Leptospirosis - Knowledge

867: 2060: 1298: 1680:(1 g IV every six hours for seven days) and doxycycline (200 mg initially followed by 100 mg IV every 12 hours for seven days) are equally effective as benzylpenicillin (1.5 million units IV every six hours for seven days). Therefore, there is no evidence on differences in death reduction when benzylpenicillin is compared with ceftriaxone or cefotaxime. Another study conducted in 2007 also showed no difference in efficacy between doxycycline (200 mg initially followed by 100 mg orally every 12 hours for seven days) or azithromycin (2 g on day one followed by 1 g daily for two more days) for suspected leptospirosis. There was no difference in the resolution of fever and azithromycin is better tolerated than doxycycline. 2048: 1802: 1552: 412: 1567: 647: 987: 2167: 1539:(WHO) proposed the Faine's criteria for the diagnosis of leptospirosis. It consists of three parts: A (clinical findings), B (epidemiological factors), and C (lab findings and bacteriological data). Since the original Faine's criteria only included culture and MAT in part C, which is difficult and complex to perform, the modified Faine's criteria were proposed in 2004 to include ELISA and slide agglutination tests which are easier to perform. In 2012, modified Faine's criteria (with amendment) was proposed to include 1282: 420: 49: 1747:

output, age more than 36 years, and respiratory failure. With proper care, most of those infected will recover completely. Those with acute kidney failure may develop persistent mild kidney impairment after they recover. In those with severe lung involvement, the risk of death is 50–70%. Thirty percent of people with acute leptospirosis complained of long-lasting symptoms characterised by weakness, muscle pain, and headaches.

2112:-associated ERU. Risk of death or disability in infected animals varies depending upon the species and age of the animals. In adult pigs and cattle, reproductive signs are the most common signs of leptospirosis. Up to 40% of cows may have a spontaneous abortion. Younger animals usually develop more severe disease. About 80% of dogs can survive with treatment, but the survival rate is reduced if the lungs are involved. 2076:, shivering, muscle pain, weakness, and urinary symptoms. Vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain may also present. Petechiae and ecchymoses may be seen on mucous membranes. Bleeding from the lungs may also be seen in dogs. In chronic presentations, the affected dog may have no symptoms. In animals that have died of leptospirosis, their kidneys may be swollen with grey and white spots, 355:, or water or soil contaminated with animal urine and feces, coming into contact with the eyes, mouth, nose or breaks in the skin. In developing countries, the disease occurs most commonly in pest control, farmers and low-income people who live in areas with poor sanitation. In developed countries, it occurs during heavy downpours and is a risk to pest controllers, 924:, or drink from an infected puddle. House-bound domestic dogs have contracted leptospirosis, apparently from licking the urine of infected mice in the house. Leptospirosis can also be transmitted via the semen of infected animals. The duration of bacteria being consistently present in animal urine may persist for years. 2156:

serovar Hardjo and Pomona, for dogs, the vaccines usually contain serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae and Canicola. Vaccines containing multiple serovars do not work for cattle as well as vaccines containing a single serovar, yet the multivalent vaccines continue to be sold. Isolation of infected animals and

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The number of cases of leptospirosis is directly related to the amount of rainfall, making the disease seasonal in temperate climates and year-round in tropical climates. The risk of contracting leptospirosis depends upon the risk of disease carriage in the community and the frequency of exposure. In

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could be provided to the guinea pigs. In 1917, the Japanese group discovered rats as the carriers of leptospirosis. Unaware of the Japanese group's work, two German groups independently and almost simultaneously published their first demonstration of transmitting leptospiral infection in guinea pigs

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The global rates of leptospirosis have been underestimated because most affected countries lack notification or notification is not mandatory. Distinguishing clinical signs of leptospirosis from other diseases and lack of laboratory diagnostic services are other problems. The socioeconomic status of

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in a majority of symptomatic cases. Symptoms of the first phase (acute or leptospiremic phase) last five to seven days. In the second phase (immune phase), the symptoms resolve as antibodies against the bacteria are produced. Additional symptoms develop in the second phase. The phases of illness may

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is the only place not affected by leptospirosis. In the United States, there were 100 to 150 leptospirosis cases annually. In 1994, leptospirosis ceased to be a notifiable disease in the United States except in 36 states/territories where it is prevalent such as Hawaii, Texas, California,

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Animals also present with similar clinical features when compared to humans. Clinical signs can appear in 5–15 days in dogs. The incubation period can be prolonged in cats. Leptospirosis can cause abortions after 2–12 weeks in cattle, and 1–4 weeks of infection in pigs. The illness

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species have been discovered since then. The WHO established the Leptospirosis Burden Epidemiology Reference Group (LERG) to review the latest disease epidemiological data of leptospirosis, formulate a disease transmission model, and identify gaps in knowledge and research. The first meeting was

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and is effective in reducing the rate of leptospirosis infections amongst high-risk individuals in flood-prone areas. In one study, it reduced the number of leptospirosis cases in military personnel undergoing exercises in the jungles. In another study, it reduced the number of symptomatic cases

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The overall risk of death for leptospirosis is 5–10%. For those with jaundice, the case fatality can increase up to 15%. For those infected who present with confusion and neurological signs, there is a high risk of death. Other factors that increase the risk of death include reduced urine

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in body fluids, but it is neither sensitive nor specific in detecting the organism. A positive culture for leptospirosis is definitive, but the availability is limited, and culture results can take 13–26 weeks for a result, limiting its utility. Paired acute and convalescent samples are

1519:, CSF, and autopsy specimens. It detects the presence of bacteria faster than MAT during the first few days of infection without waiting for the appearance of antibodies. As PCR detects the presence of leptospiral DNA in the blood it is useful even when the bacteria is killed by antibiotics. 1458:

antigen is used to detect the IgM antibodies. This test can quickly determine the diagnosis and help in early treatment. However, the test specificity depends upon the type of antigen used and the presence of antibodies from previous infections. The presence of other diseases such as

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and Puerto Rico. About 50% of the reported cases occurred in Puerto Rico. In January 2013, leptospirosis was reinstated as a nationally notifiable disease in the United States. Research on epidemiology of leptospirosis in high-risk groups and risk factors is limited in India.

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of 1:100 to 1:800 are diagnostic of leptospirosis. A fourfold or greater rise in titre of two sera taken at symptoms' onset and three to 10 days of disease onset confirms the diagnosis. During the acute phase of the disease, MAT is not specific in detecting a serotype of

1672:(also known as penicillin G) is recommended for the treatment of severe leptospirosis. Intravenous benzylpenicillin (30 mg/kg up to 1.2 g every six hours) is used for five to seven days. Amoxicillin, ampicillin, and erythromycin may also be used for severe cases. 1683:

Outpatients are given doxycycline or azithromycin. Doxycycline can shorten the duration of leptospirosis by two days, improve symptoms, and prevent the shedding of organisms in their urine. Azithromycin and amoxicillin are given to pregnant women and children. Rarely, a

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Most leptospiral cases resolve spontaneously. Early initiation of antibiotics may prevent the progression to severe disease. Therefore, in resource-limited settings, antibiotics can be started once leptospirosis is suspected after history taking and examination.

1969:. This disease was later known to be caused by leptospirosis. By the 1950s, the number of serovars that infected various mammals had expanded significantly. In the 1980s, leptospirosis was recognised as a veterinary disease of major economic importance. 1041:. The pathogenesis of leptospirosis remains poorly understood despite research efforts. The bacteria enter the human body through either breaches in the skin or the mucous membrane, then into the bloodstream. The bacteria later attach to the 1692:

done in 2012, the benefit of antibiotics in the treatment of leptospirosis was unclear although the use of antibiotics may reduce the duration of illness by two to four days. Another meta-analysis done in 2013 reached a similar conclusion.

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rural areas, farming and animal husbandry are the major risk factors for contracting leptospirosis. Poor housing and inadequate sanitation also increase the risk of infection. In tropical and semi-tropical areas, the disease often becomes

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Eye problems can occur in 10% of those who recovered from leptospirosis in the range from two weeks to a few years post-infection. Most commonly, eye complications can occur at six months after the infection. This is due to the

904:, but other mammals including dogs, deer, rabbits, hedgehogs, cows, sheep, swine, raccoons, opossums, and skunks can also carry the disease. In Africa, a number of wildlife hosts have been identified as carriers, including the 1928:

and Yutaka Ito first identified this bacterium as the causative agent of leptospirosis and noted its presence in rats in 1916. Japanese coal mine workers frequently contracted leptospirosis. In Japan, the organism was named

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There will be a resolution of symptoms for one to three days. The immune phase starts after this and can last from four to 30 days and can be anything from brain to kidney complications. The hallmark of the second phase is

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There is no human vaccine suitable for worldwide use. Only a few countries such as Cuba, Japan, France, and China have approved the use of inactivated vaccines with limited protective effects. Side effects such as nausea,

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Efforts to prevent the disease include protective equipment to block contact when working with potentially infected animals, washing after contact, and reducing rodents in areas where people live and work. The antibiotic

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have been used to treat leptospirosis in animals. Fluid therapy, blood transfusion, and respiratory support may be required in severe disease. For horses with ERU, the primary treatment is with anti-inflammatory drugs.

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to severe panuveitis (which involves all three vascular layers of the eye). The uveitis is more commonly happen in young to middle-aged males and those working in agricultural farming. In up to 80% of those infected,

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require high humidity for survival but can remain alive in environments such as stagnant water or contaminated soil. The bacterium can be killed by temperatures of 50 °C (122 °F) and can be inactivated by

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It is estimated that one million severe cases of leptospirosis occur annually, with 58,900 deaths. Severe cases account for 5–15% of all leptospirosis cases. Leptospirosis is found in both urban and rural areas in

935:. Humans become infected through contact with water or moist soil that contains urine & feces from infected animals. The bacteria enter through cuts, abrasions, ingestion of contaminated food, or contact with 375:

is effective in preventing leptospirosis infection. Human vaccines are of limited usefulness; vaccines for other animals are more widely available. Treatment when infected is with antibiotics such as doxycycline,

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Infected animals can have no, mild, or severe symptoms; the presenting symptoms may vary by the type of animal. In some animals the bacteria live in the reproductive tract, leading to transmission during mating.

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ELISA and microscopic agglutination tests are most commonly used to diagnose leptospirosis in animals. The bacteria can be detected in blood, urine, and milk or liver, kidney, or other tissue samples by using

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tends to be milder in reservoir hosts. The most commonly affected organs are the kidneys, liver, and reproductive system, but other organs can be affected. In dogs, the acute clinical signs include fever,

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and leptospirosis are endemic, azithromycin and doxycycline are the drugs of choice. Doxycycline is not used in cases where the patient suffers from liver damage as it has been linked to hepatotoxicity.

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Rates of leptospirosis can be reduced by improving housing, infrastructure, and sanitation standards. Rodent abatement efforts and flood mitigation projects can also help to prevent it. Proper use of

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should be considered. Dry cough is observed in 20–57% of people with leptospirosis. Thus, this clinical feature can mislead a doctor to diagnose the disease as a respiratory illness. Additionally,

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Rodrigo C, Lakshitha de Silva N, Goonaratne R, Samarasekara K, Wijesinghe I, Parththipan B, Rajapakse S (December 2014). "High dose corticosteroids in severe leptospirosis: a systematic review".

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The P2 clade comprises 21 species that may cause mild disease in humans. The remaining 26 species comprise the S1 and S2 subclades, which include "saprophytes" known to consume decaying matter (

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The microscopic agglutination test (MAT) is the reference test for the diagnosis of leptospirosis. MAT is a test where serial dilutions of patient sera are mixed with different serovars of

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of the body (e.g. mouth, nose, and eyes). Occupations at risk of contracting leptospirosis include farmers, fishermen, garbage collectors and sewage workers. The disease is also related to

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DNA can be found in the aqueous humour of the eye. Eye problems usually have a good prognosis following treatment or they are self-limiting. In anterior uveitis, only topical steroids and

1022:. This causes the continuous shedding of bacteria in the urine without the animal experiencing significant ill effects. This relationship between the animal and the bacteria is known as a 5753: 1123:-like symptoms which is life-threatening instead of helping to fight against the infection. Those who have a high risk of sepsis during a leptospirosis infection are found to have the 834:. The diverse sugar composition of the lipopolysaccharide on the surface of the bacteria is responsible for the antigenic difference between serovars. About 300 pathogenic serovars of 8341: 4867:

Moola, Sandeep; Beri, Deepti; Salam, Abdul; Jagnoor, Jagnoor; Teja, Arun; Bhaumik, Soumyadeep (July 2021). "Leptospirosis prevalence and risk factors in India: Evidence gap maps".

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For those with severe leptospirosis, including potassium wasting with high kidney output dysfunction, intravenous hydration and potassium supplements can prevent dehydration and

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such as frogs, snakes, turtles, and toads have been shown to have the infection. Whether there are reservoirs of human infection is unknown. Rats, mice, and moles are important

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fever" in Japan; in Europe and Australia, the disease was associated with certain occupations and given names such as "cane-cutter's disease", "swine-herd's disease", and "

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prophylactic antibiotics are also effective in preventing leptospirosis transmission between animals. Environmental control and sanitation also reduce transmission rates.

1894:" (mud fever). It has been known historically as "black jaundice", or "dairy farm fever" in New Zealand. Leptospirosis was postulated as the cause of an epidemic among 1652:

testing. In 2001, the WHO recommended oral doxycycline (2 mg/kg up to 100 mg every 12 hours) for five to seven days for those with mild leptospirosis.

1373:. Because the bacteria settle in the kidneys, urine cultures will be positive for leptospirosis starting after the second week of illness until 30 days of infection. 4093:"Pica (Allotriophagy): An Underestimated Risk Factor for Severe Leptospirosis (Weil's Diseases)? Report of a Leptospira Septic Shock Successfully Managed with ECMO" 6190: 5746: 1049:(complex network of proteins and carbohydrates present between cells). The bacteria use their flagella for moving between cell layers. They bind to cells such as 2957:

Teixeira AF; Fernandes LG; Cavenague MF; et al. (2019). "Adjuvanted leptospiral vaccines: Challenges and future development of new leptospirosis vaccines".

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predominance with a cell count of about 500/mm, protein between 50 and 100 mg/mL and normal glucose levels. These findings are consistent with

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vaccines have been developed. However, they do not confer long-lasting immunity to humans or animals. Vaccines for other animals are more widely available.

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not be distinct, especially in patients with severe illness. 90% of those infected experience mild symptoms while 10% experience severe leptospirosis.

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The prevention of leptospirosis from the environmental sources like contaminated waterways, soil, sewers, and agricultural fields, is disinfection used by

1233:, causing apoptosis. The damaged hepatocytes and hepatocyte intercellular junctions cause leakage of bile into the bloodstream, causing elevated levels of 5387: 2137:

preferred for serological diagnosis of leptospirosis in animals. A positive serological sample from an aborted fetus is also diagnostic of leptospirosis.

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species, but are time-consuming. Therefore, total genomic sequencing could potentially replace these two methods as the new gold standard of classifying

1933:. The Japanese group also experimented with the first leptospiral immunisation studies in guinea pigs. They demonstrated that by injecting the infected 7196: 1977: 387:

It is estimated that one million severe cases of leptospirosis in humans occur every year, causing about 58,900 deaths. The disease is most common in

8246: 542:. Signs and symptoms of meningitis include severe headache and neck stiffness. Kidney involvement is associated with reduced or absent urine output. 3894:

Song AT, Abas L, Andrade LC, Andraus W, D'Albuquerque LA, Abdala E (February 2016). "A first report of leptospirosis after liver transplantation".

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of the eye which protects it from immunological damage during the initial phase of leptospiral infection. These complications can range from mild

8361: 978:. Leptospirosis transmission through eating raw meat of wildlife animals have also been reported (e.g. psychiatric patients with allotriophagy). 347:

cause disease in humans. Both wild and domestic animals can spread the disease, most commonly rodents. The bacteria are spread to humans through

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at the poles of the bacteria sense various substrates and change the direction of its movement. The bacteria are traditionally visualised using

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Karpagam KB, Ganesh B (January 2020). "Leptospirosis: a neglected tropical zoonotic infection of public health importance-an updated review".

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lies closer to the inner than the outer membrane. This results in a fluid outer membrane loosely associated with the cell wall. In addition,

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and abdominal pain. A headache brought on by leptospirosis causes throbbing pain and is characteristically located at the head's bilateral

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levels (associated with pancreatitis) are found in those who are admitted to hospital due to leptospirosis. Impaired kidney function with

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Divers TJ, Chang YF, Irby NL, Smith JL, Carter CN (May 2019). "Leptospirosis: An important infectious disease in North American horses".

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Shaked Y, Shpilberg O, Samra D, Samra Y (August 1993). "Leptospirosis in pregnancy and its effect on the fetus: case report and review".

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which specifically infects dogs. In 1940, the strain that specifically infects cattle was first reported in Russia. In 1942, soldiers at

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and four subclades: P1, P2, S1, and S2. The 19 members of the P1 subclade include the 8 species that can cause severe disease in humans:

1080:, endothelial cells of the capillaries in the human body are activated by the presence of these bacteria. The endothelial cells produce 8351: 7175: 6762: 4792: 4918: 1738:

of blood vessels in the lungs. However, there is insufficient evidence to determine whether the use of corticosteroids is beneficial.

6270: 4186: 920:. There are various mechanisms whereby animals can infect each other. Dogs may lick the urine of an infected animal off the grass or 866: 450:, though some infected persons may have none. The disease begins suddenly with fever accompanied by chills, intense headache, severe 2925:

Chan, O. Y.; Chia, S. E.; Nadarajah, N.; Sng, E. H. (16 October 1987). "Leptospirosis Risk in Public Cleansing and Sewer Workers".

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Leptospirosis vaccines are available for animals such as pigs, dogs, cattle, sheep, and goats. Vaccines for cattle usually contain

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convened in 2009. In 2011, LERG estimated that the global yearly rate of leptospirosis is five to 14 cases per 100,000 population.

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Leptospirosis was subsequently recognised as a disease of all mammalian species. In 1933, Dutch workers reported the isolation of

7826: 6280: 6176: 1773:(an agent that causes dilation of the pupil) are needed while in panuveitis, it requires periocular corticosteroids. Leptospiral 399:

in 1886 in Germany. Infected animals may have no, mild or severe symptoms. These may vary by the type of animal. In some animals

7615: 3751:"Epidemiology of Leptospirosis in Africa: A Systematic Review of a Neglected Zoonosis and a Paradigm for 'One Health' in Africa" 1543:

and coughing up blood in the diagnosis. In 2013, India recommended modified Faine's criteria in the diagnosis of leptospirosis.

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is well adapted to such an inflammatory condition created by it. In the bloodstream, it can activate host plasminogen to become

384:. The overall risk of death is 5–10%. However, when the lungs are involved, the risk of death increases to the range of 50–70%. 7444: 6555: 5182: 1503:

phase, MAT is more specific in detecting the serovar types. MAT requires a panel of live antigens and requires laborious work.

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is extremely rare in humans. Once humans are infected, bacterial shedding from the kidneys usually persists for up to 60 days.

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Christmas BW, Tennent RB, Lindsay PG (May 1974). "Dairy farm fever in New Zealand: a local outbreak of human leptospirosis".

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are recognised. Antigenically related serovars (belonging to the same serogroup) may belong to different species because of

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Inada R, Ito Y (1908). "A report of the discovery of the causal organism (a new species of spirocheta) of Weil's disease".

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Sivakumar R; Balakrishnan V; Gowri P (2018). "Leptospiral Uveitis: Usefulness of Clinical Signs as Diagnostic Predictors".

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infection in horses in North America and may lead to blindness. ERU is an autoimmune disease involving antibodies against

7863: 7620: 7546: 7399: 7123: 6468: 5640: 4412:"An open, randomized, controlled trial of penicillin, doxycycline, and cefotaxime for patients with severe leptospirosis" 959:

are unlikely to penetrate intact skin. The disease is not known to spread between humans, and bacterial dissemination in

614: 7226: 5415:"An emerging pulmonary haemorrhagic syndrome in dogs: similar to the human leptospiral pulmonary haemorrhagic syndrome?" 1297: 1211:. It can bind to thrombin that decreases the fibrin formation. Reduced fibrin formation increases the risk of bleeding. 1057:, endothelial cells, and kidney epithelial cells. They also bind to several human proteins such as complement proteins, 998:

When animals ingest the bacteria, they circulate in the bloodstream, then lodge themselves into the kidneys through the

549:, and bleeding, which happens in 5–10% of those infected. Lung and brain damage can also occur. For those with signs of 545:

The classic form of severe leptospirosis, known as Weil's disease, is characterised by liver damage (causing jaundice),

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Suputtamongkol Y, Niwattayakul K, Suttinont C, Losuwanaluk K, Limpaiboon R, Chierakul W, et al. (November 2004).

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after being ingested by macrophages. Those with severe leptospirosis can experience a high level of cytokines such as

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Caimi K, Ruybal P (February 2020). "Leptospira spp., a genus in the stage of diversity and genomic data expansion".

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Exposure to infected animals, especially their urine, or fresh water or damp soil contaminated with infectious urine

8391: 8386: 8314: 8252: 7227: 6489: 6476: 5731: 2004:. In 2002, "Lepthangamushi syndrome" was coined to describe a series of overlapping symptoms of leptospirosis with 4451:

Phimda K, Hoontrakul S, Suttinont C, Chareonwat S, Losuwanaluk K, Chueasuwanchai S, et al. (September 2007).

1582:(PPE) by people who have a high risk of occupational exposure can prevent leptospirosis infections in most cases. 7873: 7841: 7836: 7670: 6987: 6563: 3104:[On a strange, acute infectious disease, accompanied by swelling of the spleen, icterus, and nephritis]. 1685: 843: 5566: 1229:

spreads rapidly to all organs through the bloodstream. They mainly affect the liver. They invade spaces between

7931: 7541: 6728: 6550: 6504: 6415: 6405: 5391: 5338:"ChikDenMaZika Syndrome: the challenge of diagnosing arboviral infections in the midst of concurrent epidemics" 1471:

infection can cause false-positive results. Other rapid screening tests have been developed such as dipsticks,

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workers and those involved in outdoor activities in warm and wet areas. Diagnosis is typically by testing for

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The bacteria can be found in ponds, rivers, puddles, sewers, agricultural fields and moist soil. Pathogenic

7140: 6668: 6509: 6293: 6147: 5822: 650: 4561:"Antibiotics for the treatment of leptospirosis: systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials" 3694:"Critical Knowledge Gaps in Our Understanding of Environmental Cycling and Transmission of Leptospira spp" 419: 7160: 6781: 6693: 3102:"Über eine eigenthümliche, mit Milztumor, Icterus und Nephritis einhergehende, acute Infektionskrankheit" 2882: 2124:

or polymerase chain reaction techniques. Silver staining or immunogold silver staining is used to detect

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may lead to increased risk of infection and death due to leptospirosis infection. Micronutrients such as

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The disease is observed persistently in parts of Asia, Oceania, the Caribbean, Latin America and Africa.

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is not associated with severe bleeding. Pulmonary haemorrhage is alveolar haemorrhage (bleeding into the

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and recreational activities. It is common among water-sports enthusiasts in specific areas, including

566: 7901: 6708: 6484: 6138: 6119: 6085: 2732:"Leptospira as an emerging pathogen: a review of its biology, pathogenesis and host immune responses" 1536: 1512: 760: 2880:

Picardeau M (May 2017). "Virulence of the zoonotic agent of leptospirosis: still terra incognita?".

1830:(DALY). The score is 42 per 100,000 people per year, which is more than other diseases such as 510:, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhoea frequently occur. Vomiting and diarrhea may contribute to 8381: 8366: 7856: 7821: 7816: 7811: 6977: 6683: 6650: 6360: 6275: 6226: 6092: 6041: 5651: 4796: 2278: 2093: 1617: 1156:

recognition by TLR4 receptors probably contributes to the leptospirosis disease process in humans.

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and swelling have been reported after the vaccine was injected. Since the immunity induced by one

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Klopfleisch R, Kohn B, Plog S, Weingart C, Nöckler K, Mayer-Scholl A, Gruber AD (December 2010).

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in 1886 when he reported an "acute infectious disease with enlargement of spleen, jaundice, and

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levels will be elevated. Leptospirosis increases potassium excretion in urine, which leads to a

8283: 8212: 7211: 6688: 6640: 6630: 6625: 6514: 6199: 6124: 5965: 5766: 5064: 2014: 1875: 1621: 1610: 1460: 1388:. The Icterohaemorrhagiae serogroup is associated with jaundice and elevated bilirubin levels. 1258: 1208: 1176: 1085: 1023: 800: 766: 471: 423: 396: 171: 5691: 5107: 2786:

Costa F, Hagan JE, Calcagno J, Kane M, Torgerson P, Martinez-Silveira MS, et al. (2015).

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In those who have lung involvement, a chest X-ray may demonstrate diffuse alveolar opacities.

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and many other wild and domesticated animals. Signs and symptoms can range from none to mild (

8396: 8371: 8278: 8112: 8107: 7563: 7509: 7419: 7135: 7113: 7026: 6339: 6099: 6030: 5604: 5233: 4287:"Effectiveness of Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Leptospirosis among Adults: A Systematic Review" 2175: 2027: 1676:(1 g IV every 24 hours for seven days) is also effective for severe leptospirosis. 1559:, Malaysia, that warns against swimming in the lake as it has tested positive for pathogenic 1483: 1089: 788: 772: 754: 738: 590: 105: 60: 5336:

Paniz-Mondolfi AE, Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Blohm G, Marquez M, Villamil-Gomez WE (July 2016).

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can develop in the first few hours after antibiotic administration. However, according to a

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Rarely, leptospirosis can be transmitted through an organ transplant. Infection through the

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Fabiani A, Dal Bo E, Di Bella S, Gabrielli M, Bologna A, Albert U, Sanson G (5 July 2021).

3705: 3590: 2121: 1701: 1656:, ampicillin, and amoxicillin can also be used in such cases. However, in areas where both 1416: 1311: 1242: 1141: 1077: 1046: 955:

and swimming, as prolonged immersion in water promotes the entry of the bacteria. However,

494:. A rash is rarely found in leptospirosis. When one is found alternative diagnoses such as 284: 5719: 4285:

Abd Rahim MA, Zaki AM, Atil A, Azme MH, Him NA, Rahim SS, Jeffree MS, Ahmad N, Hassan MR.

4197: 3323:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 387. Springer. pp. 65–97. 1924:

because the bacteria resembled a question mark. In 1908, a Japanese research group led by

8: 8084: 8050: 7936: 7759: 7702: 7697: 7648: 7479: 7347: 7319: 7271: 7052: 7047: 6957: 6883: 6873: 6847: 6843: 6718: 6524: 6435: 6207: 5847: 5762: 5708: 5702: 5629: 2179: 2141: 1713: 1709: 1472: 1427: 1385: 1073:(Lig) proteins such as LigB and LipL32, whose genes are found in all pathogenic species. 817: 782: 598: 562: 550: 7754: 5705: 4525: 4504: 4152:"Leptospirosis: A clinical review of evidence based diagnosis, treatment and prevention" 3709: 3594: 3370: 2645:"Leptospirosis: A clinical review of evidence based diagnosis, treatment and prevention" 8117: 7951: 7692: 7658: 7643: 7519: 7504: 7489: 7409: 7327: 7103: 7014: 6425: 6410: 6400: 6009: 5835: 5812: 5536: 5441: 5414: 5364: 5337: 5313: 5288: 5250: 5204: 5177: 4979: 4952: 4900: 4844: 4819: 4762: 4735: 4716: 4673: 4577: 4560: 4538: 4477: 4452: 4369:

Panaphut T, Domrongkitchaiporn S, Vibhagool A, Thinkamrop B, Susaengrat W (June 2003).

4262: 4237: 4216: 4127: 4092: 4033: 4008: 3962: 3919: 3876: 3813: 3777: 3750: 3726: 3693: 3614: 3476: 3449: 3422: 3397: 3347: 3220: 2982: 2907: 2814: 2787: 2756: 2731: 2562: 2472: 2460: 2348: 2117: 1757: 1566: 1551: 1435: 1393: 1339: 1159:

Although there are various mechanisms in the human body to fight against the bacteria,

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The symptoms of leptospirosis usually appear one to two weeks after infection, but the

79: 4835: 2421: 2404: 2088:, inflammation of the heart, meningeal layers covering the brain and spinal cord, and 683: 411: 8411: 8240: 8207: 8040: 7881: 7771: 7665: 7526: 7351: 7314: 7204: 7128: 6808: 6519: 5999: 5662: 5528: 5490: 5480: 5446: 5369: 5318: 5209: 5178:"New hypothesis for cause of epidemic among native Americans, New England, 1616-1619" 5158: 5117: 5074: 5070: 5046: 5036: 4984: 4904: 4892: 4884: 4849: 4767: 4708: 4665: 4660: 4643: 4617: 4582: 4530: 4482: 4433: 4392: 4371:"Ceftriaxone compared with sodium penicillin g for treatment of severe leptospirosis" 4351: 4350:. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. 6 February 2012. 4267: 4132: 4114: 4073: 4038: 3989: 3954: 3911: 3868: 3817: 3782: 3749:

Allan KJ, Biggs HM, Halliday JE, Kazwala RR, Maro VP, Cleaveland S, Crump JA (2015).

3731: 3618: 3606: 3558: 3548: 3515: 3481: 3427: 3352: 3332: 3224: 3113: 3079: 3052: 3042: 2986: 2974: 2934: 2899: 2819: 2761: 2691: 2666: 2566: 2554: 2476: 2464: 2426: 2352: 2323: 2282: 2252: 2217: 1027: 940: 794: 499: 435: 328:), the acute, severe form of leptospirosis, causes the infected individual to become 154: 67: 8186: 5761: 5634: 5540: 4720: 4677: 4542: 3966: 3880: 2911: 2166: 8166: 8151: 8007: 7868: 7781: 7165: 7086: 6900: 6868: 5925: 5919: 5913: 5891: 5886: 5875: 5520: 5472: 5436: 5426: 5359: 5349: 5308: 5300: 5242: 5199: 5191: 5028: 4974: 4964: 4876: 4839: 4831: 4757: 4747: 4700: 4655: 4609: 4572: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4472: 4464: 4423: 4382: 4324: 4257: 4249: 4165: 4122: 4104: 4065: 4028: 4020: 3946: 3923: 3903: 3860: 3809: 3772: 3762: 3721: 3713: 3598: 3540: 3471: 3461: 3417: 3409: 3342: 3324: 3210: 3034: 2966: 2891: 2809: 2799: 2751: 2743: 2656: 2546: 2456: 2416: 2319: 2225: 2207: 2073: 1938: 1850:

many of the world's population is closely tied to malnutrition; subsequent lack of

1761: 1669: 1571: 1389: 1381: 1327: 1216: 602: 594: 503: 455: 439: 298: 7707: 4704: 4321:

WHO recommended strategies for the prevention and control of communicable diseases

4253: 2970: 8171: 7969: 7776: 7734: 7625: 7605: 7575: 7558: 7484: 7474: 7404: 7343: 7339: 7288: 7059: 6947: 6771: 6703: 6610: 6430: 6309: 6156: 5840: 5792: 5656: 5471:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 387. pp. 223–50. 4969: 4453:"Doxycycline versus azithromycin for treatment of leptospirosis and scrub typhus" 3767: 3602: 3413: 3033:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 387. pp. 99–137. 2804: 1917: 1723: 1468: 1423: 1250: 1007: 936: 905: 646: 523: 258: 5476: 5032: 4951:

Herman HS, Mehta S, Cárdenas WB, Stewart-Ibarra AM, Finkelstein JL (July 2016).

3800:

Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Castañeda-Hernández DM (2014). "Spirochetes: Leptospira".

3544: 3539:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 387. pp. 21–41. 3328: 3319:

Haake DA, Levett PN (25 May 2015). "Leptospirosis in Humans". In Adler B (ed.).

3038: 1092:

and movements of white blood cells. Macrophages presented in humans are able to

748:

has been identified. Based on their genomic sequence, they are divided into two

8308: 8035: 7926: 7886: 7766: 7592: 7531: 7185: 7064: 6967: 6797: 6663: 6605: 6590: 6450: 6381: 6152: 6110: 5945: 5770: 5558: 4599: 4345: 4069: 3864: 2550: 1962: 1925: 1851: 1516: 1238: 1116: 986: 546: 475: 336:, and bleed. Bleeding from the lungs associated with leptospirosis is known as 333: 113: 5667: 5354: 5027:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 387. pp. 1–9. 4880: 4409: 3950: 3508:

Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases

3117: 1490:. The highest dilution where 50% agglutination occurs is the result. MAT 717:

cell wall. However, unlike Gram-negative bacteria, the peptidoglycan layer in

8335: 8191: 8176: 8146: 8141: 7996: 7749: 7744: 7653: 7298: 7145: 6858: 6814: 6499: 6298: 6256: 5783: 4888: 4368: 4118: 4009:"Leptospirosis in pregnancy with pathological fetal cardiotocography changes" 3466: 2670: 2221: 1965:, were recorded to have an infectious disease which caused a rash over their 1705: 1689: 1405: 1108: 1011: 960: 734: 714: 710: 694: 658: 395:

may arise after heavy rainfall. The disease was first described by physician

184: 180: 7553: 5619: 4613: 3215: 3198: 2229: 2212: 2195: 470:

and the lower back. The most characteristic feature of leptospirosis is the

8268: 7911: 7806: 7739: 7680: 7360: 7251: 7231: 7150: 7076: 6972: 6744: 6635: 6615: 6420: 6334: 6062: 5881: 5532: 5494: 5450: 5373: 5335: 5322: 5213: 5195: 5050: 4988: 4896: 4853: 4771: 4752: 4712: 4669: 4621: 4586: 4534: 4486: 4437: 4396: 4355: 4271: 4170: 4151: 4136: 4042: 4024: 3958: 3915: 3872: 3786: 3735: 3610: 3562: 3485: 3431: 3356: 3083: 3056: 2978: 2903: 2895: 2837: 2823: 2765: 2661: 2644: 2558: 2468: 2430: 2145: 2009: 1735: 1717: 1653: 1637: 1500: 1377: 1358: 1315: 1286: 1180: 1148:

in humans. The lipid A molecule of the bacteria is not recognised by human

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McBride AJ, Athanazio DA, Reis MG, Ko AI (October 2005). "Leptospirosis".

1281: 48: 8055: 8045: 7906: 7712: 7600: 7568: 7494: 7356: 7247: 7239: 7155: 6863: 6757: 6723: 6713: 6545: 6355: 6325: 6168: 6014: 5989: 5686: 5304: 4468: 4194:

Indian Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Human Leptospirosis

3717: 1913: 1899: 1819: 1697: 1673: 1665: 1645: 1605: 1601: 1362: 1354: 1246: 1196: 1093: 1066: 1042: 971: 666: 626: 618: 610: 511: 463: 427: 381: 372: 220: 212: 202: 144: 4347:

LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury

4109: 3846:"Pathology and Host Immune Evasion During Human Leptospirosis: a Review" 3535:

Cameron CE (2015). "Leptospiral Structure, Physiology, and Metabolism".

2182:). The updated content was reintegrated into the Knowledge page under a 2108:

can be recovered from the aqueous or vitreous fluid of many horses with

1636:

For mild leptospirosis, antibiotic recommendations such as doxycycline,

8181: 8156: 7846: 7796: 7043: 7038: 6366: 6316: 6289: 5955: 5714: 5254: 4329: 2747: 2129: 2085: 1958: 1934: 1842: 1835: 1826:

regions. The global health burden for leptospirosis can be measured by

1790: 1677: 1657: 1641: 1431: 1370: 1350: 1323: 1230: 1220: 1062: 1054: 1050: 999: 909: 690: 674: 630: 574: 558: 539: 467: 403:

live in the reproductive tract, leading to transmission during mating.

377: 360: 288: 263: 216: 160: 132: 109: 5587: 5524: 3907: 2788:"Global Morbidity and Mortality of Leptospirosis: A Systematic Review" 8230: 7801: 7674: 7243: 7033: 6878: 6802: 6748: 6216: 6036: 5802: 5697: 5113: 1903: 1879: 1863: 1823: 1786: 1770: 1726:

have been proposed to suppress inflammation in leptospirosis because

1595: 1464: 1234: 1081: 944: 913: 870:

Working in a paddy field barefoot is a risk factor for leptospirosis.

730: 726: 578: 570: 227: 20: 5246: 4953:"Micronutrients and Leptospirosis: A Review of the Current Evidence" 3799: 1992:

containing saprophytic serovars. In 1979, the leptospiral family of

1419:

less than 50 ml/min is associated with elevated pancreatic enzymes.

1269:. Rarely, inflammation of the heart muscles, coronary arteries, and 8072: 8065: 8060: 8030: 7786: 7722: 7717: 7118: 7069: 6932: 6927: 6776: 6265: 6240: 6046: 5859: 5818: 4450: 4428: 4411: 4387: 4370: 3939:

European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases

3511: 2956: 2684:

Farrar J, Hotez P, Junghanss T, Kang G, Lalloo D, White NJ (2013).

2539:

European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases

2081: 2063:

Lungs of a canine with multiple bleeding spots due to leptospirosis

2052: 1966: 1886:" in ancient Chinese text, "autumn fever", "seven-day fever", and " 1883: 1882:." Before Weil's description, the disease was known as "rice field 1815: 1782: 1778: 1731: 1587: 1266: 1204: 1184: 1145: 1127: 1058: 967: 952: 887: 879: 831: 491: 392: 388: 329: 272: 85: 4602:

Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene

3982:

Journal de Gynécologie, Obstétrique et Biologie de la Reproduction

3937:

Puliyath G, Singh S (October 2012). "Leptospirosis in pregnancy".

1712:

can help to improve survival. For those with respiratory failure,

563:

complete inflammation of a whole horizontal section of spinal cord

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inflammation of membranes covering the brain and the brain itself

483: 479: 451: 447: 276: 176: 137: 89: 5645: 4919:"WHO | Leptospirosis Burden Epidemiology Reference Group (LERG)" 4690: 3844:

Chin VK, Basir R, Nordin SA, Abdullah M, Sekawi Z (March 2019).

1245:

have been reported. Meanwhile, in the lungs, petechiae or frank

430:) together with jaundice is a specific feature of leptospirosis. 8094: 8079: 7370: 7093: 5614: 5599: 5561:. U.S. Disease Control and Prevention Center. 21 November 2018. 4644:"Leptospiral Uveitis – There Is More to It Than Meets the Eye!" 2077: 1831: 1422:

For those with severe headache who show signs of meningitis, a

1412: 1366: 1168: 1120: 975: 917: 850:

absorption test and DNA-DNA hybridisation are used to classify

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regions. The person could also have pain behind the eyes and a

356: 352: 268: 188: 8357:

Knowledge articles published in peer-reviewed literature (W2J)

4789:"Healthcare Workers – Technical Information for Leptospirosis" 4090: 2405:"Leptospirosis: Increasing importance in developing countries" 2104:

proteins LruA and LruB cross-reacting with eye proteins. Live

415:

Schematic depiction of the symptoms and signs of leptospirosis

42:

Rat fever, field fever, rat catcher's yellows, pretibial fever

8089: 7974: 7580: 7514: 6952: 1902:

during 1616–1619. The disease was most likely brought to the

1491: 1451: 1392:

contributes to jaundice. A feature of leptospirosis is acute

1270: 749: 686: 670: 280: 93: 19:"Rat fever" redirects here. For the 2011 Brazilian film, see 5467:

Zuerner RL (2015). "Host Response to Leptospira Infection".

3450:"Leptospirosis Pathophysiology: Into the Storm of Cytokines" 1257:

secretes toxins that cause mild to severe kidney failure or

486:

illnesses. Other characteristic findings on the eye include

7389: 7021: 6942: 5827: 5412: 5023:

Adler B (2015). "History of Leptospirosis and Leptospira".

2084:. Petechiae and ecchymoses may be found in various organs. 1855: 1346: 1149: 921: 601:

is associated with severe bleeding manifestation. However,

307: 4736:"Rapid maturation of unilateral cataract in leptospirosis" 4733: 1345:

The kidneys are commonly involved in leptospirosis. Blood

4055: 3748: 3691: 3506:

Bennett JE, Raphael D, Martin JB, Bart JC (2015). "223".

2080:, or scarring. Their liver may be enlarged with areas of 1984:

proposed classifying these serovars into two big groups:

1499:

because of cross-reactivity between the serovars. In the

1172: 617:, where the risk of death is more than 50%. Rarely, 364: 164: 8342:

Knowledge articles published in peer-reviewed literature

3692:

Barragan V, Olivas S, Keim P, Pearson T (October 2017).

3505: 3447: 2683: 2342: 2194:

Siang Ching Raymond Chieng; et al. (21 June 2022).

1609:

after exposure to leptospirosis under heavy rainfall in

8347:

Knowledge articles published in WikiJournal of Medicine

5148: 3979: 3843: 1570:

Blood samples being taken from a group of residents in

1450:

can be done by quantifying the IgM antibodies using an

1261:. The kidney failure can recover completely or lead to 557:

can happen. A variety of neurological problems such as

5287:

Inada R, Ido Y, Hoki R, Kaneko R, Ito H (March 1916).

4558: 3893: 2785: 2446: 2140:

Various antibiotics such as doxycycline, penicillins,

1594:

serovar is only protective against that specific one,

4866: 3658: 1301:

Diffuse lungs bleeding due to leptospirosis infection

1195:-binding protein, factor H-like binding protein, and 322: 313: 5577: 5510: 3448:

Cagliero J, Villanueva SY, Matsui M (20 June 2018).

2924: 2128:

in tissue sections. The organisms stain poorly with

1183:. It can also recruit complement regulators such as 310: 304: 2345:

Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology

2343:James WD, Elston DM, Berger TG, Andrews GC (2006). 896:are found mostly in mammals. However, reptiles and 301: 5342:Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials 5286: 5229:"Note on an organism found in yellow-fever tissue" 5018: 4641: 4502: 3980:Carles G, Montoya E, Joly F, Peneau C (1995). "". 3666:. The Center for Food Security and Public Health. 3375:European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control 2725: 2723: 2721: 2719: 2051:Liver of an unknown animal with multiple blackish 1978:International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology 1088:against the bacteria. These products regulate the 446:Leptospiral infection in humans causes a range of 8247:Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services 5057: 5016: 5014: 5012: 5010: 5008: 5006: 5004: 5002: 5000: 4998: 4559:Charan J, Saxena D, Mulla S, Yadav P (May 2013). 4284: 3654: 3652: 3650: 3648: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2729: 2096:(ERU) is the most common disease associated with 569:are the complications. Signs of bleeding such as 8333: 4554: 4552: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3833: 3646: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3454:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 3443: 3441: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2006:Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome 1400:hyperbilirubinemia, especially in patients with 1167:that breaks down extracellular matrix, degrades 970:during pregnancy is also possible. It can cause 846:between different species. Currently, the cross 540:inflammation of the membranes covering the brain 5388:"284184004: Lepthangamushi syndrome (disorder)" 4734:Rathinam SR; Rathakrishnan S (September 2020). 3501: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3398:"Molecular diagnostics for human leptospirosis" 3192: 3190: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2716: 2402: 1866:represent important areas for future research. 994:bacteria infecting human cells and blood stream 5462: 5460: 4995: 4684: 3659:Spickler AR, Leedom Larson KR (October 2013). 3395: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3196: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3146:The Center for Food Security and Public Health 2536: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2132:. Dark-field microscopy can be used to detect 1574:, Indonesia, for leptospirosis screening tests 627:abnormalities in the heart's natural pacemaker 583:blackish stools due to bleeding in the stomach 7212: 6184: 5747: 5506: 5504: 5406: 4727: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4549: 4157:World Journal of Clinical Infectious Diseases 4149: 3936: 3830: 3625: 3438: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3024: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3016: 2848: 2649:World Journal of Clinical Infectious Diseases 2504: 2502: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 1937:with sera from convalescent humans or goats, 1805:Global burden of leptospirosis calculated as 882:, which may aid survival in the environment. 4565:International Journal of Preventive Medicine 4318: 3685: 3576: 3574: 3572: 3492: 3389: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3006: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2996: 2945: 2927:Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore 2781: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2618: 2616: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2608: 2606: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2403:Soo ZM, Khan NA, Siddiqui R (January 2020). 1916:kidney tissue slice by Arthur Stimson using 1402:glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency 733:, associated with corkscrew style movement. 623:inflammation of membranes covering the heart 5457: 4820:"Leptospirosis: public health perspectives" 4783: 4781: 4509:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4503:Brett-Major DM, Coldren R (February 2012). 4498: 4496: 4229: 4178: 4143: 3580: 3528: 3318: 3167: 2730:Evangelista KV, Coburn J (September 2010). 2594: 2592: 2590: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2392: 2390: 2388: 391:areas of the world but may occur anywhere. 7219: 7205: 7176:Recurrent toxin-mediated perineal erythema 6462:Mycobacterium avium–intracellulare complex 6198: 6191: 6177: 5754: 5740: 5501: 5175: 4793:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4628: 4323:. World Health Organization. p. 104. 4221:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4150:Alison BL, Michael MD (25 November 2016). 3231: 3124: 2483: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2192:). The version of record as reviewed is: 1972:In 1982, there were about 200 serovars of 1511:Leptospiral DNA can be amplified by using 1103:are able to reside and proliferate in the 438:can be as long as a month. The illness is 363:against the bacteria or finding bacterial 47: 6271:Cutaneous group B streptococcal infection 5953: 5440: 5430: 5363: 5353: 5312: 5203: 4978: 4968: 4843: 4761: 4751: 4659: 4642:Verma A; Stevenson B (7 September 2012). 4576: 4524: 4476: 4427: 4386: 4328: 4261: 4169: 4126: 4108: 4032: 4006: 3776: 3766: 3725: 3569: 3475: 3465: 3421: 3346: 3214: 3029:Ellis WA (2015). "Animal Leptospirosis". 2993: 2879: 2813: 2803: 2772: 2755: 2690:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 438. 2660: 2442: 2440: 2420: 2211: 1942:in October 1915. They named the organism 1785:, free floating vitreous membranes, disc 1624:for the infected waterways & sewers. 1452:enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) 1134:activation, which damages bodily organs. 5997: 5267: 5066:Dorland's illustrated medical dictionary 4778: 4493: 4235: 4007:Koe SL, Tan KT, Tan TC (February 2014). 2642: 2573: 2307: 2058: 2046: 1800: 1565: 1550: 1361:in the blood. Urinalysis may reveal the 1296: 1280: 985: 865: 645: 418: 410: 5466: 5226: 5109:Small Water Supplies: A Practical Guide 5105: 4242:Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics 4238:"Human leptospirosis vaccines in China" 4196:. India. pp. 23–29. Archived from 3534: 3396:Waggoner JJ, Pinsky BA (October 2016). 3095: 3093: 3063: 2365: 1809:(DALY) lost per 100,000 people per year 1482:. The mixture is then examined under a 1207:to degrade complement proteins such as 878:have been found in the form of aquatic 332:(skin and eyes become yellow), develop 8362:Bacterium-related cutaneous conditions 8334: 4817: 4795:(CDC). 9 November 2017. Archived from 4314: 4312: 3698:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 3402:Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 3106:Deutsches Archiv für Klinische Medizin 3070:Slack A (July 2010). "Leptospirosis". 2449:Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 2437: 2336: 2265: 2244: 1530: 7200: 6495:Rapid growing mycobacterium infection 6172: 5735: 5130:from the original on 8 September 2017 5087:from the original on 8 September 2017 5022: 4946: 4944: 4457:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 4291:Malaysian Journal of Applied Sciences 4184: 3673:from the original on 24 November 2014 3155:from the original on 24 November 2014 3069: 3028: 2704:from the original on 8 September 2017 2313: 2295:from the original on 8 September 2017 2251:. GIDEON Informatics Inc. p. 7. 2034:was divided into seven species. More 1289:technique, revealing the presence of 1119:. The high level of cytokines causes 890:after heavy rains or after flooding. 406: 338:severe pulmonary haemorrhage syndrome 6674:Human granulocytotropic anaplasmosis 6236:Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome 5293:The Journal of Experimental Medicine 5176:Marr JS, Cathey JT (February 2010). 3197:Chieng Raymond, Siang Ching (2022). 3099: 3090: 2055:secondary to leptospirosis infection 1750: 1730:infection can induce the release of 1441: 807:do not multiply in the environment. 7124:Chronic undermining burrowing ulcer 4319:Organization, World Health (2001). 4309: 1988:containing pathogenic serovars and 1874:The disease was first described by 1305: 1237:, resulting in jaundice. Congested 830:are also classified based on their 615:acute respiratory distress syndrome 593:can also be found. Prolongation of 514:. The abdominal pain can be due to 466:. Muscle pain usually involves the 13: 8274:Eradication of infectious diseases 8031:Androvax (androstenedione albumin) 4941: 4911: 4693:Ocular Immunology and Inflammation 3814:10.1016/B978-0-12-378612-8.00131-1 2461:10.1097/01.qco.0000178824.05715.2c 2316:Comprehensive Health Care for Dogs 2000:was reclassified as the new genus 1976:available for classification. The 1920:technique. He called the organism 1506: 1376:For those with liver involvement, 1152:receptors. Therefore, the lack of 1006:. The bacteria then pass into the 16:Blood infection caused by bacteria 14: 8433: 8352:Externally peer reviewed articles 7864:Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) 7082:Superficial pustular folliculitis 6679:Human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis 5551: 5419:Veterinary Medicine International 4836:10.1016/j.biologicals.2013.06.010 3583:Infection, Genetics and Evolution 2687:Manson's Tropical Diseases E-Book 2422:10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.105183 2086:Inflammation of the blood vessels 1318:and a low platelet count. When a 1203:on its surface. It also secretes 1171:clots and complemental proteins ( 619:inflammation of the heart muscles 609:of the lungs) leading to massive 482:) which is rarely found in other 8253:Alternative vaccination schedule 7228:Artificial induction of immunity 6490:Primary inoculation tuberculosis 4957:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4661:10.1111/j.1863-2378.2011.01445.x 3755:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2792:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2165: 2042: 1996:was proposed. In the same year, 1912:was first observed in 1907 in a 1555:A notice board by a lakeside in 657:sp. bacteria atop a 0.1 μm 297: 7499: 6988:Gram-negative toe web infection 6564:Group JK corynebacterium sepsis 5380: 5329: 5280: 5261: 5220: 5169: 5151:The New Zealand Medical Journal 5142: 5099: 4860: 4811: 4740:Indian Journal of Ophthalmology 4593: 4505:"Antibiotics for leptospirosis" 4444: 4403: 4362: 4337: 4278: 4084: 4049: 4000: 3973: 3930: 3887: 3793: 3742: 3371:"Factsheet about leptospirosis" 3363: 2918: 2830: 1980:'s subcommittee on taxonomy of 1898:along the coast of what is now 1796: 1475:and slide agglutination tests. 1426:can be attempted. If infected, 1045:cells of the blood vessels and 1026:, and the animal is known as a 981: 861: 343:More than ten genetic types of 8085:Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin) 6729:Ehrlichiosis ewingii infection 6551:Cutaneous diphtheria infection 6505:Tuberculosis cutis orificialis 6416:Borderline tuberculoid leprosy 6406:Borderline lepromatous leprosy 4517:10.1002/14651858.CD008264.pub2 2677: 2238: 2170:This article was submitted to 1931:Spirocheta icterohaemorrhagiae 1336:Erythrocyte sedimentation rate 1310:For those who are infected, a 744:A total of 66 species of 555:altered level of consciousness 534:may be enlarged and palpable. 267:that can infect humans, dogs, 1: 7621:Group B streptococcal disease 7440:Vaccines for Children Program 6753:Primary gonococcal dermatitis 6699:Flinders Island spotted fever 5573:. NCBI Taxonomy Browser. 171. 4705:10.1080/09273948.2016.1217341 4254:10.1080/21645515.2017.1405884 3896:Transplant Infectious Disease 2971:10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.05.087 2160: 1828:disability-adjusted life year 1807:disability-adjusted life year 1580:personal protective equipment 1546: 1223:that target red blood cells. 1199:to prevent the activation of 559:paralysis of half of the body 199:Personal protective equipment 163:against the bacterium or its 8422:Vaccine-preventable diseases 7141:Blistering distal dactylitis 6669:Rocky Mountain spotted fever 6557:Arcanobacterium haemolyticum 6510:Tuberculosis verrucosa cutis 6294:Chronic recurrent erysipelas 6148:Streptobacillus moniliformis 5469:Leptospira and Leptospirosis 5183:Emerging Infectious Diseases 5025:Leptospira and Leptospirosis 4970:10.1371/journal.pntd.0004652 4818:Guerra MA (September 2013). 4416:Clinical Infectious Diseases 4375:Clinical Infectious Diseases 4058:Clinical Infectious Diseases 3768:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003899 3661:"Leptospirosis (Fact sheet)" 3603:10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104241 3537:Leptospira and Leptospirosis 3414:10.1097/QCO.0000000000000295 3321:Leptospira and Leptospirosis 3031:Leptospira and Leptospirosis 2883:Nature Reviews. Microbiology 2805:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003898 2248:Leptospirosis: Global Status 1741: 1704:occurs, early initiation of 1627: 1276: 1253:and spaces between alveoli. 669:bacteria that belong to the 651:Scanning electron micrograph 520:inflammation of the pancreas 7: 8417:Zoonotic bacterial diseases 7161:Blastomycosis-like pyoderma 6782:Chromobacteriosis infection 6694:Mediterranean spotted fever 5907:Louse borne relapsing fever 5477:10.1007/978-3-662-45059-8_9 5033:10.1007/978-3-662-45059-8_1 3802:Encyclopedia of Food Safety 3545:10.1007/978-3-662-45059-8_3 3329:10.1007/978-3-662-45059-8_5 3072:Australian Family Physician 3039:10.1007/978-3-662-45059-8_6 2320:Creative Pub. International 1686:Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction 1322:is present together with a 1113:tumor necrosis factor alpha 665:Leptospirosis is caused by 641: 240:One million people per year 10: 8438: 7181:Tick-borne lymphadenopathy 6983:Gram-negative folliculitis 5931:Tick borne relapsing fever 4648:Zoonoses and Public Health 4097:Infectious Disease Reports 3865:10.1007/s10123-019-00067-3 3853:International Microbiology 2551:10.1007/s10096-019-03797-4 2274:Mosby's Medical Dictionary 1918:silver deposition staining 1869: 1604:is given once a week as a 1522: 1069:using surface leptospiral 1020:proximal convoluted tubule 59:magnified 200-fold with a 18: 8292: 8261: 8200: 8132: 8023: 7995: 7962: 7636: 7467: 7460: 7379: 7307: 7259: 7000: 6920: 6899: 6790: 6737: 6598: 6589: 6580: 6533: 6485:Papulonecrotic tuberculid 6470:Mycobacterium haemophilum 6389: 6380: 6348: 6323: 6307: 6254: 6224: 6215: 6206: 6139:Fusobacterium polymorphum 6120:Fusobacterium necrophorum 6109: 6086:Capnocytophaga canimorsus 6061: 5988: 5944: 5857: 5800: 5791: 5782: 5677: 5581: 5513:Equine Veterinary Journal 5355:10.1186/s12941-016-0157-x 4881:10.1177/00494755211005203 4013:Singapore Medical Journal 3951:10.1007/s10096-012-1625-7 2643:Lane AB, Dore MM (2016). 1720:improves survival rates. 1537:World Health Organization 1515:(PCR) from serum, urine, 1513:polymerase chain reaction 709:(LPS) on the surface, an 244: 236: 226: 208: 194: 170: 153: 143: 127: 119: 99: 78: 66: 55: 46: 38: 33: 7616:Clostridioides difficile 6978:Lymphogranuloma venereum 6684:Flea-borne spotted fever 6657:Rickettsia aeschlimannii 6651:American tick bite fever 6361:Erysipeloid of Rosenbach 6276:Streptococcal intertrigo 6093:Porphyromonas gingivalis 6042:Lymphogranuloma venereum 4070:10.1093/clinids/17.2.241 3467:10.3389/fcimb.2018.00204 2279:Elsevier Health Sciences 2094:Equine recurrent uveitis 1618:effective microorganisms 1430:(CSF) examination shows 840:horizontal gene transfer 824:, detergents and acids. 636: 516:acalculous cholecystitis 488:subconjunctival bleeding 8392:Sheep and goat diseases 8387:Rodent-carried diseases 7874:Tick-borne encephalitis 7109:Trichomycosis axillaris 6646:African tick bite fever 6621:North Asian tick typhus 6541:Cutaneous actinomycosis 6132:Fusobacterium nucleatum 3203:WikiJournal of Medicine 2200:WikiJournal of Medicine 2172:WikiJournal of Medicine 1948:Spirochaeta Icterogenes 1664:Based on a 1988 study, 1332:bone marrow suppression 1285:Kidney tissue, using a 1201:membrane attack complex 1004:peritubular capillaries 591:bleeding from the lungs 567:Guillain-Barré syndrome 261:caused by the bacteria 106:Bleeding from the lungs 8284:List of vaccine topics 7284:Mathematical modelling 6821:Haemophilus influenzae 6765:Pasteurella hemolytica 6689:Japanese spotted fever 6641:Bacillary angiomatosis 6631:Flying squirrel typhus 6626:Queensland tick typhus 6515:Tuberculous cellulitis 6478:Mycobacterium kansasii 6200:Bacterial skin disease 5966:Leptospira interrogans 5196:10.3201/eid1602.090276 5073:. 2012. p. 1231. 4753:10.4103/ijo.IJO_535_20 4171:10.5495/wjcid.v6.i4.61 4025:10.11622/smedj.2013194 3514:. pp. 2541–2549. 2896:10.1038/nrmicro.2017.5 2838:"Rats / RHS Gardening" 2662:10.5495/wjcid.v6.i4.61 2064: 2056: 2015:Orientia tsutsugamushi 1922:Spirocheta interrogans 1810: 1620:, which is mixed with 1588:injection site redness 1575: 1563: 1342:may also be elevated. 1334:should be considered. 1302: 1294: 1259:interstitial nephritis 1086:antimicrobial peptides 1024:commensal relationship 995: 871: 844:LPS biosynthetic genes 801:saprotrophic nutrition 761:L. borgpetersenii 662: 631:abnormal heart rhythms 472:conjunctival suffusion 431: 424:Conjunctival suffusion 416: 172:Differential diagnosis 8279:Vaccinate Your Family 7730:Japanese encephalitis 7136:Elephantiasis nostras 7114:Necrotizing fasciitis 7027:Hospital furunculosis 6709:Brill–Zinsser disease 6340:Dermatitis gangrenosa 6100:Prevotella intermedia 6031:Chlamydia trachomatis 5234:Public Health Reports 4614:10.1093/trstmh/tru148 3216:10.15347/WJM/2022.002 2281:. 2013. p. 697. 2213:10.15347/WJM/2022.002 2062: 2050: 2028:DNA-DNA hybridisation 1804: 1648:were based solely on 1569: 1554: 1484:dark field microscope 1320:low haemoglobin count 1316:high white cell count 1300: 1284: 1243:perisinusoidal spaces 989: 869: 739:dark-field microscopy 649: 422: 414: 285:bleeding in the lungs 61:dark-field microscope 8162:John Franklin Enders 7171:Chronic lymphangitis 6840:Hot tub folliculitis 6829:Pseudomonal pyoderma 6456:Miliary tuberculosis 6446:Lichen scrofulosorum 6246:Toxic shock syndrome 6079:Tannerella forsythia 6072:Bacteroides fragilis 6022:Chlamydia pneumoniae 5902:Borrelia recurrentis 5870:Borrelia burgdorferi 5305:10.1084/jem.23.3.377 4469:10.1128/AAC.00508-07 3718:10.1128/AEM.01190-17 2176:academic peer review 1777:is characterised by 1702:acute kidney failure 1417:creatinine clearance 1386:liver function tests 1324:low white cell count 1312:complete blood count 1249:can be found at the 1142:toll-like receptor 2 1078:innate immune system 1047:extracellular matrix 898:cold-blooded animals 611:coughing up of blood 464:sensitivity to light 201:, hygiene measures, 136:typically spread by 7348:Virus-like particle 7272:Vaccine ingredients 7060:Acute lymphadenitis 7053:Perianal cellulitis 7048:Pyogenic paronychia 6958:Chlamydia infection 6874:Granuloma inguinale 6848:Green nail syndrome 6844:Ecthyma gangrenosum 6719:Cat-scratch disease 6525:Tuberculoid leprosy 6436:Lepromatous leprosy 6283:Streptococcus iniae 6125:Lemierre's syndrome 5848:Treponema denticola 5432:10.4061/2010/928541 5394:on 18 November 2019 5227:Stimson AM (1907). 4929:on 17 November 2017 4358:– via PubMed. 4236:Xu Y; Ye Q (2018). 4203:on 25 December 2016 4110:10.3390/idr13030058 3710:2017ApEnM..83E1190B 3595:2020InfGE..8104241C 3510:(Eighth ed.). 2736:Future Microbiology 2318:. Minnetonka, MN.: 2142:dihydrostreptomycin 2122:immunohistochemical 2092:are also possible. 2032:L. interrogans 1986:L. interrogans 1955:Leptospira canicola 1781:, rapidly maturing 1714:tracheal intubation 1710:peritoneal dialysis 1541:shortness of breath 1531:Diagnostic criteria 1446:Rapid detection of 1428:cerebrospinal fluid 1363:presence of protein 1355:low potassium level 1140:LPS only activates 1090:coagulation cascade 1071:immunoglobulin-like 818:sodium hypochlorite 778:L. mayottensis 767:L. interrogans 599:coagulation testing 232:Risk of death ~7.5% 8319:Never to phase III 8118:Hexavalent vaccine 7932:Epstein–Barr virus 7827:Oxford–AstraZeneca 7520:NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135 7104:Pitted keratolysis 7015:Periapical abscess 6426:Erythema induratum 6411:Borderline leprosy 6401:Aquarium granuloma 6010:Chlamydia psittaci 5836:Treponema carateum 5813:Treponema pallidum 5763:Bacterial diseases 5678:External resources 5106:Clapham D (2004). 4799:on 11 January 2019 2748:10.2217/fmb.10.102 2118:immunofluorescence 2065: 2057: 2022:was classified as 1944:Spirochaeta nodosa 1811: 1576: 1564: 1461:Epstein–Barr virus 1436:aseptic meningitis 1394:haemolytic anaemia 1369:, and microscopic 1340:C-reactive protein 1303: 1295: 1130:, possibly due to 1105:cytoplasmic matrix 996: 872: 789:L. santarosai 773:L. kirschneri 755:L. alexanderi 741:without staining. 707:lipopolysaccharide 663: 603:low platelet count 432: 417: 407:Signs and symptoms 159:Testing blood for 73:Infectious disease 8407:Tropical diseases 8329: 8328: 8241:Vaccines and SIDS 8128: 8127: 7902:Hepatitis A and B 7878:Varicella zoster 7340:Subunit/component 7194: 7193: 7129:Fournier gangrene 6996: 6995: 6895: 6894: 6836:hot-foot syndrome 6809:Vibrio vulnificus 6576: 6575: 6572: 6571: 6520:Tuberculous gumma 6376: 6375: 6166: 6165: 6057: 6056: 5984: 5983: 5980: 5979: 5940: 5939: 5729: 5728: 5525:10.1111/evj.13069 5486:978-3-662-45058-1 5123:978-1-134-45749-6 5080:978-1-4557-0985-4 5071:Elsevier/Saunders 5042:978-3-662-45058-1 4185:Kumar SS (2013). 3945:(10): 2491–2496. 3908:10.1111/tid.12490 3823:978-0-12-378613-5 3554:978-3-662-45058-1 3521:978-1-4557-4801-3 3338:978-3-662-45058-1 3048:978-3-662-45058-1 2697:978-0-7020-5306-1 2358:978-0-7216-2921-6 2349:Saunders Elsevier 2329:978-1-55971-783-0 2314:McKay JE (2001). 2288:978-0-323-11258-1 2258:978-1-4988-2031-8 2245:Berger S (2018). 1998:Leptospira illini 1751:Eye complications 1463:infection, viral 1442:Serological tests 1367:white blood cells 1014:and colonise the 974:and infection in 941:adventure tourism 506:symptoms such as 500:chikungunya fever 436:incubation period 252: 251: 155:Diagnostic method 28:Medical condition 8429: 8220:MMR autism fraud 8167:Maurice Hilleman 8152:Hilary Koprowski 7465: 7464: 7221: 7214: 7207: 7198: 7197: 7166:Bullous impetigo 7087:Sycosis vulgaris 6901:Campylobacterota 6850: 6596: 6595: 6587: 6586: 6387: 6386: 6222: 6221: 6213: 6212: 6193: 6186: 6179: 6170: 6169: 5995: 5994: 5951: 5950: 5926:Borrelia parkeri 5920:Borrelia duttoni 5914:Borrelia hermsii 5892:Neuroborreliosis 5887:Erythema migrans 5876:Borrelia afzelii 5798: 5797: 5789: 5788: 5756: 5749: 5742: 5733: 5732: 5579: 5578: 5574: 5562: 5545: 5544: 5508: 5499: 5498: 5464: 5455: 5454: 5444: 5434: 5410: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5390:. Archived from 5384: 5378: 5377: 5367: 5357: 5333: 5327: 5326: 5316: 5284: 5278: 5277: 5270:Tokyo Ijishinshi 5265: 5259: 5258: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5207: 5173: 5167: 5166: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5103: 5097: 5096: 5094: 5092: 5069:. Philadelphia: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5020: 4993: 4992: 4982: 4972: 4948: 4939: 4938: 4936: 4934: 4925:. Archived from 4915: 4909: 4908: 4864: 4858: 4857: 4847: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4806: 4804: 4785: 4776: 4775: 4765: 4755: 4731: 4725: 4724: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4663: 4639: 4626: 4625: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4580: 4556: 4547: 4546: 4528: 4500: 4491: 4490: 4480: 4448: 4442: 4441: 4431: 4407: 4401: 4400: 4390: 4366: 4360: 4359: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4316: 4307: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4282: 4276: 4275: 4265: 4233: 4227: 4226: 4220: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4202: 4191: 4182: 4176: 4175: 4173: 4147: 4141: 4140: 4130: 4112: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4036: 4004: 3998: 3997: 3977: 3971: 3970: 3934: 3928: 3927: 3891: 3885: 3884: 3850: 3841: 3828: 3827: 3797: 3791: 3790: 3780: 3770: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3729: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3672: 3665: 3656: 3623: 3622: 3578: 3567: 3566: 3532: 3526: 3525: 3503: 3490: 3489: 3479: 3469: 3445: 3436: 3435: 3425: 3393: 3387: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3350: 3316: 3229: 3228: 3218: 3194: 3165: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3154: 3148:. October 2013. 3143: 3135: 3122: 3121: 3097: 3088: 3087: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3026: 2991: 2990: 2954: 2943: 2942: 2922: 2916: 2915: 2877: 2846: 2845: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2817: 2807: 2783: 2770: 2769: 2759: 2727: 2714: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2681: 2675: 2674: 2664: 2640: 2571: 2570: 2534: 2481: 2480: 2444: 2435: 2434: 2424: 2400: 2363: 2362: 2340: 2334: 2333: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2269: 2263: 2262: 2242: 2233: 2215: 2191: 2180:reviewer reports 2169: 2074:loss of appetite 2053:necrotic patches 2020:Leptospira parva 1939:passive immunity 1896:Native Americans 1762:anterior uveitis 1758:immune privilege 1732:chemical signals 1670:benzylpenicillin 1622:bokashi mudballs 1572:Boyolali Regency 1390:Hemolytic anemia 1384:are elevated in 1382:direct bilirubin 1359:low sodium level 1328:thrombocytopenia 1306:Laboratory tests 1217:sphingomyelinase 783:L. noguchii 689:, and 6–20 595:prothrombin time 504:gastrointestinal 325: 320: 319: 316: 315: 312: 309: 306: 303: 123:One to two weeks 51: 31: 30: 8437: 8436: 8432: 8431: 8430: 8428: 8427: 8426: 8382:Mammal diseases 8367:Bovine diseases 8332: 8331: 8330: 8325: 8324: 8309:Clinical trials 8288: 8257: 8196: 8172:Stanley Plotkin 8134: 8124: 8036:Cancer vaccines 8019: 8013:Schistosomiasis 7991: 7985:Trypanosomiasis 7958: 7922:Cytomegalovirus 7832:Pfizer–BioNTech 7632: 7456: 7405:Vaccine wastage 7375: 7303: 7255: 7225: 7195: 7190: 7002: 6992: 6916: 6891: 6827: 6786: 6772:Meningococcemia 6733: 6704:Verruga peruana 6611:Epidemic typhus 6568: 6529: 6431:Histoid leprosy 6392: 6372: 6344: 6319: 6310:Corynebacterium 6303: 6250: 6202: 6197: 6167: 6162: 6157:Haverhill fever 6105: 6053: 5976: 5936: 5853: 5793:Spirochaetaceae 5778: 5760: 5730: 5725: 5724: 5673: 5672: 5590: 5565: 5559:"Leptospirosis" 5557: 5554: 5549: 5548: 5509: 5502: 5487: 5465: 5458: 5411: 5407: 5397: 5395: 5386: 5385: 5381: 5334: 5330: 5285: 5281: 5266: 5262: 5247:10.2307/4559008 5225: 5221: 5174: 5170: 5147: 5143: 5133: 5131: 5124: 5116:. p. 125. 5104: 5100: 5090: 5088: 5081: 5063: 5062: 5058: 5043: 5021: 4996: 4963:(7): e0004652. 4949: 4942: 4932: 4930: 4917: 4916: 4912: 4869:Tropical Doctor 4865: 4861: 4816: 4812: 4802: 4800: 4787: 4786: 4779: 4732: 4728: 4689: 4685: 4640: 4629: 4598: 4594: 4557: 4550: 4511:(2): CD008264. 4501: 4494: 4449: 4445: 4422:(10): 1417–24. 4408: 4404: 4381:(12): 1507–13. 4367: 4363: 4344:"Doxycycline". 4343: 4342: 4338: 4317: 4310: 4300: 4298: 4283: 4279: 4234: 4230: 4214: 4213: 4206: 4204: 4200: 4189: 4183: 4179: 4148: 4144: 4089: 4085: 4054: 4050: 4005: 4001: 3978: 3974: 3935: 3931: 3892: 3888: 3848: 3842: 3831: 3824: 3798: 3794: 3761:(9): e0003899. 3747: 3743: 3690: 3686: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3663: 3657: 3626: 3579: 3570: 3555: 3533: 3529: 3522: 3504: 3493: 3446: 3439: 3394: 3390: 3380: 3378: 3369: 3368: 3364: 3339: 3317: 3232: 3199:"Leptospirosis" 3195: 3168: 3158: 3156: 3152: 3141: 3139:"Leptospirosis" 3137: 3136: 3125: 3100:Weil A (1886). 3098: 3091: 3068: 3064: 3049: 3027: 2994: 2965:(30): 3961–73. 2955: 2946: 2923: 2919: 2878: 2849: 2836: 2835: 2831: 2798:(9): e0003898. 2784: 2773: 2728: 2717: 2707: 2705: 2698: 2682: 2678: 2641: 2574: 2535: 2484: 2445: 2438: 2401: 2366: 2359: 2341: 2337: 2330: 2312: 2308: 2298: 2296: 2289: 2271: 2270: 2266: 2259: 2243: 2239: 2196:"Leptospirosis" 2193: 2187: 2163: 2045: 1990:L. biflexa 1872: 1799: 1753: 1744: 1724:Corticosteroids 1630: 1549: 1533: 1525: 1509: 1507:Molecular tests 1469:cytomegalovirus 1456:L. biflexa 1444: 1424:lumbar puncture 1308: 1287:silver staining 1279: 1251:alveolar septum 1239:liver sinusoids 1035:accidental host 1033:Humans are the 984: 961:recovery period 937:mucous membrane 929:accidental host 927:Humans are the 906:banded mongoose 864: 729:located in the 713:and a layer of 653:of a number of 644: 639: 409: 323: 300: 296: 259:blood infection 248:58,900 per year 29: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8435: 8425: 8424: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8404: 8402:Swine diseases 8399: 8394: 8389: 8384: 8379: 8377:Horse diseases 8374: 8369: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8349: 8344: 8327: 8326: 8323: 8322: 8321: 8320: 8317: 8306: 8300: 8294: 8293: 8290: 8289: 8287: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8265: 8263: 8259: 8258: 8256: 8255: 8250: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8210: 8204: 8202: 8198: 8197: 8195: 8194: 8189: 8187:Katalin Karikó 8184: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8144: 8138: 8136: 8130: 8129: 8126: 8125: 8123: 8122: 8121: 8120: 8115: 8110: 8105: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8076: 8075: 8070: 8069: 8068: 8063: 8053: 8048: 8043: 8033: 8027: 8025: 8021: 8020: 8018: 8017: 8016: 8015: 8010: 8001: 7999: 7993: 7992: 7990: 7989: 7988: 7987: 7979: 7978: 7977: 7966: 7964: 7960: 7959: 7957: 7956: 7955: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7942:Herpes simplex 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7916: 7915: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7896: 7891: 7890: 7889: 7884: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7860: 7859: 7854: 7849: 7844: 7842:Sinopharm BIBP 7839: 7834: 7829: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7792:Bharat Biotech 7789: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7763: 7762: 7757: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7726: 7725: 7720: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7689: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7663: 7662: 7661: 7651: 7646: 7640: 7638: 7634: 7633: 7631: 7630: 7629: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7610: 7609: 7608: 7603: 7595: 7590: 7589: 7588: 7583: 7573: 7572: 7571: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7550: 7549: 7544: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7523: 7522: 7517: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7471: 7469: 7462: 7458: 7457: 7455: 7454: 7453: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7437: 7432: 7424: 7423: 7422: 7420:Vaccine injury 7417: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7383: 7381: 7380:Administration 7377: 7376: 7374: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7354: 7337: 7336: 7335: 7330: 7322: 7317: 7311: 7309: 7305: 7304: 7302: 7301: 7296: 7291: 7286: 7281: 7280: 7279: 7269: 7263: 7261: 7257: 7256: 7224: 7223: 7216: 7209: 7201: 7192: 7191: 7189: 7188: 7186:Tropical ulcer 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7132: 7131: 7126: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7090: 7089: 7084: 7073: 7072: 7067: 7065:Pilonidal cyst 7062: 7057: 7056: 7055: 7050: 7036: 7031: 7030: 7029: 7019: 7018: 7017: 7006: 7004: 6998: 6997: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6968:Rat-bite fever 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6924: 6922: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6914: 6905: 6903: 6897: 6896: 6893: 6892: 6890: 6889: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6851: 6825: 6817: 6812: 6805: 6800: 6798:Pasteurellosis 6794: 6792: 6788: 6787: 6785: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6760: 6755: 6741: 6739: 6735: 6734: 6732: 6731: 6726: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6664:Rickettsialpox 6661: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6606:Endemic typhus 6602: 6600: 6593: 6591:Pseudomonadota 6584: 6578: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6570: 6569: 6567: 6566: 6561: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6537: 6535: 6531: 6530: 6528: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6474: 6466: 6458: 6453: 6451:Lupus vulgaris 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6397: 6395: 6391:Mycobacterium- 6384: 6382:Actinomycetota 6378: 6377: 6374: 6373: 6371: 6370: 6363: 6358: 6352: 6350: 6346: 6345: 6343: 6342: 6337: 6331: 6329: 6321: 6320: 6315: 6313: 6305: 6304: 6302: 6301: 6296: 6287: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6262: 6260: 6252: 6251: 6249: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6232: 6230: 6227:Staphylococcus 6219: 6210: 6204: 6203: 6196: 6195: 6188: 6181: 6173: 6164: 6163: 6161: 6160: 6153:Rat-bite fever 6143: 6142: 6135: 6128: 6115: 6113: 6111:Fusobacteriota 6107: 6106: 6104: 6103: 6096: 6089: 6082: 6075: 6067: 6065: 6059: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6052: 6051: 6050: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6026: 6025: 6018: 6005: 6003: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5982: 5981: 5978: 5977: 5975: 5974: 5961: 5959: 5948: 5946:Leptospiraceae 5942: 5941: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5934: 5910: 5897: 5896: 5895: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5865: 5863: 5855: 5854: 5852: 5851: 5844: 5832: 5831: 5830: 5825: 5808: 5806: 5795: 5786: 5780: 5779: 5771:proteobacteria 5759: 5758: 5751: 5744: 5736: 5727: 5726: 5723: 5722: 5711: 5709:article/788751 5703:article/220563 5694: 5682: 5681: 5679: 5675: 5674: 5671: 5670: 5659: 5648: 5637: 5622: 5607: 5591: 5586: 5585: 5583: 5582:Classification 5576: 5575: 5563: 5553: 5552:External links 5550: 5547: 5546: 5519:(3): 287–292. 5500: 5485: 5456: 5405: 5379: 5328: 5299:(3): 377–402. 5279: 5260: 5219: 5168: 5157:(514): 901–4. 5141: 5122: 5098: 5079: 5056: 5041: 4994: 4940: 4910: 4875:(3): 415–421. 4859: 4810: 4777: 4746:(9): 1977–79. 4726: 4683: 4654:(s2): 132–41. 4627: 4608:(12): 743–50. 4592: 4548: 4492: 4463:(9): 3259–63. 4443: 4429:10.1086/425001 4402: 4388:10.1086/375226 4361: 4336: 4308: 4277: 4228: 4177: 4142: 4103:(3): 619–626. 4083: 4064:(2): 241–243. 4048: 3999: 3988:(4): 418–421. 3972: 3929: 3902:(1): 137–140. 3886: 3859:(2): 127–136. 3829: 3822: 3792: 3741: 3684: 3624: 3568: 3553: 3527: 3520: 3491: 3437: 3388: 3377:. 16 July 2010 3362: 3337: 3230: 3166: 3123: 3089: 3062: 3047: 2992: 2944: 2917: 2890:(5): 297–307. 2847: 2842:www.rhs.org.uk 2829: 2771: 2742:(9): 1413–25. 2715: 2696: 2676: 2572: 2545:(5): 835–846. 2482: 2436: 2364: 2357: 2335: 2328: 2322:. p. 97. 2306: 2287: 2277:(9 ed.). 2264: 2257: 2236: 2235: 2162: 2159: 2044: 2041: 1994:Leptospiraceae 1963:North Carolina 1950:respectively. 1926:Ryukichi Inada 1906:by Europeans. 1871: 1868: 1852:micronutrients 1798: 1795: 1752: 1749: 1743: 1740: 1734:which promote 1629: 1626: 1548: 1545: 1532: 1529: 1524: 1521: 1517:aqueous humour 1508: 1505: 1443: 1440: 1307: 1304: 1278: 1275: 1215:also secretes 1117:interleukin 10 1028:reservoir host 983: 980: 863: 860: 803:). Pathogenic 795:L. weilii 735:Chemoreceptors 711:inner membrane 703:outer membrane 643: 640: 638: 635: 613:, and causing 587:vomiting blood 547:kidney failure 522:. Rarely, the 476:conjunctivitis 408: 405: 367:in the blood. 334:kidney failure 293:Weil's disease 250: 249: 246: 242: 241: 238: 234: 233: 230: 224: 223: 210: 206: 205: 196: 192: 191: 174: 168: 167: 157: 151: 150: 147: 141: 140: 129: 125: 124: 121: 117: 116: 114:kidney failure 103: 97: 96: 82: 76: 75: 70: 64: 63: 53: 52: 44: 43: 40: 36: 35: 27: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8434: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8339: 8337: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8295: 8291: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8266: 8264: 8260: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8248: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8205: 8203: 8199: 8193: 8192:Drew Weissman 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8177:H. Fred Clark 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8147:Louis Pasteur 8145: 8143: 8142:Edward Jenner 8140: 8139: 8137: 8131: 8119: 8116: 8114: 8113:DTwP-HepB-Hib 8111: 8109: 8108:DTaP-IPV-HepB 8106: 8104: 8101: 8100: 8099:combination: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8074: 8071: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8058: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8049: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8038: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8028: 8026: 8022: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8005: 8003: 8002: 8000: 7998: 7997:Helminthiasis 7994: 7986: 7983: 7982: 7980: 7976: 7973: 7972: 7971: 7968: 7967: 7965: 7961: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7919: 7917: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7899: 7898:combination: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7879: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7784: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7752: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7715: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7676: 7672: 7669: 7668: 7667: 7664: 7660: 7657: 7656: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7641: 7639: 7635: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7601:DPT/DTwP/DTaP 7599: 7598: 7597:combination: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7578: 7577: 7574: 7570: 7567: 7566: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7539: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7512: 7511: 7510:Meningococcus 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7500:Leptospirosis 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7472: 7470: 7466: 7463: 7459: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7435:Vaccine court 7433: 7431: 7428: 7427: 7425: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7390:GAVI Alliance 7388: 7387: 7385: 7384: 7382: 7378: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7338: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7325: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7312: 7310: 7306: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7278: 7275: 7274: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7264: 7262: 7258: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7222: 7217: 7215: 7210: 7208: 7203: 7202: 7199: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7146:Botryomycosis 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7121: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7079: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7045: 7042: 7041: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7028: 7025: 7024: 7023: 7022:Boil/furuncle 7020: 7016: 7013: 7012: 7011: 7008: 7007: 7005: 6999: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6963:Leptospirosis 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6919: 6913: 6911: 6907: 6906: 6904: 6902: 6898: 6888: 6886: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6859:Salmonellosis 6857: 6855: 6852: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6835: 6830: 6826: 6824: 6822: 6818: 6816: 6815:Rhinoscleroma 6813: 6811: 6810: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6795: 6793: 6789: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6766: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6743: 6742: 6740: 6736: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6658: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6603: 6601: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6579: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6558: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6538: 6536: 6532: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6500:Scrofuloderma 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6479: 6475: 6473: 6471: 6467: 6465: 6463: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6398: 6396: 6394: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6379: 6369: 6368: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6353: 6351: 6347: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6332: 6330: 6328: 6327: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6312: 6311: 6306: 6300: 6299:Scarlet fever 6297: 6295: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6284: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6263: 6261: 6259: 6258: 6257:Streptococcus 6253: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6233: 6231: 6229: 6228: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6194: 6189: 6187: 6182: 6180: 6175: 6174: 6171: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6149: 6145: 6144: 6141: 6140: 6136: 6134: 6133: 6129: 6126: 6122: 6121: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6112: 6108: 6102: 6101: 6097: 6095: 6094: 6090: 6088: 6087: 6083: 6081: 6080: 6076: 6074: 6073: 6069: 6068: 6066: 6064: 6060: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6033: 6032: 6028: 6027: 6024: 6023: 6019: 6016: 6012: 6011: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6002: 6001: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5987: 5972: 5971:Leptospirosis 5968: 5967: 5963: 5962: 5960: 5958: 5957: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5943: 5932: 5928: 5927: 5922: 5921: 5916: 5915: 5911: 5908: 5904: 5903: 5899: 5898: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5879: 5878: 5877: 5872: 5871: 5867: 5866: 5864: 5862: 5861: 5856: 5850: 5849: 5845: 5842: 5838: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5820: 5817: 5816: 5815: 5814: 5810: 5809: 5807: 5805: 5804: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5784:Spirochaetota 5781: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5767:gram negative 5764: 5757: 5752: 5750: 5745: 5743: 5738: 5737: 5734: 5721: 5720:Leptospirosis 5717: 5716: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5706:article/96569 5704: 5700: 5699: 5695: 5693: 5689: 5688: 5684: 5683: 5680: 5676: 5669: 5665: 5664: 5660: 5658: 5654: 5653: 5649: 5647: 5643: 5642: 5638: 5636: 5632: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5621: 5617: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5606: 5602: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5592: 5589: 5584: 5580: 5572: 5570: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5555: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5507: 5505: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5463: 5461: 5452: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5409: 5393: 5389: 5383: 5375: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5332: 5324: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5283: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5235: 5230: 5223: 5215: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5184: 5179: 5172: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5145: 5129: 5125: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5110: 5102: 5086: 5082: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5067: 5060: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5019: 5017: 5015: 5013: 5011: 5009: 5007: 5005: 5003: 5001: 4999: 4990: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4947: 4945: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4914: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4814: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4784: 4782: 4773: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4730: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4699:(4): 569–76. 4698: 4694: 4687: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4588: 4584: 4579: 4574: 4571:(5): 501–10. 4570: 4566: 4562: 4555: 4553: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4499: 4497: 4488: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4447: 4439: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4406: 4398: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4348: 4340: 4331: 4326: 4322: 4315: 4313: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4281: 4273: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4248:(4): 984–93. 4247: 4243: 4239: 4232: 4224: 4218: 4199: 4195: 4188: 4181: 4172: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4158: 4153: 4146: 4138: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4087: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4044: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4019:(2): e20-24. 4018: 4014: 4010: 4003: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3976: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3933: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3890: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3847: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3834: 3825: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3796: 3788: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3745: 3737: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3688: 3669: 3662: 3655: 3653: 3651: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3577: 3575: 3573: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3531: 3523: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3487: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3444: 3442: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3392: 3376: 3372: 3366: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3340: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3263: 3261: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3226: 3222: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3177: 3175: 3173: 3171: 3151: 3147: 3140: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3128: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3108:(in German). 3107: 3103: 3096: 3094: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3066: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3025: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3017: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3009: 3007: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2940: 2936: 2933:(4): 586–90. 2932: 2928: 2921: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2884: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2843: 2839: 2833: 2825: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2767: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2703: 2699: 2693: 2689: 2688: 2680: 2672: 2668: 2663: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2591: 2589: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2579: 2577: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2499: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2455:(5): 376–86. 2454: 2450: 2443: 2441: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2385: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2375: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2360: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2339: 2331: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2310: 2294: 2290: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2275: 2268: 2260: 2254: 2250: 2249: 2241: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2174:for external 2173: 2168: 2158: 2155: 2150: 2147: 2143: 2138: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2113: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2069: 2061: 2054: 2049: 2043:Other animals 2040: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2016: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1892:Schlammfieber 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1847: 1844: 1839: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1808: 1803: 1794: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1763: 1759: 1748: 1739: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1706:haemodialysis 1703: 1699: 1694: 1691: 1690:meta-analysis 1687: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1634: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1614: 1612: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1583: 1581: 1573: 1568: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1535:In 1982, the 1528: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1504: 1502: 1498: 1493: 1489: 1488:agglutination 1485: 1481: 1476: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1457: 1454:. Typically, 1453: 1449: 1439: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1420: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1378:transaminases 1374: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1299: 1292: 1288: 1283: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1188: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1157: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1115:(TNF-α), and 1114: 1110: 1109:interleukin 6 1106: 1102: 1098: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1074: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1012:renal tubules 1009: 1005: 1001: 993: 988: 979: 977: 973: 969: 964: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 925: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 902:primary hosts 899: 895: 891: 889: 883: 881: 877: 868: 859: 857: 853: 849: 848:agglutination 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 823: 819: 815: 810: 806: 802: 798: 796: 791: 790: 785: 784: 779: 775: 774: 769: 768: 763: 762: 757: 756: 751: 747: 742: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 715:peptidoglycan 712: 708: 705:studded with 704: 700: 696: 695:Gram-negative 692: 688: 685: 681: 677: 676: 672: 668: 660: 659:polycarbonate 656: 652: 648: 634: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 579:nose bleeding 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 543: 541: 535: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 444: 441: 437: 429: 425: 421: 413: 404: 402: 398: 394: 390: 385: 383: 379: 374: 368: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 341: 339: 335: 331: 327: 326: 318: 294: 290: 286: 283:) to severe ( 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 265: 260: 256: 255:Leptospirosis 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 229: 225: 222: 218: 214: 211: 207: 204: 200: 197: 193: 190: 186: 185:rickettsiosis 182: 181:enteric fever 178: 175: 173: 169: 166: 162: 158: 156: 152: 148: 146: 142: 139: 135: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 115: 111: 107: 104: 102: 101:Complications 98: 95: 91: 87: 83: 81: 77: 74: 71: 69: 65: 62: 58: 54: 50: 45: 41: 37: 34:Leptospirosis 32: 26: 22: 8397:Spirochaetes 8372:Dog diseases 8269:Epidemiology 8245: 8217: 8103:DTaP-IPV/Hib 7894:Yellow fever 7807:EpiVacCorona 7564:Tuberculosis 7537:Pneumococcal 7505:Lyme disease 7333:Heterologous 7232:Immunization 7151:Malakoplakia 7077:Folliculitis 7001:Unspecified 6973:Lyme disease 6962: 6910:Helicobacter 6909: 6884: 6833: 6820: 6807: 6764: 6745:Gonococcemia 6656: 6636:Trench fever 6616:Scrub typhus 6556: 6477: 6469: 6461: 6421:Buruli ulcer 6390: 6365: 6335:Gas gangrene 6324: 6308: 6282: 6255: 6225: 6146: 6137: 6130: 6118: 6098: 6091: 6084: 6077: 6070: 6063:Bacteroidota 6029: 6020: 6008: 5998: 5970: 5964: 5954: 5924: 5918: 5912: 5900: 5882:Lyme disease 5874: 5868: 5858: 5846: 5834: 5811: 5801: 5713: 5696: 5685: 5661: 5650: 5639: 5624: 5609: 5594: 5568: 5516: 5512: 5468: 5422: 5418: 5408: 5396:. Retrieved 5392:the original 5382: 5345: 5341: 5331: 5296: 5292: 5282: 5273: 5269: 5263: 5238: 5232: 5222: 5190:(2): 281–6. 5187: 5181: 5171: 5154: 5150: 5144: 5132:. Retrieved 5108: 5101: 5089:. Retrieved 5065: 5059: 5024: 4960: 4956: 4931:. Retrieved 4927:the original 4922: 4913: 4872: 4868: 4862: 4830:(5): 295–7. 4827: 4823: 4813: 4801:. Retrieved 4797:the original 4743: 4739: 4729: 4696: 4692: 4686: 4651: 4647: 4605: 4601: 4595: 4568: 4564: 4508: 4460: 4456: 4446: 4419: 4415: 4405: 4378: 4374: 4364: 4346: 4339: 4320: 4299:. Retrieved 4294: 4290: 4280: 4245: 4241: 4231: 4205:. Retrieved 4198:the original 4193: 4180: 4164:(4): 61–66. 4161: 4155: 4145: 4100: 4096: 4086: 4061: 4057: 4051: 4016: 4012: 4002: 3985: 3981: 3975: 3942: 3938: 3932: 3899: 3895: 3889: 3856: 3852: 3805: 3801: 3795: 3758: 3754: 3744: 3701: 3697: 3687: 3675:. Retrieved 3586: 3582: 3536: 3530: 3507: 3460:(204): 204. 3457: 3453: 3408:(5): 440–5. 3405: 3401: 3391: 3379:. Retrieved 3374: 3365: 3320: 3206: 3202: 3157:. Retrieved 3145: 3109: 3105: 3078:(7): 495–8. 3075: 3071: 3065: 3030: 2962: 2958: 2930: 2926: 2920: 2887: 2881: 2841: 2832: 2795: 2791: 2739: 2735: 2706:. Retrieved 2686: 2679: 2652: 2648: 2542: 2538: 2452: 2448: 2412: 2409:Acta Tropica 2408: 2344: 2338: 2315: 2309: 2297:. Retrieved 2273: 2267: 2247: 2240: 2203: 2199: 2184:CC-BY-SA-3.0 2171: 2164: 2153: 2151: 2146:streptomycin 2139: 2133: 2125: 2114: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2070: 2066: 2035: 2031: 2030:technology, 2023: 2019: 2013: 2010:scrub typhus 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1973: 1971: 1954: 1952: 1947: 1943: 1930: 1921: 1909: 1908: 1891: 1887: 1873: 1848: 1840: 1812: 1797:Epidemiology 1789:and retinal 1766: 1754: 1745: 1736:inflammation 1727: 1722: 1718:tidal volume 1695: 1682: 1663: 1654:Tetracycline 1649: 1638:azithromycin 1635: 1631: 1615: 1600: 1591: 1584: 1577: 1560: 1534: 1526: 1510: 1501:convalescent 1496: 1486:to look for 1479: 1477: 1455: 1447: 1445: 1421: 1375: 1344: 1309: 1290: 1254: 1226: 1225: 1212: 1186: 1181:opsonisation 1160: 1158: 1153: 1137: 1136: 1132:superantigen 1100: 1096: 1076:Through the 1075: 1038: 1032: 1016:brush border 997: 991: 982:Pathogenesis 965: 956: 932: 926: 910:Egyptian fox 893: 892: 884: 875: 873: 862:Transmission 855: 851: 835: 827: 826: 822:formaldehyde 808: 804: 793: 787: 781: 777: 771: 765: 759: 753: 745: 743: 722: 718: 698: 684:right-handed 678:, which are 673: 664: 654: 544: 536: 496:dengue fever 452:muscle aches 445: 433: 400: 386: 369: 349:animal urine 344: 342: 337: 292: 277:muscle pains 262: 254: 253: 145:Risk factors 131: 90:muscle pains 56: 25: 8305:from market 8201:Controversy 8135:researchers 8051:Hepatitis B 7937:Hepatitis C 7882:Chicken pox 7708:Hepatitis E 7703:Hepatitis B 7698:Hepatitis A 7649:Chikungunya 7626:Shigellosis 7480:Brucellosis 7366:Therapeutic 7320:Inactivated 7260:Development 7248:Inoculation 7240:Vaccination 7156:Pyomyositis 6864:Shigellosis 6834:Pseudomonas 6758:Melioidosis 6724:Oroya fever 6714:Brucellosis 6546:Nocardiosis 6356:Listeriosis 6326:Clostridium 6015:Psittacosis 5990:Chlamydiota 5687:MedlinePlus 5398:18 November 5241:(18): 541. 5134:21 February 5091:21 February 4933:30 November 4923:www.who.int 4824:Biologicals 4330:10665/67088 4207:16 November 3808:: 189–193. 3381:5 September 3112:: 209–232. 2708:2 September 2299:21 February 2024:Turneriella 2018:. In 2005, 1935:guinea pigs 1914:post mortem 1900:New England 1820:subtropical 1698:hypokalemia 1674:Ceftriaxone 1666:intravenous 1646:amoxicillin 1606:prophylaxis 1602:Doxycycline 1432:lymphocytic 1404:. Abnormal 1314:may show a 1273:are found. 1231:hepatocytes 1197:vitronectin 1179:) to avoid 1099:. However, 1067:plasminogen 1055:macrophages 1051:fibroblasts 1043:endothelial 972:miscarriage 693:long. Like 691:micrometers 667:spirochaete 633:may occur. 524:lymph nodes 512:dehydration 468:calf muscle 428:conjunctiva 382:ceftriaxone 373:doxycycline 221:ceftriaxone 213:Doxycycline 203:doxycycline 120:Usual onset 39:Other names 8336:Categories 8236:Thiomersal 8182:Paul Offit 8157:Jonas Salk 8133:Inventors/ 8004:research: 7981:research: 7918:research: 7847:Skycovione 7837:Sanofi–GSK 7782:SARS-CoV-2 7693:Hantavirus 7659:rVSV-ZEBOV 7644:Adenovirus 7612:research: 7490:Diphtheria 7328:Attenuated 7044:Paronychia 7039:Cellulitis 6912:cellulitis 6823:cellulitis 6763:Cutaneous 6367:Mycoplasma 6317:Erythrasma 6290:Erysipelas 6281:Cutaneous 5956:Leptospira 5715:Patient UK 5663:DiseasesDB 5569:Leptospira 5425:: 928541. 4297:(2): 46–56 3589:: 104241. 3159:8 November 3118:1040554855 2415:: 105183. 2230:Q100400590 2161:References 2154:Leptospira 2134:Leptospira 2130:Gram stain 2126:Leptospira 2110:Leptospira 2106:Leptospira 2102:Leptospira 2098:Leptospira 2082:cell death 2036:Leptospira 2012:caused by 1982:Leptospira 1974:Leptospira 1959:Fort Bragg 1910:Leptospira 1888:nanukayami 1876:Adolf Weil 1843:Antarctica 1836:filariasis 1791:vasculitis 1771:mydriatics 1767:Leptospira 1728:Leptospira 1678:Cefotaxime 1658:rickettsia 1642:ampicillin 1592:Leptospira 1561:Leptospira 1547:Prevention 1497:Leptospira 1480:Leptospira 1448:Leptospira 1398:conjugated 1371:haematuria 1351:creatinine 1291:Leptospira 1255:Leptospira 1227:Leptospira 1221:haemolysin 1213:Leptospira 1161:Leptospira 1154:Leptospira 1144:(TLR2) in 1138:Leptospira 1101:Leptospira 1097:Leptospira 1063:fibrinogen 1039:Leptospira 1000:glomerular 992:Leptospira 957:Leptospira 945:triathlons 933:Leptospira 894:Leptospira 888:widespread 876:Leptospira 856:Leptospira 852:Leptospira 836:Leptospira 828:Leptospira 816:, 1% 809:Leptospira 805:Leptospira 746:Leptospira 723:Leptospira 719:Leptospira 699:Leptospira 697:bacteria, 675:Leptospira 655:Leptospira 575:ecchymoses 401:Leptospira 397:Adolf Weil 378:penicillin 361:antibodies 345:Leptospira 289:meningitis 264:Leptospira 217:penicillin 195:Prevention 161:antibodies 133:Leptospira 110:meningitis 57:Leptospira 8315:Phase III 8303:Withdrawn 8231:Pox party 8041:ALVAC-CEA 7963:Protozoan 7852:Sputnik V 7802:CoronaVac 7772:Rotavirus 7675:Pandemrix 7527:Pertussis 7468:Bacterial 7352:Synthetic 7315:Conjugate 7267:Adjuvants 7244:Infection 7034:Carbuncle 6887:infection 6885:Aeromonas 6879:Chancroid 6803:Tularemia 6767:infection 6749:Gonorrhea 6659:infection 6559:infection 6480:infection 6472:infection 6464:infection 6285:infection 6217:Bacillota 6037:Chlamydia 6000:Chlamydia 5803:Treponema 5698:eMedicine 5348:(1): 42. 5276:: 351–60. 5114:Routledge 4905:233191847 4889:1758-1133 4217:cite book 4119:2036-7449 3619:211135356 3225:250435398 2987:186204949 2671:2220-3176 2655:(4): 61. 2567:209669669 2477:220576544 2222:2002-4436 2186:license ( 2178:in 2019 ( 2002:Leptonema 1967:shinbones 1904:New World 1880:nephritis 1864:magnesium 1824:temperate 1787:hyperemia 1742:Prognosis 1716:with low 1628:Treatment 1596:trivalent 1465:hepatitis 1277:Diagnosis 1235:bilirubin 1205:proteases 1146:monocytes 1082:cytokines 914:Rusa deer 858:species. 812:70% 731:periplasm 727:flagellum 571:petechiae 393:Outbreaks 330:jaundiced 273:headaches 237:Frequency 228:Prognosis 209:Treatment 86:headaches 68:Specialty 21:Rat Fever 8412:Zoonoses 8073:Prostvac 8066:Gardasil 8061:Cervarix 8008:Hookworm 7887:Shingles 7869:Smallpox 7787:Corbevax 7723:Gardasil 7718:Cervarix 7461:Vaccines 7415:Schedule 7386:Global: 7294:Timeline 7236:Vaccines 7119:Gangrene 7070:Pyoderma 7003:pathogen 6933:Syphilis 6928:Syphilid 6777:Glanders 6582:Gram -ve 6266:Impetigo 6241:Impetigo 6208:Gram +ve 6047:Trachoma 5860:Borrelia 5819:Syphilis 5541:58578433 5533:30629756 5495:25388137 5451:21274452 5374:27449770 5323:19867994 5214:20113559 5128:Archived 5085:Archived 5051:25388129 4989:27387046 4897:33832378 4854:23850378 4803:28 April 4772:32823447 4721:21683688 4713:27598430 4678:37444586 4670:22958257 4622:25266477 4587:23930159 4543:44941071 4535:22336839 4526:11299142 4487:17638700 4438:15546074 4397:12802748 4356:31643675 4272:29148958 4137:34287302 4043:24712035 3967:14033595 3959:22549729 3916:26671230 3881:78095369 3873:30875033 3787:26368568 3736:28754706 3677:15 March 3668:Archived 3611:32061688 3563:25388131 3512:Elsevier 3486:29974037 3432:27537829 3357:25388133 3150:Archived 3084:20628664 3057:25388134 2979:31186193 2912:11626842 2904:28260786 2824:26379143 2766:20860485 2702:Archived 2559:31898795 2469:16148523 2431:31542372 2293:Archived 2226:Wikidata 2206:(1): 2. 2078:mottling 1884:jaundice 1816:tropical 1783:cataract 1779:hypopyon 1650:in vitro 1293:bacteria 1267:fibrosis 1247:bleeding 1128:genotype 1059:thrombin 990:Ways of 968:placenta 953:canoeing 947:, water 880:biofilms 701:have an 642:Bacteria 492:jaundice 478:without 456:temporal 448:symptoms 440:biphasic 389:tropical 80:Symptoms 8262:Related 8208:General 7970:Malaria 7857:Valneva 7822:Novavax 7817:Moderna 7812:Janssen 7797:CanSino 7777:Rubella 7735:Measles 7606:Td/Tdap 7576:Typhoid 7559:Tetanus 7554:Q fever 7485:Cholera 7475:Anthrax 7344:Peptide 7308:Classes 7289:Storage 7099:Ecthyma 7010:Abscess 6938:Chancre 6854:Q fever 6441:Leprosy 6393:related 5765:due to 5657:D007922 5442:3025382 5365:4957883 5314:2125418 5255:4559008 5205:2957993 5163:4527727 4980:4936698 4845:4629849 4763:7690476 4578:3733179 4478:2043199 4301:1 March 4263:5893195 4128:8293114 4078:8399874 4034:4291937 3994:7650320 3924:3548455 3778:4569256 3727:5601346 3706:Bibcode 3591:Bibcode 3477:6019470 3423:5127924 3348:4442676 2959:Vaccine 2939:3446001 2815:4574773 2757:3037011 2090:uveitis 2026:. With 1870:History 1860:calcium 1775:uveitis 1700:. 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