Light-emitting diode

1699: 1231: 2964: 1762: 681: 1715: 1856: 3367: 1211: 3359: 533:. In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein "…had set up a simple optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player was used via suitable electronics to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode. The emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an audio amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music. We had a great deal of fun playing with this setup." 2860:

conditions to the specific needs of different plant species and growth stages. This technology enhances photosynthesis, improves crop yields, and reduces energy costs compared to traditional lighting systems. Additionally, LEDs generate less heat, allowing closer placement to plants without risking thermal damage, and contribute to sustainable farming practices by lowering carbon footprints and extending growing seasons in controlled environments. Light spectrum affects growth, metabolite profile, and resistance against fungal phytopathogens of

1122:

several colors such as red, which uses nitrosilicate phosphors, and many other kinds of phosphor materials exist for LEDs such as phosphors based on oxides, oxynitrides, oxyhalides, halides, nitrides, sulfides, quantum dots, and inorganic-organic hybrid semiconductors. A single LED can have several phosphors at the same time. Some LEDs use phosphors made of glass-ceramic or composite phosphor/glass materials. Alternatively, the LED chips themselves can be coated with a thin coating of phosphor-containing material, called a conformal coating.

161: 179: 2153:

filaments use a rather high voltage, allowing them to work efficiently with mains voltages. Often a simple rectifier and capacitive current limiting are employed to create a low-cost replacement for a traditional light bulb without the complexity of the low voltage, high current converter that single die LEDs need. Usually, they are packaged in bulb similar to the lamps they were designed to replace, and filled with inert gas at slightly lower than ambient pressure to remove heat efficiently and prevent corrosion.

170: 1510:

due to re-absorption in the LED chip and in the LED packaging itself account typically for another 10% to 30% of efficiency loss. Currently, in the area of phosphor LED development, much effort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures. For instance, the efficiency can be raised by adapting better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor. Conformal coating process is frequently used to address the issue of varying phosphor thickness.

3351: 2006: 2822: 1360:, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white. The appearance of objects illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies. This is the issue of color rendition, quite separate from color temperature. An orange or cyan object could appear with the wrong color and much darker as the LED or phosphor does not emit the wavelength it reflects. The best color rendition LEDs use a mix of phosphors, resulting in less efficiency and better color rendering. 1240: 662: 1502: 3389: 426: 3378: 631:. The device used the semiconducting alloy gallium phosphide arsenide (GaAsP). It was the first semiconductor laser to emit visible light, albeit at low temperatures. At room temperature it still functioned as a red light-emitting diode. GaAsP was the basis for the first wave of commercial LEDs emitting visible light. It was mass produced by the Monsanto and Hewlett-Packard companies and used widely for displays in calculators and wrist watches. 1389: 3193: 1377: 1673: 3755: 3741: 2884: 1901: 1561: 3606:, researchers targeted the outcoupling problem, which is that the optical physics of thin-film LEDs causes the majority of light generated by the semiconductor to be trapped in the device. To achieve this goal, they demonstrated that solution-processed perovskites can spontaneously form submicrometre-scale crystal platelets, which can efficiently extract light from the device. These perovskites are formed via the introduction of 410: 365: 205: 3185: 2192: 635: 1998: 1067: 1450: 649: 461: 52: 645:, a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976, T. P. Pearsall designed the first high-brightness, high-efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths. 821:, where he collaborated with Jacques Pankove on related work. In 1971, the year after Maruska left for Stanford, his RCA colleagues Pankove and Ed Miller demonstrated the first blue electroluminescence from zinc-doped gallium nitride, though the subsequent device Pankove and Miller built, the first actual gallium nitride light-emitting diode, emitted green light. 982:, while others, like the University of Cambridge, choose a multi-layer structure, in order to reduce (crystal) lattice mismatch and different thermal expansion ratios, to avoid cracking of the LED chip at high temperatures (e.g. during manufacturing), reduce heat generation and increase luminous efficiency. Sapphire substrate patterning can be carried out with 1690:, blinking or color changing control, or an addressable controller for RGB devices. Higher-powered white-emitting devices will be mounted on heat sinks and will be used for illumination. Alphanumeric displays in dot matrix or bar formats are widely available. Special packages permit connection of LEDs to optical fibers for high-speed data communication links. 1113:-based), silicone, or epoxy containing (powdered) Cerium-doped YAG phosphor particles. The viscosity of phosphor-silicon mixtures must be carefully controlled. After application of a phosphor-silicon mixture on the LED using techniques such as jet dispensing, and allowing the solvents to evaporate, the LEDs are often tested, and placed on tapes for 190: 1063:. The combination of that yellow with remaining blue light appears white to the eye. Using different phosphors produces green and red light through fluorescence. The resulting mixture of red, green and blue is perceived as white light, with improved color rendering compared to wavelengths from the blue LED/YAG phosphor combination. 1304:, with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250–270 nm are expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective disinfection and sterilization devices. UV-C wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using 304:(UV), and infrared wavelengths with high, low, or intermediate light output, for instance, white LEDs suitable for room and outdoor lighting. LEDs have also given rise to new types of displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology with applications as diverse as 3587:. They have a potential for cost-effectiveness as they can be processed from solution, a low-cost and low-tech method, which might allow perovskite-based devices that have large areas to be made with extremely low cost. Their efficiency is superior by eliminating non-radiative losses, in other words, elimination of 5624:

Nunoue, Shin-ya; Hikosaka, Toshiki; Yoshida, Hisashi; Tajima, Jumpei; Kimura, Shigeya; Sugiyama, Naoharu; Tachibana, Koichi; Shioda, Tomonari; Sato, Taisuke; Muramoto, Eiji; Onomura, Masaaki (2013). "LED manufacturing issues concerning gallium nitride-on-silicon (GaN-on-Si) technology and wafer scale

3635:). The MABr shell passivates the nonradiative defects that would otherwise be present perovskite crystals, resulting in reduction of the nonradiative recombination. Therefore, by balancing charge injection and decreasing nonradiative losses, Lin and his colleagues developed PLED with EQE up to 20.3%. 3530:

in low-voltage regulators. Red LEDs have the flattest I/V curve above the knee. Nitride-based LEDs have a fairly steep I/V curve and are useless for this purpose. Although LED forward voltage is far more current-dependent than a Zener diode, Zener diodes with breakdown voltages below 3 V are not

3333:

Aerosolized biological particles fluoresce and scatter light under a UV light beam. Observed fluorescence is dependent on the applied wavelength and the biochemical fluorophores within the biological agent. UV induced fluorescence offers a rapid, accurate, efficient and logistically practical way for

3329:

UV-induced fluorescence is one of the most robust techniques used for rapid real-time detection of biological aerosols. The first UV sensors were lasers lacking in-field-use practicality. In order to address this, DARPA incorporated SUVOS technology to create a low-cost, small, lightweight, low-power

2207:

source to prevent damage. Since most common power supplies are (nearly) constant-voltage sources, LED fixtures must include a power converter, or at least a current-limiting resistor. In some applications, the internal resistance of small batteries is sufficient to keep current within the LED rating.

2080:

Tri-color LEDs contain three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected to a separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or cathode) and an additional lead for each color. Others have only two leads (positive

1551:

in relatively small 100- or 150-mm wafer sizes. The sapphire apparatus must be coupled with a mirror-like collector to reflect light that would otherwise be wasted. It was predicted that since 2020, 40% of all GaN LEDs are made with GaN-on-Si. Manufacturing large sapphire material is difficult, while

1396:

Mixing red, green, and blue sources to produce white light needs electronic circuits to control the blending of the colors. Since LEDs have slightly different emission patterns, the color balance may change depending on the angle of view, even if the RGB sources are in a single package, so RGB diodes

456:

reported the creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades, partly due to the very inefficient light-producing properties of silicon carbide, the semiconductor Losev

339:

LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower power consumption, a longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller sizes, and faster switching. In exchange for these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs include electrical limitations to low voltage

3452:

as the light source. Having independent control of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and there is no need for warm-up. Further, its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one time the page being scanned is only lit by one color

3337:

Additionally, TAC-BIO can reliably discriminate between threat and non-threat aerosols. It was claimed to be sensitive enough to detect low concentrations, but not so sensitive that it would cause false positives. The particle-counting algorithm used in the device converted raw data into information

2037:

circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs, this circuit is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB

1485:

and also other phosphor-related issues. Their luminous efficacies compared to normal LEDs depend on the spectral distribution of the resultant light output and the original wavelength of the LED itself. For example, the luminous efficacy of a typical YAG yellow phosphor based white LED ranges from 3

1436:

with rising temperature, resulting in a substantial change in color stability. Such problems inhibit industrial use. Multicolor LEDs without phosphors cannot provide good color rendering because each LED is a narrowband source. LEDs without phosphor, while a poorer solution for general lighting, are

780:

The early red LEDs were bright enough for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors became widely available and appeared in appliances and

9195:

Miler N., Kulus D., Woźny A., Rymarz D., Hajzer M., Wierzbowski K., Nelke R., Szeffs L., 2019. Application of wide-spectrum light-emitting diodes in micropropagation of popular ornamental plant species: A study on plant quality and cost reduction. In Vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology – Plant

3647:

as defined in eye safety specifications such as "ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1–05: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems". One study showed no evidence of a risk in normal use at domestic illuminance, and that caution is only needed for particular occupational situations or

3559:

The process of down-conversion (the method by which materials convert more-energetic photons to different, less energetic colors) also needs improvement. For example, the red phosphors that are used today are thermally sensitive and need to be improved in that aspect so that they do not color shift

2989:

Because of their long life, fast switching times, and visibility in broad daylight due to their high output and focus, LEDs have been used in automotive brake lights and turn signals. The use in brakes improves safety, due to a great reduction in the time needed to light fully, or faster rise time,

2069:

to each other. Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other color. The other type consists of two dies with separate leads for both dies and another lead for common anode or cathode so that they can be controlled independently. The most common

1837:

lm/W. A large number of LED elements in series may be able to operate directly from line voltage. In 2009, Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage LED, named 'Acrich MJT', capable of being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The low-power dissipation of these LEDs affords

1676:

LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have colorless housings. Modern high-power LEDs such as those

784:

Early LEDs were packaged in metal cases similar to those of transistors, with a glass window or lens to let the light out. Modern indicator LEDs are packed in transparent molded plastic cases, tubular or rectangular in shape, and often tinted to match the device color. Infrared devices may be dyed,

564:

they had constructed on a GaAs substrate. By October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically isolated semiconductor photodetector. On August 8, 1962, Biard and Pittman filed a patent titled "Semiconductor

3725:. LED lighting near beaches, particularly intense blue and white colors, can disorient turtle hatchlings and make them wander inland instead. The use of "turtle-safe lighting" LEDs that emit only at narrow portions of the visible spectrum is encouraged by conservancy groups in order to reduce harm. 1741:

Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat top (as used in bar-graph displays), and triangular or square with a flat top. The encapsulation may also be clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle. Infrared devices may have a black tint to block

1540:

work. This method is less efficient than blue LEDs with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger, so more energy is converted to heat, but yields light with better spectral characteristics, which render color better. Due to the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue

1509:

Among the challenges being faced to improve the efficiency of LED-based white light sources is the development of more efficient phosphors. As of 2010, the most efficient yellow phosphor is still the YAG phosphor, with less than 10% Stokes shift loss. Losses attributable to internal optical losses

1420:

capability, and luminous efficacy. Often, higher efficiency means lower color rendering, presenting a trade-off between the luminous efficacy and color rendering. For example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous efficacy (120 lm/W), but the lowest color rendering capability. Although

3432:

circuit (usually battery-powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically isolated from any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at potentially dangerous voltages. An optoisolator also lets information be transferred between circuits that do not

3341:

The original TAC-BIO was introduced in 2010, while the second-generation TAC-BIO GEN II, was designed in 2015 to be more cost-efficient, as plastic parts were used. Its small, light-weight design allows it to be mounted to vehicles, robots, and unmanned aerial vehicles. The second-generation

2361:

Thermal runaway: Parallel strings of LEDs will not share current evenly due to the manufacturing tolerances in their forward voltage. Running two or more strings from a single current source may result in LED failure as the devices warm up. If forward voltage binning is not possible, a circuit is

2252:

By definition, the energy band gap of any diode is higher when reverse-biased than when forward-biased. Because the band gap energy determines the wavelength of the light emitted, the color cannot be the same when reverse-biased. The reverse breakdown voltage is sufficiently high that the emitted

2133:

to be easily controlled by a microcontroller. Data sent to the first LED of the chain can control the brightness and color of each LED independently of the others. They are used where a combination of maximum control and minimum visible electronics are needed such as strings for Christmas and LED

1352:

In LEDs with PFS phosphor, some blue light passes through the phosphors, the Ce:YAG phosphor converts blue light to green and red (yellow) light, and the PFS phosphor converts blue light to red light. The color, emission spectrum or color temperature of white phosphor converted and other phosphor

1276:

LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of InGaN/GaN blue/green devices. If unalloyed GaN is used in this case to form the active quantum well layers, the device emits near-ultraviolet light with a peak wavelength centred around 365 nm.

1117:

for use in LED light bulb production. Some "remote phosphor" LED light bulbs use a single plastic cover with YAG phosphor for one or several blue LEDs, instead of using phosphor coatings on single-chip white LEDs. Ce:YAG phosphors and epoxy in LEDs can degrade with use, and is more apparent with

2859:

The application of LEDs in horticulture has revolutionized plant cultivation by providing energy-efficient, customizable lighting solutions that optimize plant growth and development. LEDs offer precise control over light spectra, intensity, and photoperiods, enabling growers to tailor lighting

1440:

Dimming a multicolor LED source to match the characteristics of incandescent lamps is difficult because manufacturing variations, age, and temperature change the actual color value output. To emulate the appearance of dimming incandescent lamps may require a feedback system with color sensor to

1121:

The output of LEDs can shift to yellow over time due to degradation of the silicone. There are several variants of Ce:YAG, and manufacturers in many cases do not reveal the exact compoosition of their Ce:YAG offerings. Several other phosphors are available for phosphor-converted LEDs to produce

2152:

consists of multiple LED chips connected in series on a common longitudinal substrate that forms a thin rod reminiscent of a traditional incandescent filament. These are being used as a low-cost decorative alternative for traditional light bulbs that are being phased out in many countries. The

1473:

of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called phosphor-based or phosphor-converted white LEDs (pcLEDs). A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes shift, which transforms it from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the original LED's color, various color

1259:, single-color LEDs can be made that emit light in a narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared through the visible spectrum and into the ultraviolet range. As the wavelengths become shorter, because of the larger band gap of these semiconductors, the operating voltage of the LED increases. 3626:

and balanced charge injection. In other words, they still used flat emissive layer, but tried to optimize the balance of electrons and holes injected into the perovskite, so as to make the most efficient use of the charge carriers. Moreover, in the perovskite layer, the crystals are perfectly

3598:

In 2018, Cao et al. and Lin et al. independently published two papers on developing perovskite LEDs with EQE greater than 20%, which made these two papers a mile-stone in PLED development. Their device have similar planar structure, i.e. the active layer (perovskite) is sandwiched between two

2383:

Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment – or thermal management properties. Overdriving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. An adequate

1572:

Some phosphor white LED units are "tunable white", blending two extremes of color temperatures (commonly 2700K and 6500K) to produce intermediate values. This feature allows users to change the lighting to suit the current use of a multifunction room. As illustrated by a straight line on the

1513:

Some phosphor-based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor-coated epoxy. Alternatively, the LED might be paired with a remote phosphor, a preformed polycarbonate piece coated with the phosphor material. Remote phosphors provide more diffuse light, which is desirable for many

2368:

Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be shorter or longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 25,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and

1105:

Experimental white LEDs were demonstrated in 2014 to produce 303 lumens per watt of electricity (lm/W); some can last up to 100,000 hours. Commercially available LEDs have an efficiency of up to 223 lm/W as of 2018. A previous record of 135 lm/W was achieved by Nichia in 2010. Compared to

1344:

crystals suspended in the package or coated on the LED. This YAG phosphor causes white LEDs to appear yellow when off, and the space between the crystals allow some blue light to pass through in LEDs with partial phosphor conversion. Alternatively, white LEDs may use other phosphors like

9489:

Sampath, A. V.; Reed, M. L.; Moe, C.; Garrett, G. A.; Readinger, E. D.; Sarney, W. L.; Shen, H.; Wraback, M.; Chua, C. (December 1, 2009), "The effects of increasing AlN mole fraction on the performance of AlGaN active regions containing nanometer scale compositionally imhomogeneities",

866:

at Boston University patented a method for producing high-brightness blue LEDs using a new two-step process in 1991. In 2015, a US court ruled that three Taiwanese companies had infringed Moustakas's prior patent, and ordered them to pay licensing fees of not less than US$ 13 million.

616:(TI) began a project to manufacture infrared diodes. In October 1962, TI announced the first commercial LED product (the SNX-100), which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit an 890 nm light output. In October 1963, TI announced the first commercial hemispherical LED, the SNX-110. 4912: 1493:

Due to the simplicity of manufacturing, the phosphor method is still the most popular method for making high-intensity white LEDs. The design and production of a light source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex

2113:

format. Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Dot-matrix displays typically use 5×7 pixels per character. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use of

959:. As of 2017, some manufacturers are using SiC as the substrate for LED production, but sapphire is more common, as it has the most similar properties to that of gallium nitride, reducing the need for patterning the sapphire wafer (patterned wafers are known as epi wafers). 1685:

LEDs are made in different packages for different applications. A single or a few LED junctions may be packed in one miniature device for use as an indicator or pilot lamp. An LED array may include controlling circuits within the same package, which may range from a simple

738:(GaAsP) in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. Monsanto had previously offered to supply HP with GaAsP, but HP decided to grow its own GaAsP. In February 1969, Hewlett-Packard introduced the HP Model 5082-7000 Numeric Indicator, the first LED device to use 3621:

Lin and his colleague used a different approach to generate high EQE. Instead of modifying the microstructure of perovskite layer, they chose to adopt a new strategy for managing the compositional distribution in the device—an approach that simultaneously provides high

3046:. As of 2011, some LED bulbs provide up to 150 lm/W and even inexpensive low-end models typically exceed 50 lm/W, so that a 6-watt LED could achieve the same results as a standard 40-watt incandescent bulb. The lower heat output of LEDs also reduces demand on 1796:

up to 300 W/cm have been achieved. Since overheating is destructive, the HP-LEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from an HP-LED is not removed, the device fails in seconds. One HP-LED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a

10211:

Lin, Kebin; Xing, Jun; Quan, Li Na; de Arquer, F. Pelayo García; Gong, Xiwen; Lu, Jianxun; Xie, Liqiang; Zhao, Weijie; Zhang, Di; Yan, Chuanzhong; Li, Wenqiang (October 2018). "Perovskite light-emitting diodes with external quantum efficiency exceeding 20 per cent".

9221:

Tymoszuk A., Kulus D., Kowalska J., Kulpińska A., Pańka D., Jeske M., Antkowiak M. 2024. Light spectrum affects growth, metabolite profile, and resistance against fungal phytopathogens of Solanum lycopersicum L. seedlings. Journal of Plant Protection Research 64(2).

3096:

jetliners uses LED lighting. LEDs are also being used in airport and heliport lighting. LED airport fixtures currently include medium-intensity runway lights, runway centerline lights, taxiway centerline and edge lights, guidance signs, and obstruction lighting.

3534:

The progressive miniaturization of low-voltage lighting technology, such as LEDs and OLEDs, suitable to incorporate into low-thickness materials has fostered experimentation in combining light sources and wall covering surfaces for interior walls in the form of

3301:

LEDs are useful for machine vision because they provide a compact, reliable source of light. LED lamps can be turned on and off to suit the needs of the vision system, and the shape of the beam produced can be tailored to match the system's requirements.

9626:

Poldmae, Aime; Cabalo, Jerry; De Lucia, Marla; Narayanan, Fiona; Strauch III, Lester; Sickenberger, David (September 28, 2006). Carrano, John C.; Zukauskas, Arturas (eds.). "Biological aerosol detection with the tactical biological (TAC-BIO) detector".

1832:

LEDs developed by Seoul Semiconductor can operate on AC power without a DC converter. For each half-cycle, part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half-cycle. The efficiency of this type of HP-LED is typically

1424:

One of the challenges is the development of more efficient green LEDs. The theoretical maximum for green LEDs is 683 lumens per watt but as of 2010 few green LEDs exceed even 100 lumens per watt. The blue and red LEDs approach their theoretical limits.

2240:

Unlike a traditional incandescent lamp, an LED will light only when voltage is applied in the forward direction of the diode. No current flows and no light is emitted if voltage is applied in the reverse direction. If the reverse voltage exceeds the

196: 194: 191: 3274:(VLC) has been proposed as an alternative to the increasingly competitive radio bandwidth. VLC operates in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, so data can be transmitted without occupying the frequencies of radio communications. 1871:

light-emitting diodes (SMD LEDs) and other components that usually comes with an adhesive backing. Traditionally, strip lights had been used solely in accent lighting, backlighting, task lighting, and decorative lighting applications, such as

1573:

chromaticity diagram, simple two-white blends will have a pink bias, becoming most severe in the middle. A small amount of green light, provided by another LED, could correct the problem. Some products are RGBWW, i.e. RGBW with tunable white.

195: 1568:

There are RGBW LEDs that combine RGB units with a phosphor white LED on the market. Doing so retains the extremely tunable color of RGB LED, but allows color rendering and efficiency to be optimized when a color close to white is selected.

1421:

tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color rendering capability, they often have poor luminous efficacy. Trichromatic white LEDs are in between, having both good luminous efficacy (>70 lm/W) and fair color rendering capability.

1277:

Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN/GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems, but practical devices still exhibit efficiency too low for high-brightness applications.

1101:

Light output and efficiency of blue and near-ultraviolet LEDs rose and the cost of reliable devices fell. This led to relatively high-power white-light LEDs for illumination, which are replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting.

2253:

wavelength cannot be similar enough to still be visible. Though dual-LED packages exist that contain a different color LED in each direction, it is not expected that any single LED element can emit visible light when reverse-biased.

2994:, where ghost images of the LED appear if the eyes quickly scan across the array. White LED headlamps are beginning to appear. Using LEDs has styling advantages because LEDs can form much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with 1576:

A final class of white LED with mixed light is dim-to-warm. These are ordinary 2700K white LED bulbs with a small red LED that turns on when the bulb is dimmed. Doing so makes the color warmer, emulating an incandescent light bulb.

2347:

distribution. So, LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light field. Different fields of light can be manipulated by the application of different optics or "lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few

9208:

Tymoszuk A., Kulus D., Błażejewska A., Nadolan K., Kulpińska A., Pietrzykowski K., 2023. Application of wide-spectrum light-emitting diodes in the indoor production of cucumber and tomato seedlings. Acta Agrobotanica 76: 762.

8117: 7502: 2990:

about 0.1 second faster than an incandescent bulb. This gives drivers behind more time to react. In a dual intensity circuit (rear markers and brakes) if the LEDs are not pulsed at a fast enough frequency, they can create a

10397: 3566:

Early suspicions were that the LED droop was caused by elevated temperatures. Scientists showed that temperature was not the root cause of efficiency droop. The mechanism causing efficiency droop was identified in 2007 as

3334:

biological agent detection. This is because the use of UV fluorescence is reagentless, or a process that does not require an added chemical to produce a reaction, with no consumables, or produces no chemical byproducts.

2124:

Digital RGB addressable LEDs contain their own "smart" control electronics. In addition to power and ground, these provide connections for data-in, data-out, clock and sometimes a strobe signal. These are connected in a

193: 476:(ZnS) powder is suspended in an insulator and an alternating electrical field is applied to it. In his publications, Destriau often referred to luminescence as Losev-Light. Destriau worked in the laboratories of Madame 5507:

Dadgar, A.; Poschenrieder, M.; BläSing, J.; Fehse, K.; Diez, A.; Krost, A. (2002). "Thick, crack-free blue light-emitting diodes on Si(111) using low-temperature AlN interlayers and in situ Si\sub x]N\sub y] masking".

9965:

Di, Dawei; Romanov, Alexander S.; Yang, Le; Richter, Johannes M.; Rivett, Jasmine P. H.; Jones, Saul; Thomas, Tudor H.; Abdi Jalebi, Mojtaba; Friend, Richard H.; Linnolahti, Mikko; Bochmann, Manfred (April 14, 2017).

7437: 1363:

The first white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were offered for sale in the autumn of 1996. Nichia made some of the first white LEDs which were based on blue LEDs with Ce:YAG phosphor. Ce:YAG is often grown using the

3330:

device. The TAC-BIO detector's response time was one minute from when it sensed a biological agent. It was also demonstrated that the detector could be operated unattended indoors and outdoors for weeks at a time.

2163:(COB) arrays, allowing better heat dissipation than with a single LED of comparable luminous output. The LEDs can be arranged around a cylinder, and are called "corn cob lights" because of the rows of yellow LEDs. 1791:

High-power LEDs (HP-LEDs) or high-output LEDs (HO-LEDs) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens. LED

1300:. Substantially more expensive, shorter-wavelength diodes are commercially available for wavelengths down to 240 nm. As the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum of 989:

GaN-on-Si is difficult but desirable since it takes advantage of existing semiconductor manufacturing infrastructure. It allows for the wafer-level packaging of LED dies resulting in extremely small LED packages.

1808:

Some HP-LEDs in this category are the Nichia 19 series, Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon, and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009, some HP-LEDs manufactured by Cree exceed 105 lm/W.

9234:

Kulus D., Woźny A., 2020. Influence of light conditions on the morphogenetic and biochemical response of selected ornamental plant species under in vitro conditions: A mini-review. BioTechnologia 101(1): 75-83.

3297:

are the most common example of machine vision applications, and many of those scanners use red LEDs instead of lasers. Optical computer mice use LEDs as a light source for the miniature camera within the mouse.

2268:

Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the

2215:

and a current below their rating. Current and lifetime change greatly with a small change in applied voltage. They thus require a current-regulated supply (usually just a series resistor for indicator LEDs).

1332:—red, green and blue—and then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, similar to a 10315: 7127: 5543: 1106:

incandescent bulbs, this is a huge increase in electrical efficiency, and even though LEDs are more expensive to purchase, overall lifetime cost is significantly cheaper than that of incandescent bulbs.

340:

and generally to DC (not AC) power, the inability to provide steady illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC electrical supply source, and a lesser maximum operating temperature and storage temperature.

173:

Parts of a conventional LED. The flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out via mechanical strain or

3245:

Light can be used to transmit data and analog signals. For example, lighting white LEDs can be used in systems assisting people to navigate in closed spaces while searching necessary rooms or objects.

1163:

of the semiconductors used. Since these materials have a high index of refraction, design features of the devices such as special optical coatings and die shape are required to efficiently emit light.

3251:

in many theaters and similar spaces use arrays of infrared LEDs to send sound to listeners' receivers. Light-emitting diodes (as well as semiconductor lasers) are used to send data over many types of

10354:

Lim, S. R.; Kang, D.; Ogunseitan, O. A.; Schoenung, J. M. (2011). "Potential Environmental Impacts of Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Metallic Resources, Toxicity, and Hazardous Waste Classification".

4953:

Park, S. -I.; Xiong, Y.; Kim, R. -H.; Elvikis, P.; Meitl, M.; Kim, D. -H.; Wu, J.; Yoon, J.; Yu, C. -J.; Liu, Z.; Huang, Y.; Hwang, K. -C.; Ferreira, P.; Li, X.; Choquette, K.; Rogers, J. A. (2009).

2303:

or lowering the forward current. This pulse-width modulation is why LED lights, particularly headlights on cars, when viewed on camera or by some people, seem to flash or flicker. This is a type of

1266:

sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can in theory be varied from violet to amber.

6827: 2388:

is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, and require low failure rates.

10564: 9929: 9583:

Cabalo, Jerry; DeLucia, Marla; Goad, Aime; Lacis, John; Narayanan, Fiona; Sickenberger, David (October 2, 2008). Carrano, John C.; Zukauskas, Arturas (eds.). "Overview of the TAC-BIO detector".

8682: 2089:

each of the three, RGB LEDs are capable of producing a wide color gamut. Unlike dedicated-color LEDs, these do not produce pure wavelengths. Modules may not be optimized for smooth color mixing.

1397:

are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nonetheless, this method has many applications because of the flexibility of mixing different colors, and in principle, this mechanism also has higher

495:

patenting a lighting device in Hungary in 1939 based on silicon carbide, with an option on boron carbide, that emitted white, yellowish white, or greenish white depending on impurities present.

2245:, which is typically about five volts, a large current flows and the LED will be damaged. If the reverse current is sufficiently limited to avoid damage, the reverse-conducting LED is a useful 1882:

and higher-power SMDs have allowed them to be used in applications such as high brightness task lighting, fluorescent and halogen lighting fixture replacements, indirect lighting applications,

3563:

In addition, work remains to be done in the realms of current efficiency droop, color shift, system reliability, light distribution, dimming, thermal management, and power supply performance.

2044:

Integrated electronics Simple electronic circuits integrated into the LED package have been around since at least 2011 which produce a random LED intensity pattern reminiscent of a flickering

3618:

and reduce nonradiative recombination. Therefore, by improving the light outcoupling and reducing nonradiative losses, Cao and his colleagues successfully achieved PLED with EQE up to 20.7%.

2288:, red surfaces being rendered particularly poorly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. The same is true with green surfaces. The quality of color rendition of an LED is measured by the 10154:

Cho, Sang-Hwan; Song, Young-Woo; Lee, Joon-gu; Kim, Yoon-Chang; Lee, Jong Hyuk; Ha, Jaeheung; Oh, Jong-Suk; Lee, So Young; Lee, Sun Young; Hwang, Kyu Hwan; Zang, Dong-Sik (August 18, 2008).

777:

methods enabled the team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions. LED producers have continued to use these methods as of about 2009.

2373:

demonstrations have shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product.

2173:

Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light bulbs. The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.

3728:

Use in winter conditions: Since they do not give off much heat in comparison to incandescent lights, LED lights used for traffic control can have snow obscuring them, leading to accidents.

3560:

and experience efficiency drop-off with temperature. Red phosphors could also benefit from a narrower spectral width to emit more lumens and becoming more efficient at converting photons.

5480:

Dadgar, A.; Alam, A.; Riemann, T.; Bläsing, J.; Diez, A.; Poschenrieder, M.; Strassburg, M.; Heuken, M.; Christen, J.; Krost, A. (2001). "Crack-Free InGaN/GaN Light Emitters on Si(111)".

6737: 8124: 7782:

Burroughes, J. H.; Bradley, D. D. C.; Brown, A. R.; Marks, R. N.; MacKay, K.; Friend, R. H.; Burns, P. L.; Holmes, A. B. (1990). "Light-emitting diodes based on conjugated polymers".

2786: 1285: 2332:(TIR) lenses are often used to the same effect. When large quantities of light are needed, many light sources such as LED chips are usually deployed, which are difficult to focus or 7518: 5948: 2226:

increases. Heating also increases with higher currents, which compromises LED lifetime. These effects put practical limits on the current through an LED in high power applications.

10405: 2400:

In a typical LED manufacturing process, encapsulation is performed after probing, dicing, die transfer from wafer to package, and wire bonding or flip chip mounting, perhaps using

5384: 4954: 3721:

Impact on wildlife: LEDs are much more attractive to insects than sodium-vapor lights, so much so that there has been speculative concern about the possibility of disruption to

1738:

packages. Typical current ratings range from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. LED's can be soldered to a flexible PCB strip to form LED tape popularly used for decoration.

8300: 7676: 5838: 5578: 2095:

Decorative-multicolor LEDs incorporate several emitters of different colors supplied by only two lead-out wires. Colors are switched internally by varying the supply voltage.

704:, first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as calculators, TVs, radios, telephones, as well as watches. 7484: 1013:, since only three narrow bands of wavelengths of light are being emitted. The attainment of high efficiency blue LEDs was quickly followed by the development of the first 537: 8736: 5801: 3583:. In 2018, less than four years after their discovery, the ability of perovskite LEDs (PLEDs) to produce light from electrons already rivaled those of the best performing 6032: 5732: 2265:

Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

1544:

A new style of wafers composed of gallium-nitride-on-silicon (GaN-on-Si) is being used to produce white LEDs using 200-mm silicon wafers. This avoids the typical costly

192: 10513: 5035: 4532: 8979:

Watanabe, Kenji; Taniguchi, Takashi; Kanda, Hisao (2004). "Direct-bandgap properties and evidence for ultraviolet lasing of hexagonal boron nitride single crystal".

3212:

to provide light for miners. Research has been done to improve LEDs for mining, to reduce glare and to increase illumination, reducing risk of injury to the miners.

5460: 1109:

The LED chip is encapsulated inside a small, plastic, white mold although sometimes an LED package can incorporate a reflector. It can be encapsulated using resin (

10328: 7979:

Gustafsson, G.; Cao, Y.; Treacy, G. M.; Klavetter, F.; Colaneri, N.; Heeger, A. J. (1992). "Flexible light-emitting diodes made from soluble conducting polymers".

3838: 3039:

Lighting North America LED bulb won the first competition on August 3, 2011, after successfully completing 18 months of intensive field, lab, and product testing.

2029:

Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated

9301:"CDC – NIOSH Publications and Products – Impact: NIOSH Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Cap Lamp Improves Illumination and Decreases Injury Risk for Underground Miners" 1155:

In a light-emitting diode, the recombination of electrons and electron holes in a semiconductor produces light (be it infrared, visible or UV), a process called "

1141:

semiconductor that emits light of different frequencies modulated by voltage changes. A prototype display achieved a resolution of 6,800 PPI or 3k x 1.5k pixels.

847:

semiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC). SiC LEDs had very low efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the visible light spectrum.

692:

200 per unit, and so had little practical use. The first commercial visible-wavelength LEDs used GaAsP semiconductors and were commonly used as replacements for

5766: 5550: 3599:

electrodes. To achieve a high EQE, they not only reduced non-radiative recombination, but also utilized their own, subtly different methods to improve the EQE.

2358:

Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.

2328:

its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner. For larger LED packages

8525: 8482: 2256:

It is not known if any zener diode could exist that emits light only in reverse-bias mode. Uniquely, this type of LED would conduct when connected backwards.

9767:"Photomorphogenesis, photosynthesis, and seed yield of wheat plants grown under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with and without supplemental blue lighting" 8234: 4123:

Losev, O. V. (1927). "Светящийся карборундовый детектор и детектирование с кристаллами" [Luminous carborundum detector and detection with crystals].

3591:

pathways that do not produce photons; or by solving outcoupling problem (prevalent for thin-film LEDs) or balancing charge carrier injection to increase the

3428:

to provide a signal path with electrical isolation between two circuits. This is especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low-voltage

1541:

ones, both methods offer comparable brightness. A concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning light source and cause harm to human eyes or skin.

3342:

device could also be utilized as an environmental detector to monitor air quality in hospitals, airplanes, or even in households to detect fungus and mold.

8025: 1536:-based phosphors that emit red and blue, plus copper and aluminium-doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al) that emits green. This is a method analogous to the way 1288:, even shorter wavelengths are achievable. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 360–395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, as 757:

In the 1970s, commercially successful LED devices at less than five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound

10587: 8944:

Kubota, Y.; Watanabe, K.; Tsuda, O.; Taniguchi, T. (2007). "Deep Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Hexagonal Boron Nitride Synthesized at Atmospheric Pressure".

7011:

Watanabe, K.; Taniguchi, T.; Kanda, H. (2004). "Direct-bandgap properties and evidence for ultraviolet lasing of hexagonal boron nitride single crystal".

6842: 2065:

Bi-color LEDs contain two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of these. One type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads

11994: 10859: 9116: 3322:

initiated the effort to create a biological detector named TAC-BIO. The program capitalized on semiconductor UV optical sources (SUVOS) developed by the

10560: 9926: 3023:

With the development of high-efficiency and high-power LEDs, it has become possible to use LEDs in lighting and illumination. To encourage the shift to

10690: 5715: 3948: 9405: 5749: 2376:

Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or

1661:

displays. OLEDs have been used to make visual displays for portable electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, lighting and televisions.

12287: 8269: 380: 8753: 4163: 3436:

Many sensor systems rely on light as the signal source. LEDs are often ideal as a light source due to the requirements of the sensors. The Nintendo

4667: 2948:, low maintenance and small size of LEDs has led to uses as status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations. Large-area 1486:

to 5 times the luminous efficacy of the original blue LED because of the human eye's greater sensitivity to yellow than to blue (as modeled in the

10097:

Cao, Yu; Wang, Nana; Tian, He; Guo, Jingshu; Wei, Yingqiang; Chen, Hong; Miao, Yanfeng; Zou, Wei; Pan, Kang; He, Yarong; Cao, Hui (October 2018).

6644: 5097: 4610: 12329: 11287: 3128:

screens. RGB LEDs raise the color gamut by as much as 45%. Screens for TV and computer displays can be made thinner using LEDs for backlighting.

285:

circuits, such as those used with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to red.

6141: 4699:

Pearsall, T. P.; Miller, B. I.; Capik, R. J.; Bachmann, K. J. (1976). "Efficient, Lattice-matched, Double Heterostructure LEDs at 1.1 mm from Ga

2203:), so a small change in voltage can cause a large change in current. Current through the LED must be regulated by an external circuit such as a 9455: 7609: 6753: 5666: 4310: 3568: 1514:

applications. Remote phosphor designs are also more tolerant of variations in the LED emissions spectrum. A common yellow phosphor material is

9014:

Taniyasu, Yoshitaka; Kasu, Makoto; Makimoto, Toshiki (2006). "An aluminium nitride light-emitting diode with a wavelength of 210 nanometres".

7893:

Hebner, T. R.; Wu, C. C.; Marcy, D.; Lu, M. H.; Sturm, J. C. (1998). "Ink-jet printing of doped polymers for organic light emitting devices".

7536: 5967: 2134:

matrices. Some even have refresh rates in the kHz range, allowing for basic video applications. These devices are known by their part number (

1653:

The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving voltage, wide viewing angle, and high contrast and color

6862:

Mori, M.; Hamamoto, A.; Takahashi, A.; Nakano, M.; Wakikawa, N.; Tachibana, S.; Ikehara, T.; Nakaya, Y.; Akutagawa, M.; Kinouchi, Y. (2007).

5132:

Edmond, John A.; Kong, Hua-Shuang; Carter, Calvin H. (April 1, 1993). "Blue LEDs, UV photodiodes and high-temperature rectifiers in 6H-SiC".

2380:(HID lamps) that require a long time to warm up to full output and to cool down before they can be lighted again if they are being restarted. 8188: 4387: 11730: 9353: 5682: 3338:

by counting the photon pulses per unit of time from the fluorescence and scattering detectors, and comparing the value to a set threshold.

1552:

large silicon material is cheaper and more abundant. LED companies shifting from using sapphire to silicon should be a minimal investment.

5952: 5282:

Nakamura, S.; Mukai, T.; Senoh, M. (1994). "Candela-Class High-Brightness InGaN/AlGaN Double-Heterostructure Blue-Light-Emitting-Diodes".

3909: 3882: 3456:

Since LEDs can also be used as photodiodes, they can be used for both photo emission and detection. This could be used, for example, in a

11941: 5392: 4939: 4877: 1349:(PFS) or other engineered phosphors. PFS assists in red light generation, and is used in conjunction with conventional Ce:YAG phosphor. 2404:, a transparent electrical conductor. In this case, the bond wire(s) are attached to the ITO film that has been deposited in the LEDs. 1353:

converted LEDs can be controlled by changing the concentration of several phosphors that form a phosphor blend used in an LED package.

936:

Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and demonstrated a "transparent contact" LED using

8526:

The LED's Dark Secret: Solid-state lighting will not supplant the lightbulb until it can overcome the mysterious malady known as droop

8460: 5698: 619:

In the 1960s, several laboratories focused on LEDs that would emit visible light. A particularly important device was demonstrated by

266:. The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the 13203: 8708: 8292: 5607: 3649: 929:

in 2014 for "the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes, which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources."

715:(R&D) on practical LEDs between 1962 and 1968, by a research team under Howard C. Borden, Gerald P. Pighini at HP Associates and 605: 3259:

cables to the very high bandwidth fiber links that form the Internet backbone. For some time, computers were commonly equipped with

2118:, with their lower power needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays. 1137:

In 2024, QPixel introduced as polychromatic LED that could replace the 3-subpixel model for digital displays. The technology uses a

10302: 7936:

Bharathan, J.; Yang, Y. (1998). "Polymer electroluminescent devices processed by inkjet printing: I. Polymer light-emitting logo".

5847: 5575: 3595:(external quantum efficiency). The most up-to-date PLED devices have broken the performance barrier by shooting the EQE above 20%. 3526:

in electronic circuits. The forward voltage drop (about 1.7 V for a red LED or 1.2V for an infrared) can be used instead of a

1965: 1816:—which predicts an exponential rise in light output and efficacy of LEDs over time—are the CREE XP-G series LED, which achieved 105 1432:

can be formed by mixing different amounts of three primary colors. This allows precise dynamic color control. Their emission power

6800: 6410: 12844: 10606: 7707: 5388: 5051: 1937: 8733: 7182:"Full Spectrum White LEDs of Any Color Temperature with Color Rendering Index Higher Than 90 Using a Single Broad-Band Phosphor" 5798: 4483: 1498:

system, and the majority of high-intensity white LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using phosphor light conversion.

517:(GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using 10683: 9378: 9070: 5493: 5175: 3311: 3291:

systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so features of interest are easier to process. LEDs are often used.

1453:

Spectrum of a white LED showing blue light directly emitted by the GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more broadband

8325:

5th Kuala Lumpur International Conference on Biomedical Engineering 2011: BIOMED 2011, 20–23 June 2011, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

6911:

Taniyasu, Y.; Kasu, M.; Makimoto, T. (2006). "An aluminium nitride light-emitting diode with a wavelength of 210 nanometres".

6462: 6028: 3808: 2280:

radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can make the color of objects

1593:(ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate that simultaneously emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the substrate. 11914: 10630: 10505: 9817: 9473: 9159: 8648: 8585: 8422: 7312: 7286: 6747: 6694: 6668: 6628: 6602: 6576: 6550: 6524: 6498: 6472: 6446: 6420: 6330: 6301: 6272: 6246: 6220: 6191: 6165: 6125: 5642: 5368: 4774: 4282:

McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Physics: electroluminescence. (n.d.) McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Physics. (2002).

4240: 4037: 2905: 1918: 1786: 1658: 17: 11429: 1944: 1474:

phosphors are used. Using several phosphor layers of distinct colors broadens the emitted spectrum, effectively raising the

503:

crystals with a current source of a battery or a pulse generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953.

12761: 12213: 11988: 7664: 7386: 6566: 6262: 6212:

Reliability of Organic Compounds in Microelectronics and Optoelectronics: From Physics-of-Failure to Physics-of-Degradation

6155: 6115: 5997: 5414: 4853: 4826: 4536: 3588: 2126: 11929: 9527:"AlGaN based deep ultraviolet light emitting diodes with high internal quantum efficiency grown by molecular beam epitaxy" 9428: 6291: 6236: 6210: 6181: 1698: 1230: 955:

demonstrated high-power InGaN LEDs grown on silicon substrates commercially, and GaN-on-silicon LEDs are in production at

12542: 12322: 12062: 11397: 9183: 9182:

Bantis, Filippos, Sonia Smirnakou, Theoharis Ouzounis, Athanasios Koukounaras, Nikolaos Ntagkas, and Kalliopi Radoglou. "

8379: 6684: 6658: 6618: 6436: 6385: 6320: 3615: 3319: 8152: 5019: 4559: 3845: 12261: 11152: 7420: 2637: 2590: 2551: 2512: 2370: 8664: 8349: 8243: 8205: 5116: 2836:

Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning

1951: 836:. In the early 1970s, these devices were too dim for practical use, and research into gallium nitride devices slowed. 12525: 12421: 11976: 11935: 10676: 9850: 9507: 8333: 5076: 4861: 3872:, "Semiconductor Radiant Diode", James R. Biard and Gary Pittman, Filed on Aug. 8th, 1962, Issued on Dec. 20th, 1966. 2963: 2931: 1984: 1770: 1256: 994: 317: 11451: 11192: 9688:

Kesavan, Jana; Kilper, Gary; Williamson, Mike; Alstadt, Valerie; Dimmock, Anne; Bascom, Rebecca (February 1, 2019).

9132:

Ben-Ezra, Moshe; Wang, Jiaping; Wilburn, Bennett; Xiaoyang Li; Le Ma (2008). "An LED-only BRDF measurement device".

7302: 2991: 2913: 1730:

These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 1.8 mm to 10 mm,

13394: 12665: 12392: 12298: 11981: 11723: 11434: 10837: 10535: 8493: 4135:

Losev, O. V. (November 1928). "Luminous carborundum detector and detection effect and oscillations with crystals".

3953: 3917: 2246: 2984: 12713: 12512: 11695: 11592: 11567: 11330: 11197: 9184:

Current status and recent achievements in the field of horticulture with the use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

9088:"An Inexpensive and Accurate Student Sun Photometer with Light-Emitting Diodes as Spectrally Selective Detectors" 5418: 3788: 3504: 2317:

Switch on time: LEDs light up extremely quickly. A typical red indicator LED achieves full brightness in under a

2052:

in 2024 has suggested that some flickering LEDs with automatic sleep and wake modes might be using an integrated

1933: 1714: 9690:"Laboratory validation and initial field testing of an unobtrusive bioaerosol detector for health care settings" 9099: 8873: 8091: 8021: 6592: 6540: 6514: 6488: 1761: 1745:

5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that have a series resistor for direct connection to a 5

13369: 12315: 12000: 11970: 11797: 11422: 11207: 10579: 7276: 5257: 2909: 2397:

LED manufacturing involves multiple steps, including epitaxy, chip processing, chip separation, and packaging.

1922: 9806:

Li, Jinmin; Wang, Junxi; Yi, Xiaoyan; Liu, Zhiqiang; Wei, Tongbo; Yan, Jianchang; Xue, Bin (August 31, 2020).

9112: 7062:

Koizumi, S.; Watanabe, K.; Hasegawa, M.; Kanda, H. (2001). "Ultraviolet Emission from a Diamond pn Junction".

6072: 3571:, which was taken with mixed reaction. A 2013 study conclusively identified Auger recombination as the cause. 12271: 12266: 12256: 12144: 11417: 11217: 11124: 7689: 3449: 3215:

LEDs are increasingly finding uses in medical and educational applications, for example as mood enhancement.

3063: 2377: 1548: 844: 828:

awarded Maruska, Rhines, and Stanford professor David Stevenson a patent for their work in 1972 (U.S. Patent

6016: 3958: 270:

of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting

12744: 12496: 11873: 11587: 10748: 8909:

Koizumi, S.; Watanabe, K; Hasegawa, M; Kanda, H (2001). "Ultraviolet Emission from a Diamond pn Junction".

7742: 5209: 3679: 3477: 1191: 1150: 510: 8261: 8041: 3690:

of city-dwellers. Industry critics claim exposure levels are not high enough to have a noticeable effect.

3314:(ARL) led to the conceptualization of UV light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to be incorporated in light-induced 2365:

Slow failure: LEDs mainly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.

200:

Close-up of an LED with the voltage being increased and decreased to show a detailed view of its operation

13384: 12548: 12485: 11716: 11479: 11247: 8761: 5443: 4194: 3592: 3271: 3236: 2641: 2235: 1380:

Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high-brightness red solid-state semiconductor LEDs.

914: 10881: 9662: 6085: 6060: 6048: 4674: 4352:

Lehovec, K; Accardo, C. A; Jamgochian, E (1953). "Injected Light Emission of Silicon Carbide Crystals".

2176:

Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm) and are easily attached to printed circuit boards.

2038:

color mixing. Flashing SMD LEDs in the 0805 and other size formats have been available since early 2019.

580:

After establishing the priority of their work based on engineering notebooks predating submissions from

13208: 12755: 12056: 11786: 11780: 10663: 10428: 8842:"Effects of humidity and phosphor on silicone/Phosphor composite in white light-emitting diode package" 5089: 4618: 4292: 4228: 3248: 2980: 2585: 2546: 2508: 2503: 2473: 2066: 1585:

Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all and was based on

1381: 1118:

higher concentrations of Ce:YAG in phosphor-silicone mixtures, because the Ce:YAG decomposes with use.

1009:

Even though white light can be created using individual red, green and blue LEDs, this results in poor

998: 735: 11456: 10646: 9259: 7113: 6660:

From LED to Solid State Lighting: Principles, Materials, Packaging, Characterization, and Applications

6594:

Fundamentals of Solid-State Lighting: LEDs, OLEDs, and Their Applications in Illumination and Displays

6264:

Fundamentals of Solid-State Lighting: LEDs, OLEDs, and Their Applications in Illumination and Displays

6238:

From LED to Solid State Lighting: Principles, Materials, Packaging, Characterization, and Applications

6157:

From LED to Solid State Lighting: Principles, Materials, Packaging, Characterization, and Applications

4907: 3058:

and reduce electrical energy consumption and its associated emissions. Solar powered LEDs are used as

1272:(AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga fraction can be used to manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers for 1125:

The temperature of the phosphor during operation and how it is applied limits the size of an LED die.

1074:, showing improvement in light output per LED over time, with a logarithmic scale on the vertical axis 499:, Carl Accardo, and Edward Jamgochian explained these first LEDs in 1951 using an apparatus employing 12962: 12676: 12519: 12404: 12192: 11903: 11599: 11160: 11147: 10743: 9274: 4020:

Peláez, E. A; Villegas, E. R (2007). "LED power reduction trade-offs for ambulatory pulse oximetry".

3366: 2782: 2329: 1855: 1281: 1269: 1247: 449: 385: 10651: 9751: 9338: 7648: 7608:

Ohno, Y. (2004). Ferguson, Ian T; Narendran, Nadarajah; Denbaars, Steven P; Carrano, John C (eds.).

7594: 5782: 4982: 4338: 3988: 3883:"Inventor of Long-Lasting, Low-Heat Light Source Awarded $ 500,000 Lemelson-MIT Prize for Invention" 3001:

Due to the relative cheapness of low output LEDs, they are also used in many temporary uses such as

12971: 12829: 12681: 12537: 12094: 11897: 11660: 10875: 10849: 10455:"LED Lighting Increases the Ecological Impact of Light Pollution Irrespective of Color Temperature" 9404:

Fudin, M. S.; Mynbaev, K. D.; Aifantis, K. E.; Lipsanen H.; Bougrov, V. E.; Romanov, A. E. (2014).

9142: 8236:

Visibility, Environmental, and Astronomical Issues Associated with Blue-Rich White Outdoor Lighting

7571: 5975: 4955:"Printed Assemblies of Inorganic Light-Emitting Diodes for Deformable and Semitransparent Displays" 3101: 3055: 3043: 2894: 2419:, the following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material: 1868: 1678: 1522: 1346: 1341: 1048: 712: 8570:

Conference Record of the 2004 IEEE Industry Applications Conference, 2004. 39th IAS Annual Meeting

5347:"Light-emitting gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor device" Issue date: November 26, 1996 4391: 4232: 3552:

LEDs require optimized efficiency to hinge on ongoing improvements such as phosphor materials and

2956:

on freeways. Thin, lightweight message displays are used at airports and railway stations, and as

2139: 1958: 785:

to block visible light. More complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation in

13379: 12982: 12702: 12501: 12100: 11520: 10804: 9947: 8375: 7142: 5817: 5284: 4910:, Hoerni, J. A., "Method of Manufacturing Semiconductor Devices", issued Mar 20, 1962 4821: 4448:

Kroemer, Herbert (September 16, 2013). "The Double-Heterostructure Concept: How It Got Started".

4022:

2007 29th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society

3656:, replacing the application of early laser-oriented standards for classification of LED sources. 3113: 3051: 3028: 2898: 2416: 2344: 2200: 1911: 1519: 1416:

white LEDs. Several key factors that play among these different methods include color stability,

1114: 983: 964: 832:). Today, magnesium-doping of gallium nitride remains the basis for all commercial blue LEDs and 289: 8897: 8785:"Fully convolutional networks for chip-wise defect detection employing photoluminescence images" 8185: 2212: 1210: 817:, doctoral students in materials science and engineering. At the time Maruska was on leave from 13151: 12718: 12583: 12559: 12197: 11947: 11862: 11277: 11202: 10099:"Perovskite light-emitting diodes based on spontaneously formed submicrometre-scale structures" 9967: 9902: 9137: 4977: 3922: 3886: 3783: 3580: 3109: 2714: 2676: 2633: 2624: 2594: 2555: 2516: 2300: 2115: 2086: 926: 878:

using a gallium nitride (GaN) growth process. These LEDs had efficiencies of 10%. In parallel,

9835:

2006 8th International Conference on Solid-State and Integrated Circuit Technology Proceedings

9833:

Gaska, R.; Shur, M. S.; Zhang, J. (October 2006). "Physics and Applications of Deep UV LEDs".

9807: 9494:, Selected Topics in Electronics and Systems, vol. 51, World Scientific, pp. 69–76, 8323: 4078: 277:

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity

13220: 13172: 12993: 12809: 12724: 12655: 12491: 12084: 12078: 12041: 11747: 11690: 9738: 9325: 8412: 7222: 6964:"Deep Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Hexagonal Boron Nitride Synthesized at Atmospheric Pressure" 6711: 6542:

Nitride Semiconductor Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Materials, Technologies, and Applications

4885: 4847: 3773: 3611: 3381: 3197: 2849: 2825: 2289: 2102: 1632: 1475: 1417: 1126: 701: 293: 9525:

Liao, Yitao; Thomidis, Christos; Kao, Chen-kai; Moustakas, Theodore D. (February 21, 2011).

8632: 8438: 4220: 3844:. The Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton. April 2007. Archived from 3495:

UV LEDs, with spectra range of 220 nm to 395 nm, have other applications, such as

3476:, and bacteria and viruses can be removed from water and other substances using UV LEDs for 3358: 3131:

LEDs are small, durable and need little power, so they are used in handheld devices such as

1179: 1082:. The latest research and development has been propagated by Japanese manufacturers such as 956: 608:

issued the two inventors the patent for the GaAs infrared light-emitting diode (U.S. Patent

13294: 13038: 12933: 12707: 12454: 12415: 12346: 12338: 12089: 11963: 11402: 10905: 10466: 10363: 10281: 10221: 10167: 10110: 10058: 9992: 9592: 9538: 9087: 8468: 7988: 7945: 7902: 7859: 7791: 7624: 7547: 7452: 7341: 7234: 7071: 7020: 6975: 6920: 6359: 5920: 5873:

Izotov, Sergey; Sitdikov, Anton; Soldatkin, Vasily; Tuev, Vasily; Olisovets, Artem (2014).

5517: 5293: 5141: 4969: 4734: 4579: 4505: 4422: 4361: 4322: 4178: 2953: 2628: 1778: 1620: 899: 855: 689: 38: 8712: 7141:

Murphy, James E.; Garcia-Santamaria, Florencio; Setlur, Anant A.; Sista, Srinivas (2015).

6347: 4496:

Carr, W. N.; G. E. Pittman (November 1963). "One-watt GaAs p-n junction infrared source".

4256:

Destriau, G. (1936). "Recherches sur les scintillations des sulfures de zinc aux rayons".

8: 13014: 12922: 12814: 12650: 12627: 12235: 12139: 12046: 11890: 11817: 11530: 11389: 10854: 10832: 5243:"Highly insulating monocrystalline gallium nitride thin films" Issue date: March 18, 1991 4221: 3270:

millions of times per second, very high data bandwidth can be achieved. For that reason,

3263:

interfaces, which allowed them to send and receive data to nearby machines via infrared.

3070: 2995: 2945: 2304: 2049: 1612: 1487: 1171: 1156: 810: 433: 374: 74: 10471: 10367: 10225: 10171: 10114: 10062: 9996: 9596: 9542: 7992: 7949: 7906: 7863: 7795: 7628: 7551: 7456: 7345: 7238: 7075: 7024: 6979: 6924: 6363: 6102: 5924: 5521: 5297: 5187: 5145: 4973: 4738: 4583: 4509: 4426: 4365: 4326: 4182: 3885:. Washington, D.C. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. April 21, 2004. Archived from 3074: 3050:

systems. Worldwide, LEDs are rapidly adopted to displace less effective sources such as

2199:

The current in an LED or other diodes rises exponentially with the applied voltage (see

2074:. Others include amber/traditional green, red/pure green, red/blue, and blue/pure green. 2021:

display. Center: Close-up of LEDs in ambient light. Bottom: LEDs in their own red light.

1405: 680: 13374: 13319: 13179: 12887: 12854: 12670: 12554: 12532: 12277: 12151: 12073: 12068: 12031: 11680: 11352: 11137: 11080: 11072: 10263: 10024: 9982: 9856: 9644: 9608: 9165: 8822: 8796: 8591: 8004: 7961: 7918: 7875: 7807: 7640: 7582: 7563: 7476: 7367: 7258: 7203: 7095: 7044: 6944: 6893: 6086:"White LEDs with super-high luminous efficacy could satisfy all general lighting needs" 5648: 5465: 5011: 4465: 4059: 3999: 3746: 3496: 3310:

The discovery of radiative recombination in aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN) alloys by

2285: 2110: 1398: 1365: 1357: 1079: 933: 875: 863: 825: 758: 739: 628: 518: 2407:

Flip chip circuit on board (COB) is a technique that can be used to manufacture LEDs.

2135: 1886:

inspection during manufacturing processes, set and costume design, and growing plants.

1356:

The 'whiteness' of the light produced is engineered to suit the human eye. Because of

1187: 1094:, Solstice, Kingsun, Hoyol and others. This trend in increased output has been called 13314: 13235: 13126: 13078: 12907: 12834: 12796: 12230: 12026: 11958: 11222: 11170: 11142: 11062: 10900: 10888: 10844: 10772: 10718: 10626: 10486: 10379: 10255: 10247: 10193: 10185: 10136: 10128: 10076: 10028: 10016: 10008: 9846: 9813: 9788: 9711: 9648: 9612: 9556: 9503: 9469: 9169: 9155: 9031: 8996: 8961: 8926: 8826: 8814: 8644: 8640: 8581: 8418: 8329: 7922: 7644: 7510: 7468: 7416: 7359: 7308: 7282: 7250: 7207: 7087: 7036: 6993: 6936: 6885: 6743: 6690: 6664: 6624: 6598: 6572: 6546: 6520: 6494: 6468: 6442: 6416: 6326: 6297: 6268: 6242: 6216: 6187: 6161: 6121: 5638: 5364: 5157: 5153: 5072: 5003: 4995: 4857: 4770: 4236: 4051: 4043: 4033: 3707: 3664: 3644: 3523: 3485: 3445: 3409: 3170: 2776: 2242: 2186: 2106: 2030: 1879: 1628: 1437:

the best solution for displays, either backlight of LCD, or direct LED based pixels.

1433: 1305: 1078:

The first white LEDs were expensive and inefficient. The light output then increased

887: 723:

on developing the first usable LED products. The first usable LED products were HP's

642: 613: 545: 526: 225: 217: 152: 10506:"Scientist's new database can help protect wildlife from harmful hues of LED lights" 10267: 9877: 9860: 9403: 9382: 8595: 7965: 7879: 7811: 7567: 7371: 7262: 7099: 7048: 6183:

Introduction to the Light-Emitting Diode: Real Applications for Industrial Engineers

5652: 4063: 540:

A 1962 Texas Instruments SNX-100 GaAs LED contained in a TO-18 transistor metal case

492: 13389: 13030: 12977: 12804: 12443: 12282: 12021: 11823: 11769: 11505: 11439: 11369: 11320: 11052: 10871: 10760: 10755: 10476: 10371: 10237: 10229: 10175: 10118: 10066: 10000: 9838: 9778: 9701: 9636: 9600: 9546: 9495: 9461: 9304: 9147: 9023: 8988: 8953: 8918: 8853: 8806: 8573: 8008: 7996: 7953: 7910: 7867: 7799: 7725: 7632: 7555: 7480: 7460: 7349: 7242: 7193: 7162: 7079: 7028: 6983: 6948: 6928: 6897: 6875: 6367: 5928: 5911: 5886: 5630: 5597:. Cambridge Centre for Gallium Nitride. Gan.msm.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved July 31, 2018. 5525: 5489: 5301: 5149: 5015: 4987: 4742: 4649: 4587: 4513: 4469: 4457: 4430: 4369: 4330: 4265: 4186: 4144: 4025: 3816: 3687: 3660: 3500: 3178: 3078: 3047: 2957: 2867: 2468: 2401: 2223: 2204: 1616: 1537: 1333: 937: 789:. Surface-mounted LEDs further reduce the package size. LEDs intended for use with 770: 720: 624: 566: 522: 514: 506: 469: 309: 305: 297: 251: 178: 12839: 9410:

Scientific and Technical Journal of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics

7542:. In Ferguson, Ian T; Carrano, John C; Taguchi, Tsunemasa; Ashdown, Ian E (eds.). 7128:"GE Lighting manufactures PFS red phosphor for LED display backlight applications" 5733:"Manufacturers Shift Attention to Light Quality to Further LED Market Share Gains" 3464:. Many materials and biological systems are sensitive to, or dependent on, light. 3404:

The light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively in

3219:

has even sponsored research for the use of LEDs to promote health for astronauts.

3151:, where space is at a premium and bulky voltage-raising circuitry is undesirable. 13307: 13240: 13093: 12824: 12734: 12578: 12187: 12177: 12124: 11885: 11665: 11624: 11582: 11577: 11412: 11232: 11009: 10738: 10713: 10620: 10156:"Weak-microcavity organic light-emitting diodes with improved light out-coupling" 9933: 9120: 9049: 8740: 8192: 8029: 7151::Mn: The Red-line Emitting LED Phosphor behind GE's TriGain Technology™ Platform" 6036: 5891: 5874: 5805: 5594: 5582: 5358: 5120: 5101: 3711: 3699: 3425: 3294: 3167: 3159: 2680: 2527: 2130: 2082: 2056: 2053: 1864: 1848: 1138: 1010: 944: 891: 806: 747: 708: 500: 445: 441: 414: 313: 12465: 9764: 8784: 8543: 5544:"Success in research: First gallium-nitride LED chips on silicon in pilot stage" 5422: 4813: 3519:

or laser replacement), medical/ analytical instrumentation, and DNA absorption.

2284:

under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to

2211:

LEDs are sensitive to voltage. They must be supplied with a voltage above their

746:) technology. It was the first intelligent LED display, and was a revolution in 13282: 13063: 13053: 12819: 12622: 11791: 11739: 11553: 11444: 11335: 11299: 11272: 11242: 11109: 10728: 10723: 10071: 10046: 9842: 9730: 9499: 9432: 8858: 8841: 8810: 8066: 7761: 7507:

Led Professional Review: Trends & Technologie for Future Lighting Solutions

5456: 5239: 4791: 4486:, Texas Instruments Inc., Contract No. AF33(616)-6600, Rept. No ASD-TDR-63-281. 4461: 4029: 3869: 3469: 3441: 3413: 3288: 3283: 2695: 2459: 2325: 2071: 1813: 1643: 1413: 1293: 1095: 1071: 871: 859: 762: 609: 557: 282: 160: 99: 30:

This article is about the electronic device. For specific use in lighting, see

10657: 10233: 10123: 10098: 9706: 9689: 9151: 8683:"LED Design Forum: Avoiding thermal runaway when driving multiple LED strings" 8384: 7871: 6880: 6863: 5634: 5343: 4925: 4148: 3682:(AMA) issued a statement concerning the possible adverse influence of blueish 3643:

Certain blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs can exceed safe limits of the so-called

3400:

to investigate the potential for growing food on future long duration missions

3081:

are employed on poles and in parking garages. In 2007, the Italian village of

2842:

where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects

829: 560:

and Gary Pittman discovered near-infrared (900 nm) light emission from a

13363: 13344: 13167: 13083: 12902: 12729: 12697: 11634: 11364: 11267: 11262: 11184: 11085: 10992: 10970: 10796: 10777: 10733: 10251: 10189: 10132: 10012: 9715: 9560: 9465: 9309: 9074: 8840:

Hoque, Md Ashraful; Bradley, Robert Kelley; Fan, Jiajie; Fan, Xuejun (2019).

8818: 8577: 8568:

Narra, Prathyusha; Zinger, D.S. (2004). "An effective LED dimming approach".

8164: 7726:"2021 How Green Light Can Maximize the Quality of Tunable White – LEDucation" 7537:"YAG glass-ceramic phosphor for white LED (II): Luminescence characteristics" 7534: 7514: 7254: 6775: 5783:"Development of the Nano-Imprint Equipment ST50S-LED for High-Brightness LED" 5161: 4595: 4269: 4101: 4047: 3760: 3614:

solutions. In addition, their method is able to passivate perovskite surface

3536: 3481: 3417: 3405: 3252: 3174: 2972: 2772: 2671: 2160: 2034: 1873: 1793: 1735: 1631:

over all or part of the molecule, and the material therefore functions as an

1590: 1329: 1309: 1175: 922: 918: 883: 879: 693: 688:

Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of

620: 473: 329: 325: 259: 240: 105: 10618: 10004: 9783: 9766: 9223: 9197: 8957: 8922: 8609: 7464: 7387:"Making white-light-emitting diodes without phosphors | SPIE Homepage: SPIE" 7083: 6988: 6963: 5933: 5906: 5052:"Oregon tech CEO says Nobel Prize in Physics overlooks the actual inventors" 4991: 4434: 4190: 3350: 3143:

operate at a safe, low voltage, instead of the 250+ volts commonly found in

2005: 1742:

visible light while passing infrared radiation, such as the Osram SFH 4546.

488: 13225: 13213: 13101: 13068: 12897: 12882: 12449: 11644: 11540: 11535: 11510: 11500: 11461: 11282: 11237: 11114: 10965: 10930: 10866: 10824: 10809: 10765: 10490: 10383: 10259: 10197: 10140: 10080: 10020: 9792: 9300: 9035: 9000: 8965: 8930: 8633: 8209: 7677:

GaN-on-Silicon LEDs Forecast to Increase Market Share to 40 Percent by 2020

7472: 7363: 7246: 7091: 7040: 6997: 6940: 6889: 6293:

LED Packaging for Lighting Applications: Design, Manufacturing, and Testing

5112: 5007: 4334: 4055: 3683: 3623: 3516: 3508: 3315: 3240: 3232: 3163: 3155: 3148: 3140: 3136: 3059: 2821: 2340: 2281: 2149: 1731: 1723: 1482: 1454: 1409: 1263: 1183: 1110: 1060: 814: 790: 774: 661: 574: 561: 496: 247: 221: 8067:"LED Through Hole 5mm (T-1 3/4) Red Built-in resistor 635 nm 4500 mcd 12V" 7535:

Tanabe, S.; Fujita, S.; Yoshihara, S.; Sakamoto, A.; Yamamoto, S. (2005).

6348:"Review—A Review on Phosphor in Glass as a High Power LED Color Converter" 4373: 2321:. LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times. 1297: 13267: 13009: 12958: 12864: 12849: 12632: 12594: 12156: 12119: 11840: 11685: 11639: 11515: 11374: 11102: 11097: 11057: 11029: 11024: 10955: 10950: 10935: 10893: 10814: 10180: 10155: 9236: 8414:

Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths: Including Actinides

7828:

Kho, Mu-Jeong; Javed, T.; Mark, R.; Maier, E.; David, C (March 4, 2008).

7354: 7329: 7198: 7181: 6712:"All-in-one polychromatic LEDs replace RGB for radically sharper screens" 6371: 5767:"Improved Silicon-Substrate LEDs Address High Solid-State Lighting Costs" 5385:"Professor Shuji Nakamura was key to the Invention of Blu-Ray Technology" 3553: 3527: 3465: 3457: 3371: 2949: 2749: 2362:

required to ensure even distribution of current between parallel strands.

2318: 1883: 1289: 1273: 870:

Two years later, in 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated by

833: 766: 743: 724: 597: 477: 437: 418: 301: 243: 87: 12307: 11294: 10303:

Some evidences that white LEDs are toxic for human at domestic radiance?

10242: 9728: 9027: 6932: 3714:

means that white LEDs used in outdoor lighting cause substantially more

1501: 1429: 734:

Monsanto was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using

565:

Radiant Diode" based on their findings, which described a zinc-diffused

13339: 13329: 13262: 13136: 13106: 13073: 13048: 13043: 13020: 12892: 12872: 12750: 12612: 12589: 12475: 12377: 12372: 12367: 12134: 12129: 12111: 12051: 11629: 11495: 11490: 11379: 11342: 11325: 11257: 11252: 11227: 10922: 8160: 7166: 5808:. Solid State Technology (September 26, 2017). Retrieved July 31, 2018. 5253: 5210:"GaN-based blue light emitting device development by Akasaki and Amano" 3768: 3607: 3448:. Some flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the typical 3421: 3388: 3132: 2451: 2430: 2277: 2085:

LEDs consist of one red, one green, and one blue LED. By independently

1925: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1798: 1722:

mm) red, green, and blue surface mount miniature LED package with gold

1457:

light emitted by the Ce:YAG phosphor, which emits at roughly 500–700 nm

974:

Toshiba has stopped research, possibly due to low yields. Some opt for

903: 751: 453: 425: 348: 344: 333: 169: 93: 10481: 10454: 10375: 10329:"LED Based Products Must Meet Photobilogical Safety Standards: Part 2" 9968:"High-performance light-emitting diodes based on carbene-metal-amides" 9640: 9604: 9551: 9526: 7636: 7559: 7304:

Additive Manufacturing and Strategic Technologies in Advanced Ceramics

7221:

Cho, Jaehee; Park, Jun Hyuk; Kim, Jong Kyu; Schubert, E. Fred (2017).

6864:"Development of a new water sterilization device with a 365 nm UV-LED" 6438:

Reliability Investigation of LED Devices for Public Light Applications

5529: 5494:

10.1002/1521-396X(200111)188:1<155::AID-PSSA155>3.0.CO;2-P

4999: 4591: 4517: 3377: 2017:

display using 1608/0603-type SMD LEDs. Top: A little over half of the

1878:

LED strip lights originated in the early 2000s. Since then, increased

1428:

Multicolor LEDs offer a means to form light of different colors. Most

480:, also an early pioneer in the field of luminescence with research on 13302: 13146: 13141: 13131: 13058: 12938: 12772: 12767: 12692: 12617: 12251: 12225: 12182: 12172: 11878: 11775: 11708: 11675: 11572: 11525: 11090: 11019: 10999: 8992: 8095: 8000: 7957: 7914: 7803: 7032: 5305: 5183: 4653: 4413:

Braunstein, Rubin (1955). "Radiative Transitions in Semiconductors".

3512: 3267: 3192: 3105: 3002: 2976: 2385: 2333: 2219: 1481:

Phosphor-based LEDs have efficiency losses due to heat loss from the

1388: 1328:

light-emitting diodes. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three

1083: 851: 840: 697: 593: 213: 7847: 4746: 3706:

emit more short wavelength light than sources such as high-pressure

2883: 1900: 1820:

lm/W in 2009 and the Nichia 19 series with a typical efficacy of 140

1672: 13324: 13272: 13252: 13230: 13116: 13111: 12999: 12988: 12917: 12687: 11953: 11924: 11764: 11407: 11347: 11044: 11014: 10975: 10940: 10910: 10699: 9987: 8801: 8461:"Solid-State Lighting: Comparing LEDs to Traditional Light Sources" 6103:

LED bulb efficiency expected to continue improving as cost declines

6061:

Samsung Achieves 220 Lumens per Watt with New Mid-Power LED Package

5968:"LED there be light, Nick Morris predicts a bright future for LEDs" 3778: 3740: 3722: 3715: 3416:, such as for television sets, where infrared LEDs are often used. 3209: 3024: 3018: 2839: 2446: 2014: 1802: 1782: 1706:

in most common sizes. They can be much smaller than a traditional 5

1687: 1636: 1560: 1545: 1533: 1470: 1376: 1195: 1160: 1056: 895: 728: 436:

as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the English experimenter

409: 321: 278: 271: 267: 255: 209: 31: 9731:"Very Low-Cost Sensing and Communication Using Bidirectional LEDs" 7385:

Yeh, Dong-Ming; Huang, Chi-Feng; Lu, Chih-Feng; Yang, Chih-Chung.

7140: 3507:, high performance liquid chromatography, UV curing dye printing, 3147:

flashlamp-based lighting. This is especially useful in cameras on

2845:

Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision

1384:

spectral bandwidth is approximately 24–27 nm for all three colors.

843:

introduced the first commercially available blue LED based on the

13184: 13121: 12943: 12928: 12782: 12739: 12387: 12218: 11868: 11833: 11359: 11304: 11004: 10982: 10536:"Information About Sea Turtles: Threats from Artificial Lighting" 10398:"Response to the AMA Statement on High Intensity Street Lighting" 9629:

Optically Based Biological and Chemical Detection for Defence III

9210: 8389: 8242:. International Dark-Sky Association. May 4, 2010. Archived from 7832:. Kodak European Research. Cambridge Science Park, Cambridge, UK. 5799:"The use of sapphire in mobile device and LED industries: Part 2" 5444:

2006 Millennium technology prize awarded to UCSB's Shuji Nakamura

3754: 3672: 3256: 3082: 3036: 3032: 3006: 2767: 2684: 1867:, tape, or ribbon light is a flexible circuit board populated by 1703: 1647: 1640: 1624: 1586: 1529: 1462: 1313: 1091: 979: 975: 968: 960: 948: 907: 902:

of GaN. This new development revolutionized LED lighting, making

716: 612:), the first practical LED. Immediately after filing the patent, 570: 183: 145: 9585:

Optically Based Biological and Chemical Detection for Defence IV

9247: 8878:

LED professional - LED Lighting Technology, Application Magazine

6073:

LED breakthrough promises ultra-efficient luminaires | Lux-n-Lum

5750:"Will Silicon Substrates Push LED Lighting Into the Mainstream?" 3184: 1262:

Blue LEDs have an active region consisting of one or more InGaN

573:

contact to allow for efficient emission of infrared light under

13257: 12948: 12912: 12877: 12437: 12409: 12382: 12357: 11852: 10987: 10945: 9809:

III-Nitrides Light Emitting Diodes: Technology and Applications

9765:

Goins, G. D.; Yorio, N. C.; Sanwo, M. M.; Brown, C. S. (1997).

9457:

Principles of LED Light Communications: Towards Networked Li-Fi

9134:

2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition

6002: 5699:"Samsung To Focus on Silicon-based LED Chip Technology in 2015" 5506: 3461: 3429: 3397: 3393: 3205: 3117: 3093: 3089: 2952:

are used as stadium displays, dynamic decorative displays, and

2862: 2724: 2566: 2296: 2045: 1766: 1765:

High-power light-emitting diodes attached to an LED star base (

1515: 1337: 1087: 1052: 1004: 676:), which uses plastic lenses to increase the visible digit size 634: 549: 530: 481: 413:

Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of

288:

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small

263: 9687: 9625: 9131: 8783:

Stern, Maike Lorena; Schellenberger, Martin (March 31, 2020).

8743:. US Department of Energy. (PDF). Retrieved on March 16, 2012. 7501:

Nimz, Thomas; Hailer, Fredrik; Jensen, Kevin (November 2012).

6490:

Solid State Lighting Reliability Part 2: Components to Systems

5320: 3986: 2191: 1997: 1859:

Several LED spots being reflected as continuous lighting strip

1532:

near-ultraviolet (NUV) LEDs with a mixture of high-efficiency

1243: 13334: 13245: 13004: 12777: 12570: 12432: 12427: 11828: 11670: 11034: 10960: 3473: 3323: 3228: 3144: 2605: 2343:

of light giving a spherical light distribution, but rather a

1654: 1619:. The organic material is electrically conductive due to the 1466: 1325: 1199: 1167: 952: 666: 553: 141: 9406:"Frequency characteristics of modern LED phosphor materials" 8943: 8908: 8610:"Data Sheet — HLMP-1301, T-1 (3 mm) Diffused LED Lamps" 8509: 8206:"Seoul Semiconductor launches AC LED lighting source Acrich" 7978: 7610:"Color rendering and luminous efficacy of white LED spectra" 7223:"White light-emitting diodes: History, progress, and future" 7061: 6961: 4276: 3579:

A new family of LEDs are based on the semiconductors called

3503:

purification, surface disinfection, glue curing, free-space

3085:

was the first place to convert its street lighting to LEDs.

1449: 1066: 13277: 12660: 12606: 12507: 12460: 12398: 11846: 10668: 8293:"Revisiting Candle Flicker-LEDs: Now with integrated Timer" 7781: 7619:. Fourth International Conference on Solid State Lighting. 6962:

Kubota, Y.; Watanabe, K.; Tsuda, O.; Taniguchi, T. (2007).

6861: 6645:"New Glass-Based Phosphors for White Light-Emitting Diodes" 5872: 5667:"Samsung's Tarn reports progress in CSP and GaN-on-Si LEDs" 5623: 5446:. Ia.ucsb.edu (June 15, 2006). Retrieved on August 3, 2019. 4698: 3668: 3584: 3489: 3260: 3216: 3125: 3121: 2652: 1608: 1602: 1214: 1144: 906:

practical, leading to the development of technologies like

802: 648: 581: 460: 10353: 9591:. International Society for Optics and Photonics: 71160D. 9275:"In Pursuit of Perfect TV Color, With L.E.D.'s and Lasers" 5683:"Increasing the Competitiveness of the GaN-on-silicon LED" 3654:

IEC 62471 Photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems

3318:

sensors used for biological agent detection. In 2004, the

3222: 2369:

incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several

1677:

used for lighting and backlighting are generally found in

51: 10619:

Shuji Nakamura; Gerhard Fasol; Stephen J Pearton (2000).

8042:"OSRAM Radial T1 3/4, SFH 4546 IR LEDs - ams-osram - ams" 6142:"Hermetic Polymer-Free White LEDs for Harsh Environments" 6105:. U.S. Energy Information Administration (March 19, 2014) 4611:"U. of I.'s Holonyak out to take some of Edison's luster" 3437: 2484: 2081:

and negative) and have a built-in electronic controller.

1615:

material composing the emissive layer of the diode is an

1392:

An RGB LED projecting red, green, and blue onto a surface

1301: 818: 601: 589: 585: 536: 472:

observed that electroluminescence could be produced when

204: 10561:"Stoplights' Unusual, Potentially Deadly Winter Problem" 10305:. Radioprotection (2017-09-12). Retrieved on 2018-07-31. 9524: 7503:"Sensors and Feedback Control of Multicolor LED Systems" 6620:

III-Nitride Based Light Emitting Diodes and Applications

5479: 4495: 4351: 4308: 3069:

The mechanical robustness and long lifetime are used in

2852:

and respond to incident light, instead of emitting light

1596: 8439:"Corn Lamps: What Are They & Where Can I Use Them?" 6857: 6855: 6464:

Solid State Lighting Reliability: Components to Systems

5846:, Toshiba America Electronic Components, archived from 4812:

Borden, Howard C.; Pighini, Gerald P. (February 1969).

4155: 2415:

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic

2324:

Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to

1838:

them more flexibility than the original AC LED design.

1657:. Polymer LEDs have the added benefit of printable and 1190:) color. Also unlike most lasers, its radiation is not 9582: 9073:(EPIC). This includes use in data communications over 8978: 8846:

Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics

7852:

IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics

7544:

Fifth International Conference on Solid State Lighting

7010: 6019:(press release). Nobel Prize Committee, 7 October 2014 4223:

The design of CMOS radio-frequency integrated circuits

3809:"HJ Round was a pioneer in the development of the LED" 3480:. LEDs of certain wavelengths have also been used for 3392:

LED panel light source used in an early experiment on

1505:

1 watt 9 volt three chips SMD phosphor based white LED

1170:, the light emitted from an LED is neither spectrally 347:

of electricity into light. They operate in reverse of

10274: 9729:

Dietz, P. H.; Yerazunis, W. S.; Leigh, D. L. (2004).

9488: 7658: 6386:"Philips LED 60W 806lm Retrofit with Remote Phosphor" 6039:. Cree.com (Match 26, 2014). Retrieved July 31, 2018. 4557: 4533:"Nick Holonyak, Jr., six decades in pursuit of light" 4311:"Injected Light Emission of Silicon Carbide Crystals" 2741:

blue with red phosphor, or white with purple plastic

2195:

Simple LED circuit with resistor for current limiting

1159:". The wavelength of the light depends on the energy 10210: 9964: 9013: 6910: 6868:

Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing

6852: 6063:. Samsung.com (2017-06-16). Retrieved on 2018-07-31. 5341:

Iwasa, Naruhito; Mukai, Takashi and Nakamura, Shuji

3946: 3839:"The life and times of the LED — a 100-year history" 3736: 2339:

Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a

11995:

Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology

9936:, By Steven Keeping, Digi-Key Corporation Tech Zone 8782: 8483:"Dialight Micro LED SMD LED "598 SERIES" Datasheet" 7665:

Next-Generation GaN-on-Si White LEDs Suppress Costs

5090:"A Brief History of GaN Blue Light-Emitting Diodes" 5036:"Nobel Shocker: RCA Had the First Blue LED in 1972" 4952: 4164:"The life and times of the LED: a 100-year history" 3982: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3188:

LED for miners, to increase visibility inside mines

1296:UV watermarks in documents and bank notes, and for 372:It has been suggested that this article should be 37:"LED" and "Led" redirect here. For other uses, see 10604: 9273: 8839: 8208:. LEDS Magazine. November 17, 2006. Archived from 8147: 8145: 7823: 7821: 7220: 5281: 5258:"BU Wins $ 13 Million in Patent Infringement Suit" 4668:"Brief Biography — Holonyak, Craford, Dupuis" 4484:"Semiconductor Single-Crystal Circuit Development" 3667:, they may contain other hazardous metals such as 1404:There are several types of multicolor white LEDs: 1090:, and by Korean and Chinese manufacturers such as 793:cables may be provided with an optical connector. 56:Blue, green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused cases. 12288:Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays 7827: 7186:ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology 6352:ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology 6049:LM301B | SAMSUNG LED | Samsung LED Global Website 6029:"Cree First to Break 300 Lumens-Per-Watt Barrier" 4764: 4412: 4309:Lehovec, K; Accardo, C. A; Jamgochian, E (1951). 3324:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 1710:mm lamp type LED, shown on the upper left corner. 951:were successfully demonstrated. In January 2012, 656: 529:(SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77 13361: 9948:"Cause of LED Efficiency Droop Finally Revealed" 8548:LRO Lighting Research Symposium, Light and Color 8417:. Elsevier Science. August 1, 2016. p. 89. 7500: 5949:"List of Top 10 LED light manufacturer in China" 5627:2013 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting 5131: 4640:Perry, T. S. (1995). "M. George Craford ". 4608: 4558:Holonyak Nick; Bevacqua, S. F. (December 1962). 3973: 3460:that registers reflected light from a finger or 3027:and other high-efficiency lighting, in 2008 the 2159:Surface-mounted LEDs are frequently produced in 404: 296:. Later developments produced LEDs available in 10045:Armin, Ardalan; Meredith, Paul (October 2018). 9946:Iveland, Justin; et al. (April 23, 2013). 9945: 9354:"LED lightbulbs that promise to help you sleep" 8142: 7892: 7818: 7330:"Color distribution from multicolor LED arrays" 7327: 5449: 4937: 3831: 754:and becoming the basis for later LED displays. 684:X-Ray of a 1970s 8-digit LED calculator display 638:0603 SMD (Surface Mount Device) package red LED 224:base, using a built-in power supply working on 10096: 10092: 10090: 9927:Identifying the Causes of LED Efficiency Droop 9832: 8290: 5321:"Development of the Blue Light-Emitting Diode" 4789: 4249: 4218: 4019: 3710:, the increased blue and green sensitivity of 3005:and throwies. Artists have also used LEDs for 2276:have spectra that differ significantly from a 1257:selection of different semiconductor materials 1182:is sufficiently narrow that it appears to the 858:doping ushered in the modern era of GaN-based 769:, ). The combination of planar processing for 12323: 11724: 10684: 10652:Color cycling LED in a single two pin package 10153: 10044: 9186:" Scientia horticulturae 235 (2018): 437-451. 9100:"Water Vapor Measurements with LED Detectors" 8541: 8520: 8518: 7935: 7759: 7180:Dutta, Partha S.; Liotta, Kathryn M. (2018). 6663:. John Wiley & Sons. September 28, 2021. 6241:. John Wiley & Sons. September 28, 2021. 6160:. John Wiley & Sons. September 28, 2021. 5356: 4906: 4811: 4560:"Coherent (Visible) Light Emission from Ga(As 3522:LEDs have also been used as a medium-quality 3120:) and handheld device LCDs, succeeding older 1635:. The organic materials can be small organic 971:are performing research into GaN on Si LEDs. 623:on October 9, 1962, while he was working for 10347: 9453: 9379:"LED Device Illuminates New Path to Healing" 8024:. Elektor.com. Retrieved on March 16, 2012. 7841: 7839: 7737: 7735: 4255: 4161: 4076: 1465:LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of 1005:White LEDs and the illumination breakthrough 850:In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN 11942:Surface-conduction electron-emitter display 10452: 10087: 10047:"LED technology breaks performance barrier" 9805: 9429:"Transmitting Data Through LED Light Bulbs" 8567: 8350:"The Next Generation of LED Filament Bulbs" 7690:"All You Want to Know about RGBW LED Light" 7435: 7179: 6825: 6689:. John Wiley & Sons. February 9, 2015. 6571:. John Wiley & Sons. February 9, 2015. 6325:. John Wiley & Sons. February 9, 2015. 6120:. John Wiley & Sons. February 9, 2015. 5863:Semiengineering: MOCVD vendors eye new apps 4940:"The Long History of Light Emitting Diodes" 4760: 4758: 4756: 4673:. Technology Administration. Archived from 4602: 3875: 3542: 3154:LEDs are used for infrared illumination in 3124:-backlit LCDs although being superseded by 2912:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1801:, or be set in an array to form a powerful 1129:white LEDs allow for extremely small LEDs. 464:0603 SMD (Surface Mount Device) package LED 12330: 12316: 11853:Active-Matrix Organic light-emitting diode 11731: 11717: 10691: 10677: 8665:"LED Light Bars For Off Road Illumination" 8515: 8186:High Power Point Source White Led NVSx219A 8118:"Luminus Products CST-90 Series Datasheet" 7743:"Understanding LED Color-Tunable Products" 7384: 7307:. John Wiley & Sons. August 16, 2016. 5840:Role of Substrate Choice on LED Pacakaging 5832: 5830: 3320:Edgewood Chemical Biological Center (ECBC) 2832:LED uses fall into five major categories: 2810:Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor 2222:: The efficiency of LEDs decreases as the 50: 27:Semiconductor and solid-state light source 12337: 10580:"LED Traffic Lights Can't Melt Snow, Ice" 10503: 10480: 10470: 10241: 10179: 10122: 10070: 9986: 9782: 9705: 9550: 9460:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9381:(Press release). nasa.gov. Archived from 9308: 9271: 9224:https://doi.org/10.24425/jppr.2024.150247 9198:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-018-9939-5 9141: 9077:as well as "broadcast" data or signaling. 8857: 8800: 8630: 8328:. Springer Science & Business Media. 7836: 7732: 7438:"Solid-State Light Sources Getting Smart" 7436:Schubert, E. Fred; Kim, Jong Kyu (2005). 7353: 7278:Light-Emitting Diodes (3rd Edition, 2018) 7197: 6987: 6879: 6516:Light-Emitting Diodes (2nd Edition, 2006) 6412:Light-Emitting Diodes (4th Edition, 2023) 5932: 5890: 5716:"Material and Manufacturing Improvements" 5576:Role of Substrate Choice on LED Packaging 5360:Light-Emitting Diodes (2nd Edition, 2006) 5217:Takeda Award 2002 Achievement Facts Sheet 5115:. Cree.com. Retrieved on March 16, 2012. 4981: 4841: 4839: 4807: 4805: 4116: 3987:Okon, Thomas M.; Biard, James R. (2015). 3650:International Electrotechnical Commission 3627:enclosed by MABr additive (where MA is CH 3277: 3100:LEDs are also used as a light source for 2932:Learn how and when to remove this message 2167: 2129:, which allows individual LEDs in a long 1985:Learn how and when to remove this message 1292:lamp replacements for inspection of anti- 890:were working on developing the important 10622:The Blue Laser Diode: The Complete Story 10429:"LEDs: Good for prizes, bad for insects" 10426: 9113:"Using Light-Emitting Diodes as Sensors" 7845: 7607: 7155:Sid Symposium Digest of Technical Papers 6735: 6709: 6345: 6315: 6313: 6286: 6284: 5789:(May 18, 2011). Retrieved July 31, 2018. 5585:. Toshiba America Electronic Components. 5275: 4753: 4535:. University of Illinois. Archived from 3387: 3376: 3365: 3357: 3349: 3191: 3183: 2962: 2820: 2687:(Si) as substrate — (under development) 2190: 2004: 1996: 1854: 1760: 1713: 1697: 1671: 1559: 1500: 1448: 1441:actively monitor and control the color. 1387: 1375: 1324:There are two primary ways of producing 1209: 1145:Physics of light production and emission 1065: 1014: 943:In 2001 and 2002, processes for growing 862:devices. Building upon this foundation, 719:. During this time HP collaborated with 679: 660: 647: 633: 535: 459: 424: 408: 351:, which convert light into electricity. 203: 188: 177: 168: 10577: 10567:from the original on December 12, 2023. 10453:Pawson, S. M.; Bader, M. K.-F. (2014). 10314:Point, S. and Barlier-Salsi, A. (2018) 9454:Dimitrov, Svilen; Haas, Harald (2015). 9352:Janeway, Kimberly (December 12, 2014). 9351: 8272:from the original on September 24, 2023 8229: 8227: 7848:"International OLED Technology Roadmap" 7830:Final Report: OLED Solid State Lighting 7762:"Joint venture to make ZnSe white LEDs" 7410: 6729: 6686:LED Lighting: Technology and Perception 6568:LED Lighting: Technology and Perception 6346:Chung, Woon Jin; Nam, Yoon Hee (2020). 6322:LED Lighting: Technology and Perception 6296:. John Wiley & Sons. July 5, 2011. 6205: 6203: 6117:LED Lighting: Technology and Perception 6051:. Samsung.com. Retrieved on 2018-07-31. 5827: 5748:Keeping, Steven. (September 24, 2013). 5455: 5389:University of California, Santa Barbara 5071:(2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press. 4792:"LEDs cast Monsanto in Unfamiliar Role" 4447: 3693: 3648:for specific populations. In 2006, the 3574: 3384:that can display four digits and points 3305: 3223:Data communication and other signalling 2960:for trains, buses, trams, and ferries. 2873: 2855:Indoor cultivation, including cannabis. 2410: 1890: 1564:Tunable white LED array in a floodlight 14: 13362: 11738: 10578:Markley, Stephen (December 17, 2009). 10356:Environmental Science & Technology 10040: 10038: 9872: 9870: 9578: 9576: 9574: 9572: 9570: 9520: 9518: 9071:European Photonics Industry Consortium 8754:"In depth: Advantages of LED Lighting" 8639:(4 ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 7281:. E. Fred Schubert. February 3, 2018. 6828:"Going Deep for UV Sterilization LEDs" 5965: 5219:. The Takeda Foundation. April 5, 2002 4845: 4836: 4832:from the original on November 5, 2023. 4802: 4530: 4099: 4013: 2229: 2138:being common) or a brand name such as 1444: 1194:, so it cannot approach the very high 1059:coating produces yellow light through 281:(IR) light. Infrared LEDs are used in 12311: 11712: 10672: 9426: 9262:, Scientific American, March 18, 2009 9237:http://doi.org/10.5114/bta.2020.92930 9007: 8972: 8902: 8701: 8303:from the original on January 29, 2024 8259: 7667:, Electronic Design, 19 November 2013 6310: 6281: 5252: 5113:Major Business and Product Milestones 4854:Springer Science & Business Media 4639: 4609:Wolinsky, Howard (February 5, 2005). 4134: 4122: 3345: 2273: 1787:Thermal management of high-power LEDs 1597:Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) 12762:Three-dimensional integrated circuit 11989:Ferroelectric liquid crystal display 10318:, technical information sheets, SFRP 8937: 8789:Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing 8441:. Shine Retrofits. September 1, 2016 8321: 8224: 7055: 7004: 6904: 6415:. E. Fred Schubert. March 11, 2023. 6200: 5731:Keeping, Steven (December 12, 2014) 5608:"Toshiba gets out of GaN-on-Si LEDs" 5318: 5094:LIGHTimes Online – LED Industry News 4125:Телеграфия и Телефония без Проводов 3949:"How is white light made with LEDs?" 3638: 2910:adding citations to reliable sources 2877: 2866:seedlings. LEDs can also be used in 1923:adding citations to reliable sources 1894: 1607:In an organic light-emitting diode ( 1205: 898:substrates and the demonstration of 544:In September 1961, while working at 358: 258:in the semiconductor recombine with 12543:Programmable unijunction transistor 12063:Light-emitting electrochemical cell 10035: 9867: 9663:"Army advances bio-threat detector" 9567: 9515: 9447: 9248:"L-Prize U.S. Department of Energy" 8572:. Vol. 3. pp. 1671–1676. 8524:Stevenson, Richard (August 2009), " 8262:"Does this LED sound funny to you?" 6955: 6776:"LED Basics | Department of Energy" 5875:"Study of Phosphors for White LEDs" 4024:. Vol. 2007. pp. 2296–9. 3907: 3659:While LEDs have the advantage over 2971:One-color light is well suited for 2850:LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode 2311: 2101:Alphanumeric LEDs are available in 1580: 1555: 513:reported on infrared emission from 24: 12444:Multi-gate field-effect transistor 12262:Large-screen television technology 10598: 10590:from the original on June 6, 2019. 10427:Stokstad, Erik (October 7, 2014). 7760:Whitaker, Tim (December 6, 2002). 7546:. Vol. 5941. p. 594112. 7328:Moreno, I.; Contreras, U. (2007). 6519:. E. Fred Schubert. January 2006. 5836: 5765:Keeping, Steven (March 24, 2015). 5391:. January 12, 2023. Archived from 5357:Fred Schubert, E. (January 2006). 4882:The Vintage Technology Association 3440:'s sensor bar uses infrared LEDs. 2789:(AlGaInN) — (down to 210 nm) 2638:Aluminium gallium indium phosphide 2591:Aluminium gallium indium phosphide 2552:Aluminium gallium indium phosphide 2513:Aluminium gallium indium phosphide 805:-violet LED using magnesium-doped 429:Close-up of a 1 watt red power led 262:, releasing energy in the form of 25: 13406: 12422:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor 11936:Organic light-emitting transistor 10640: 10516:from the original on May 19, 2020 10504:Polakovic, Gary (June 12, 2018). 9272:Eisenberg, Anne (June 24, 2007). 9250:, L-Prize Website, August 3, 2011 9111:Dziekan, Mike (February 6, 2009) 8195:. Nichia.co.jp, November 2, 2010. 8123:. Luminus Devices. Archived from 8094:. Luminus Devices. Archived from 6739:Photonics Essentials, 2nd edition 6017:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2014" 5998:"The LED Illumination Revolution" 5565:. www.osram.de, January 12, 2012. 4942:. Hearst Business Communications. 4938:Bausch, Jeffrey (December 2011). 3547: 3433:share a common ground potential. 3042:Efficient lighting is needed for 2967:Red and green LED traffic signals 995:metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy 932:In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the 421:'s original experiment from 1907. 58:There are many different variants 12666:Heterostructure barrier varactor 12393:Chemical field-effect transistor 12299:Comparison of display technology 10571: 10553: 10528: 10497: 10446: 10420: 10390: 10321: 10316:LEDs lighting and retinal damage 10308: 10296: 10204: 10147: 9958: 9939: 9920: 9895: 9826: 9812:. Springer Nature. p. 248. 9799: 9758: 9722: 9694:Aerosol and Air Quality Research 9681: 9655: 9619: 9482: 9420: 9397: 9371: 9345: 9293: 9265: 9253: 9241: 9228: 9215: 9202: 9189: 9176: 9125: 9105: 9093: 9080: 9064: 9052:. physicsworld.com. May 17, 2006 9050:"LEDs move into the ultraviolet" 9042: 8891: 8866: 8833: 8776: 8746: 8727: 8675: 8657: 8624: 8602: 8561: 8535: 8503: 8475: 8453: 8431: 8405: 8368: 8342: 8322:Ting, Hua-Nong (June 17, 2011). 8315: 8284: 8260:Oskay, Windell (June 22, 2011). 8253: 8198: 8179: 8110: 8084: 8059: 8034: 8015: 7972: 7929: 7886: 7775: 7753: 7718: 7708:"Tunable White Application Note" 7700: 7682: 7670: 7601: 7528: 7494: 7429: 7404: 7378: 7321: 7295: 7269: 7214: 7173: 7134: 7120: 7106: 6819: 6793: 6768: 6703: 6677: 6651: 6637: 6611: 6585: 6559: 6533: 6507: 6481: 6455: 6429: 3954:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 3918:University of California, Irvine 3753: 3739: 3354:LED costume for stage performers 2983:, ships' navigation lights, and 2882: 2848:Narrow band light sensors where 2787:Aluminium gallium indium nitride 2392: 2180: 1899: 1847:This section is an excerpt from 1495: 1238: 1229: 1132: 363: 159: 12714:Mixed-signal integrated circuit 11930:Electroluminescent Quantum Dots 11208:Parabolic aluminized reflector 9427:Green, Hank (October 9, 2008). 8291:Tim's Blog (January 14, 2024). 8266:Evil Mad Scientist Laboratories 7413:Electronic Devices and Circuits 6710:Coxworth, Ben (June 18, 2024). 6467:. Springer. September 6, 2012. 6403: 6378: 6339: 6255: 6229: 6174: 6148: 6134: 6108: 6096: 6078: 6066: 6054: 6042: 6022: 6010: 5990: 5959: 5941: 5899: 5866: 5857: 5811: 5792: 5776: 5759: 5742: 5725: 5708: 5692: 5676: 5659: 5617: 5600: 5588: 5568: 5536: 5500: 5473: 5437: 5419:National Academy of Engineering 5407: 5377: 5350: 5335: 5312: 5246: 5231: 5202: 5168: 5125: 5106: 5082: 5061: 5045: 5029: 4946: 4931: 4919: 4900: 4870: 4849:Advances in Solid State Physics 4783: 4765:Schubert, E. Fred (2003). "1". 4692: 4660: 4633: 4551: 4524: 4489: 4482:Matzen, W. T. ed. (March 1963) 4476: 4441: 4406: 4380: 4345: 4302: 4285: 4212: 4093: 3789:Perovskite light-emitting diode 3505:non-line-of-sight communication 3255:cable, from digital audio over 3116:), computer monitor (including 2816: 2721: 2692: 2602: 2524: 1910:needs additional citations for 1528:White LEDs can also be made by 786: 12001:Laser-powered phosphor display 11153:Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide 9771:Journal of Experimental Botany 9211:https://doi.org/10.5586/aa.762 8512:. Retrieved on March 16, 2012. 7114:"Seeing Red with PFS Phosphor" 6826:Cooke, Mike (April–May 2010). 6545:. Woodhead. October 24, 2017. 6215:. Springer. January 31, 2022. 5714:Keeping, Steven. (2013-01-15) 4769:. Cambridge University Press. 4070: 3940: 3901: 3863: 3801: 3663:, in that they do not contain 3610:additives into the perovskite 3412:communications. This includes 3396:growth during Shuttle mission 2563: 2378:high-intensity discharge lamps 2352: 1371: 913:Nakamura was awarded the 2006 657:Initial commercial development 208:A bulb-shaped modern retrofit 13: 1: 12267:Optimum HDTV viewing distance 12257:History of display technology 12145:Computer-generated holography 10647:Building a do-it-yourself LED 10563:. ABC News. January 8, 2010. 10284:. texyt.com. January 15, 2007 10282:"Blue LEDs: A health hazard?" 9952:Physical Review Letters, 2013 7509:(34). LED Professional: 2–5. 7227:Laser & Photonics Reviews 5966:Morris, Nick (June 1, 2006). 5665:Wright, Maury (May 2, 2016). 5606:Bush, Steve (June 30, 2016). 4790:Rostky, George (March 1997). 3794: 3450:cold-cathode fluorescent lamp 3370:A large LED display behind a 3312:U.S. Army Research Laboratory 2794: 2746: 2443: 2259: 1756: 1319: 993:GaN is often deposited using 917:for his invention. Nakamura, 904:high-power blue light sources 670: 405:Discoveries and early devices 274:on the semiconductor device. 12745:Silicon controlled rectifier 12607:Organic light-emitting diode 12497:Diffused junction transistor 11847:Organic light-emitting diode 11841:Light-emitting diode display 10698: 5892:10.1016/j.protcy.2014.11.005 5154:10.1016/0921-4526(93)90277-D 4796:Electronic Engineering Times 4531:Kubetz, Rick (May 4, 2012). 3680:American Medical Association 2649: 1827: 1693: 1151:Light-emitting diode physics 813:in 1972 by Herb Maruska and 711:company (HP) was engaged in 511:Radio Corporation of America 7: 12549:Static induction transistor 12486:Bipolar junction transistor 12438:MOS field-effect transistor 12410:Fin field-effect transistor 11398:Automotive light bulb types 11248:Intelligent street lighting 10605:David L. Heiserman (1968). 9492:Advanced High Speed Devices 6801:"LED Spectral Distribution" 6597:. CRC Press. June 3, 2014. 6493:. Springer. July 11, 2017. 6441:. Elsevier. March 9, 2017. 6267:. CRC Press. June 3, 2014. 5134:Physica B: Condensed Matter 4878:"Hewlett-Packard 5082-7000" 3921:. p. 2. Archived from 3732: 3420:use an LED combined with a 3272:visible light communication 3249:Assistive listening devices 3237:Visible light communication 3112:television (referred to as 3012: 2642:Aluminium gallium phosphide 2481: 2421: 2290:Color Rendering Index (CRI) 2272:Color rendition: Most cool- 2236:Electrical polarity of LEDs 1681:(SMT) packages (not shown). 915:Millennium Technology Prize 796: 123:; 61 years ago 10: 13411: 12756:Static induction thyristor 12057:Vacuum fluorescent display 11781:Electroluminescent display 11161:Hydrargyrum quartz iodide 10072:10.1038/d41586-018-06923-y 9843:10.1109/ICSICT.2006.306525 9500:10.1142/9789814287876_0007 8859:10.1007/s10854-019-02393-8 8811:10.1007/s10845-020-01563-4 7679:, iSuppli, 4 December 2013 6623:. Springer. May 18, 2017. 6186:. Springer. May 12, 2023. 5824:. Retrieved July 31, 2018. 5773:. Retrieved July 31, 2018. 5756:. Retrieved July 31, 2018. 5739:. Retrieved July 31, 2018. 5722:. Retrieved on 2018-07-31. 5629:. pp. 13.2.1–13.2.4. 5614:. Retrieved July 31, 2018. 5176:"History & Milestones" 4725:by Liquid-phase Epitaxy". 4462:10.1109/JPROC.2013.2274914 4258:Journal de Chimie Physique 4229:Cambridge University Press 4104:The Road to the Transistor 4030:10.1109/IEMBS.2007.4352784 3947:Lighting Research Center. 3703: 3281: 3226: 3200:illuminated with blue LEDs 3162:. A ring of LEDs around a 3073:on cars, motorcycles, and 3016: 2985:LED-based Christmas lights 2981:emergency vehicle lighting 2586:Gallium arsenide phosphide 2547:Gallium arsenide phosphide 2509:Gallium arsenide phosphide 2504:Aluminium gallium arsenide 2474:Aluminium gallium arsenide 2233: 2184: 1846: 1776: 1600: 1401:in producing white light. 1148: 997:(MOCVD), and it also uses 750:technology, replacing the 736:Gallium arsenide phosphide 378:into a new article titled 354: 57: 36: 29: 13293: 13193: 13160: 13092: 13029: 12957: 12925:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode) 12863: 12795: 12677:Hybrid integrated circuit 12641: 12569: 12520:Light-emitting transistor 12474: 12356: 12345: 12296: 12244: 12206: 12165: 12110: 12014: 11913: 11904:Liquid crystal on silicon 11808: 11755: 11746: 11653: 11608: 11600:Stage lighting instrument 11549: 11472: 11388: 11313: 11183: 11123: 11071: 11043: 10921: 10823: 10795: 10786: 10706: 10659:Educational video on LEDs 10234:10.1038/s41586-018-0575-3 10124:10.1038/s41586-018-0576-2 9707:10.4209/aaqr.2017.10.0371 9431:. EcoGeek. Archived from 9152:10.1109/CVPR.2008.4587766 8874:"3-Pad LED Flip Chip COB" 8724:, US Department of Energy 7872:10.1109/JSTQE.2004.824077 6881:10.1007/s11517-007-0263-1 6736:Pearsall, Thomas (2010). 6075:.Retrieved on 2018-04-06. 5635:10.1109/IEDM.2013.6724622 5067:Schubert, E. Fred (2006) 4846:Kramer, Bernhard (2003). 4149:10.1080/14786441108564683 3989:"The First Practical LED" 3362:LED wallpaper by Meystyle 3088:Cabin lighting on recent 2783:Aluminium gallium nitride 2330:total internal reflection 1336:. The yellow phosphor is 1270:Aluminium gallium nitride 1248:Science History Institute 1237: 1228: 1223: 940:(ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs). 731:, both launched in 1968. 334:horticultural grow lights 158: 151: 135: 115: 80: 65: 49: 12972:Backward-wave oscillator 12682:Light emitting capacitor 12538:Point-contact transistor 12508:Junction Gate FET (JFET) 12095:Fourteen-segment display 11898:Digital Light Processing 11661:Battlefield illumination 11418:high-intensity discharge 10850:Electrochemiluminescence 9932:13 December 2013 at the 9878:"LED R&D Challenges" 9466:10.1017/cbo9781107278929 9310:10.26616/NIOSHPUB2011192 8709:"Lifetime of White LEDs" 8578:10.1109/IAS.2004.1348695 8028:August 31, 2012, at the 7846:Bardsley, J. N. (2004). 5461:"Nobel Prize in Physics" 3543:Research and development 3044:sustainable architecture 2070:bi-color combination is 1841: 1824:lm/W, released in 2010. 1718:Very small (1.6×1.6×0.35 1679:surface-mount technology 1667: 1523:yttrium aluminium garnet 1347:potassium fluorosilicate 978:, which is difficult on 713:research and development 13395:20th-century inventions 12983:Crossed-field amplifier 12502:Field-effect transistor 12101:Sixteen-segment display 11787:Rear-projection display 11521:Electroluminescent wire 10459:Ecological Applications 10005:10.1126/science.aah4345 9531:Applied Physics Letters 9102:. cs.drexel.edu (2002). 8958:10.1126/science.1144216 8923:10.1126/science.1060258 8544:"How White Light Works" 7938:Applied Physics Letters 7895:Applied Physics Letters 7465:10.1126/science.1108712 7411:Cabrera, Rowan (2019). 7084:10.1126/science.1060258 6989:10.1126/science.1144216 6841:(3): 82. Archived from 5934:10.1038/nphoton.2006.78 5510:Applied Physics Letters 5482:Physica Status Solidi A 5285:Applied Physics Letters 5237:Moustakas, Theodore D. 5119:April 13, 2011, at the 4992:10.1126/science.1175690 4822:Hewlett-Packard Journal 4572:Applied Physics Letters 4498:Applied Physics Letters 4450:Proceedings of the IEEE 4435:10.1103/PhysRev.99.1892 4293:"Brief history of LEDs" 4219:Lee, Thomas H. (2004). 4191:10.1038/nphoton.2007.34 4079:"A note on carborundum" 3910:"Light Emitting Diodes" 3444:use them for measuring 3166:, aimed forward into a 3029:US Department of Energy 2439:Semiconductor Material 2417:semiconductor materials 2201:Shockley diode equation 2116:liquid crystal displays 1244:"The Original Blue LED" 1115:SMT placement equipment 984:nanoimprint lithography 965:University of Cambridge 669:scientific calculator ( 336:, and medical devices. 137:Pin configuration 13152:Voltage-regulator tube 12719:MOS integrated circuit 12584:Constant-current diode 12560:Unijunction transistor 11948:Field-emission display 11863:Liquid-crystal display 11203:Multifaceted reflector 10608:Light -Emitting Diodes 10540:Sea Turtle Conservancy 10402:ledroadwaylighting.com 9746:Cite journal requires 9333:Cite journal requires 9086:Mims, Forrest M. III. 8758:energy.ltgovernors.com 8734:Lifetime of White LEDs 8191:July 29, 2021, at the 7247:10.1002/lpor.201600147 6035:July 28, 2018, at the 5804:July 29, 2018, at the 5687:Compound Semiconductor 5581:July 12, 2014, at the 5100:June 11, 2012, at the 4928:Retrieved May 17, 2013 4926:Patent number: 3025589 4814:"Solid-State Displays" 4390:. UCLA. Archived from 4335:10.1103/PhysRev.83.603 4270:10.1051/jcp/1936330587 4137:Philosophical Magazine 3784:Superluminescent diode 3401: 3385: 3374: 3363: 3355: 3278:Machine vision systems 3201: 3189: 3064:architectural lighting 2968: 2946:low energy consumption 2829: 2715:Indium gallium nitride 2677:Indium gallium nitride 2634:Gallium(III) phosphide 2625:Indium gallium nitride 2595:Gallium(III) phosphide 2556:Gallium(III) phosphide 2517:Gallium(III) phosphide 2301:pulse-width modulation 2196: 2168:Considerations for use 2059:for such functionally. 2022: 2009:Composite image of an 2002: 1934:"Light-emitting diode" 1860: 1774: 1727: 1711: 1682: 1565: 1506: 1458: 1393: 1385: 1218: 1075: 1051:" or Ce:YAG phosphor) 957:Plessey Semiconductors 927:Nobel Prize in Physics 702:seven-segment displays 685: 677: 653: 639: 541: 465: 450:cat's-whisker detector 430: 422: 294:seven-segment displays 228: 201: 186: 175: 117:First production 13370:Light-emitting diodes 13221:Electrolytic detector 12994:Inductive output tube 12810:Low-dropout regulator 12725:Organic semiconductor 12656:Printed circuit board 12492:Darlington transistor 12339:Electronic components 12085:Eight-segment display 12079:Seven-segment display 11593:ellipsoidal reflector 11198:Ellipsoidal reflector 10882:Fluorescent induction 10860:field-induced polymer 9784:10.1093/jxb/48.7.1407 9119:May 31, 2013, at the 8739:May 28, 2016, at the 8297:cpldcpu.wordpress.com 5574:Lester, Steve (2014) 5556:on September 15, 2012 5344:U.S. patent 5,578,839 5069:Light-emitting diodes 4767:Light-Emitting Diodes 4374:10.1103/PhysRev.89.20 4341:on December 11, 2014. 4162:Zheludev, N. (2007). 4133:English translation: 4077:Round, H. J. (1907). 3908:Edwards, Kimberly D. 3851:on September 15, 2012 3774:List of light sources 3468:use LEDs to increase 3391: 3382:Seven-segment display 3380: 3369: 3361: 3353: 3198:Vincent Thomas Bridge 3195: 3187: 2966: 2954:dynamic message signs 2828:LEDs of an automobile 2826:Daytime running light 2824: 2295:Dimming: LEDs can be 2194: 2092:Decorative-multicolor 2072:red/traditional green 2008: 2000: 1858: 1764: 1717: 1701: 1675: 1633:organic semiconductor 1563: 1504: 1476:color rendering index 1461:This method involves 1452: 1391: 1379: 1213: 1069: 683: 664: 651: 637: 539: 463: 444:, using a crystal of 428: 412: 207: 199: 181: 172: 18:Light emitting diodes 13039:Beam deflection tube 12708:Metal-oxide varistor 12601:Light-emitting diode 12455:Thin-film transistor 12416:Floating-gate MOSFET 12207:Display capabilities 12090:Nine-segment display 11792:Plasma display panel 11430:Rear position lights 11403:Daytime running lamp 11331:Mechanically powered 11218:Aviation obstruction 10614:. Electronics World. 10181:10.1364/OE.16.012632 9903:"JULY 2015 POSTINGS" 9837:. pp. 842–844. 9435:on December 12, 2008 8764:on November 14, 2017 8612:. Avago Technologies 8499:on February 5, 2009. 8249:on January 16, 2013. 7490:on February 5, 2016. 7355:10.1364/OE.15.003607 7199:10.1149/2.0251801jss 6372:10.1149/2.0142001JSS 6006:. February 27, 2008. 5978:on November 23, 2011 5415:"Dr. Shuji Nakamura" 5363:. E. Fred Schubert. 5256:(December 7, 2015). 5240:U.S. patent 5686738A 5190:on February 16, 2017 5088:Maruska, H. (2005). 5025:on October 24, 2015. 4888:on November 17, 2014 4598:on October 14, 2012. 3996:EdisonTechCenter.org 3928:on February 14, 2019 3813:www.myledpassion.com 3694:Environmental issues 3575:Potential technology 3306:Biological detection 2996:parabolic reflectors 2958:destination displays 2906:improve this section 2874:Indicators and signs 2863:Solanum lycopersicum 2779:(AlN) (210 nm) 2739:Dual blue/red LEDs, 2629:Gallium(III) nitride 2411:Colors and materials 2156:Chip-on-board arrays 1919:improve this article 1891:Application-specific 1779:Solid-state lighting 1434:decays exponentially 1345:manganese(IV)-doped 1127:Wafer-level packaged 1098:after Roland Haitz. 761:fabricated with the 698:neon indicator lamps 318:automotive headlamps 233:light-emitting diode 182:Close-up image of a 45:Light-emitting diode 39:LED (disambiguation) 13015:Traveling-wave tube 12815:Switching regulator 12651:Printed electronics 12628:Step recovery diode 12405:Depletion-load NMOS 12236:See-through display 12140:Holographic display 11818:Quantum dot display 10838:Electron-stimulated 10625:. Springer Verlag. 10472:2014EcoAp..24.1561P 10408:on January 19, 2019 10368:2011EnST...45..320L 10335:. November 29, 2011 10226:2018Natur.562..245L 10172:2008OExpr..1612632C 10166:(17): 12632–12639. 10115:2018Natur.562..249C 10063:2018Natur.562..197M 9997:2017Sci...356..159D 9597:2008SPIE.7116E..0DC 9543:2011ApPhL..98h1110L 9385:on October 13, 2008 9028:10.1038/nature04760 8852:(23): 20471–20478. 8212:on October 15, 2007 7993:1992Natur.357..477G 7950:1998ApPhL..72.2660B 7907:1998ApPhL..72..519H 7864:2004IJSTQ..10....3B 7796:1990Natur.347..539B 7629:2004SPIE.5530...88O 7552:2005SPIE.5941..193T 7457:2005Sci...308.1274S 7451:(5726): 1274–1278. 7346:2007OExpr..15.3607M 7239:2017LPRv...1100147C 7076:2001Sci...292.1899K 7070:(5523): 1899–1901. 7025:2004NatMa...3..404W 6980:2007Sci...317..932K 6933:10.1038/nature04760 6925:2006Natur.441..325T 6835:Semiconductor Today 6364:2020JSSST...9a6010C 5955:on October 9, 2014. 5925:2007NaPho...1...23. 5879:Procedia Technology 5522:2002ApPhL..80.3670D 5459:(October 7, 2014). 5298:1994ApPhL..64.1687N 5146:1993PhyB..185..453E 4974:2009Sci...325..977P 4739:1976ApPhL..28..499P 4584:1962ApPhL...1...82H 4510:1963ApPhL...3..173C 4427:1955PhRv...99.1892B 4366:1953PhRv...89...20L 4327:1951PhRv...83..603L 4183:2007NaPho...1..189Z 3819:on October 28, 2020 3602:In the work of Cao 3569:Auger recombination 3104:projectors, and to 3071:automotive lighting 2683:(SiC) as substrate 2336:on the same target. 2305:stroboscopic effect 2230:Electrical polarity 2050:Reverse engineering 1702:Image of miniature 1488:luminosity function 1445:Phosphor-based LEDs 1157:electroluminescence 1017:. In this device a 811:Stanford University 759:semiconductor chips 652:Close-up of Red LED 452:. Russian inventor 434:Electroluminescence 75:Electroluminescence 46: 13385:Display technology 13320:Crystal oscillator 13180:Variable capacitor 12855:Switched capacitor 12797:Voltage regulators 12671:Integrated circuit 12555:Tetrode transistor 12533:Pentode transistor 12526:Organic LET (OLET) 12513:Organic FET (OFET) 12278:Color Light Output 12272:High Dynamic Range 12074:Dot-matrix display 12069:Lightguide display 11740:Display technology 11681:Luminous gemstones 10855:Electroluminescent 10833:Cathodoluminescent 9669:. January 22, 2015 9260:LED There Be Light 8669:Larson Electronics 8631:Hecht, E. (2002). 8542:Worthey, James A. 8092:"Luminus Products" 7524:on April 29, 2014. 7167:10.1002/sdtp.10406 6756:on August 17, 2021 5612:Electronics Weekly 5466:The New York Times 5058:. October 16, 2014 5042:. October 9, 2014, 4388:"Rubin Braunstein" 4000:Edison Tech Center 3889:on October 9, 2011 3747:Electronics portal 3708:sodium vapor lamps 3531:widely available. 3402: 3386: 3375: 3364: 3356: 3346:Other applications 3202: 3190: 3052:incandescent lamps 2969: 2830: 2282:appear differently 2197: 2023: 2003: 1861: 1775: 1728: 1712: 1704:surface mount LEDs 1683: 1613:electroluminescent 1566: 1507: 1459: 1430:perceivable colors 1399:quantum efficiency 1394: 1386: 1366:Czochralski method 1312:(215 nm) and 1219: 1198:characteristic of 1192:spatially coherent 1076: 934:Cardiff University 876:Nichia Corporation 864:Theodore Moustakas 826:U.S. Patent Office 740:integrated circuit 729:LED indicator lamp 686: 678: 654: 640: 629:Syracuse, New York 606:U.S. patent office 569:LED with a spaced 542: 519:gallium antimonide 466: 431: 423: 328:, camera flashes, 290:incandescent bulbs 254:flows through it. 229: 202: 187: 176: 44: 13355: 13354: 13315:Ceramic resonator 13127:Mercury-arc valve 13079:Video camera tube 13031:Cathode-ray tubes 12791: 12790: 12399:Complementary MOS 12305: 12304: 12231:Always-on display 12022:Electromechanical 12010: 12009: 11706: 11705: 11223:Balanced-arm lamp 11179: 11178: 11063:Yablochkov candle 10931:Acetylene/Carbide 10901:Radioluminescence 10773:Luminous efficacy 10719:Color temperature 10632:978-3-540-66505-2 10482:10.1890/14-0468.1 10376:10.1021/es101052q 10220:(7726): 245–248. 10109:(7726): 249–253. 10057:(7726): 197–198. 9981:(6334): 159–163. 9819:978-981-15-7949-3 9641:10.1117/12.687944 9605:10.1117/12.799843 9552:10.1063/1.3559842 9475:978-1-107-04942-0 9303:. cdc.gov. 2011. 9161:978-1-4244-2242-5 8715:on April 10, 2009 8650:978-0-19-510818-7 8587:978-0-7803-8486-6 8424:978-0-444-63705-5 8167:on March 13, 2012 8130:on March 31, 2010 7987:(6378): 477–479. 7790:(6293): 539–541. 7637:10.1117/12.565757 7560:10.1117/12.614681 7314:978-1-119-23600-9 7288:978-0-9863826-6-6 7130:. March 31, 2015. 6974:(5840): 932–934. 6919:(7091): 325–328. 6874:(12): 1237–1241. 6749:978-0-07-162935-5 6696:978-3-527-41212-9 6670:978-1-118-88147-7 6630:978-981-10-3755-9 6604:978-1-4665-6112-0 6578:978-3-527-41212-9 6552:978-0-08-101943-6 6526:978-0-9863826-1-1 6500:978-3-319-58175-0 6474:978-1-4614-3067-4 6448:978-0-08-101092-1 6422:978-0-9863826-7-3 6332:978-3-527-41212-9 6303:978-0-470-82840-3 6274:978-1-4665-6112-0 6248:978-1-118-88147-7 6222:978-3-030-81576-9 6193:978-3-031-30716-4 6167:978-1-118-88147-7 6127:978-3-527-41212-9 5972:Electrooptics.com 5822:Applied Materials 5644:978-1-4799-2306-9 5530:10.1063/1.1479455 5425:on April 11, 2019 5395:on March 24, 2023 5370:978-0-9863826-1-1 5319:Nakamura, Shuji. 4968:(5943): 977–981. 4776:978-0-8194-3956-7 4680:on August 9, 2007 4621:on March 28, 2006 4615:Chicago Sun-Times 4592:10.1063/1.1753706 4518:10.1063/1.1753837 4456:(10): 2183–2187. 4394:on March 11, 2011 4242:978-0-521-83539-8 4143:(39): 1024–1044. 4039:978-1-4244-0787-3 3870:US Patent 3293513 3661:fluorescent lamps 3645:blue-light hazard 3639:Health and safety 3524:voltage reference 3486:neonatal jaundice 3446:oxygen saturation 3410:free space optics 3266:Because LEDs can 3204:LEDs are used in 3179:video productions 3079:LED street lights 3035:competition. The 2942: 2941: 2934: 2814: 2813: 2777:Aluminium nitride 2243:breakdown voltage 2213:threshold voltage 2187:LED power sources 2031:voltage regulator 2013:LED matrix lapel 1995: 1994: 1987: 1969: 1880:luminous efficacy 1538:fluorescent lamps 1306:aluminium nitride 1253: 1252: 1206:Single-color LEDs 925:were awarded the 888:Nagoya University 665:LED display of a 643:M. George Craford 614:Texas Instruments 546:Texas Instruments 527:silicon-germanium 402: 401: 330:lighted wallpaper 306:aviation lighting 197: 184:surface-mount LED 167: 166: 153:Electronic symbol 121:October 1962 67:Working principle 16:(Redirected from 13402: 13209:electrical power 13094:Gas-filled tubes 12978:Cavity magnetron 12805:Linear regulator 12354: 12353: 12332: 12325: 12318: 12309: 12308: 12283:Flexible display 12245:Related articles 12125:Autostereoscopic 11824:Electronic paper 11770:Cathode-ray tube 11753: 11752: 11733: 11726: 11719: 11710: 11709: 11506:Christmas lights 11440:Safety reflector 11435:Reversing lights 11370:Navigation light 11321:Bicycle lighting 11211: 11164: 11156: 11130: 10889:Photoluminescent 10872:Fluorescent lamp 10845:Chemiluminescent 10793: 10792: 10761:Bi-pin lamp base 10756:Lightbulb socket 10693: 10686: 10679: 10670: 10669: 10660: 10636: 10615: 10613: 10592: 10591: 10575: 10569: 10568: 10557: 10551: 10550: 10548: 10546: 10532: 10526: 10525: 10523: 10521: 10501: 10495: 10494: 10484: 10474: 10465:(7): 1561–1568. 10450: 10444: 10443: 10441: 10439: 10424: 10418: 10417: 10415: 10413: 10404:. Archived from 10394: 10388: 10387: 10351: 10345: 10344: 10342: 10340: 10333:ledsmagazine.com 10325: 10319: 10312: 10306: 10300: 10294: 10293: 10291: 10289: 10278: 10272: 10271: 10245: 10208: 10202: 10201: 10183: 10151: 10145: 10144: 10126: 10094: 10085: 10084: 10074: 10042: 10033: 10032: 9990: 9972: 9962: 9956: 9955: 9943: 9937: 9924: 9918: 9917: 9915: 9913: 9899: 9893: 9892: 9890: 9888: 9874: 9865: 9864: 9830: 9824: 9823: 9803: 9797: 9796: 9786: 9777:(7): 1407–1413. 9762: 9756: 9755: 9749: 9744: 9742: 9734: 9726: 9720: 9719: 9709: 9685: 9679: 9678: 9676: 9674: 9659: 9653: 9652: 9635:. SPIE: 63980E. 9623: 9617: 9616: 9580: 9565: 9564: 9554: 9522: 9513: 9512: 9486: 9480: 9479: 9451: 9445: 9444: 9442: 9440: 9424: 9418: 9417: 9401: 9395: 9394: 9392: 9390: 9375: 9369: 9368: 9366: 9364: 9358:Consumer Reports 9349: 9343: 9342: 9336: 9331: 9329: 9321: 9319: 9317: 9312: 9297: 9291: 9290: 9288: 9286: 9277: 9269: 9263: 9257: 9251: 9245: 9239: 9232: 9226: 9219: 9213: 9206: 9200: 9193: 9187: 9180: 9174: 9173: 9145: 9136:. pp. 1–8. 9129: 9123: 9109: 9103: 9097: 9091: 9084: 9078: 9068: 9062: 9061: 9059: 9057: 9046: 9040: 9039: 9011: 9005: 9004: 8993:10.1038/nmat1134 8981:Nature Materials 8976: 8970: 8969: 8941: 8935: 8934: 8906: 8900: 8898:OSRAM: green LED 8895: 8889: 8888: 8886: 8884: 8870: 8864: 8863: 8861: 8837: 8831: 8830: 8804: 8780: 8774: 8773: 8771: 8769: 8760:. Archived from 8750: 8744: 8731: 8725: 8723: 8721: 8720: 8711:. Archived from 8705: 8699: 8698: 8696: 8694: 8689:. April 20, 2009 8679: 8673: 8672: 8661: 8655: 8654: 8638: 8628: 8622: 8621: 8619: 8617: 8606: 8600: 8599: 8565: 8559: 8558: 8556: 8554: 8539: 8533: 8522: 8513: 8507: 8501: 8500: 8498: 8492:. Archived from 8487: 8479: 8473: 8472: 8467:. Archived from 8457: 8451: 8450: 8448: 8446: 8435: 8429: 8428: 8409: 8403: 8402: 8400: 8398: 8372: 8366: 8365: 8363: 8361: 8346: 8340: 8339: 8319: 8313: 8312: 8310: 8308: 8288: 8282: 8281: 8279: 8277: 8257: 8251: 8250: 8248: 8241: 8231: 8222: 8221: 8219: 8217: 8202: 8196: 8183: 8177: 8176: 8174: 8172: 8153:"Xlamp Xp-G Led" 8149: 8140: 8139: 8137: 8135: 8129: 8122: 8114: 8108: 8107: 8105: 8103: 8098:on July 25, 2008 8088: 8082: 8081: 8079: 8077: 8063: 8057: 8056: 8054: 8052: 8038: 8032: 8019: 8013: 8012: 8001:10.1038/357477a0 7976: 7970: 7969: 7958:10.1063/1.121090 7933: 7927: 7926: 7915:10.1063/1.120807 7890: 7884: 7883: 7843: 7834: 7833: 7825: 7816: 7815: 7804:10.1038/347539a0 7779: 7773: 7772: 7770: 7768: 7757: 7751: 7750: 7739: 7730: 7729: 7722: 7716: 7715: 7712:enlightedinc.com 7704: 7698: 7697: 7686: 7680: 7674: 7668: 7662: 7656: 7655: 7654:on May 11, 2011. 7653: 7647:. Archived from 7614: 7605: 7599: 7598: 7592: 7588: 7586: 7578: 7577:on May 11, 2011. 7576: 7570:. Archived from 7541: 7532: 7526: 7525: 7523: 7517:. Archived from 7498: 7492: 7491: 7489: 7483:. Archived from 7442: 7433: 7427: 7426: 7408: 7402: 7401: 7399: 7397: 7382: 7376: 7375: 7357: 7340:(6): 3607–3618. 7325: 7319: 7318: 7299: 7293: 7292: 7273: 7267: 7266: 7218: 7212: 7211: 7201: 7177: 7171: 7170: 7138: 7132: 7131: 7124: 7118: 7117: 7110: 7104: 7103: 7059: 7053: 7052: 7033:10.1038/nmat1134 7013:Nature Materials 7008: 7002: 7001: 6991: 6959: 6953: 6952: 6908: 6902: 6901: 6883: 6859: 6850: 6849: 6848:on May 15, 2013. 6847: 6832: 6823: 6817: 6816: 6814: 6812: 6797: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6786: 6772: 6766: 6765: 6763: 6761: 6752:. Archived from 6733: 6727: 6726: 6724: 6722: 6707: 6701: 6700: 6681: 6675: 6674: 6655: 6649: 6648: 6641: 6635: 6634: 6615: 6609: 6608: 6589: 6583: 6582: 6563: 6557: 6556: 6537: 6531: 6530: 6511: 6505: 6504: 6485: 6479: 6478: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6433: 6427: 6426: 6407: 6401: 6400: 6398: 6396: 6382: 6376: 6375: 6343: 6337: 6336: 6317: 6308: 6307: 6288: 6279: 6278: 6259: 6253: 6252: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6207: 6198: 6197: 6178: 6172: 6171: 6152: 6146: 6145: 6138: 6132: 6131: 6112: 6106: 6100: 6094: 6093: 6082: 6076: 6070: 6064: 6058: 6052: 6046: 6040: 6026: 6020: 6014: 6008: 6007: 5994: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5983: 5974:. Archived from 5963: 5957: 5956: 5951:. Archived from 5945: 5939: 5938: 5936: 5912:Nature Photonics 5903: 5897: 5896: 5894: 5870: 5864: 5861: 5855: 5854: 5853:on July 12, 2014 5852: 5845: 5834: 5825: 5815: 5809: 5796: 5790: 5780: 5774: 5763: 5757: 5746: 5740: 5729: 5723: 5712: 5706: 5705:(17 March 2015). 5696: 5690: 5689:(30 March 2016). 5680: 5674: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5625:up challenges". 5621: 5615: 5604: 5598: 5595:"GaN on Silicon" 5592: 5586: 5572: 5566: 5564: 5562: 5561: 5555: 5549:. Archived from 5548: 5540: 5534: 5533: 5504: 5498: 5497: 5477: 5471: 5470: 5453: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5434: 5432: 5430: 5421:. Archived from 5411: 5405: 5404: 5402: 5400: 5381: 5375: 5374: 5354: 5348: 5346: 5339: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5328: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5306:10.1063/1.111832 5279: 5273: 5272: 5270: 5268: 5250: 5244: 5242: 5235: 5229: 5228: 5226: 5224: 5214: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5195: 5186:. Archived from 5172: 5166: 5165: 5129: 5123: 5110: 5104: 5086: 5080: 5065: 5059: 5049: 5043: 5033: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5018:. Archived from 4985: 4959: 4950: 4944: 4943: 4935: 4929: 4923: 4917: 4916: 4915: 4911: 4904: 4898: 4897: 4895: 4893: 4884:. Archived from 4874: 4868: 4867: 4843: 4834: 4833: 4831: 4818: 4809: 4800: 4799: 4787: 4781: 4780: 4762: 4751: 4750: 4727:Appl. Phys. Lett 4696: 4690: 4689: 4687: 4685: 4679: 4672: 4664: 4658: 4657: 4654:10.1109/6.343989 4637: 4631: 4630: 4628: 4626: 4617:. Archived from 4606: 4600: 4599: 4594:. Archived from 4555: 4549: 4548: 4546: 4544: 4539:on July 10, 2020 4528: 4522: 4521: 4493: 4487: 4480: 4474: 4473: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4421:(6): 1892–1893. 4410: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4399: 4384: 4378: 4377: 4349: 4343: 4342: 4337:. Archived from 4306: 4300: 4299: 4297: 4289: 4283: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4226: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4199: 4193:. Archived from 4171:Nature Photonics 4168: 4159: 4153: 4152: 4132: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4097: 4091: 4090: 4083:Electrical World 4074: 4068: 4067: 4017: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4006: 3993: 3984: 3971: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3957:. Archived from 3944: 3938: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3927: 3914: 3905: 3899: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3879: 3873: 3867: 3861: 3860: 3858: 3856: 3850: 3843: 3835: 3829: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3815:. Archived from 3805: 3763: 3758: 3757: 3749: 3744: 3743: 3688:sleep-wake cycle 3295:Barcode scanners 3268:cycle on and off 3160:security cameras 3048:air conditioning 2937: 2930: 2926: 2923: 2917: 2886: 2878: 2868:micropropagation 2469:Gallium arsenide 2422: 2402:indium tin oxide 2312:Light properties 2224:electric current 2220:Efficiency droop 2205:constant current 2020: 2012: 1990: 1983: 1979: 1976: 1970: 1968: 1927: 1903: 1895: 1836: 1823: 1819: 1752: 1748: 1721: 1709: 1617:organic compound 1581:Other white LEDs 1556:Mixed white LEDs 1334:fluorescent lamp 1242: 1241: 1233: 1221: 1220: 1174:nor even highly 1070:Illustration of 1046: 1045: 1044: 1036: 1035: 1027: 1026: 938:indium tin oxide 845:indirect bandgap 839:In August 1989, 819:RCA Laboratories 771:chip fabrication 721:Monsanto Company 675: 672: 625:General Electric 523:indium phosphide 515:gallium arsenide 507:Rubin Braunstein 470:Georges Destriau 397: 394: 367: 366: 359: 322:general lighting 198: 163: 138: 131: 129: 124: 118: 71: 70: 54: 47: 43: 21: 13410: 13409: 13405: 13404: 13403: 13401: 13400: 13399: 13360: 13359: 13356: 13351: 13289: 13204:audio and video 13189: 13156: 13088: 13025: 12953: 12934:Photomultiplier 12859: 12787: 12735:Quantum circuit 12643: 12637: 12579:Avalanche diode 12565: 12477: 12470: 12359: 12348: 12341: 12336: 12306: 12301: 12292: 12240: 12202: 12188:Slide projector 12178:Movie projector 12161: 12106: 12006: 11916: 11909: 11810: 11804: 11757: 11742: 11737: 11707: 11702: 11666:Bioluminescence 11649: 11618: 11604: 11561: 11545: 11484: 11468: 11384: 11309: 11233:Emergency light 11209: 11175: 11162: 11154: 11128: 11126: 11119: 11067: 11039: 11010:Magnesium torch 10917: 10819: 10788: 10782: 10739:Light pollution 10714:Accent lighting 10702: 10697: 10658: 10643: 10633: 10611: 10601: 10599:Further reading 10596: 10595: 10576: 10572: 10559: 10558: 10554: 10544: 10542: 10534: 10533: 10529: 10519: 10517: 10502: 10498: 10451: 10447: 10437: 10435: 10425: 10421: 10411: 10409: 10396: 10395: 10391: 10352: 10348: 10338: 10336: 10327: 10326: 10322: 10313: 10309: 10301: 10297: 10287: 10285: 10280: 10279: 10275: 10209: 10205: 10152: 10148: 10095: 10088: 10043: 10036: 9970: 9963: 9959: 9944: 9940: 9934:Wayback Machine 9925: 9921: 9911: 9909: 9901: 9900: 9896: 9886: 9884: 9876: 9875: 9868: 9853: 9831: 9827: 9820: 9804: 9800: 9763: 9759: 9747: 9745: 9736: 9735: 9727: 9723: 9686: 9682: 9672: 9670: 9661: 9660: 9656: 9624: 9620: 9581: 9568: 9523: 9516: 9510: 9487: 9483: 9476: 9452: 9448: 9438: 9436: 9425: 9421: 9402: 9398: 9388: 9386: 9377: 9376: 9372: 9362: 9360: 9350: 9346: 9334: 9332: 9323: 9322: 9315: 9313: 9299: 9298: 9294: 9284: 9282: 9270: 9266: 9258: 9254: 9246: 9242: 9233: 9229: 9220: 9216: 9207: 9203: 9194: 9190: 9181: 9177: 9162: 9130: 9126: 9121:Wayback Machine 9110: 9106: 9098: 9094: 9085: 9081: 9069: 9065: 9055: 9053: 9048: 9047: 9043: 9012: 9008: 8977: 8973: 8942: 8938: 8907: 8903: 8896: 8892: 8882: 8880: 8872: 8871: 8867: 8838: 8834: 8781: 8777: 8767: 8765: 8752: 8751: 8747: 8741:Wayback Machine 8732: 8728: 8718: 8716: 8707: 8706: 8702: 8692: 8690: 8681: 8680: 8676: 8663: 8662: 8658: 8651: 8629: 8625: 8615: 8613: 8608: 8607: 8603: 8588: 8566: 8562: 8552: 8550: 8540: 8536: 8523: 8516: 8508: 8504: 8496: 8485: 8481: 8480: 8476: 8471:on May 5, 2009. 8465:eere.energy.gov 8459: 8458: 8454: 8444: 8442: 8437: 8436: 8432: 8425: 8411: 8410: 8406: 8396: 8394: 8393:. April 5, 2015 8385:"LED Filaments" 8383: 8380:Wayback Machine 8373: 8369: 8359: 8357: 8348: 8347: 8343: 8336: 8320: 8316: 8306: 8304: 8289: 8285: 8275: 8273: 8258: 8254: 8246: 8239: 8233: 8232: 8225: 8215: 8213: 8204: 8203: 8199: 8193:Wayback Machine 8184: 8180: 8170: 8168: 8151: 8150: 8143: 8133: 8131: 8127: 8120: 8116: 8115: 8111: 8101: 8099: 8090: 8089: 8085: 8075: 8073: 8065: 8064: 8060: 8050: 8048: 8040: 8039: 8035: 8030:Wayback Machine 8020: 8016: 7977: 7973: 7934: 7930: 7891: 7887: 7844: 7837: 7826: 7819: 7780: 7776: 7766: 7764: 7758: 7754: 7741: 7740: 7733: 7724: 7723: 7719: 7706: 7705: 7701: 7688: 7687: 7683: 7675: 7671: 7663: 7659: 7651: 7612: 7606: 7602: 7590: 7589: 7580: 7579: 7574: 7539: 7533: 7529: 7521: 7499: 7495: 7487: 7440: 7434: 7430: 7423: 7409: 7405: 7395: 7393: 7383: 7379: 7326: 7322: 7315: 7301: 7300: 7296: 7289: 7275: 7274: 7270: 7219: 7215: 7192:: R3194–R3198. 7178: 7174: 7150: 7146: 7139: 7135: 7126: 7125: 7121: 7112: 7111: 7107: 7060: 7056: 7009: 7005: 6960: 6956: 6909: 6905: 6860: 6853: 6845: 6830: 6824: 6820: 6810: 6808: 6807:. July 25, 2013 6799: 6798: 6794: 6784: 6782: 6774: 6773: 6769: 6759: 6757: 6750: 6742:. McGraw-Hill. 6734: 6730: 6720: 6718: 6708: 6704: 6697: 6683: 6682: 6678: 6671: 6657: 6656: 6652: 6643: 6642: 6638: 6631: 6617: 6616: 6612: 6605: 6591: 6590: 6586: 6579: 6565: 6564: 6560: 6553: 6539: 6538: 6534: 6527: 6513: 6512: 6508: 6501: 6487: 6486: 6482: 6475: 6461: 6460: 6456: 6449: 6435: 6434: 6430: 6423: 6409: 6408: 6404: 6394: 6392: 6384: 6383: 6379: 6344: 6340: 6333: 6319: 6318: 6311: 6304: 6290: 6289: 6282: 6275: 6261: 6260: 6256: 6249: 6235: 6234: 6230: 6223: 6209: 6208: 6201: 6194: 6180: 6179: 6175: 6168: 6154: 6153: 6149: 6140: 6139: 6135: 6128: 6114: 6113: 6109: 6101: 6097: 6084: 6083: 6079: 6071: 6067: 6059: 6055: 6047: 6043: 6037:Wayback Machine 6027: 6023: 6015: 6011: 5996: 5995: 5991: 5981: 5979: 5964: 5960: 5947: 5946: 5942: 5919:(1): 23. 2007. 5905: 5904: 5900: 5871: 5867: 5862: 5858: 5850: 5843: 5837:Lester, Steve, 5835: 5828: 5816: 5812: 5806:Wayback Machine 5797: 5793: 5787:Toshiba Machine 5781: 5777: 5764: 5760: 5747: 5743: 5730: 5726: 5713: 5709: 5697: 5693: 5681: 5677: 5664: 5660: 5645: 5622: 5618: 5605: 5601: 5593: 5589: 5583:Wayback Machine 5573: 5569: 5559: 5557: 5553: 5546: 5542: 5541: 5537: 5505: 5501: 5478: 5474: 5457:Overbye, Dennis 5454: 5450: 5442: 5438: 5428: 5426: 5413: 5412: 5408: 5398: 5396: 5383: 5382: 5378: 5371: 5355: 5351: 5342: 5340: 5336: 5326: 5324: 5323:. SPIE Newsroom 5317: 5313: 5280: 5276: 5266: 5264: 5251: 5247: 5238: 5236: 5232: 5222: 5220: 5212: 5208: 5207: 5203: 5193: 5191: 5174: 5173: 5169: 5130: 5126: 5121:Wayback Machine 5111: 5107: 5102:Wayback Machine 5087: 5083: 5066: 5062: 5050: 5046: 5034: 5030: 5022: 4983:10.1.1.660.3338 4957: 4951: 4947: 4936: 4932: 4924: 4920: 4913: 4905: 4901: 4891: 4889: 4876: 4875: 4871: 4864: 4844: 4837: 4829: 4816: 4810: 4803: 4788: 4784: 4777: 4763: 4754: 4747:10.1063/1.88831 4724: 4717: 4711: 4704: 4697: 4693: 4683: 4681: 4677: 4670: 4666: 4665: 4661: 4638: 4634: 4624: 4622: 4607: 4603: 4567: 4563: 4556: 4552: 4542: 4540: 4529: 4525: 4504:(10): 173–175. 4494: 4490: 4481: 4477: 4446: 4442: 4415:Physical Review 4411: 4407: 4397: 4395: 4386: 4385: 4381: 4354:Physical Review 4350: 4346: 4315:Physical Review 4307: 4303: 4295: 4291: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4254: 4250: 4243: 4217: 4213: 4203: 4201: 4200:on May 11, 2011 4197: 4166: 4160: 4156: 4121: 4117: 4098: 4094: 4075: 4071: 4040: 4018: 4014: 4004: 4002: 3991: 3985: 3974: 3964: 3962: 3945: 3941: 3931: 3929: 3925: 3912: 3906: 3902: 3892: 3890: 3881: 3880: 3876: 3868: 3864: 3854: 3852: 3848: 3841: 3837: 3836: 3832: 3822: 3820: 3807: 3806: 3802: 3797: 3759: 3752: 3745: 3738: 3735: 3712:scotopic vision 3700:Light pollution 3696: 3684:street lighting 3641: 3634: 3630: 3577: 3550: 3545: 3442:Pulse oximeters 3426:phototransistor 3414:remote controls 3348: 3308: 3286: 3280: 3243: 3225: 3208:operations, as 3168:retroreflective 3158:uses including 3021: 3015: 2938: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2903: 2887: 2876: 2819: 2800:Broad spectrum 2729:multiple types 2681:Silicon carbide 2413: 2395: 2355: 2314: 2262: 2238: 2232: 2189: 2183: 2170: 2131:LED strip light 2057:microcontroller 2018: 2010: 1991: 1980: 1974: 1971: 1928: 1926: 1916: 1904: 1893: 1888: 1887: 1852: 1849:LED strip light 1844: 1834: 1830: 1821: 1817: 1794:power densities 1789: 1759: 1750: 1746: 1719: 1707: 1696: 1670: 1664: 1605: 1599: 1587:homoepitaxially 1583: 1558: 1447: 1418:color rendering 1374: 1322: 1316:(235 nm). 1308:(210 nm), 1239: 1224:External videos 1208: 1153: 1147: 1139:gallium nitride 1135: 1047::Ce (known as " 1043: 1040: 1039: 1038: 1034: 1031: 1030: 1029: 1025: 1022: 1021: 1020: 1018: 1011:color rendering 1007: 945:gallium nitride 807:gallium nitride 799: 787:high-power LEDs 773:and innovative 748:digital display 727:and Monsanto's 709:Hewlett-Packard 673: 659: 592:Research Labs, 588:Research Labs, 446:silicon carbide 407: 398: 392: 389: 381:history of LEDs 368: 364: 357: 326:traffic signals 320:, advertising, 189: 136: 127: 125: 122: 116: 111: 68: 66: 61: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13408: 13398: 13397: 13392: 13387: 13382: 13380:Optical diodes 13377: 13372: 13353: 13352: 13350: 13349: 13348: 13347: 13342: 13332: 13327: 13322: 13317: 13312: 13311: 13310: 13299: 13297: 13291: 13290: 13288: 13287: 13286: 13285: 13283:Wollaston wire 13275: 13270: 13265: 13260: 13255: 13250: 13249: 13248: 13243: 13233: 13228: 13223: 13218: 13217: 13216: 13211: 13206: 13197: 13195: 13191: 13190: 13188: 13187: 13182: 13177: 13176: 13175: 13164: 13162: 13158: 13157: 13155: 13154: 13149: 13144: 13139: 13134: 13129: 13124: 13119: 13114: 13109: 13104: 13098: 13096: 13090: 13089: 13087: 13086: 13081: 13076: 13071: 13066: 13064:Selectron tube 13061: 13056: 13054:Magic eye tube 13051: 13046: 13041: 13035: 13033: 13027: 13026: 13024: 13023: 13018: 13012: 13007: 13002: 12997: 12991: 12986: 12980: 12975: 12968: 12966: 12955: 12954: 12952: 12951: 12946: 12941: 12936: 12931: 12926: 12920: 12915: 12910: 12905: 12900: 12895: 12890: 12885: 12880: 12875: 12869: 12867: 12861: 12860: 12858: 12857: 12852: 12847: 12842: 12837: 12832: 12827: 12822: 12817: 12812: 12807: 12801: 12799: 12793: 12792: 12789: 12788: 12786: 12785: 12780: 12775: 12770: 12765: 12759: 12753: 12748: 12742: 12737: 12732: 12727: 12722: 12716: 12711: 12705: 12700: 12695: 12690: 12685: 12679: 12674: 12668: 12663: 12658: 12653: 12647: 12645: 12639: 12638: 12636: 12635: 12630: 12625: 12623:Schottky diode 12620: 12615: 12610: 12604: 12598: 12592: 12587: 12581: 12575: 12573: 12567: 12566: 12564: 12563: 12557: 12552: 12546: 12540: 12535: 12530: 12529: 12528: 12517: 12516: 12515: 12510: 12499: 12494: 12489: 12482: 12480: 12472: 12471: 12469: 12468: 12463: 12458: 12452: 12447: 12441: 12435: 12430: 12425: 12419: 12413: 12407: 12402: 12396: 12390: 12385: 12380: 12375: 12370: 12364: 12362: 12351: 12343: 12342: 12335: 12334: 12327: 12320: 12312: 12303: 12302: 12297: 12294: 12293: 12291: 12290: 12285: 12280: 12275: 12269: 12264: 12259: 12254: 12248: 12246: 12242: 12241: 12239: 12238: 12233: 12228: 12223: 12222: 12221: 12210: 12208: 12204: 12203: 12201: 12200: 12195: 12190: 12185: 12180: 12175: 12169: 12167: 12163: 12162: 12160: 12159: 12154: 12149: 12148: 12147: 12142: 12132: 12127: 12122: 12116: 12114: 12108: 12107: 12105: 12104: 12098: 12092: 12087: 12082: 12076: 12071: 12066: 12060: 12054: 12049: 12044: 12039: 12038: 12037: 12034: 12029: 12018: 12016: 12012: 12011: 12008: 12007: 12005: 12004: 11998: 11992: 11986: 11985: 11984: 11979: 11968: 11967: 11966: 11964:Liquid crystal 11961: 11951: 11945: 11939: 11933: 11927: 11921: 11919: 11911: 11910: 11908: 11907: 11901: 11895: 11894: 11893: 11888: 11883: 11882: 11881: 11876: 11860: 11859: 11858: 11857: 11856: 11838: 11837: 11836: 11831: 11821: 11814: 11812: 11806: 11805: 11803: 11802: 11801: 11800: 11789: 11784: 11778: 11773: 11767: 11761: 11759: 11750: 11748:Video displays 11744: 11743: 11736: 11735: 11728: 11721: 11713: 11704: 11703: 11701: 11700: 11699: 11698: 11688: 11683: 11678: 11673: 11668: 11663: 11657: 11655: 11654:Related topics 11651: 11650: 11648: 11647: 11642: 11637: 11632: 11627: 11621: 11619: 11617: 11616: 11613: 11609: 11606: 11605: 11603: 11602: 11597: 11596: 11595: 11585: 11580: 11575: 11570: 11564: 11562: 11560: 11559: 11556: 11550: 11547: 11546: 11544: 11543: 11538: 11533: 11528: 11523: 11518: 11513: 11508: 11503: 11498: 11493: 11487: 11485: 11483: 11482: 11477: 11473: 11470: 11469: 11467: 11466: 11465: 11464: 11454: 11449: 11448: 11447: 11445:retroreflector 11437: 11432: 11427: 11426: 11425: 11420: 11415: 11405: 11400: 11394: 11392: 11386: 11385: 11383: 11382: 11377: 11372: 11367: 11362: 11357: 11356: 11355: 11345: 11340: 11339: 11338: 11333: 11323: 11317: 11315: 11311: 11310: 11308: 11307: 11302: 11300:Track lighting 11297: 11292: 11291: 11290: 11280: 11275: 11273:Recessed light 11270: 11265: 11260: 11255: 11250: 11245: 11243:Gooseneck lamp 11240: 11235: 11230: 11225: 11220: 11215: 11214: 11213: 11205: 11200: 11189: 11187: 11181: 11180: 11177: 11176: 11174: 11173: 11168: 11167: 11166: 11158: 11150: 11140: 11134: 11132: 11125:High-intensity 11121: 11120: 11118: 11117: 11112: 11107: 11106: 11105: 11095: 11094: 11093: 11083: 11077: 11075: 11069: 11068: 11066: 11065: 11060: 11055: 11049: 11047: 11041: 11040: 11038: 11037: 11032: 11027: 11022: 11017: 11012: 11007: 11002: 10997: 10996: 10995: 10990: 10980: 10979: 10978: 10968: 10963: 10958: 10953: 10948: 10943: 10938: 10933: 10927: 10925: 10919: 10918: 10916: 10915: 10914: 10913: 10903: 10898: 10897: 10896: 10894:Laser headlamp 10886: 10885: 10884: 10879: 10864: 10863: 10862: 10852: 10847: 10842: 10841: 10840: 10829: 10827: 10821: 10820: 10818: 10817: 10812: 10807: 10801: 10799: 10790: 10784: 10783: 10781: 10780: 10775: 10770: 10769: 10768: 10763: 10753: 10752: 10751: 10746: 10736: 10731: 10726: 10724:Electric light 10721: 10716: 10710: 10708: 10704: 10703: 10696: 10695: 10688: 10681: 10673: 10667: 10666: 10655: 10649: 10642: 10641:External links 10639: 10638: 10637: 10631: 10616: 10600: 10597: 10594: 10593: 10570: 10552: 10527: 10496: 10445: 10419: 10389: 10362:(1): 320–327. 10346: 10320: 10307: 10295: 10273: 10203: 10160:Optics Express 10146: 10086: 10034: 9957: 9938: 9919: 9894: 9866: 9851: 9825: 9818: 9798: 9757: 9748:|journal= 9721: 9700:(2): 331–344. 9680: 9654: 9618: 9566: 9514: 9508: 9481: 9474: 9446: 9419: 9396: 9370: 9344: 9335:|journal= 9292: 9280:New York Times 9264: 9252: 9240: 9227: 9214: 9201: 9188: 9175: 9160: 9143:10.1.1.165.484 9124: 9115:. soamsci.or. 9104: 9092: 9079: 9063: 9041: 9006: 8971: 8936: 8917:(5523): 1899. 8901: 8890: 8865: 8832: 8795:(1): 113–126. 8775: 8745: 8726: 8700: 8674: 8656: 8649: 8623: 8601: 8586: 8560: 8534: 8514: 8510:The LED Museum 8502: 8474: 8452: 8430: 8423: 8404: 8367: 8341: 8334: 8314: 8283: 8252: 8223: 8197: 8178: 8163:Archived from 8141: 8109: 8083: 8058: 8033: 8014: 7971: 7928: 7885: 7835: 7817: 7774: 7752: 7731: 7717: 7699: 7681: 7669: 7657: 7600: 7591:|journal= 7527: 7493: 7428: 7422:978-1839473838 7421: 7403: 7377: 7334:Optics Express 7320: 7313: 7294: 7287: 7268: 7233:(2): 1600147. 7213: 7172: 7148: 7144: 7133: 7119: 7105: 7054: 7019:(6): 404–409. 7003: 6954: 6903: 6851: 6818: 6792: 6780:www.energy.gov 6767: 6748: 6728: 6702: 6695: 6676: 6669: 6650: 6636: 6629: 6610: 6603: 6584: 6577: 6558: 6551: 6532: 6525: 6506: 6499: 6480: 6473: 6454: 6447: 6428: 6421: 6402: 6390:lamptech.co.uk 6377: 6338: 6331: 6309: 6302: 6280: 6273: 6254: 6247: 6228: 6221: 6199: 6192: 6173: 6166: 6147: 6133: 6126: 6107: 6095: 6077: 6065: 6053: 6041: 6021: 6009: 5989: 5958: 5940: 5898: 5865: 5856: 5826: 5810: 5791: 5775: 5758: 5741: 5724: 5707: 5691: 5675: 5658: 5643: 5616: 5599: 5587: 5567: 5535: 5499: 5472: 5448: 5436: 5406: 5376: 5369: 5349: 5334: 5311: 5274: 5245: 5230: 5201: 5167: 5140:(1): 453–460. 5124: 5105: 5081: 5060: 5044: 5028: 4945: 4930: 4918: 4899: 4869: 4862: 4856:. p. 40. 4835: 4801: 4782: 4775: 4752: 4719: 4713: 4706: 4700: 4691: 4659: 4632: 4601: 4565: 4561: 4550: 4523: 4488: 4475: 4440: 4405: 4379: 4344: 4321:(3): 603–607. 4301: 4284: 4275: 4248: 4241: 4211: 4177:(4): 189–192. 4154: 4139:. 7th series. 4131:(44): 485–494. 4127:(in Russian). 4115: 4092: 4069: 4038: 4012: 3972: 3961:on May 2, 2021 3939: 3900: 3874: 3862: 3830: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3792: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3750: 3734: 3731: 3730: 3729: 3726: 3719: 3695: 3692: 3640: 3637: 3632: 3628: 3576: 3573: 3549: 3548:Key challenges 3546: 3544: 3541: 3470:photosynthesis 3418:Opto-isolators 3347: 3344: 3307: 3304: 3289:Machine vision 3284:Machine vision 3282:Main article: 3279: 3276: 3224: 3221: 3141:camera flashes 3075:bicycle lights 3017:Main article: 3014: 3011: 2973:traffic lights 2940: 2939: 2890: 2888: 2881: 2875: 2872: 2857: 2856: 2853: 2846: 2843: 2837: 2818: 2815: 2812: 2811: 2808: 2801: 2798: 2795: 2792: 2791: 2775:(215 nm) 2770:(235 nm) 2765: 2758: 2752: 2747: 2744: 2743: 2737: 2730: 2727: 2722: 2719: 2718: 2712: 2705: 2698: 2693: 2690: 2689: 2669: 2662: 2655: 2650: 2647: 2646: 2622: 2615: 2608: 2603: 2600: 2599: 2583: 2576: 2569: 2564: 2561: 2560: 2544: 2537: 2530: 2525: 2522: 2521: 2501: 2494: 2487: 2482: 2479: 2478: 2466: 2457: 2449: 2444: 2441: 2440: 2437: 2434: 2428: 2425: 2412: 2409: 2394: 2391: 2390: 2389: 2381: 2374: 2366: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2351: 2350: 2349: 2337: 2322: 2313: 2310: 2309: 2308: 2293: 2270: 2266: 2261: 2258: 2234:Main article: 2231: 2228: 2185:Main article: 2182: 2179: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2169: 2166: 2165: 2164: 2157: 2154: 2146: 2143: 2122: 2119: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2078: 2075: 2063: 2060: 2042: 2039: 2027: 1993: 1992: 1907: 1905: 1898: 1892: 1889: 1853: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1829: 1826: 1758: 1755: 1695: 1692: 1669: 1666: 1621:delocalization 1601:Main article: 1598: 1595: 1582: 1579: 1557: 1554: 1455:Stokes-shifted 1446: 1443: 1414:tetrachromatic 1373: 1370: 1330:primary colors 1321: 1318: 1294:counterfeiting 1251: 1250: 1235: 1234: 1226: 1225: 1207: 1204: 1149:Main article: 1146: 1143: 1134: 1131: 1041: 1032: 1023: 1006: 1003: 947:(GaN) LEDs on 894:deposition on 872:Shuji Nakamura 860:optoelectronic 798: 795: 765:(developed by 763:planar process 658: 655: 558:James R. Biard 521:(GaSb), GaAs, 493:György Szigeti 491:together with 406: 403: 400: 399: 393:September 2024 371: 369: 362: 356: 353: 283:remote-control 260:electron holes 212:with aluminum 165: 164: 156: 155: 149: 148: 139: 133: 132: 119: 113: 112: 110: 109: 103: 100:James R. Biard 97: 91: 84: 82: 78: 77: 72: 63: 62: 55: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13407: 13396: 13393: 13391: 13388: 13386: 13383: 13381: 13378: 13376: 13373: 13371: 13368: 13367: 13365: 13358: 13346: 13345:mercury relay 13343: 13341: 13338: 13337: 13336: 13333: 13331: 13328: 13326: 13323: 13321: 13318: 13316: 13313: 13309: 13306: 13305: 13304: 13301: 13300: 13298: 13296: 13292: 13284: 13281: 13280: 13279: 13276: 13274: 13271: 13269: 13266: 13264: 13261: 13259: 13256: 13254: 13251: 13247: 13244: 13242: 13239: 13238: 13237: 13234: 13232: 13229: 13227: 13224: 13222: 13219: 13215: 13212: 13210: 13207: 13205: 13202: 13201: 13199: 13198: 13196: 13192: 13186: 13183: 13181: 13178: 13174: 13171: 13170: 13169: 13168:Potentiometer 13166: 13165: 13163: 13159: 13153: 13150: 13148: 13145: 13143: 13140: 13138: 13135: 13133: 13130: 13128: 13125: 13123: 13120: 13118: 13115: 13113: 13110: 13108: 13105: 13103: 13100: 13099: 13097: 13095: 13091: 13085: 13084:Williams tube 13082: 13080: 13077: 13075: 13072: 13070: 13067: 13065: 13062: 13060: 13057: 13055: 13052: 13050: 13047: 13045: 13042: 13040: 13037: 13036: 13034: 13032: 13028: 13022: 13019: 13016: 13013: 13011: 13008: 13006: 13003: 13001: 12998: 12995: 12992: 12990: 12987: 12984: 12981: 12979: 12976: 12973: 12970: 12969: 12967: 12964: 12960: 12956: 12950: 12947: 12945: 12942: 12940: 12937: 12935: 12932: 12930: 12927: 12924: 12921: 12919: 12916: 12914: 12911: 12909: 12906: 12904: 12903:Fleming valve 12901: 12899: 12896: 12894: 12891: 12889: 12886: 12884: 12881: 12879: 12876: 12874: 12871: 12870: 12868: 12866: 12862: 12856: 12853: 12851: 12848: 12846: 12843: 12841: 12838: 12836: 12833: 12831: 12828: 12826: 12823: 12821: 12818: 12816: 12813: 12811: 12808: 12806: 12803: 12802: 12800: 12798: 12794: 12784: 12781: 12779: 12776: 12774: 12771: 12769: 12766: 12763: 12760: 12757: 12754: 12752: 12749: 12746: 12743: 12741: 12738: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12730:Photodetector 12728: 12726: 12723: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12712: 12709: 12706: 12704: 12701: 12699: 12698:Memtransistor 12696: 12694: 12691: 12689: 12686: 12683: 12680: 12678: 12675: 12672: 12669: 12667: 12664: 12662: 12659: 12657: 12654: 12652: 12649: 12648: 12646: 12640: 12634: 12631: 12629: 12626: 12624: 12621: 12619: 12616: 12614: 12611: 12608: 12605: 12602: 12599: 12596: 12593: 12591: 12588: 12585: 12582: 12580: 12577: 12576: 12574: 12572: 12568: 12561: 12558: 12556: 12553: 12550: 12547: 12544: 12541: 12539: 12536: 12534: 12531: 12527: 12524: 12523: 12521: 12518: 12514: 12511: 12509: 12506: 12505: 12503: 12500: 12498: 12495: 12493: 12490: 12487: 12484: 12483: 12481: 12479: 12473: 12467: 12464: 12462: 12459: 12456: 12453: 12451: 12448: 12445: 12442: 12439: 12436: 12434: 12431: 12429: 12426: 12423: 12420: 12417: 12414: 12411: 12408: 12406: 12403: 12400: 12397: 12394: 12391: 12389: 12386: 12384: 12381: 12379: 12376: 12374: 12371: 12369: 12366: 12365: 12363: 12361: 12355: 12352: 12350: 12347:Semiconductor 12344: 12340: 12333: 12328: 12326: 12321: 12319: 12314: 12313: 12310: 12300: 12295: 12289: 12286: 12284: 12281: 12279: 12276: 12273: 12270: 12268: 12265: 12263: 12260: 12258: 12255: 12253: 12250: 12249: 12247: 12243: 12237: 12234: 12232: 12229: 12227: 12224: 12220: 12217: 12216: 12215: 12212: 12211: 12209: 12205: 12199: 12196: 12194: 12191: 12189: 12186: 12184: 12181: 12179: 12176: 12174: 12171: 12170: 12168: 12164: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12146: 12143: 12141: 12138: 12137: 12136: 12133: 12131: 12128: 12126: 12123: 12121: 12118: 12117: 12115: 12113: 12109: 12102: 12099: 12096: 12093: 12091: 12088: 12086: 12083: 12080: 12077: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12067: 12064: 12061: 12058: 12055: 12053: 12050: 12048: 12045: 12043: 12040: 12035: 12033: 12030: 12028: 12025: 12024: 12023: 12020: 12019: 12017: 12013: 12002: 11999: 11996: 11993: 11990: 11987: 11983: 11980: 11978: 11975: 11974: 11972: 11969: 11965: 11962: 11960: 11957: 11956: 11955: 11952: 11949: 11946: 11943: 11940: 11937: 11934: 11932:(ELQD/QD-LED) 11931: 11928: 11926: 11923: 11922: 11920: 11918: 11912: 11905: 11902: 11899: 11896: 11892: 11889: 11887: 11884: 11880: 11877: 11875: 11872: 11871: 11870: 11867: 11866: 11864: 11861: 11854: 11851: 11850: 11848: 11845: 11844: 11842: 11839: 11835: 11832: 11830: 11827: 11826: 11825: 11822: 11819: 11816: 11815: 11813: 11807: 11799: 11796: 11795: 11793: 11790: 11788: 11785: 11782: 11779: 11777: 11774: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11763: 11762: 11760: 11754: 11751: 11749: 11745: 11741: 11734: 11729: 11727: 11722: 11720: 11715: 11714: 11711: 11697: 11694: 11693: 11692: 11689: 11687: 11684: 11682: 11679: 11677: 11674: 11672: 11669: 11667: 11664: 11662: 11659: 11658: 11656: 11652: 11646: 11643: 11641: 11638: 11636: 11635:Infrared lamp 11633: 11631: 11628: 11626: 11623: 11622: 11620: 11614: 11611: 11610: 11607: 11601: 11598: 11594: 11591: 11590: 11589: 11586: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11576: 11574: 11571: 11569: 11566: 11565: 11563: 11557: 11555: 11552: 11551: 11548: 11542: 11539: 11537: 11534: 11532: 11529: 11527: 11524: 11522: 11519: 11517: 11514: 11512: 11509: 11507: 11504: 11502: 11499: 11497: 11494: 11492: 11489: 11488: 11486: 11481: 11478: 11475: 11474: 11471: 11463: 11460: 11459: 11458: 11455: 11453: 11450: 11446: 11443: 11442: 11441: 11438: 11436: 11433: 11431: 11428: 11424: 11421: 11419: 11416: 11414: 11411: 11410: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11395: 11393: 11391: 11387: 11381: 11378: 11376: 11373: 11371: 11368: 11366: 11365:Laser pointer 11363: 11361: 11358: 11354: 11351: 11350: 11349: 11346: 11344: 11341: 11337: 11334: 11332: 11329: 11328: 11327: 11324: 11322: 11319: 11318: 11316: 11312: 11306: 11303: 11301: 11298: 11296: 11293: 11289: 11286: 11285: 11284: 11281: 11279: 11276: 11274: 11271: 11269: 11268:Pendant light 11266: 11264: 11263:Neon lighting 11261: 11259: 11256: 11254: 11251: 11249: 11246: 11244: 11241: 11239: 11236: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11226: 11224: 11221: 11219: 11216: 11212: 11206: 11204: 11201: 11199: 11196: 11195: 11194: 11191: 11190: 11188: 11186: 11182: 11172: 11169: 11165: 11159: 11157: 11151: 11149: 11146: 11145: 11144: 11141: 11139: 11138:Mercury-vapor 11136: 11135: 11133: 11131: 11122: 11116: 11113: 11111: 11108: 11104: 11101: 11100: 11099: 11096: 11092: 11089: 11088: 11087: 11084: 11082: 11081:Deuterium arc 11079: 11078: 11076: 11074: 11073:Gas discharge 11070: 11064: 11061: 11059: 11056: 11054: 11051: 11050: 11048: 11046: 11042: 11036: 11033: 11031: 11028: 11026: 11023: 11021: 11018: 11016: 11013: 11011: 11008: 11006: 11003: 11001: 10998: 10994: 10991: 10989: 10986: 10985: 10984: 10981: 10977: 10974: 10973: 10972: 10969: 10967: 10964: 10962: 10959: 10957: 10954: 10952: 10949: 10947: 10944: 10942: 10939: 10937: 10934: 10932: 10929: 10928: 10926: 10924: 10920: 10912: 10909: 10908: 10907: 10904: 10902: 10899: 10895: 10892: 10891: 10890: 10887: 10883: 10880: 10877: 10873: 10870: 10869: 10868: 10865: 10861: 10858: 10857: 10856: 10853: 10851: 10848: 10846: 10843: 10839: 10836: 10835: 10834: 10831: 10830: 10828: 10826: 10822: 10816: 10813: 10811: 10808: 10806: 10803: 10802: 10800: 10798: 10794: 10791: 10785: 10779: 10778:Task lighting 10776: 10774: 10771: 10767: 10764: 10762: 10759: 10758: 10757: 10754: 10750: 10747: 10745: 10742: 10741: 10740: 10737: 10735: 10734:Light fixture 10732: 10730: 10727: 10725: 10722: 10720: 10717: 10715: 10712: 10711: 10709: 10705: 10701: 10694: 10689: 10687: 10682: 10680: 10675: 10674: 10671: 10665: 10661: 10656: 10653: 10650: 10648: 10645: 10644: 10634: 10628: 10624: 10623: 10617: 10610: 10609: 10603: 10602: 10589: 10585: 10581: 10574: 10566: 10562: 10556: 10541: 10537: 10531: 10515: 10511: 10507: 10500: 10492: 10488: 10483: 10478: 10473: 10468: 10464: 10460: 10456: 10449: 10434: 10430: 10423: 10407: 10403: 10399: 10393: 10385: 10381: 10377: 10373: 10369: 10365: 10361: 10357: 10350: 10334: 10330: 10324: 10317: 10311: 10304: 10299: 10283: 10277: 10269: 10265: 10261: 10257: 10253: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10235: 10231: 10227: 10223: 10219: 10215: 10207: 10199: 10195: 10191: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10173: 10169: 10165: 10161: 10157: 10150: 10142: 10138: 10134: 10130: 10125: 10120: 10116: 10112: 10108: 10104: 10100: 10093: 10091: 10082: 10078: 10073: 10068: 10064: 10060: 10056: 10052: 10048: 10041: 10039: 10030: 10026: 10022: 10018: 10014: 10010: 10006: 10002: 9998: 9994: 9989: 9984: 9980: 9976: 9969: 9961: 9953: 9949: 9942: 9935: 9931: 9928: 9923: 9908: 9904: 9898: 9883: 9879: 9873: 9871: 9862: 9858: 9854: 9852:1-4244-0160-7 9848: 9844: 9840: 9836: 9829: 9821: 9815: 9811: 9810: 9802: 9794: 9790: 9785: 9780: 9776: 9772: 9768: 9761: 9753: 9740: 9732: 9725: 9717: 9713: 9708: 9703: 9699: 9695: 9691: 9684: 9668: 9664: 9658: 9650: 9646: 9642: 9638: 9634: 9630: 9622: 9614: 9610: 9606: 9602: 9598: 9594: 9590: 9586: 9579: 9577: 9575: 9573: 9571: 9562: 9558: 9553: 9548: 9544: 9540: 9537:(8): 081110. 9536: 9532: 9528: 9521: 9519: 9511: 9509:9789814287869 9505: 9501: 9497: 9493: 9485: 9477: 9471: 9467: 9463: 9459: 9458: 9450: 9434: 9430: 9423: 9415: 9411: 9407: 9400: 9384: 9380: 9374: 9359: 9355: 9348: 9340: 9327: 9311: 9306: 9302: 9296: 9281: 9276: 9268: 9261: 9256: 9249: 9244: 9238: 9231: 9225: 9218: 9212: 9205: 9199: 9192: 9185: 9179: 9171: 9167: 9163: 9157: 9153: 9149: 9144: 9139: 9135: 9128: 9122: 9118: 9114: 9108: 9101: 9096: 9089: 9083: 9076: 9072: 9067: 9051: 9045: 9037: 9033: 9029: 9025: 9022:(7091): 325. 9021: 9017: 9010: 9002: 8998: 8994: 8990: 8986: 8982: 8975: 8967: 8963: 8959: 8955: 8952:(5840): 932. 8951: 8947: 8940: 8932: 8928: 8924: 8920: 8916: 8912: 8905: 8899: 8894: 8879: 8875: 8869: 8860: 8855: 8851: 8847: 8843: 8836: 8828: 8824: 8820: 8816: 8812: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8794: 8790: 8786: 8779: 8763: 8759: 8755: 8749: 8742: 8738: 8735: 8730: 8714: 8710: 8704: 8688: 8687:LEDs Magazine 8684: 8678: 8670: 8666: 8660: 8652: 8646: 8642: 8637: 8636: 8627: 8611: 8605: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8564: 8549: 8545: 8538: 8531: 8530:IEEE Spectrum 8527: 8521: 8519: 8511: 8506: 8495: 8491: 8484: 8478: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8456: 8440: 8434: 8426: 8420: 8416: 8415: 8408: 8392: 8391: 8386: 8381: 8377: 8371: 8355: 8354:LEDInside.com 8351: 8345: 8337: 8335:9783642217296 8331: 8327: 8326: 8318: 8302: 8298: 8294: 8287: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8256: 8245: 8238: 8237: 8230: 8228: 8211: 8207: 8201: 8194: 8190: 8187: 8182: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8154: 8148: 8146: 8126: 8119: 8113: 8097: 8093: 8087: 8076:September 19, 8072: 8068: 8062: 8051:September 19, 8047: 8043: 8037: 8031: 8027: 8023: 8018: 8010: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7975: 7967: 7963: 7959: 7955: 7951: 7947: 7943: 7939: 7932: 7924: 7920: 7916: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7900: 7896: 7889: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7849: 7842: 7840: 7831: 7824: 7822: 7813: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7778: 7763: 7756: 7748: 7744: 7738: 7736: 7727: 7721: 7713: 7709: 7703: 7695: 7691: 7685: 7678: 7673: 7666: 7661: 7650: 7646: 7642: 7638: 7634: 7630: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7611: 7604: 7596: 7584: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7545: 7538: 7531: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7497: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7454: 7450: 7446: 7439: 7432: 7424: 7418: 7414: 7407: 7392: 7388: 7381: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7347: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7324: 7316: 7310: 7306: 7305: 7298: 7290: 7284: 7280: 7279: 7272: 7264: 7260: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7217: 7209: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7191: 7187: 7183: 7176: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7156: 7152: 7143:"62.4: PFS, K 7137: 7129: 7123: 7115: 7109: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7081: 7077: 7073: 7069: 7065: 7058: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7007: 6999: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6965: 6958: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6922: 6918: 6914: 6907: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6858: 6856: 6844: 6840: 6836: 6829: 6822: 6806: 6802: 6796: 6781: 6777: 6771: 6755: 6751: 6745: 6741: 6740: 6732: 6717: 6713: 6706: 6698: 6692: 6688: 6687: 6680: 6672: 6666: 6662: 6661: 6654: 6646: 6640: 6632: 6626: 6622: 6621: 6614: 6606: 6600: 6596: 6595: 6588: 6580: 6574: 6570: 6569: 6562: 6554: 6548: 6544: 6543: 6536: 6528: 6522: 6518: 6517: 6510: 6502: 6496: 6492: 6491: 6484: 6476: 6470: 6466: 6465: 6458: 6450: 6444: 6440: 6439: 6432: 6424: 6418: 6414: 6413: 6406: 6391: 6387: 6381: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6358:(1): 016010. 6357: 6353: 6349: 6342: 6334: 6328: 6324: 6323: 6316: 6314: 6305: 6299: 6295: 6294: 6287: 6285: 6276: 6270: 6266: 6265: 6258: 6250: 6244: 6240: 6239: 6232: 6224: 6218: 6214: 6213: 6206: 6204: 6195: 6189: 6185: 6184: 6177: 6169: 6163: 6159: 6158: 6151: 6143: 6137: 6129: 6123: 6119: 6118: 6111: 6104: 6099: 6091: 6087: 6081: 6074: 6069: 6062: 6057: 6050: 6045: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6025: 6018: 6013: 6005: 6004: 5999: 5993: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5962: 5954: 5950: 5944: 5935: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5913: 5908: 5907:"Haitz's law" 5902: 5893: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5869: 5860: 5849: 5842: 5841: 5833: 5831: 5823: 5819: 5814: 5807: 5803: 5800: 5795: 5788: 5784: 5779: 5772: 5768: 5762: 5755: 5751: 5745: 5738: 5734: 5728: 5721: 5717: 5711: 5704: 5700: 5695: 5688: 5684: 5679: 5672: 5671:LEDs Magazine 5668: 5662: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5620: 5613: 5609: 5603: 5596: 5591: 5584: 5580: 5577: 5571: 5552: 5545: 5539: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5503: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5476: 5468: 5467: 5462: 5458: 5452: 5445: 5440: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5410: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5380: 5372: 5366: 5362: 5361: 5353: 5345: 5338: 5327:September 28, 5322: 5315: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5286: 5278: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5249: 5241: 5234: 5218: 5211: 5205: 5194:September 14, 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5171: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5128: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5109: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5085: 5078: 5077:0-521-86538-7 5074: 5070: 5064: 5057: 5056:The Oregonian 5053: 5048: 5041: 5040:IEEE Spectrum 5037: 5032: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4956: 4949: 4941: 4934: 4927: 4922: 4909: 4903: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4873: 4865: 4863:9783540401506 4859: 4855: 4851: 4850: 4842: 4840: 4828: 4824: 4823: 4815: 4808: 4806: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4778: 4772: 4768: 4761: 4759: 4757: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4723: 4716: 4710: 4703: 4695: 4676: 4669: 4663: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4642:IEEE Spectrum 4636: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4605: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4554: 4538: 4534: 4527: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4492: 4485: 4479: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4409: 4393: 4389: 4383: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4348: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4305: 4294: 4288: 4279: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4252: 4244: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4225: 4224: 4215: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4165: 4158: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4130: 4126: 4119: 4111: 4110:jmargolin.com 4107: 4105: 4096: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4073: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3960: 3956: 3955: 3950: 3943: 3924: 3920: 3919: 3911: 3904: 3888: 3884: 3878: 3871: 3866: 3847: 3840: 3834: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3804: 3800: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3766: 3762: 3761:Energy portal 3756: 3751: 3748: 3742: 3737: 3727: 3724: 3720: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3698: 3697: 3691: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3657: 3655: 3651: 3646: 3636: 3625: 3619: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3600: 3596: 3594: 3590: 3589:recombination 3586: 3582: 3572: 3570: 3564: 3561: 3557: 3555: 3540: 3538: 3537:LED wallpaper 3532: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3491: 3487: 3484:treatment of 3483: 3482:light therapy 3479: 3478:sterilization 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3454: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3434: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3406:optical fiber 3399: 3395: 3390: 3383: 3379: 3373: 3368: 3360: 3352: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3303: 3299: 3296: 3292: 3290: 3285: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3220: 3218: 3213: 3211: 3207: 3199: 3194: 3186: 3182: 3180: 3176: 3175:chroma keying 3172: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3152: 3150: 3149:mobile phones 3146: 3142: 3138: 3137:strobe lights 3134: 3129: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3098: 3095: 3091: 3086: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3067: 3065: 3061: 3060:street lights 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3040: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3020: 3010: 3008: 3004: 2999: 2997: 2993: 2992:phantom array 2987: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2975:and signals, 2974: 2965: 2961: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2936: 2933: 2925: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2896: 2891:This section 2889: 2885: 2880: 2879: 2871: 2869: 2865: 2864: 2854: 2851: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2838: 2835: 2834: 2833: 2827: 2823: 2809: 2806: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2790: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2778: 2774: 2773:Boron nitride 2769: 2766: 2763: 2759: 2756: 2753: 2751: 2748: 2745: 2742: 2738: 2735: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2703: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2673: 2672:Zinc selenide 2670: 2667: 2663: 2660: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2623: 2620: 2616: 2613: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2587: 2584: 2581: 2577: 2574: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2557: 2553: 2548: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2531: 2529: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2495: 2492: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2470: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2458: 2455: 2454: 2450: 2448: 2445: 2442: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2423: 2420: 2418: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2398: 2393:Manufacturing 2387: 2382: 2379: 2375: 2372: 2367: 2364: 2360: 2357: 2356: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2320: 2316: 2315: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2264: 2263: 2257: 2254: 2250: 2248: 2244: 2237: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2214: 2209: 2206: 2202: 2193: 2188: 2181:Power sources 2175: 2172: 2171: 2162: 2161:chip on board 2158: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2137: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2103:seven-segment 2100: 2097: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2084: 2079: 2077:RGB tri-color 2076: 2073: 2068: 2064: 2061: 2058: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2040: 2036: 2035:multivibrator 2032: 2028: 2025: 2024: 2016: 2007: 1999: 1989: 1986: 1978: 1967: 1964: 1960: 1957: 1953: 1950: 1946: 1943: 1939: 1936: – 1935: 1931: 1930:Find sources: 1924: 1920: 1914: 1913: 1908:This section 1906: 1902: 1897: 1896: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1875: 1874:cove lighting 1870: 1869:surface-mount 1866: 1857: 1850: 1839: 1825: 1815: 1812:Examples for 1810: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1772: 1768: 1763: 1754: 1743: 1739: 1737: 1736:surface mount 1733: 1725: 1716: 1705: 1700: 1691: 1689: 1680: 1674: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1604: 1594: 1592: 1591:zinc selenide 1588: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1562: 1553: 1550: 1547: 1542: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1517: 1511: 1503: 1499: 1497: 1491: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1477: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1456: 1451: 1442: 1438: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1402: 1400: 1390: 1383: 1378: 1369: 1367: 1361: 1359: 1354: 1350: 1348: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1317: 1315: 1311: 1310:boron nitride 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1278: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1265: 1264:quantum wells 1260: 1258: 1249: 1245: 1236: 1232: 1227: 1222: 1216: 1212: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1176:monochromatic 1173: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1152: 1142: 1140: 1133:Polychromatic 1130: 1128: 1123: 1119: 1116: 1112: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1080:exponentially 1073: 1068: 1064: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1016: 1012: 1002: 1000: 996: 991: 987: 985: 981: 977: 972: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 941: 939: 935: 930: 928: 924: 923:Isamu Akasaki 920: 919:Hiroshi Amano 916: 911: 909: 905: 901: 900:p-type doping 897: 893: 889: 885: 884:Hiroshi Amano 881: 880:Isamu Akasaki 877: 873: 868: 865: 861: 857: 853: 848: 846: 842: 837: 835: 831: 827: 822: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 794: 792: 788: 782: 778: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 755: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 732: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 705: 703: 699: 695: 691: 682: 668: 663: 650: 646: 644: 636: 632: 630: 626: 622: 621:Nick Holonyak 617: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 578: 576: 572: 568: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 538: 534: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 502: 498: 494: 490: 485: 483: 479: 475: 474:zinc sulphide 471: 462: 458: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 427: 420: 416: 411: 396: 387: 383: 382: 377: 376: 370: 361: 360: 352: 350: 346: 341: 337: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 286: 284: 280: 275: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 242: 241:semiconductor 238: 234: 227: 226:mains voltage 223: 219: 215: 211: 206: 185: 180: 171: 162: 157: 154: 150: 147: 143: 140: 134: 120: 114: 107: 106:Nick Holonyak 104: 101: 98: 95: 92: 89: 86: 85: 83: 79: 76: 73: 64: 59: 53: 48: 40: 33: 19: 13357: 13102:Cold cathode 13069:Storage tube 12959:Vacuum tubes 12908:Neutron tube 12883:Beam tetrode 12865:Vacuum tubes 12600: 12450:Power MOSFET 12193:Transparency 12166:Static media 12120:Stereoscopic 11541:Strobe light 11536:Plasma globe 11511:Crackle tube 11501:Bubble light 11462:trafficators 11457:Turn signals 11283:Street light 11238:Gas lighting 11171:Sodium vapor 11143:Metal-halide 11045:Electric arc 10797:Incandescent 10766:Edison screw 10621: 10607: 10583: 10573: 10555: 10545:December 16, 10543:. Retrieved 10539: 10530: 10520:December 16, 10518:. Retrieved 10509: 10499: 10462: 10458: 10448: 10436:. Retrieved 10432: 10422: 10410:. Retrieved 10406:the original 10401: 10392: 10359: 10355: 10349: 10337:. Retrieved 10332: 10323: 10310: 10298: 10288:September 3, 10286:. Retrieved 10276: 10243:10356/141016 10217: 10213: 10206: 10163: 10159: 10149: 10106: 10102: 10054: 10050: 9978: 9974: 9960: 9951: 9941: 9922: 9910:. Retrieved 9906: 9897: 9885:. Retrieved 9881: 9834: 9828: 9808: 9801: 9774: 9770: 9760: 9739:cite journal 9724: 9697: 9693: 9683: 9671:. Retrieved 9667:www.army.mil 9666: 9657: 9632: 9628: 9621: 9588: 9584: 9534: 9530: 9491: 9484: 9456: 9449: 9439:February 15, 9437:. Retrieved 9433:the original 9422: 9413: 9409: 9399: 9387:. Retrieved 9383:the original 9373: 9361:. Retrieved 9357: 9347: 9326:cite journal 9314:. Retrieved 9295: 9283:. Retrieved 9279: 9267: 9255: 9243: 9230: 9217: 9204: 9196:55: 99-108. 9191: 9178: 9133: 9127: 9107: 9095: 9082: 9075:fiber optics 9066: 9054:. Retrieved 9044: 9019: 9015: 9009: 8984: 8980: 8974: 8949: 8945: 8939: 8914: 8910: 8904: 8893: 8883:February 15, 8881:. Retrieved 8877: 8868: 8849: 8845: 8835: 8792: 8788: 8778: 8766:. Retrieved 8762:the original 8757: 8748: 8729: 8717:. Retrieved 8713:the original 8703: 8691:. Retrieved 8686: 8677: 8668: 8659: 8634: 8626: 8614:. Retrieved 8604: 8569: 8563: 8551:. Retrieved 8547: 8537: 8529: 8505: 8494:the original 8490:Dialight.com 8489: 8477: 8469:the original 8464: 8455: 8445:December 30, 8443:. Retrieved 8433: 8413: 8407: 8395:. Retrieved 8388: 8376:Ghostarchive 8374:Archived at 8370: 8358:. Retrieved 8356:. Trendforce 8353: 8344: 8324: 8317: 8305:. Retrieved 8296: 8286: 8274:. Retrieved 8265: 8255: 8244:the original 8235: 8216:February 17, 8214:. Retrieved 8210:the original 8200: 8181: 8169:. Retrieved 8165:the original 8156: 8132:. Retrieved 8125:the original 8112: 8100:. Retrieved 8096:the original 8086: 8074:. Retrieved 8070: 8061: 8049:. Retrieved 8045: 8036: 8017: 7984: 7980: 7974: 7944:(21): 2660. 7941: 7937: 7931: 7898: 7894: 7888: 7855: 7851: 7829: 7787: 7783: 7777: 7765:. Retrieved 7755: 7746: 7720: 7711: 7702: 7694:AGC Lighting 7693: 7684: 7672: 7660: 7649:the original 7620: 7616: 7603: 7572:the original 7543: 7530: 7519:the original 7506: 7496: 7485:the original 7448: 7444: 7431: 7412: 7406: 7394:. Retrieved 7390: 7380: 7337: 7333: 7323: 7303: 7297: 7277: 7271: 7230: 7226: 7216: 7189: 7185: 7175: 7158: 7154: 7136: 7122: 7108: 7067: 7063: 7057: 7016: 7012: 7006: 6971: 6967: 6957: 6916: 6912: 6906: 6871: 6867: 6843:the original 6838: 6834: 6821: 6809:. Retrieved 6805:optiwave.com 6804: 6795: 6783:. Retrieved 6779: 6770: 6760:February 25, 6758:. Retrieved 6754:the original 6738: 6731: 6719:. Retrieved 6715: 6705: 6685: 6679: 6659: 6653: 6639: 6619: 6613: 6593: 6587: 6567: 6561: 6541: 6535: 6515: 6509: 6489: 6483: 6463: 6457: 6437: 6431: 6411: 6405: 6393:. Retrieved 6389: 6380: 6355: 6351: 6341: 6321: 6292: 6263: 6257: 6237: 6231: 6211: 6182: 6176: 6156: 6150: 6136: 6116: 6110: 6098: 6089: 6080: 6068: 6056: 6044: 6024: 6012: 6001: 5992: 5980:. Retrieved 5976:the original 5971: 5961: 5953:the original 5943: 5916: 5910: 5901: 5882: 5878: 5868: 5859: 5848:the original 5839: 5821: 5813: 5794: 5786: 5778: 5770: 5761: 5753: 5744: 5736: 5727: 5719: 5710: 5702: 5694: 5686: 5678: 5670: 5661: 5626: 5619: 5611: 5602: 5590: 5570: 5558:. Retrieved 5551:the original 5538: 5516:(20): 3670. 5513: 5509: 5502: 5485: 5481: 5475: 5464: 5451: 5439: 5427:. Retrieved 5423:the original 5409: 5397:. Retrieved 5393:the original 5379: 5359: 5352: 5337: 5325:. Retrieved 5314: 5292:(13): 1687. 5289: 5283: 5277: 5265:. Retrieved 5261: 5248: 5233: 5223:November 28, 5221:. Retrieved 5216: 5204: 5192:. Retrieved 5188:the original 5179: 5170: 5137: 5133: 5127: 5108: 5093: 5084: 5068: 5063: 5055: 5047: 5039: 5031: 5020:the original 4965: 4961: 4948: 4933: 4921: 4902: 4890:. Retrieved 4886:the original 4881: 4872: 4848: 4820: 4795: 4785: 4766: 4730: 4726: 4721: 4714: 4708: 4701: 4694: 4682:. Retrieved 4675:the original 4662: 4648:(2): 52–55. 4645: 4641: 4635: 4623:. Retrieved 4619:the original 4614: 4604: 4596:the original 4575: 4571: 4568:) Junctions" 4553: 4541:. Retrieved 4537:the original 4526: 4501: 4497: 4491: 4478: 4453: 4449: 4443: 4418: 4414: 4408: 4396:. Retrieved 4392:the original 4382: 4360:(1): 20–25. 4357: 4353: 4347: 4339:the original 4318: 4314: 4304: 4287: 4278: 4261: 4257: 4251: 4222: 4214: 4202:. Retrieved 4195:the original 4174: 4170: 4157: 4140: 4136: 4128: 4124: 4118: 4109: 4103: 4100:Margolin J. 4095: 4086: 4082: 4072: 4021: 4015: 4003:. Retrieved 3995: 3963:. Retrieved 3959:the original 3952: 3942: 3930:. Retrieved 3923:the original 3916: 3903: 3893:December 21, 3891:. Retrieved 3887:the original 3877: 3865: 3855:September 4, 3853:. Retrieved 3846:the original 3833: 3821:. Retrieved 3817:the original 3812: 3803: 3678:In 2016 the 3677: 3658: 3653: 3642: 3624:luminescence 3620: 3603: 3601: 3597: 3578: 3565: 3562: 3558: 3554:quantum dots 3551: 3533: 3521: 3517:Excimer lamp 3509:phototherapy 3494: 3455: 3435: 3403: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3316:fluorescence 3309: 3300: 3293: 3287: 3265: 3247: 3244: 3241:Optical disc 3233:fibre optics 3214: 3203: 3196:Los Angeles 3164:video camera 3156:night vision 3153: 3130: 3099: 3087: 3068: 3041: 3031:created the 3022: 3000: 2988: 2970: 2950:LED displays 2943: 2928: 2922:October 2020 2919: 2904:Please help 2892: 2861: 2858: 2840:Illumination 2831: 2817:Applications 2804: 2781: 2771: 2761: 2754: 2740: 2733: 2708: 2701: 2675: 2665: 2658: 2632: 2618: 2611: 2589: 2579: 2572: 2550: 2540: 2533: 2507: 2497: 2490: 2472: 2462: 2452: 2436:Voltage (V) 2414: 2406: 2399: 2396: 2341:point source 2255: 2251: 2239: 2218: 2210: 2198: 2150:LED filament 2098:Alphanumeric 2067:antiparallel 1981: 1975:October 2020 1972: 1962: 1955: 1948: 1941: 1929: 1917:Please help 1912:verification 1909: 1862: 1831: 1811: 1807: 1790: 1744: 1740: 1732:through-hole 1729: 1724:wire bonding 1684: 1663: 1652: 1625:pi electrons 1606: 1584: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1543: 1527: 1512: 1508: 1492: 1483:Stokes shift 1480: 1460: 1439: 1427: 1423: 1403: 1395: 1362: 1355: 1351: 1323: 1279: 1268: 1261: 1254: 1165: 1154: 1136: 1124: 1120: 1111:polyurethane 1108: 1104: 1100: 1077: 1061:fluorescence 1008: 992: 988: 973: 942: 931: 912: 869: 849: 838: 834:laser diodes 824:In 1974 the 823: 815:Wally Rhines 809:was made at 800: 791:fiber optics 783: 779: 756: 742:(integrated 733: 706: 694:incandescent 687: 641: 618: 579: 575:forward bias 567:p–n junction 562:tunnel diode 543: 505: 497:Kurt Lehovec 486: 467: 442:Marconi Labs 432: 390: 379: 373: 342: 338: 314:strip lights 310:fairy lights 287: 276: 236: 232: 230: 13268:Transformer 13010:Sutton tube 12850:Charge pump 12703:Memory cell 12633:Zener diode 12595:Laser diode 12478:transistors 12360:transistors 12157:Fog display 12130:Multiscopic 12047:Fiber-optic 11959:Quantum dot 11686:Signal lamp 11640:Stroboscope 11516:DJ lighting 11452:Stop lights 11423:sealed beam 11375:Searchlight 11115:Xenon flash 11058:Klieg light 10906:Solid-state 10867:Fluorescent 10825:Luminescent 10412:January 17, 9673:October 10, 9389:January 30, 8693:January 17, 8397:October 26, 8360:October 26, 8307:January 30, 8276:January 30, 8134:October 25, 8102:October 21, 7161:: 927–930. 6785:October 22, 5488:: 155–158. 5267:December 7, 5254:Brown, Joel 4398:January 24, 4264:: 587–625. 4005:February 2, 3965:January 12, 3932:January 12, 3581:perovskites 3528:Zener diode 3466:Grow lights 3458:touchscreen 3372:disc jockey 3253:fiber optic 3133:flashlights 2750:Ultraviolet 2732:2.48 < Δ 2707:2.76 < Δ 2664:2.48 < Δ 2593:(AlGaInP) 2578:2.10 < Δ 2554:(AlGaInP) 2539:2.03 < Δ 2515:(AlGaInP) 2496:1.63 < Δ 2353:Reliability 2319:microsecond 2247:noise diode 2127:daisy chain 2121:Digital RGB 2001:RGB-SMD-LED 1884:ultraviolet 1814:Haitz's law 1641:crystalline 1629:conjugation 1372:RGB systems 1290:black light 1274:ultraviolet 1186:as a pure ( 1096:Haitz's law 1072:Haitz's law 854:growth and 830:US3819974 A 781:equipment. 767:Jean Hoerni 744:LED circuit 725:LED display 674: 1978 598:Lincoln Lab 525:(InP), and 478:Marie Curie 438:H. J. Round 349:photodiodes 345:transducers 302:ultraviolet 248:emits light 88:H. J. Round 13364:Categories 13340:reed relay 13330:Parametron 13263:Thermistor 13241:resettable 13200:Connector 13161:Adjustable 13137:Nixie tube 13107:Crossatron 13074:Trochotron 13049:Iconoscope 13044:Charactron 13021:X-ray tube 12893:Compactron 12873:Acorn tube 12830:Buck–boost 12751:Solaristor 12613:Photodiode 12590:Gunn diode 12586:(CLD, CRD) 12368:Transistor 12198:Laser beam 12152:Volumetric 12112:3D display 12052:Nixie tube 12032:Split-flap 11917:generation 11891:Blue Phase 11811:generation 11758:generation 11630:Grow light 11625:Germicidal 11615:Scientific 11612:Industrial 11568:Floodlight 11554:Theatrical 11496:Blacklight 11491:Aroma lamp 11480:Decorative 11390:Automotive 11380:Solar lamp 11343:Glow stick 11326:Flashlight 11258:Nightlight 11253:Light tube 11228:Chandelier 11185:Stationary 11127:discharge 11053:Carbon arc 10923:Combustion 10789:generation 10787:Methods of 10438:October 7, 10339:January 9, 9988:1606.08868 9907:Energy.gov 9882:Energy.gov 9056:August 13, 8987:(6): 404. 8802:1910.02451 8719:2009-04-10 8553:October 6, 8161:Cree, Inc. 8022:LED-design 7901:(5): 519. 7858:(1): 3–4. 7767:January 3, 7747:Energy.gov 7617:Proc. SPIE 7415:. EDTECH. 6395:January 9, 5703:LED Inside 5560:2012-09-15 4908:US 3025589 4892:August 15, 4733:(9): 499. 4231:. p. 3795:References 3769:LED tattoo 3704:white LEDs 3702:: Because 3652:published 3608:amino acid 3453:of light. 3422:photodiode 3227:See also: 3171:background 3003:glowsticks 2977:exit signs 2760:3.1 < Δ 2640:(AlGaInP) 2627:(InGaN) / 2617:1.9 < Δ 2582:< 2.18 2543:< 2.10 2500:< 2.03 2431:Wavelength 2345:lambertian 2299:either by 2286:metamerism 2278:black body 2274:white LEDs 2260:Appearance 2111:dot-matrix 2041:Flickering 2019:21 × 86 mm 1945:newspapers 1799:flashlight 1777:See also: 1757:High-power 1753:V supply. 1627:caused by 1525:(Ce:YAG). 1358:metamerism 1320:White LEDs 801:The first 752:Nixie tube 489:Zoltán Bay 487:Hungarian 454:Oleg Losev 417:recreates 216:, a light 174:vibration. 94:Oleg Losev 13375:LED lamps 13303:Capacitor 13147:Trigatron 13142:Thyratron 13132:Neon lamp 13059:Monoscope 12939:Phototube 12923:Pentagrid 12888:Barretter 12773:Trancitor 12768:Thyristor 12693:Memristor 12618:PIN diode 12395:(ChemFET) 12252:Scan line 12226:DisplayID 12183:Neon sign 12173:Monoscope 12015:Non-video 11776:Jumbotron 11696:Reflected 11676:Light art 11588:Spotlight 11573:Footlight 11558:Cinematic 11526:Lava lamp 11288:in the US 11193:Reflector 11110:Xenon arc 11091:Neon lamp 11020:Rushlight 11000:Limelight 10749:Hong Kong 10252:1476-4687 10190:1094-4087 10133:1476-4687 10029:206651900 10013:0036-8075 9912:March 13, 9887:March 13, 9716:1680-8584 9649:136864366 9613:108562187 9561:0003-6951 9170:206591080 9138:CiteSeerX 8827:254655125 8819:0956-5515 8171:March 16, 8046:ams-osram 7923:119648364 7645:122777225 7593:ignored ( 7583:cite book 7515:1993-890X 7255:1863-8880 7208:103600941 6716:New Atlas 5885:: 14–18. 5818:"Epitaxy" 5162:0921-4526 5079:pp. 16–17 4978:CiteSeerX 4578:(4): 82. 4204:April 11, 4048:1557-170X 3823:April 11, 3723:food webs 3612:precursor 3513:Vitamin D 3210:cap lamps 3173:, allows 3106:backlight 3025:LED lamps 2893:does not 2764:< 4.4 2757:< 400 2736:< 3.7 2711:< 4.0 2704:< 450 2700:400 < 2668:< 3.7 2661:< 500 2657:450 < 2621:< 4.0 2614:< 570 2610:500 < 2575:< 590 2571:570 < 2536:< 610 2532:590 < 2506:(AlGaAs) 2493:< 760 2489:610 < 2476:(AlGaAs) 2465:< 1.9 2456:> 760 2386:heat sink 2334:collimate 2107:starburst 2087:adjusting 1865:LED strip 1828:AC-driven 1694:Miniature 1637:molecules 1549:substrate 1471:phosphors 1298:UV curing 1196:intensity 1188:saturated 1184:human eye 1166:Unlike a 1084:Panasonic 1015:white LED 852:epitaxial 775:packaging 700:, and in 610:US3293513 594:Bell Labs 468:In 1936, 343:LEDs are 292:, and in 256:Electrons 222:E27 screw 220:dome and 218:diffusing 214:heat sink 13325:Inductor 13295:Reactive 13273:Varistor 13253:Resistor 13231:Antifuse 13117:Ignitron 13112:Dekatron 13000:Klystron 12989:Gyrotron 12918:Nuvistor 12835:Split-pi 12721:(MOS IC) 12688:Memistor 12446:(MuGFET) 12440:(MOSFET) 12412:(FinFET) 12135:Hologram 12042:Eggcrate 12027:Flip-dot 11973:display 11954:Laser TV 11925:microLED 11855:(AMOLED) 11809:Current 11765:Eidophor 11408:Headlamp 11348:Headlamp 11336:Tactical 11314:Portable 11295:Torchère 10976:Petromax 10971:Kerosene 10941:Campfire 10911:LED lamp 10707:Concepts 10700:Lighting 10588:Archived 10584:Cars.com 10565:Archived 10514:Archived 10510:USC News 10491:29210222 10384:21138290 10268:52958604 10260:30305741 10198:18711500 10141:30305742 10081:30305755 10021:28360136 9930:Archived 9861:17258357 9793:11541074 9285:April 4, 9117:Archived 9036:16710416 9001:15156198 8966:17702939 8931:11397942 8768:July 27, 8737:Archived 8596:16372401 8378:and the 8301:Archived 8270:Archived 8189:Archived 8157:Cree.com 8026:Archived 7966:44128025 7880:30084021 7812:43158308 7568:38290951 7473:15919985 7396:April 7, 7391:spie.org 7372:35468615 7364:19532605 7263:53645208 7100:10675358 7092:11397942 7049:23563849 7041:15156198 6998:17702939 6941:16710416 6890:17978842 6811:June 20, 6721:June 21, 6090:phys.org 6033:Archived 5982:March 4, 5802:Archived 5653:23448056 5579:Archived 5262:BU Today 5180:Cree.com 5117:Archived 5098:Archived 5008:19696346 4827:Archived 4825:: 2–12. 4625:July 29, 4064:34626885 4056:18002450 3779:MicroLED 3733:See also 3716:sky glow 3515:, 308nm 3019:LED lamp 3013:Lighting 2785:(AlGaN) 2717:(InGaN) 2679:(InGaN) 2644:(AlGaP) 2588:(GaAsP) 2549:(GaAsP) 2511:(GaAsP) 2447:Infrared 2348:degrees. 2145:Filament 2140:NeoPixel 2062:Bi-color 2026:Flashing 2015:name tag 1803:LED lamp 1783:LED lamp 1771:Lumileds 1688:resistor 1659:flexible 1648:polymers 1546:sapphire 1534:europium 1180:spectrum 1172:coherent 1161:band gap 1057:phosphor 999:lift-off 896:sapphire 797:Blue LED 279:infrared 272:phosphor 268:band gap 210:LED lamp 81:Invented 60:of LEDs. 32:LED lamp 13390:Signage 13226:Ferrite 13194:Passive 13185:Varicap 13173:digital 13122:Krytron 12944:Tetrode 12929:Pentode 12783:Varicap 12764:(3D IC) 12740:RF CMOS 12644:devices 12418:(FGMOS) 12349:devices 12219:CEA-861 11849:(OLED) 11834:Gyricon 11691:Sources 11645:Tanning 11531:Marquee 11476:Display 11360:Lantern 11353:outdoor 11305:Troffer 11148:ceramic 11005:Luchina 10983:Lantern 10876:compact 10874: ( 10810:Halogen 10805:Regular 10664:YouTube 10467:Bibcode 10433:Science 10364:Bibcode 10222:Bibcode 10168:Bibcode 10111:Bibcode 10059:Bibcode 9993:Bibcode 9975:Science 9593:Bibcode 9539:Bibcode 9363:May 10, 8946:Science 8911:Science 8616:May 30, 8390:YouTube 8009:4366944 7989:Bibcode 7946:Bibcode 7903:Bibcode 7860:Bibcode 7792:Bibcode 7625:Bibcode 7548:Bibcode 7481:6354382 7453:Bibcode 7445:Science 7342:Bibcode 7235:Bibcode 7072:Bibcode 7064:Science 7021:Bibcode 6976:Bibcode 6968:Science 6949:4373542 6921:Bibcode 6898:2821545 6360:Bibcode 5921:Bibcode 5771:DigiKey 5754:DigiKey 5737:DigiKey 5720:DigiKey 5518:Bibcode 5429:June 4, 5399:June 4, 5294:Bibcode 5142:Bibcode 5016:8062948 5000:1876039 4970:Bibcode 4962:Science 4735:Bibcode 4684:May 30, 4580:Bibcode 4543:July 7, 4506:Bibcode 4470:2554978 4423:Bibcode 4362:Bibcode 4323:Bibcode 4179:Bibcode 3686:on the 3673:arsenic 3665:mercury 3616:defects 3511:(295nm 3257:TOSLINK 3083:Torraca 3062:and in 3037:Philips 3033:L Prize 3007:LED art 2914:removed 2899:sources 2768:Diamond 2685:Silicon 2674:(ZnSe) 2471:(GaAs) 2011:11 × 44 1959:scholar 1749:V or 12 1726:details 1611:), the 1530:coating 1478:(CRI). 1469:) with 1463:coating 1340:-doped 1314:diamond 1286:AlGaInN 1092:Samsung 1055:-doped 980:silicon 976:epitaxy 969:Toshiba 961:Samsung 949:silicon 908:Blu-ray 717:HP Labs 571:cathode 531:kelvins 509:of the 386:discuss 355:History 298:visible 264:photons 252:current 239:) is a 146:cathode 128:1962-10 126: ( 69:‍ 13258:Switch 12949:Triode 12913:Nonode 12878:Audion 12758:(SITh) 12642:Other 12609:(OLED) 12571:Diodes 12522:(LET) 12504:(FET) 12476:Other 12424:(IGBT) 12401:(CMOS) 12388:BioFET 12383:BiCMOS 12103:(SISD) 11997:(TDEL) 11991:(FLCD) 11938:(OLET) 11906:(LCoS) 11865:(LCD) 11843:(LED) 11820:(QLED) 11794:(PDP) 11413:hidden 11278:Sconce 11103:Sulfur 11098:Plasma 11030:Tilley 11025:Safety 10988:Fanous 10951:Carcel 10946:Candle 10936:Argand 10815:Nernst 10744:Hawaii 10629: 10489: 10382: 10266: 10258: 10250: 10214:Nature 10196: 10188: 10139: 10131: 10103:Nature 10079: 10051:Nature 10027: 10019: 10011: 9859: 9849: 9816: 9791: 9714: 9647: 9611: 9559: 9506: 9472: 9316:May 3, 9168: 9158: 9140: 9034: 9016:Nature 8999: 8964: 8929: 8825: 8817: 8647: 8635:Optics 8594: 8584: 8421: 8332: 8007: 7981:Nature 7964: 7921: 7878: 7810: 7784:Nature 7643: 7623:: 89. 7566: 7513: 7479: 7471: 7419: 7370: 7362: 7311: 7285: 7261: 7253: 7206: 7098: 7090: 7047: 7039: 6996: 6947: 6939: 6913:Nature 6896: 6888: 6746: 6693: 6667: 6627: 6601: 6575: 6549: 6523: 6497: 6471: 6445: 6419: 6329: 6300: 6271: 6245: 6219: 6190: 6164: 6124: 6003:Forbes 5651: 5641: 5367: 5160: 5075: 5014: 5006: 4998: 4980: 4914: 4860: 4798:(944). 4773: 4468: 4239: 4089:: 309. 4062: 4054: 4046: 4036: 3604:et al. 3474:plants 3462:stylus 3430:sensor 3398:STS-73 3394:potato 3239:, and 3206:mining 3135:. LED 3118:laptop 3114:LED TV 3108:newer 3094:Boeing 3090:Airbus 2807:= 3.5 2797:White 2725:Purple 2696:Violet 2636:(GaP) 2631:(GaN) 2597:(GaP) 2567:Yellow 2558:(GaP) 2528:Orange 2519:(GaP) 2427:Color 2297:dimmed 2136:WS2812 2109:, and 2046:candle 2033:and a 1961: 1954: 1947: 1940: 1932: 1835: 1822: 1818: 1785:, and 1767:Luxeon 1751: 1747: 1720: 1708: 1589:grown 1516:cerium 1412:, and 1338:cerium 1200:lasers 1178:. Its 1088:Nichia 1086:, and 1053:cerium 967:, and 963:, the 921:, and 856:p-type 604:, the 596:, and 584:Labs, 550:Dallas 482:radium 457:used. 448:and a 244:device 108:(1962) 102:(1961) 96:(1927) 90:(1907) 13335:Relay 13308:types 13246:eFUSE 13017:(TWT) 13005:Maser 12996:(IOT) 12985:(CFA) 12974:(BWO) 12898:Diode 12845:SEPIC 12825:Boost 12778:TRIAC 12747:(SCR) 12710:(MOV) 12684:(LEC) 12603:(LED) 12562:(UJT) 12551:(SIT) 12545:(PUT) 12488:(BJT) 12457:(TFT) 12433:LDMOS 12428:ISFET 12274:(HDR) 12097:(FSD) 12081:(SSD) 12065:(LEC) 12059:(VFD) 12003:(LPD) 11950:(FED) 11944:(SED) 11915:Next 11900:(DLP) 11829:E Ink 11783:(ELD) 11772:(CRT) 11671:Laser 11583:Scoop 11210:(PAR) 11163:(HQI) 11155:(HMI) 11129:(HID) 11035:Torch 10993:Paper 10961:Flare 10729:Glare 10612:(PDF) 10264:S2CID 10025:S2CID 9983:arXiv 9971:(PDF) 9857:S2CID 9645:S2CID 9609:S2CID 9166:S2CID 8823:S2CID 8797:arXiv 8592:S2CID 8497:(PDF) 8486:(PDF) 8247:(PDF) 8240:(PDF) 8128:(PDF) 8121:(PDF) 8005:S2CID 7962:S2CID 7919:S2CID 7876:S2CID 7808:S2CID 7652:(PDF) 7641:S2CID 7613:(PDF) 7575:(PDF) 7564:S2CID 7540:(PDF) 7522:(PDF) 7488:(PDF) 7477:S2CID 7441:(PDF) 7368:S2CID 7259:S2CID 7204:S2CID 7096:S2CID 7045:S2CID 6945:S2CID 6894:S2CID 6846:(PDF) 6831:(PDF) 5851:(PDF) 5844:(PDF) 5649:S2CID 5554:(PDF) 5547:(PDF) 5213:(PDF) 5023:(PDF) 5012:S2CID 4958:(PDF) 4830:(PDF) 4817:(PDF) 4678:(PDF) 4671:(PDF) 4466:S2CID 4296:(PDF) 4198:(PDF) 4167:(PDF) 4060:S2CID 3992:(PDF) 3926:(PDF) 3913:(PDF) 3849:(PDF) 3842:(PDF) 3585:OLEDs 3497:water 3229:Li-Fi 3145:xenon 2606:Green 2433:(nm) 2326:focus 2054:8-bit 1966:JSTOR 1952:books 1842:Strip 1668:Types 1655:gamut 1646:, or 1644:phase 1639:in a 1520:doped 1467:InGaN 1326:white 1282:AlGaN 1280:With 1168:laser 953:Osram 667:TI-30 554:Texas 419:Round 375:split 250:when 246:that 142:Anode 13278:Wire 13236:Fuse 12820:Buck 12673:(IC) 12661:DIAC 12597:(LD) 12466:UMOS 12461:VMOS 12378:PMOS 12373:NMOS 12358:MOS 12214:EDID 12036:Vane 11982:TMOS 11977:IMoD 11971:MEMS 11798:ALiS 11756:Past 11578:Gobo 11086:Neon 10956:Diya 10627:ISBN 10547:2019 10522:2019 10487:PMID 10440:2014 10414:2019 10380:PMID 10341:2022 10290:2007 10256:PMID 10248:ISSN 10194:PMID 10186:ISSN 10137:PMID 10129:ISSN 10077:PMID 10017:PMID 10009:ISSN 9914:2019 9889:2019 9847:ISBN 9814:ISBN 9789:PMID 9752:help 9712:ISSN 9675:2019 9633:6398 9589:7116 9557:ISSN 9504:ISBN 9470:ISBN 9441:2009 9416:(6). 9391:2012 9365:2018 9339:help 9318:2013 9287:2010 9156:ISBN 9058:2007 9032:PMID 8997:PMID 8962:PMID 8927:PMID 8885:2024 8815:ISSN 8770:2012 8695:2019 8645:ISBN 8618:2010 8582:ISBN 8555:2007 8447:2018 8419:ISBN 8399:2015 8362:2015 8330:ISBN 8309:2024 8278:2024 8218:2008 8173:2012 8136:2009 8104:2009 8078:2024 8053:2024 7769:2009 7621:5530 7595:help 7511:ISSN 7469:PMID 7417:ISBN 7398:2019 7360:PMID 7309:ISBN 7283:ISBN 7251:ISSN 7088:PMID 7037:PMID 6994:PMID 6937:PMID 6886:PMID 6813:2017 6787:2018 6762:2021 6744:ISBN 6723:2024 6691:ISBN 6665:ISBN 6625:ISBN 6599:ISBN 6573:ISBN 6547:ISBN 6521:ISBN 6495:ISBN 6469:ISBN 6443:ISBN 6417:ISBN 6397:2022 6327:ISBN 6298:ISBN 6269:ISBN 6243:ISBN 6217:ISBN 6188:ISBN 6162:ISBN 6122:ISBN 5984:2009 5639:ISBN 5431:2023 5401:2023 5365:ISBN 5329:2015 5269:2015 5225:2007 5196:2015 5184:Cree 5158:ISSN 5073:ISBN 5004:PMID 4996:OSTI 4894:2019 4858:ISBN 4771:ISBN 4686:2007 4627:2007 4545:2020 4400:2012 4237:ISBN 4206:2007 4052:PMID 4044:ISSN 4034:ISBN 4007:2016 3967:2019 3934:2019 3895:2011 3857:2012 3825:2017 3671:and 3669:lead 3490:acne 3488:and 3408:and 3261:IrDA 3217:NASA 3126:OLED 3122:CCFL 3092:and 3056:CFLs 3054:and 2944:The 2897:any 2895:cite 2653:Blue 2269:LED. 1938:news 1734:and 1609:OLED 1603:OLED 1410:tri- 1382:FWHM 1284:and 1217:LEDs 1215:Blue 882:and 841:Cree 803:blue 707:The 696:and 690:US$ 582:G.E. 144:and 12840:Ćuk 11886:LED 11879:IPS 11869:TFT 11015:Oil 10966:Gas 10662:on 10477:doi 10372:doi 10238:hdl 10230:doi 10218:562 10176:doi 10119:doi 10107:562 10067:doi 10055:562 10001:doi 9979:356 9839:doi 9779:doi 9702:doi 9637:doi 9601:doi 9547:doi 9496:doi 9462:doi 9305:doi 9148:doi 9024:doi 9020:441 8989:doi 8954:doi 8950:317 8919:doi 8915:292 8854:doi 8807:doi 8641:591 8574:doi 8528:". 8071:VCC 7997:doi 7985:357 7954:doi 7911:doi 7868:doi 7800:doi 7788:347 7633:doi 7556:doi 7461:doi 7449:308 7350:doi 7243:doi 7194:doi 7163:doi 7147:SiF 7080:doi 7068:292 7029:doi 6984:doi 6972:317 6929:doi 6917:441 6876:doi 6368:doi 5929:doi 5887:doi 5631:doi 5526:doi 5490:doi 5486:188 5302:doi 5150:doi 5138:185 4988:doi 4966:325 4743:doi 4650:doi 4588:doi 4562:1−x 4514:doi 4458:doi 4454:101 4431:doi 4370:doi 4331:doi 4266:doi 4187:doi 4145:doi 4026:doi 3593:EQE 3501:air 3472:in 3438:Wii 3424:or 3177:in 3139:or 3110:LCD 3102:DLP 2908:by 2485:Red 2371:DOE 2148:An 2083:RGB 1921:by 1863:An 1623:of 1496:RGB 1490:). 1406:di- 1342:YAG 1302:DNA 1255:By 1049:YAG 892:GaN 886:of 874:of 627:in 602:MIT 600:at 590:IBM 586:RCA 548:in 501:SiC 440:of 415:SiC 388:) 384:. ( 237:LED 13366:: 13214:RF 12963:RF 11874:TN 10586:. 10582:. 10538:. 10512:. 10508:. 10485:. 10475:. 10463:24 10461:. 10457:. 10431:. 10400:. 10378:. 10370:. 10360:45 10358:. 10331:. 10262:. 10254:. 10246:. 10236:. 10228:. 10216:. 10192:. 10184:. 10174:. 10164:16 10162:. 10158:. 10135:. 10127:. 10117:. 10105:. 10101:. 10089:^ 10075:. 10065:. 10053:. 10049:. 10037:^ 10023:. 10015:. 10007:. 9999:. 9991:. 9977:. 9973:. 9950:. 9905:. 9880:. 9869:^ 9855:. 9845:. 9787:. 9775:48 9773:. 9769:. 9743:: 9741:}} 9737:{{ 9710:. 9698:19 9696:. 9692:. 9665:. 9643:. 9631:. 9607:. 9599:. 9587:. 9569:^ 9555:. 9545:. 9535:98 9533:. 9529:. 9517:^ 9502:, 9468:. 9414:14 9412:. 9408:. 9356:. 9330:: 9328:}} 9324:{{ 9278:. 9164:. 9154:. 9146:. 9030:. 9018:. 8995:. 8983:. 8960:. 8948:. 8925:. 8913:. 8876:. 8850:30 8848:. 8844:. 8821:. 8813:. 8805:. 8793:32 8791:. 8787:. 8756:. 8685:. 8667:. 8643:. 8590:. 8580:. 8546:. 8517:^ 8488:. 8463:. 8387:. 8382:: 8352:. 8299:. 8295:. 8268:. 8264:. 8226:^ 8159:. 8155:. 8144:^ 8069:. 8044:. 8003:. 7995:. 7983:. 7960:. 7952:. 7942:72 7940:. 7917:. 7909:. 7899:72 7897:. 7874:. 7866:. 7856:10 7854:. 7850:. 7838:^ 7820:^ 7806:. 7798:. 7786:. 7745:. 7734:^ 7710:. 7692:. 7639:. 7631:. 7615:. 7587:: 7585:}} 7581:{{ 7562:. 7554:. 7505:. 7475:. 7467:. 7459:. 7447:. 7443:. 7389:. 7366:. 7358:. 7348:. 7338:15 7336:. 7332:. 7257:. 7249:. 7241:. 7231:11 7229:. 7225:. 7202:. 7188:. 7184:. 7159:46 7157:. 7153:. 7094:. 7086:. 7078:. 7066:. 7043:. 7035:. 7027:. 7015:. 6992:. 6982:. 6970:. 6966:. 6943:. 6935:. 6927:. 6915:. 6892:. 6884:. 6872:45 6870:. 6866:. 6854:^ 6837:. 6833:. 6803:. 6778:. 6714:. 6388:. 6366:. 6354:. 6350:. 6312:^ 6283:^ 6202:^ 6088:. 6031:. 6000:. 5970:. 5927:. 5915:. 5909:. 5883:18 5881:. 5877:. 5829:^ 5820:. 5785:. 5769:. 5752:. 5735:. 5718:. 5701:. 5685:. 5669:. 5647:. 5637:. 5610:. 5524:. 5514:80 5512:. 5484:. 5463:. 5417:. 5387:. 5300:. 5290:64 5288:. 5260:. 5215:. 5182:. 5178:. 5156:. 5148:. 5136:. 5096:. 5092:. 5054:. 5038:. 5010:. 5002:. 4994:. 4986:. 4976:. 4964:. 4960:. 4880:. 4852:. 4838:^ 4819:. 4804:^ 4794:. 4755:^ 4741:. 4731:28 4729:. 4720:1− 4712:As 4707:1− 4705:In 4646:32 4644:. 4613:. 4586:. 4574:. 4570:. 4512:. 4500:. 4464:. 4452:. 4429:. 4419:99 4417:. 4368:. 4358:89 4356:. 4329:. 4319:83 4317:. 4313:. 4262:33 4260:. 4235:. 4233:20 4227:. 4185:. 4173:. 4169:. 4108:. 4087:19 4085:. 4081:. 4058:. 4050:. 4042:. 4032:. 3998:. 3994:. 3975:^ 3951:. 3915:. 3811:. 3675:. 3631:NH 3556:. 3539:. 3492:. 3326:. 3235:, 3231:, 3181:. 3077:. 3066:. 3009:. 2998:. 2979:, 2870:. 2249:. 2105:, 2048:. 1876:. 1833:40 1805:. 1781:, 1769:, 1650:. 1408:, 1368:. 1246:, 1202:. 1042:12 1028:Al 1001:. 986:. 910:. 671:c. 577:. 556:, 552:, 484:. 332:, 324:, 316:, 312:, 308:, 300:, 231:A 12965:) 12961:( 12331:e 12324:t 12317:v 11732:e 11725:t 11718:v 10878:) 10692:e 10685:t 10678:v 10654:, 10635:. 10549:. 10524:. 10493:. 10479:: 10469:: 10442:. 10416:. 10386:. 10374:: 10366:: 10343:. 10292:. 10270:. 10240:: 10232:: 10224:: 10200:. 10178:: 10170:: 10143:. 10121:: 10113:: 10083:. 10069:: 10061:: 10031:. 10003:: 9995:: 9985:: 9954:. 9916:. 9891:. 9863:. 9841:: 9822:. 9795:. 9781:: 9754:) 9750:( 9733:. 9718:. 9704:: 9677:. 9651:. 9639:: 9615:. 9603:: 9595:: 9563:. 9549:: 9541:: 9498:: 9478:. 9464:: 9443:. 9393:. 9367:. 9341:) 9337:( 9320:. 9307:: 9289:. 9172:. 9150:: 9090:. 9060:. 9038:. 9026:: 9003:. 8991:: 8985:3 8968:. 8956:: 8933:. 8921:: 8887:. 8862:. 8856:: 8829:. 8809:: 8799:: 8772:. 8722:. 8697:. 8671:. 8653:. 8620:. 8598:. 8576:: 8557:. 8532:. 8449:. 8427:. 8401:. 8364:. 8338:. 8311:. 8280:. 8220:. 8175:. 8138:. 8106:. 8080:. 8055:. 8011:. 7999:: 7991:: 7968:. 7956:: 7948:: 7925:. 7913:: 7905:: 7882:. 7870:: 7862:: 7814:. 7802:: 7794:: 7771:. 7749:. 7728:. 7714:. 7696:. 7635:: 7627:: 7597:) 7558:: 7550:: 7463:: 7455:: 7425:. 7400:. 7374:. 7352:: 7344:: 7317:. 7291:. 7265:. 7245:: 7237:: 7210:. 7196:: 7190:7 7169:. 7165:: 7149:6 7145:2 7116:. 7102:. 7082:: 7074:: 7051:. 7031:: 7023:: 7017:3 7000:. 6986:: 6978:: 6951:. 6931:: 6923:: 6900:. 6878:: 6839:5 6815:. 6789:. 6764:. 6725:. 6699:. 6673:. 6647:. 6633:. 6607:. 6581:. 6555:. 6529:. 6503:. 6477:. 6451:. 6425:. 6399:. 6374:. 6370:: 6362:: 6356:9 6335:. 6306:. 6277:. 6251:. 6225:. 6196:. 6170:. 6144:. 6130:. 6092:. 5986:. 5937:. 5931:: 5923:: 5917:1 5895:. 5889:: 5673:. 5655:. 5633:: 5563:. 5532:. 5528:: 5520:: 5496:. 5492:: 5469:. 5433:. 5403:. 5373:. 5331:. 5308:. 5304:: 5296:: 5271:. 5227:. 5198:. 5164:. 5152:: 5144:: 4990:: 4972:: 4896:. 4866:. 4779:. 4749:. 4745:: 4737:: 4722:y 4718:P 4715:y 4709:x 4702:x 4688:. 4656:. 4652:: 4629:. 4590:: 4582:: 4576:1 4566:x 4564:P 4547:. 4520:. 4516:: 4508:: 4502:3 4472:. 4460:: 4437:. 4433:: 4425:: 4402:. 4376:. 4372:: 4364:: 4333:: 4325:: 4298:. 4272:. 4268:: 4245:. 4208:. 4189:: 4181:: 4175:1 4151:. 4147:: 4141:5 4129:5 4112:. 4106:" 4102:" 4066:. 4028:: 4009:. 3969:. 3936:. 3897:. 3859:. 3827:. 3718:. 3633:3 3629:3 3499:/ 2935:) 2929:( 2924:) 2920:( 2916:. 2902:. 2805:V 2803:Δ 2762:V 2755:λ 2734:V 2709:V 2702:λ 2666:V 2659:λ 2619:V 2612:λ 2580:V 2573:λ 2541:V 2534:λ 2498:V 2491:λ 2463:V 2460:Δ 2453:λ 2307:. 2292:. 2142:. 1988:) 1982:( 1977:) 1973:( 1963:· 1956:· 1949:· 1942:· 1915:. 1851:. 1773:) 1518:- 1037:O 1033:5 1024:3 1019:Y 395:) 391:( 235:( 130:) 41:. 34:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.