianity in the Middle Ages 7226:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 6623:. The Taubenschlag Foundation. 6141:Godlewski, Włodzimierz (2014). 6126:. De Boccard. pp. 85–104. 5930:A History of Sub-Saharan Africa 5517:"Information on Medieval Nubia" 2651: 2642: 2633: 2272: 27:Medieval kingdom in Lower Nubia 5928:Burns, James McDonald (2007). 5873:The Prester John of the Indies 2832:Kołosowska & El-Tayeb 2007 2715: 2626: 2418:own monastery in the Egyptian 2392: 2387:Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 2350:Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria 2300:depicting some Christian saint 1560:self-designation for Makuria. 792:Early period (5th–8th century) 13: 1: 7416:Then-Obłuska, Joanna (2017). 6804:. Peeters. pp. 179–191. 6787:Ruffini, Giovanni R. (2012). 6010:. Boydell. pp. 267–296. 5875:. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society. 5783: 4848:, pp. 148, 157, note 68. 2164: 2090: 2089:Pottery fragment from Faras, 1352: 1049: 302: 143: 7560:Countries in medieval Africa 6325:. Peeters. pp. 145–156. 6254:Hendrickx, Benjamin (2018). 5434:, pp. 371–372, 374–375. 4885:O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974 4590:, pp. 139–140, note 25. 4552:O'Fahey & Spaulding 1974 4540:Łajtar & Płóciennik 2011 4465:Łajtar & Płóciennik 2011 4453:Łajtar & Płóciennik 2011 4405:Łajtar & Płóciennik 2011 2572:. Additionally, contacts to 2403:Church of the Holy Sepulchre 1841:(late 7th-early 8th century) 1711: 1583: 1073:, the new king, had his son 1022:fall of the Umayyad Calipate 919:Sasanian occupation of Egypt 884:, who were the strongest in 868:: Justinian belonged to the 670:incursions and possibly the 605:, now sharing a border with 231:Coptic Orthodox Christianity 217:Traditional African religion 54: 7: 7565:Former monarchies of Africa 7484:Wozniak, Magdalena (2016). 7352:. Warsaw University Press. 7149:. Leuven. pp. 929–941. 6165:Grajetzki, Wolfram (2009). 5904:. Harvard University Press. 5140:Zielinska & Tsakos 2019 5128:Zielinska & Tsakos 2019 2609: 2237: 2232: 1920:Three youths in the furnace 1615:Ethnographic and linguistic 1457:and the Egyptian historian 1296:Possible depiction of king 1241:Decline (12th century–1365) 695:by the early 16th century. 540: 520: 343:• Royal court fled to 223:Greek Orthodox Christianity 102: 78: 10: 7606: 7318:Innemée, Karel C. (2016). 7030:Vantini, Giovanni (1975). 7021:Vantini, Giovanni (1970). 6977:Journal of African History 6260:Pharos Journal of Theology 6220:Edinburgh University Press 6214:Hasan, Yusuf Fadl (1967). 6050:. London: British Museum. 5885:. Brill. pp. 72–112. 5791:Adams, William Y. (1977). 3901:Danys & Zielinska 2017 3668:, pp. 94–95, note 50. 2820:Wyzgol & El-Tayeb 2018 2808:Wyzgol & El-Tayeb 2018 2458: 2225: 2151: 2080: 1699: 1667:, lived between Aswan and 1530: 1504:View of Gebel Adda in 1910 1441:Dongola was turned into a 1320:, located on an important 1113:son, presumably the later 786: 698: 662:Increased aggression from 554:in what is today northern 496: 38: 7390:Seignobos, Robin (2016). 7367:Seignobos, Robin (2015). 7252:Zurawski, Bogdan (2014). 7208:10.5604/01.3001.0012.1811 7173:10.5604/01.3001.0013.2004 7126:. In Gil J. Stein (ed.). 6890:Seignobos, Robin (2016). 6819:Seignobos, Robin (2010). 6772:. PAM. pp. 211–225. 6675:Ochala, Grzegorz (2014). 5793:Nubia: Corridor to Africa 3826:Lepage & Mercier 2005 2616:List of rulers of Makuria 2604:Ethiopian Orthodox Church 2263:ancient Egyptian religion 2228:List of rulers of Makuria 1639:, claimed descendants of 1040:Zenith (9th–11th century) 509: 471: 381: 369: 365: 355: 341: 331: 327: 319: 315: 299: 282: 265: 261: 251: 241: 234:(from 7th or 8th century) 210: 188: 168: 153: 125: 112: 62: 32: 7333:. University of Warsaw. 7023:The Excavations at Faras 6850:. Table Ronde: 307–311. 6619:Obłuski, Arthur (2019). 6602:Obłuski, Arthur (2017). 6530:10.18778/2084-140X.05.08 6300:University of California 6185:Greisiger, Lutz (2007). 5444:Lajtar & Ochala 2021 5432:Lajtar & Ochala 2021 3985:Lajtar & Ochala 2017 3913:Lajtar & Ochala 2017 2709: 2546:to the east of Makuria. 2425: 2285:Cathedral depicting the 2221: 2023:Manuscript illustrations 1571:in the 1560s, while the 1071:Zakharias III "Augustus" 754:The construction of the 7189:Wyzgol, Maciej (2018). 7110:Werner, Roland (2013). 6856:10.3406/ethio.2012.1470 6566:Northwestern University 6317:Khan, Geoffrey (2013). 6235:Hesse, Gerhard (2002). 5987:Edwards, David (2004). 5909:Bruning, Jelle (2018). 4947:, p. 188, note 26. 4224:, p. 117, note 16. 3136:, pp. 76, note 84. 2401:The Adam chapel of the 1780: 1563:The last known king is 1527:The Makurian rump state 991:early Islamic expansion 569: 7580:Medieval Islamic world 7575:Coptic Orthodox Church 7072:. The British Museum. 7068:Welsby, Derek (2002). 6937:. London: Kegan Paul. 6933:Shinnie, P.L. (1996). 6762:Rilly, Claude (2008). 6725:. Methuen Young Books. 6434:"Varia Nubica XII-XIX" 6277:A History of the Sudan 6027:Gdansk African Reports 5705:, p. 71, note 44. 4959:, p. 26, note 44. 4290:, p. 554, note 2. 3446:, p. 86, note 37. 2561: 2507: 2468: 2439: 2434:Muslim tombstone from 2410: 2381:, and Suenkur. Unlike 2301: 2289: 2254: 2174: 2128: 2094: 1737: 1624: 1542: 1505: 1437: 1429: 1426:Throne Hall of Dongola 1361: 1301: 1262: 1254: 1229: 1185: 1133: 1091:Throne Hall of Dongola 1061: 942: 914: 813: 805: 728: 593:to somewhere south of 357:• Disestablished 226:(from mid 6th century) 118:Late 15th/16th century 7526:18.22444°N 30.74250°E 6556:McHugh, Neil (1994). 6460:Lajtar, Adam (2011). 6432:Lajtar, Adam (2009). 6279:. Pearson Education. 4363:von den Brincken 2014 4353:, pp. 45, 49–50. 4351:von den Brincken 2014 3047:, pp. 58, 62–65. 2722:Murray, John (1822). 2592:to at last ordain an 2559: 2505: 2466: 2433: 2400: 2361:Church infrastructure 2295: 2280: 2245: 2172: 2126: 2088: 1958:Bishop Marianos with 1719: 1622: 1540: 1503: 1435: 1423: 1385:Niccolò da Poggibonsi 1358:Sepulchre of the Lord 1342: 1295: 1260: 1248: 1227: 1179: 1131: 1047: 937:A Nubian archer on a 936: 912: 811: 799: 722: 189:Common languages 7473:Wozniak, Magdalena. 7462:Wozniak, Magdalena. 7095:. pp. 183–200. 6960:. pp. 556–588. 6958:Cambridge University 6834:10.4000/afriques.800 6352:Lev, Yaacov (1999). 6275:Holt, P. A. (2011). 5856:(in German). Köppe. 5797:Princeton University 5321:Williams et al. 2015 4392:, pp. 999–1000. 3999:, pp. 671, 672. 3939:, p. 1, note 1. 2724:"Kingdom of Makuria" 2281:A painting from the 2252:Karl Richard Lepsius 2173:An Eparch of Nobatia 1764:in the southeastern 1728:, now housed in the 1579:Further developments 1407:Catalan playing card 1397:it was written that 666:, internal discord, 629:Banganarti monastery 347:, Dongola abandoned 7522: / 6427:. pp. 361–380. 5741:, pp. 155–156. 5729:, pp. 137–140. 5717:, pp. 121–122. 5446:, pp. 375–376. 5335:, pp. 171–172. 5299:, pp. 170–171. 5287:, pp. 361–363. 5263:, pp. 344–345. 5251:, pp. 236–237. 5239:, pp. 237–238. 5154:, pp. 255–256. 5082:, pp. 193–194. 5005:Bechhaus-Gerst 1996 4983:, pp. 236–239. 4911:, pp. 559–560. 4872:, pp. 557–558. 4752:, pp. 130–131. 4686:, pp. 143–144. 4674:, pp. 248–250. 4662:, pp. 141–143. 4650:, pp. 253–254. 4638:, pp. 154–155. 4626:, pp. 140–141. 4518:, pp. 162–263. 4506:, pp. 134–135. 4479:, pp. 103–106. 4467:, pp. 114–116. 4419:, pp. 307–311. 4341:, pp. 122–123. 4314:, pp. 120–122. 4188:, pp. 121–122. 4110:, pp. 162–163. 4086:, pp. 249–250. 4038:, pp. 939–940. 4026:, pp. 672–674. 3987:, pp. 262–264. 3927:, pp. 214–215. 3903:, pp. 182–184. 3864:, pp. 187–188. 3828:, pp. 120–121. 3759:. Scarecrow Press. 3644:, pp. 552–553. 3632:, pp. 553–554. 3606:Obłuski et al. 2013 3485:, pp. 290–291. 2933:, pp. 214–217. 2870:, pp. 161–162. 2858:, pp. 279–285. 2795:, pp. 253–256. 2296:Wood painting from 2246:The remains of the 2215:Ibn Selim el-Aswani 1374:crusader-controlled 1161:Ibn Salim al-Aswani 1012:(around 5000 m) in 773:University of Ghana 733:Old Nubian language 714:Ibn Selim el-Aswani 333:• Established 7531:18.22444; 30.74250 7093:Peeters Publishers 6844:Annales d'Éthiopie 3852:, pp. 18, 23. 3470:, pp. 11, 39. 3292:, pp. 73, 71. 2728:Dorota Dzierzbicka 2562: 2508: 2469: 2440: 2411: 2316:Christianity, but 2302: 2290: 2255: 2175: 2129: 2095: 1738: 1625: 1543: 1506: 1438: 1430: 1362: 1302: 1263: 1255: 1230: 1186: 1134: 1062: 1054:rock–hewn churches 943: 915: 814: 806: 729: 562:. Its capital was 278:(first known king) 34:Kingdom of Makuria 7359:978-83-235-0923-3 7340:978-83-942288-7-3 7263:978-83-7543-371-5 7137:978-1-61491-030-5 7102:978-90-429-3044-5 6967:978-0-521-21592-3 6944:978-0-7103-0517-6 6793:Oxford University 6779:978-83-235-0271-5 6751:Études et Travaux 6741:978-83-903796-8-5 6723:Kingdoms of Sudan 6716:. 86(2): 351–365. 6694:10.5070/D61110007 6630:978-83-946848-6-0 6594:978-0-520-06697-7 6411:10.5070/D64110003 6384:978-83-925919-4-8 6365:978-90-04-11221-6 6309:978-0-520-06698-4 6203:Sudan & Nubia 6133:978-2-7018-0335-7 6114:978-83-903796-6-1 6067:Africana Bulletin 6057:978-0-7141-0962-6 5939:978-0-521-86746-7 5920:978-90-04-36636-7 5825:978-0-7141-0962-6 5806:978-0-7139-0579-3 5645:, pp. 15–16. 5094:, pp. 43–44. 5058:, pp. 36–37. 5007:, pp. 25–26. 4798:10.5070/D60060625 4431:, pp. 35–46. 3891:, pp. 93–94. 3766:978-0-8108-6578-5 3557:, pp. 89–91. 3521:, pp. 76–77. 3268:, pp. 70–72. 3220:, pp. 66–67. 3208:, pp. 94–96. 3196:, pp. 48–49. 3160:, pp. 77–78. 3083:, pp. 73–77. 3071:, pp. 73–74. 3008:, pp. 31–33. 2921:, pp. 32–33. 2348:and loyal to the 2324:to arrive first. 2248:Ghazali monastery 2003:Baptism of Christ 1893:Archangel Gabriel 1330:Battle of Dongola 1157:Fatimid Caliphate 1138:Ikhshidid dynasty 1010:Ghazali monastery 964:and bombarded by 876:, while his wife 862:Sasanian Persians 820:with its capital 657:northern Kordofan 574:) in the fertile 538: 518: 485: 484: 467: 466: 463: 462: 415: 414: 295:(last known king) 235: 227: 184: 177: 16:(Redirected from 7597: 7590:Former countries 7555:History of Nubia 7537: 7536: 7534: 7533: 7532: 7527: 7523: 7520: 7519: 7518: 7515: 7491: 7480: 7469: 7458: 7429: 7412: 7396: 7386: 7363: 7344: 7325: 7314: 7295: 7267: 7248: 7229: 7220: 7210: 7185: 7175: 7150: 7141: 7125: 7115: 7106: 7083: 7064: 7045: 7026: 7017: 7008: 6999: 6980: 6971: 6948: 6929: 6912: 6896: 6886: 6867: 6838: 6836: 6815: 6796: 6783: 6767: 6758: 6745: 6726: 6717: 6708: 6696: 6671: 6662: 6644: 6634: 6615: 6598: 6579: 6563: 6552: 6542: 6532: 6507: 6488: 6469: 6456: 6438: 6428: 6415: 6413: 6388: 6369: 6355:Saladin in Egypt 6348: 6335: 6326: 6313: 6290: 6271: 6250: 6231: 6210: 6197: 6191: 6181: 6171: 6161: 6147: 6137: 6118: 6106: 6094: 6084: 6074: 6061: 6042: 6021: 6002: 5983: 5962: 5943: 5924: 5905: 5896: 5876: 5867: 5848: 5829: 5810: 5778: 5772: 5766: 5763:Jakobielski 1992 5760: 5754: 5748: 5742: 5736: 5730: 5724: 5718: 5712: 5706: 5700: 5694: 5688: 5682: 5676: 5670: 5664: 5658: 5652: 5646: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5622: 5616: 5607: 5601: 5592: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5562: 5556: 5550: 5544: 5538: 5532: 5531: 5529: 5528: 5519:. Archived from 5513: 5507: 5501: 5495: 5489: 5483: 5477: 5471: 5465: 5459: 5456:Jakobielski 1992 5453: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5429: 5423: 5417: 5411: 5405: 5399: 5393: 5387: 5381: 5375: 5369: 5363: 5357: 5351: 5345: 5336: 5330: 5324: 5318: 5312: 5306: 5300: 5294: 5288: 5282: 5276: 5270: 5264: 5258: 5252: 5246: 5240: 5234: 5228: 5222: 5216: 5210: 5199: 5193: 5184: 5178: 5172: 5166: 5155: 5149: 5143: 5137: 5131: 5125: 5119: 5113: 5107: 5101: 5095: 5089: 5083: 5077: 5071: 5065: 5059: 5053: 5047: 5041: 5032: 5026: 5020: 5014: 5008: 5002: 4996: 4990: 4984: 4978: 4972: 4966: 4960: 4954: 4948: 4942: 4936: 4930: 4924: 4918: 4912: 4906: 4900: 4894: 4888: 4882: 4873: 4867: 4861: 4855: 4849: 4843: 4837: 4831: 4825: 4819: 4813: 4807: 4801: 4786: 4780: 4774: 4768: 4762: 4753: 4747: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4714: 4708: 4699: 4693: 4687: 4681: 4675: 4669: 4663: 4657: 4651: 4645: 4639: 4633: 4627: 4621: 4615: 4609: 4603: 4597: 4591: 4585: 4579: 4573: 4567: 4561: 4555: 4549: 4543: 4537: 4531: 4525: 4519: 4513: 4507: 4501: 4492: 4486: 4480: 4474: 4468: 4462: 4456: 4450: 4444: 4438: 4432: 4426: 4420: 4414: 4408: 4402: 4393: 4387: 4381: 4375: 4366: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4330: 4324: 4315: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4291: 4285: 4279: 4273: 4267: 4261: 4252: 4246: 4237: 4231: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4207: 4201: 4195: 4189: 4183: 4177: 4171: 4165: 4159: 4153: 4147: 4138: 4132: 4126: 4120: 4111: 4105: 4099: 4093: 4087: 4081: 4075: 4069: 4063: 4057: 4051: 4045: 4039: 4033: 4027: 4021: 4015: 4009: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3982: 3976: 3970: 3964: 3958: 3952: 3946: 3940: 3934: 3928: 3922: 3916: 3910: 3904: 3898: 3892: 3886: 3877: 3871: 3865: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3841: 3835: 3829: 3823: 3817: 3811: 3805: 3799: 3790: 3784: 3771: 3770: 3750: 3744: 3738: 3732: 3726: 3720: 3714: 3708: 3702: 3696: 3690: 3684: 3678: 3669: 3663: 3657: 3651: 3645: 3639: 3633: 3627: 3621: 3615: 3609: 3603: 3597: 3591: 3585: 3579: 3573: 3567: 3558: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3492: 3486: 3480: 3471: 3465: 3459: 3453: 3447: 3441: 3435: 3429: 3423: 3417: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3382: 3376: 3370: 3364: 3358: 3352: 3346: 3340: 3329: 3323: 3317: 3311: 3305: 3299: 3293: 3287: 3281: 3275: 3269: 3263: 3257: 3251: 3245: 3239: 3233: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3209: 3203: 3197: 3191: 3185: 3179: 3173: 3167: 3161: 3155: 3149: 3143: 3137: 3131: 3125: 3119: 3113: 3107: 3101: 3095: 3084: 3078: 3072: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3048: 3042: 3036: 3030: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2985: 2979: 2973: 2967: 2961: 2955: 2946: 2940: 2934: 2928: 2922: 2916: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2892: 2883: 2877: 2871: 2865: 2859: 2853: 2847: 2841: 2835: 2829: 2823: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2766: 2760: 2754: 2748: 2742: 2736: 2735: 2719: 2703: 2696: 2690: 2687: 2681: 2678: 2672: 2668: 2662: 2655: 2649: 2646: 2640: 2637: 2621:History of Sudan 2338:John of Biclarum 2318:Empress Theodora 2310:Byzantine Empire 2092: 2069: 2057: 2045: 2033: 2014: 1999: 1987: 1975: 1955: 1943: 1931: 1916: 1904: 1889: 1877: 1865: 1850: 1831: 1819: 1805:Biblical figures 1801:Christian scenes 1489: 1478: 1354: 1083:Syriac Patriarch 1051: 854:Byzantine Empire 572: 543: 533: 531: 523: 513: 511: 499: 498: 459: 458: 445: 444: 431: 430: 419: 418: 406: 405: 399: 398: 383: 382: 307: 306: 1520–1526 304: 287: 270: 233: 225: 182: 175: 158: 148: 145: 132: 121: 120: 119: 113:5th century–1518 107: 106: 105: 97: 89: 88: 83: 82: 81: 73: 65: 64: 59: 58: 57: 49: 41: 40: 30: 29: 21: 7605: 7604: 7600: 7599: 7598: 7596: 7595: 7594: 7585:Spread of Islam 7540: 7539: 7530: 7528: 7524: 7521: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7509: 7508: 7499: 7494: 7483: 7472: 7461: 7432: 7415: 7409: 7394: 7389: 7383: 7366: 7360: 7347: 7341: 7328: 7317: 7311: 7298: 7292: 7279: 7275: 7273:Further reading 7270: 7264: 7245: 7138: 7123: 7103: 7080: 7061: 6996: 6968: 6945: 6918:Sudan in Africa 6909: 6894: 6883: 6812: 6780: 6742: 6705: 6642: 6631: 6595: 6576: 6504: 6485: 6436: 6385: 6366: 6310: 6287: 6247: 6189: 6169: 6145: 6134: 6115: 6104: 6082: 6058: 6018: 5999: 5968:Sudan&Nubia 5959: 5940: 5921: 5893: 5864: 5845: 5826: 5807: 5786: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5761: 5757: 5749: 5745: 5737: 5733: 5725: 5721: 5713: 5709: 5701: 5697: 5689: 5685: 5679:Godlewski 2013a 5677: 5673: 5665: 5661: 5653: 5649: 5641: 5637: 5629: 5625: 5617: 5610: 5602: 5595: 5589:Godlewski 2013b 5587: 5583: 5577:al-Suriany 2013 5575: 5571: 5563: 5559: 5551: 5547: 5539: 5535: 5526: 5524: 5515: 5514: 5510: 5502: 5498: 5490: 5486: 5478: 5474: 5466: 5462: 5454: 5450: 5442: 5438: 5430: 5426: 5418: 5414: 5406: 5402: 5394: 5390: 5382: 5378: 5370: 5366: 5358: 5354: 5346: 5339: 5331: 5327: 5319: 5315: 5309:Godlewski 2013a 5307: 5303: 5295: 5291: 5283: 5279: 5271: 5267: 5259: 5255: 5247: 5243: 5235: 5231: 5223: 5219: 5211: 5202: 5194: 5187: 5179: 5175: 5167: 5158: 5150: 5146: 5138: 5134: 5126: 5122: 5114: 5110: 5102: 5098: 5090: 5086: 5078: 5074: 5066: 5062: 5054: 5050: 5042: 5035: 5027: 5023: 5015: 5011: 5003: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4979: 4975: 4967: 4963: 4955: 4951: 4943: 4939: 4931: 4927: 4919: 4915: 4907: 4903: 4895: 4891: 4883: 4876: 4868: 4864: 4856: 4852: 4844: 4840: 4832: 4828: 4820: 4816: 4808: 4804: 4787: 4783: 4775: 4771: 4763: 4756: 4748: 4744: 4736: 4732: 4724: 4717: 4709: 4702: 4694: 4690: 4682: 4678: 4670: 4666: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4642: 4634: 4630: 4622: 4618: 4610: 4606: 4598: 4594: 4586: 4582: 4574: 4570: 4562: 4558: 4550: 4546: 4538: 4534: 4526: 4522: 4514: 4510: 4502: 4495: 4487: 4483: 4475: 4471: 4463: 4459: 4451: 4447: 4439: 4435: 4427: 4423: 4415: 4411: 4403: 4396: 4388: 4384: 4380:, p. 1000. 4376: 4369: 4361: 4357: 4349: 4345: 4337: 4333: 4325: 4318: 4310: 4306: 4298: 4294: 4286: 4282: 4274: 4270: 4262: 4255: 4247: 4240: 4232: 4228: 4220: 4216: 4208: 4204: 4196: 4192: 4184: 4180: 4172: 4168: 4160: 4156: 4148: 4141: 4133: 4129: 4121: 4114: 4106: 4102: 4094: 4090: 4082: 4078: 4070: 4066: 4058: 4054: 4046: 4042: 4034: 4030: 4024:Godlewski 2013a 4022: 4018: 4012:Godlewski 2013a 4010: 4003: 3997:Godlewski 2013a 3995: 3991: 3983: 3979: 3971: 3967: 3959: 3955: 3947: 3943: 3935: 3931: 3923: 3919: 3911: 3907: 3899: 3895: 3887: 3880: 3872: 3868: 3860: 3856: 3848: 3844: 3836: 3832: 3824: 3820: 3812: 3808: 3800: 3793: 3785: 3774: 3767: 3751: 3747: 3739: 3735: 3727: 3723: 3715: 3711: 3703: 3699: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3672: 3664: 3660: 3652: 3648: 3640: 3636: 3628: 3624: 3618:Godlewski 2013b 3616: 3612: 3604: 3600: 3594:Godlewski 2013b 3592: 3588: 3580: 3576: 3570:Godlewski 2013a 3568: 3561: 3553: 3549: 3541: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3517: 3513: 3505: 3501: 3493: 3489: 3481: 3474: 3468:Godlewski 2013b 3466: 3462: 3454: 3450: 3442: 3438: 3430: 3426: 3418: 3414: 3406: 3402: 3394: 3385: 3377: 3373: 3365: 3361: 3353: 3349: 3341: 3332: 3324: 3320: 3312: 3308: 3300: 3296: 3288: 3284: 3280:, pp. 7–8. 3276: 3272: 3264: 3260: 3252: 3248: 3240: 3236: 3230:Godlewski 2013a 3228: 3224: 3216: 3212: 3204: 3200: 3192: 3188: 3180: 3176: 3168: 3164: 3156: 3152: 3146:Godlewski 2013c 3144: 3140: 3132: 3128: 3122:Godlewski 2013b 3120: 3116: 3108: 3104: 3098:Godlewski 2013b 3096: 3087: 3079: 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1123:Ahmad ibn Tulun 1042: 1002:John the Deacon 950:Byzantine Egypt 890:John of Ephesus 818:Kingdom of Kush 794: 789: 739:variety of the 725:Faras Cathedral 723:A model of the 701: 607:Byzantine Egypt 583:Kingdom of Kush 478: 456: 442: 428: 410:Kingdom of Kush 403: 358: 348: 334: 308: 305: 289: 272: 219: 203: 199: 195: 178: 164: 149: 146: 134: 133: 117: 116: 115: 114: 108: 100: 99: 98: 91: 84: 76: 75: 74: 67: 60: 52: 51: 50: 43: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7603: 7593: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7506: 7505: 7498: 7497:External links 7495: 7493: 7492: 7481: 7470: 7459: 7441:(1): 121–138. 7430: 7413: 7407: 7387: 7382:978-8393842575 7381: 7364: 7358: 7345: 7339: 7326: 7315: 7309: 7296: 7291:978-1607328780 7290: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7268: 7262: 7249: 7243: 7230: 7221: 7186: 7151: 7142: 7136: 7116: 7107: 7101: 7084: 7078: 7065: 7059: 7046: 7027: 7018: 7009: 7000: 6995:978-2810705573 6994: 6981: 6972: 6966: 6949: 6943: 6930: 6913: 6907: 6887: 6882:978-9042930445 6881: 6868: 6839: 6816: 6810: 6797: 6784: 6778: 6759: 6746: 6740: 6727: 6718: 6709: 6704:978-0692229149 6703: 6672: 6663: 6635: 6629: 6616: 6599: 6593: 6580: 6574: 6553: 6517:Studia Ceranea 6508: 6502: 6489: 6483: 6470: 6457: 6429: 6416: 6389: 6383: 6370: 6364: 6349: 6336: 6327: 6314: 6308: 6291: 6286:978-1405874458 6285: 6272: 6251: 6245: 6232: 6211: 6198: 6182: 6162: 6138: 6132: 6119: 6113: 6095: 6075: 6062: 6056: 6043: 6022: 6016: 6003: 5998:978-0415369879 5997: 5984: 5963: 5957: 5944: 5938: 5925: 5919: 5906: 5897: 5891: 5877: 5868: 5862: 5849: 5844:978-9774167645 5843: 5830: 5824: 5811: 5805: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5777:, p. 269. 5775:Osypinska 2015 5767: 5765:, p. 207. 5755: 5753:, p. 556. 5743: 5731: 5719: 5707: 5695: 5683: 5681:, p. 117. 5671: 5669:, p. 107. 5659: 5657:, p. 147. 5647: 5643:Seignobos 2010 5635: 5633:, p. 155. 5623: 5621:, p. 468. 5608: 5606:, p. 106. 5593: 5591:, p. 101. 5581: 5579:, p. 257. 5569: 5567:, p. 478. 5557: 5555:, p. 472. 5545: 5543:, p. 583. 5533: 5508: 5506:, p. 441. 5496: 5494:, p. 616. 5484: 5482:, p. 440. 5472: 5460: 5458:, p. 211. 5448: 5436: 5424: 5422:, p. 258. 5412: 5410:, p. 243. 5400: 5398:, p. 117. 5388: 5386:, p. 204. 5384:Greisiger 2007 5376: 5374:, p. 581. 5364: 5362:, p. 373. 5352: 5350:, p. 172. 5337: 5325: 5323:, p. 135. 5313: 5301: 5289: 5277: 5275:, p. 235. 5265: 5253: 5241: 5229: 5227:, p. 243. 5217: 5215:, p. 344. 5200: 5198:, p. 248. 5185: 5183:, p. 570. 5173: 5156: 5152:Godlewski 1991 5144: 5132: 5120: 5116:Seignobos 2010 5108: 5106:, p. 196. 5096: 5084: 5072: 5060: 5048: 5033: 5021: 5019:, p. 187. 5009: 4997: 4995:, p. 186. 4985: 4973: 4971:, p. 495. 4961: 4949: 4937: 4925: 4923:, p. 154. 4913: 4901: 4899:, p. 562. 4889: 4874: 4862: 4860:, p. 256. 4850: 4838: 4836:, p. 150. 4826: 4824:, p. 536. 4814: 4802: 4781: 4779:, p. 149. 4769: 4767:, p. 256. 4754: 4742: 4730: 4728:, p. 145. 4715: 4713:, p. 253. 4700: 4698:, p. 144. 4688: 4676: 4664: 4652: 4640: 4628: 4616: 4614:, p. 140. 4604: 4592: 4580: 4578:, p. 138. 4568: 4566:, p. 248. 4556: 4544: 4532: 4530:, p. 106. 4520: 4508: 4493: 4491:, p. 133. 4481: 4469: 4457: 4455:, p. 111. 4445: 4443:, p. 128. 4433: 4421: 4417:Seignobos 2012 4409: 4407:, p. 110. 4394: 4390:Seignobos 2014 4382: 4378:Seignobos 2014 4367: 4355: 4343: 4331: 4329:, p. 254. 4316: 4304: 4302:, p. 244. 4292: 4288:Seignobos 2016 4280: 4278:, p. 554. 4276:Seignobos 2016 4268: 4253: 4251:, p. 118. 4238: 4226: 4214: 4212:, p. 117. 4202: 4190: 4186:Grajetzki 2009 4178: 4176:, p. 522. 4166: 4164:, p. 124. 4154: 4152:, p. 164. 4139: 4127: 4125:, p. 248. 4112: 4100: 4098:, p. 113. 4088: 4076: 4074:, p. 162. 4064: 4052: 4050:, p. 940. 4040: 4028: 4016: 4014:, p. 669. 4001: 3989: 3977: 3975:, p. 126. 3965: 3961:Hendrickx 2018 3953: 3951:, p. 103. 3941: 3937:Hendrickx 2018 3929: 3917: 3915:, p. 264. 3905: 3893: 3878: 3866: 3854: 3842: 3840:, p. 184. 3838:Chojnacki 2005 3830: 3818: 3806: 3804:, p. 102. 3791: 3789:, p. 456. 3772: 3765: 3745: 3743:, p. 101. 3733: 3721: 3709: 3697: 3685: 3681:Godlewski 2002 3670: 3658: 3654:Godlewski 2002 3646: 3634: 3622: 3610: 3598: 3586: 3574: 3559: 3547: 3545:, p. 318. 3535: 3523: 3519:Godlewski 2002 3511: 3499: 3495:Godlewski 2002 3487: 3472: 3460: 3458:, p. 128. 3448: 3436: 3424: 3412: 3410:, p. 454. 3400: 3383: 3371: 3369:, p. 310. 3359: 3347: 3330: 3318: 3306: 3294: 3282: 3270: 3258: 3246: 3234: 3222: 3210: 3198: 3186: 3184:, p. 254. 3174: 3162: 3150: 3138: 3126: 3114: 3102: 3085: 3073: 3061: 3059:, p. 785. 3049: 3037: 3022: 3010: 2998: 2986: 2982:Godlewski 2014 2974: 2962: 2947: 2935: 2923: 2911: 2899: 2897:, p. 161. 2895:Godlewski 2014 2884: 2872: 2868:Godlewski 2014 2860: 2856:Lohwasser 2013 2848: 2846:, p. 182. 2836: 2824: 2812: 2810:, p. 287. 2797: 2793:Godlewski 1991 2785: 2783:, p. 614. 2773: 2771:, p. 257. 2761: 2759:, p. 266. 2749: 2747:, p. 239. 2737: 2734:(22): 663–677. 2713: 2711: 2708: 2705: 2704: 2691: 2682: 2673: 2663: 2650: 2641: 2631: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2623: 2618: 2611: 2608: 2528:leatherworking 2460: 2457: 2438:(11th century) 2427: 2424: 2420:Wadi El Natrun 2394: 2391: 2362: 2359: 2287:birth of Jesus 2274: 2271: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2226:Main article: 2223: 2220: 2166: 2163: 2153: 2150: 2120: 2117: 2082: 2079: 2078: 2077: 2071: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2052: 2050: 2047: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2028: 2024: 2021: 2020: 2019: 2016: 2009: 2007: 2001: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1982: 1980: 1977: 1970: 1968: 1957: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1938: 1936: 1933: 1926: 1924: 1918: 1911: 1909: 1906: 1899: 1897: 1891: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1860: 1858: 1852: 1845: 1843: 1833: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1814: 1812: 1787: 1784: 1782: 1779: 1762:Shaigiya tribe 1732:. The name of 1730:British Museum 1713: 1710: 1701: 1698: 1685:North Kordofan 1616: 1613: 1590:Friday prayers 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1531:Main article: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1370:crusader songs 1364:Thanks to the 1251:Moses Georgios 1242: 1239: 1106:Eastern Desert 1041: 1038: 1024:, the sons of 895:John of Biclar 837:like those at 793: 790: 788: 785: 756:Aswan High Dam 741:Greek alphabet 700: 697: 693:Funj Sultanate 483: 482: 473: 469: 468: 465: 464: 461: 460: 453: 447: 446: 439: 437:Funj Sultanate 433: 432: 425: 416: 413: 412: 407: 395: 394: 389: 379: 378: 371: 367: 366: 363: 362: 359: 356: 353: 352: 349: 342: 339: 338: 335: 332: 329: 328: 325: 324: 321: 317: 316: 313: 312: 309: 300: 297: 296: 290: 283: 280: 279: 273: 266: 263: 262: 259: 258: 255: 249: 248: 243: 239: 238: 237: 236: 228: 220: 212: 208: 207: 190: 186: 185: 170: 166: 165: 159: 151: 150: 135: 127: 126: 123: 122: 110: 109: 36: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7602: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7547: 7545: 7538: 7535: 7504: 7501: 7500: 7489: 7488: 7482: 7478: 7477: 7471: 7467: 7466: 7460: 7456: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7419: 7414: 7410: 7408:9788394228835 7404: 7400: 7393: 7388: 7384: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7365: 7361: 7355: 7351: 7346: 7342: 7336: 7332: 7327: 7323: 7322: 7316: 7312: 7306: 7302: 7297: 7293: 7287: 7283: 7278: 7277: 7265: 7259: 7255: 7250: 7246: 7244:9781350084711 7240: 7236: 7231: 7227: 7222: 7218: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7187: 7183: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7152: 7148: 7143: 7139: 7133: 7129: 7122: 7117: 7113: 7108: 7104: 7098: 7094: 7090: 7085: 7081: 7075: 7071: 7066: 7062: 7060:9783732901029 7056: 7052: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7034: 7028: 7024: 7019: 7015: 7010: 7006: 7001: 6997: 6991: 6987: 6982: 6978: 6973: 6969: 6963: 6959: 6956:. Cambridge: 6955: 6950: 6946: 6940: 6936: 6935:Ancient Nubia 6931: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6914: 6910: 6908:9788394228835 6904: 6900: 6893: 6888: 6884: 6878: 6874: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6827:(in French). 6826: 6822: 6817: 6813: 6811:9789042930308 6807: 6803: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6785: 6781: 6775: 6771: 6766: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6747: 6743: 6737: 6733: 6728: 6724: 6719: 6715: 6710: 6706: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6673: 6669: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6641: 6636: 6632: 6626: 6622: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6600: 6596: 6590: 6586: 6581: 6577: 6571: 6567: 6562: 6561: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6509: 6505: 6503:9783447068925 6499: 6495: 6490: 6486: 6484:2-86538-299-0 6480: 6476: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6443:(in German). 6442: 6435: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6395: 6390: 6386: 6380: 6376: 6371: 6367: 6361: 6357: 6356: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6337: 6333: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6315: 6311: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6292: 6288: 6282: 6278: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6252: 6248: 6242: 6238: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6199: 6195: 6188: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6168: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6144: 6139: 6135: 6129: 6125: 6120: 6116: 6110: 6103: 6102: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6081: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6063: 6059: 6053: 6049: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6023: 6019: 6017:9781783272808 6013: 6009: 6004: 6000: 5994: 5991:. Routledge. 5990: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5964: 5960: 5958:9783795415419 5954: 5950: 5945: 5941: 5935: 5931: 5926: 5922: 5916: 5912: 5907: 5903: 5898: 5894: 5892:9789004397682 5888: 5884: 5878: 5874: 5869: 5865: 5863:3-927620-26-2 5859: 5855: 5850: 5846: 5840: 5836: 5831: 5827: 5821: 5817: 5812: 5808: 5802: 5798: 5795:. Princeton: 5794: 5789: 5788: 5776: 5771: 5764: 5759: 5752: 5747: 5740: 5735: 5728: 5723: 5716: 5711: 5704: 5699: 5693:, p. 16. 5692: 5687: 5680: 5675: 5668: 5663: 5656: 5651: 5644: 5639: 5632: 5627: 5620: 5615: 5613: 5605: 5600: 5598: 5590: 5585: 5578: 5573: 5566: 5561: 5554: 5549: 5542: 5537: 5523:on 2018-01-03 5522: 5518: 5512: 5505: 5500: 5493: 5488: 5481: 5476: 5469: 5464: 5457: 5452: 5445: 5440: 5433: 5428: 5421: 5416: 5409: 5404: 5397: 5392: 5385: 5380: 5373: 5368: 5361: 5356: 5349: 5344: 5342: 5334: 5329: 5322: 5317: 5311:, p. 97. 5310: 5305: 5298: 5293: 5286: 5281: 5274: 5269: 5262: 5257: 5250: 5245: 5238: 5233: 5226: 5221: 5214: 5209: 5207: 5205: 5197: 5192: 5190: 5182: 5177: 5170: 5165: 5163: 5161: 5153: 5148: 5142:, p. 93. 5141: 5136: 5130:, p. 80. 5129: 5124: 5118:, p. 14. 5117: 5112: 5105: 5100: 5093: 5088: 5081: 5076: 5070:, p. 37. 5069: 5064: 5057: 5052: 5046:, p. 41. 5045: 5040: 5038: 5031:, p. 36. 5030: 5025: 5018: 5013: 5006: 5001: 4994: 4989: 4982: 4977: 4970: 4965: 4958: 4953: 4946: 4941: 4935:, p. 21. 4934: 4929: 4922: 4917: 4910: 4905: 4898: 4893: 4887:, p. 29. 4886: 4881: 4879: 4871: 4866: 4859: 4854: 4847: 4842: 4835: 4830: 4823: 4818: 4812:, p. 85. 4811: 4810:Zurawski 2014 4806: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4785: 4778: 4773: 4766: 4761: 4759: 4751: 4746: 4739: 4734: 4727: 4722: 4720: 4712: 4707: 4705: 4697: 4692: 4685: 4680: 4673: 4668: 4661: 4656: 4649: 4644: 4637: 4632: 4625: 4620: 4613: 4608: 4602:, p. 82. 4601: 4600:Zurawski 2014 4596: 4589: 4584: 4577: 4572: 4565: 4560: 4554:, p. 17. 4553: 4548: 4542:, p. 43. 4541: 4536: 4529: 4528:Borowski 2019 4524: 4517: 4512: 4505: 4500: 4498: 4490: 4485: 4478: 4477:Borowski 2019 4473: 4466: 4461: 4454: 4449: 4442: 4437: 4430: 4425: 4418: 4413: 4406: 4401: 4399: 4391: 4386: 4379: 4374: 4372: 4365:, p. 48. 4364: 4359: 4352: 4347: 4340: 4335: 4328: 4323: 4321: 4313: 4308: 4301: 4296: 4289: 4284: 4277: 4272: 4266:, p. 95. 4265: 4260: 4258: 4250: 4245: 4243: 4236:, p. 93. 4235: 4230: 4223: 4218: 4211: 4206: 4200:, p. 84. 4199: 4198:Zurawski 2014 4194: 4187: 4182: 4175: 4170: 4163: 4158: 4151: 4146: 4144: 4137:, p. 76. 4136: 4131: 4124: 4119: 4117: 4109: 4104: 4097: 4092: 4085: 4080: 4073: 4068: 4062:, p. 75. 4061: 4056: 4049: 4044: 4037: 4032: 4025: 4020: 4013: 4008: 4006: 3998: 3993: 3986: 3981: 3974: 3969: 3963:, p. 17. 3962: 3957: 3950: 3945: 3938: 3933: 3926: 3921: 3914: 3909: 3902: 3897: 3890: 3885: 3883: 3876:, p. 89. 3875: 3870: 3863: 3858: 3851: 3846: 3839: 3834: 3827: 3822: 3816:, p. 92. 3815: 3810: 3803: 3798: 3796: 3788: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3768: 3762: 3758: 3757: 3749: 3742: 3737: 3730: 3725: 3719:, p. 91. 3718: 3713: 3707:, p. 96. 3706: 3701: 3695:, p. 95. 3694: 3689: 3683:, p. 85. 3682: 3677: 3675: 3667: 3662: 3656:, p. 84. 3655: 3650: 3643: 3638: 3631: 3626: 3620:, p. 12. 3619: 3614: 3607: 3602: 3596:, p. 11. 3595: 3590: 3584:, p. 91. 3583: 3578: 3572:, p. 11. 3571: 3566: 3564: 3556: 3551: 3544: 3539: 3533:, p. 89. 3532: 3527: 3520: 3515: 3509:, p. 88. 3508: 3503: 3497:, p. 75. 3496: 3491: 3484: 3479: 3477: 3469: 3464: 3457: 3452: 3445: 3440: 3434:, p. 45. 3433: 3428: 3422:, p. 29. 3421: 3416: 3409: 3404: 3398:, p. 84. 3397: 3392: 3390: 3388: 3381:, p. 83. 3380: 3375: 3368: 3363: 3357:, p. 82. 3356: 3351: 3345:, p. 73. 3344: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3328:, p. 70. 3327: 3322: 3316:, p. 68. 3315: 3310: 3303: 3298: 3291: 3286: 3279: 3274: 3267: 3262: 3256:, p. 68. 3255: 3250: 3244:, p. 69. 3243: 3238: 3232:, p. 91. 3231: 3226: 3219: 3214: 3207: 3202: 3195: 3190: 3183: 3178: 3172:, p. 88. 3171: 3166: 3159: 3154: 3148:, p. 90. 3147: 3142: 3135: 3130: 3124:, p. 85. 3123: 3118: 3112:, p. 77. 3111: 3106: 3100:, p. 90. 3099: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3082: 3077: 3070: 3065: 3058: 3053: 3046: 3041: 3035:, p. 33. 3034: 3029: 3027: 3020:, p. 58. 3019: 3014: 3007: 3002: 2996:, p. 43. 2995: 2990: 2984:, p. 10. 2983: 2978: 2972:, p. 17. 2971: 2966: 2959: 2954: 2952: 2944: 2939: 2932: 2927: 2920: 2915: 2909:, p. 39. 2908: 2903: 2896: 2891: 2889: 2882:, p. 42. 2881: 2876: 2869: 2864: 2857: 2852: 2845: 2840: 2834:, p. 35. 2833: 2828: 2821: 2816: 2809: 2804: 2802: 2794: 2789: 2782: 2777: 2770: 2765: 2758: 2753: 2746: 2741: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2718: 2714: 2701: 2695: 2686: 2677: 2667: 2660: 2654: 2645: 2636: 2632: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2614: 2613: 2607: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2558: 2554: 2551: 2547: 2545: 2544:Red Sea Hills 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2504: 2500: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2465: 2456: 2454: 2448: 2446: 2445:Batn el-Hajar 2437: 2432: 2423: 2421: 2416: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2390: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2358: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2299: 2294: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2253: 2249: 2244: 2229: 2219: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2191: 2189: 2184: 2180: 2171: 2162: 2158: 2149: 2147: 2141: 2139: 2134: 2125: 2119:Role of women 2116: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2087: 2074: 2068: 2063: 2056: 2051: 2044: 2039: 2032: 2027: 2026: 2013: 2008: 2004: 1998: 1993: 1986: 1981: 1974: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1954: 1949: 1942: 1937: 1930: 1925: 1921: 1915: 1910: 1903: 1898: 1894: 1888: 1883: 1876: 1871: 1864: 1859: 1855: 1849: 1844: 1840: 1839:Wadi es-Sebua 1836: 1830: 1825: 1818: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1808: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1797:Byzantine art 1794: 1786:Wallpaintings 1778: 1775: 1771: 1770:lingua franca 1767: 1766:Dongola Reach 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1709: 1707: 1697: 1693: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1649:David Reubeni 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1621: 1612: 1610: 1606: 1603:In 1412, the 1601: 1599: 1594: 1591: 1576: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1550: 1539: 1534: 1519: 1516: 1512: 1502: 1498: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1466: 1460: 1456: 1450: 1448: 1447:Kanz ad-Dawla 1444: 1434: 1427: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1412: 1408: 1405:as well as a 1404: 1400: 1396: 1395: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1359: 1350: 1346: 1341: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1299: 1294: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1278: 1276: 1271: 1268: 1259: 1252: 1247: 1238: 1236: 1226: 1222: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1183: 1182:Qorqor Maryam 1178: 1174: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1158: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1130: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1100:defeated the 1099: 1094: 1092: 1087: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1059: 1055: 1046: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 994: 992: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 948: 940: 935: 931: 929: 924: 920: 911: 907: 904: 900: 896: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 870:Chalcedonians 867: 863: 859: 855: 850: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 827: 826:Nile cataract 823: 819: 810: 803: 798: 784: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 761: 757: 752: 750: 746: 745:Nobiin tongue 742: 738: 734: 726: 721: 717: 715: 710: 706: 696: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 673: 669: 665: 660: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 621: 620: 615: 610: 608: 604: 600: 599:Mograt Island 596: 592: 589:from the 3rd 588: 584: 579: 577: 576:Dongola Reach 573: 571: 566:(Old Nubian: 565: 561: 558:and southern 557: 553: 550: 547: 542: 536: 527: 522: 516: 507: 503: 493: 489: 481: 477: 474: 472:Today part of 470: 454: 452: 449: 448: 440: 438: 435: 434: 426: 424: 421: 420: 417: 411: 408: 401: 400: 397: 396: 393: 390: 388: 385: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 354: 350: 346: 340: 336: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 298: 294: 291: 281: 277: 274: 264: 260: 256: 254: 250: 247: 244: 240: 232: 229: 224: 221: 218: 215: 214: 213: 209: 206: 202: 198: 194: 191: 187: 181: 174: 171: 167: 163: 157: 152: 141: 140: 131: 124: 111: 104: 95: 80: 71: 56: 47: 31: 19: 7507: 7486: 7475: 7464: 7438: 7434: 7425: 7421: 7398: 7372: 7349: 7330: 7320: 7300: 7281: 7253: 7234: 7225: 7198: 7194: 7163: 7159: 7146: 7127: 7111: 7088: 7069: 7050: 7032: 7022: 7016:. XXVIII, 3. 7013: 7005:Afrikas Horn 7004: 6985: 6976: 6953: 6934: 6917: 6898: 6872: 6847: 6843: 6824: 6801: 6788: 6769: 6754: 6750: 6731: 6722: 6713: 6684: 6680: 6667: 6650: 6646: 6620: 6611: 6607: 6584: 6559: 6520: 6516: 6493: 6474: 6465: 6444: 6440: 6424: 6401: 6397: 6374: 6354: 6344: 6340: 6331: 6322: 6295: 6276: 6259: 6236: 6215: 6206: 6202: 6193: 6177: 6173: 6149: 6123: 6100: 6090: 6086: 6070: 6066: 6047: 6030: 6026: 6007: 5988: 5971: 5967: 5948: 5929: 5910: 5901: 5882: 5872: 5853: 5834: 5815: 5792: 5770: 5758: 5751:Shinnie 1978 5746: 5734: 5722: 5710: 5698: 5686: 5674: 5662: 5650: 5638: 5626: 5584: 5572: 5560: 5548: 5541:Shinnie 1978 5536: 5525:. Retrieved 5521:the original 5511: 5499: 5492:Vantini 1975 5487: 5475: 5470:, p. ?. 5463: 5451: 5439: 5427: 5415: 5403: 5391: 5379: 5372:Shinnie 1978 5367: 5360:Obłuski 2017 5355: 5328: 5316: 5304: 5292: 5280: 5273:Ruffini 2012 5268: 5256: 5249:Ruffini 2012 5244: 5237:Ruffini 2012 5232: 5225:Ruffini 2012 5220: 5181:Shinnie 1978 5176: 5171:, p. ?. 5169:Shinnie 1965 5147: 5135: 5123: 5111: 5099: 5087: 5075: 5063: 5051: 5024: 5012: 5000: 4988: 4976: 4964: 4952: 4940: 4928: 4916: 4904: 4892: 4865: 4853: 4841: 4829: 4817: 4805: 4789: 4784: 4772: 4765:Ruffini 2012 4745: 4740:, p. 9. 4738:Ruffini 2012 4733: 4691: 4679: 4667: 4655: 4648:Ruffini 2012 4643: 4631: 4619: 4607: 4595: 4583: 4571: 4559: 4547: 4535: 4523: 4516:Ruffini 2012 4511: 4484: 4472: 4460: 4448: 4436: 4429:Simmons 2019 4424: 4412: 4385: 4358: 4346: 4334: 4307: 4295: 4283: 4271: 4229: 4217: 4205: 4193: 4181: 4169: 4157: 4150:Plumley 1983 4130: 4123:Ruffini 2012 4108:Plumley 1983 4103: 4091: 4084:Ruffini 2012 4079: 4072:Plumley 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