Russian Civil War - Knowledge

2082: 3104:" that any nation under imperial Russian rule should be immediately given the power of self-determination, the Bolsheviks had begun to usurp the power of the Provisional Government in the territories of Central Asia soon after the establishment of the Turkestan Committee in Tashkent. In April 1917 the Provisional Government set up the committee, which was mostly made up of former Tsarist officials. The Bolsheviks attempted to take control of the Committee in Tashkent on 12 September 1917 but it was unsuccessful, and many leaders were arrested. However, because the Committee lacked representation of the native population and poor Russian settlers, they had to release the Bolshevik prisoners almost immediately because of a public outcry, and a successful takeover of that government body took place two months later in November. The Leagues of Mohammedam Working People (which Russian settlers and natives who had been sent to work behind the lines for the Tsarist government in 1916 formed in March 1917) had led numerous strikes in the industrial centers throughout September 1917. However, after the Bolshevik destruction of the Provisional Government in 880: 469: 3924: 534: 678: 666: 654: 642: 630: 196: 3241: 209: 8601:, who published a series of articles about Russia in Edinburgh newspaper "The Scotsman" touched upon the death statistics in an essay on terror (No. 7, November 1923.). He summarized the outcome of the Bolshevik massacre as follows: 28 bishops, 1219 clergy, 6000 professors and teachers, 9000 doctors, 54,000 officers, 260,000 soldiers, 70,000 policemen, 12,950 landowners, 355,250 professionals, 193,290 workers, 815,000 peasants. The author did not provide the sources of that data. Needless to say that the precise counts seem fictional, but the author's of terror in Russia in general matches reality." The note is somewhat abbreviated in the 1925 English edition indicated in the bibliography: in particular, there is no mention of the imaginative nature of the data (p. 111, note n. 1). 222: 235: 3425: 603: 3696:, who assisted the Mensheviks in Ashkhabad (now the capital of Turkmenistan) with a small Anglo-Indian force. However, he failed to gain control of Tashkent, Bukhara and Khiva. The third was Major General Dunsterville, who was driven out by the Bolsheviks of Central Asia only a month after his arrival in August 1918. Despite setbacks as a result of British invasions during 1918, the Bolsheviks continued to make progress in bringing the Central Asian population under their influence. The first regional congress of the Russian Communist Party convened in the city of Tashkent in June 1918 in order to build support for a local Bolshevik Party. 392: 588: 1157: 343: 2371:

counterrevolutionaries and seeking to "organize armed attacks against the workers and peasants" (though Mensheviks had not supported them), while the Left SRs advocated forming a government of all socialist parties. The Left SRs agreed with extrajudicial execution of political opponents to stop the counterrevolution, but opposed having the government legally pronouncing death sentences, an unusual position that is best understood within the context of the group's terrorist past. The Left SRs strongly opposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and opposed Trotsky's insistence that no one try to attack German troops in Ukraine.

3480:) followed the Red Army, conducting field tribunals and summary executions of soldiers and officers who deserted, retreated from their positions, or failed to display sufficient offensive zeal. The Cheka Special Investigations Forces were also charged with the detection of sabotage and counter-revolutionary activity by Red Army soldiers and commanders. Trotsky extended the use of the death penalty to the occasional political commissar whose detachment retreated or broke in the face of the enemy. In August, frustrated at continued reports of Red Army troops breaking under fire, Trotsky authorised the formation of 3804:

withdrew. He repeatedly asked permission to withdraw his army across the border to Estonia. However, units retreating across the border were disarmed and interned by orders of the Estonian government, which had entered into peace negotiations with the Soviet Government on 16 September and had been informed by the Soviet authorities of their 6 November decision that if the White Army was allowed to retreat into Estonia, it would be pursued across the border by the Reds. In fact, the Reds attacked Estonian army positions and fighting continued until a ceasefire went into effect on 3 January 1920. After the

3170:. That suspicion was bolstered by the German Foreign Ministry's sponsorship of Lenin's return to Petrograd. However, after the military fiasco of the summer offensive (June 1917) by the Russian Provisional Government had devastated the structure of the Russian Army, it became crucial that Lenin realize the promised peace. Even before the failed summer offensive the Russian population was very skeptical about the continuation of the war. Western socialists had promptly arrived from France and from the UK to convince the Russians to continue the fight, but could not change the new pacifist mood of Russia. 1111: 1042: 2762:. The revolts were bloodily crushed by the Bolsheviks: in the Voronezh Oblast, the Red Guards killed sixteen peasants during the pacification of the village, while another village was shelled with artillery in order to force the peasants to surrender and in the Novgorod Oblast the rebelling peasants were dispersed with machine-gun fire from a train sent by a detachment of Latvian Red Army soldiers. While the Bolsheviks immediately denounced the rebellion as orchestrated by the SRs, there is actually no evidence that they were involved into peasant violence, which they deemed as counterproductive. 916: 520: 1187: 380: 404: 1147: 848: 319: 4153:

forces in Siberia. Although the communication failure weakened the Red Army, the Bolsheviks continued their efforts to gain support for the Bolshevik Party in Central Asia by holding a second regional conference in March. During the conference, a regional bureau of Muslim organisations of the Russian Bolshevik Party was formed. The Bolshevik Party continued to try to gain support among the native population by giving it the impression of better representation for the Central Asian population and throughout the end of the year could maintain harmony with the Central Asian people.

1137: 1127: 836: 331: 1013: 573: 307: 492: 4038: 3932: 949: 4201: 3147: 965: 1068: 4623:, a total of 140,000 people were shot in 1917–1922, but Jonathan D. Smele estimates they were considerably fewer, "perhaps less than half that many". Candidate of Historical Sciences Nikolay Zayats states that the number of people shot by the Cheka in 1918–1922 is about 37,300 people, shot in 1918–1921 by the verdicts of the tribunals — 14,200, i.e. about 50,000–55,000 people in total, although executions and atrocities were not limited to the Cheka, having been organized by the Red Army as well. In 1924, an anti-Bolshevik 7809: 978: 430: 2988:

suffered another reverse after a mass defection of units in the Crimea to the anarchist Insurgent Army under Nestor Makhno, enabling anarchist forces to consolidate power in Ukraine. Leon Trotsky soon reformed the Red Army, concluding the first of two military alliances with the anarchists. In June the Red Army first checked Kolchak's advance. After a series of engagements, assisted by an Insurgent Army offensive against White supply lines, the Red Army defeated Denikin's and Yudenich's armies in October and November.

2925: 3024: 4634:'s estimates of 1,766,188 deaths from the Bolshevik policies. He questioned the accuracy of the figures, but endorsed Saroléa's "chracterisation of terror in Russia", stating it matches reality. Modern historian Sergei Volkov, assessing the Red Terror as the entire repressive policy of the Bolsheviks during the years of the Civil War (1917–1922), estimates the direct death toll of the Red Terror at 2 million people. Volkov's calculations, however, do not appear to have been confirmed by other major scholars. 4608: 3848: 1101: 1029: 16616: 5245: 417: 7022:, p. 258 quotes such comments from the peasant soldiers during the first weeks of the war: We have talked it over among ourselves; if the Germans want payment, it would be better to pay ten roubles a head than to kill people. Or: Is it not all the same what Tsar we live under? It cannot be worse under the German one. Or: Let them go and fight themselves. Wait a while, we will settle accounts with you. Or: 'What devil has brought this war on us? We are butting into other people's business.' 4558: 898: 506: 4085: 997: 70: 2810: 730: 16628: 3785: 4490: 1091: 712: 4619:

December 1917 to February 1922. Estimates for the number of people shot during the initial period of the Red Terror are at least 10,000. Estimates for the whole period go for a low of 50,000 to highs of 140,000 and 200,000 executed. Most estimations for the number of executions in total put the number at about 100,000. According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people. According to

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years of war and a severe drought, contributed to a famine that caused between 3 and 10 million deaths. Coal production decreased from 27.5 million tons (1913) to 7 million tons (1920), while overall factory production also declined from 10,000 million roubles to 1,000 million roubles. According to the noted historian David Christian, the grain harvest was also slashed from 80.1 million tons (1913) to 46.5 million tons (1920).

3657: 13591: 286: 274: 261: 4386: 1081: 818: 806: 794: 782: 770: 758: 738: 720: 702: 2574: 2402:, the British military, once invited in, proceeded to execute members of the Bolshevik Party who had peacefully stood down from the Soviet when they failed to win the elections. As a result, the Bolsheviks banned each opposition party when it turned against the Soviet government. In some cases, bans were lifted. This banning of parties did not have the same repressive character as later bans enforced under the 13581: 868: 451: 247: 2587: 4308:. Repression and minor concessions only temporarily quelled the discontent as Petrograd protests continued that year in March. This time the factory workers were joined by sailors stationed on the nearby island-fort of Kronstadt. Disappointed in the direction of the Bolshevik government, the rebels demanded a series of reforms including: reduction in Bolshevik privileges, newly elected 4664:, out of a population of around three million. An estimated 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine. Punitive organs of the All Great Don Cossack Host sentenced 25,000 people to death between May 1918 and January 1919. Kolchak's government shot 25,000 people in Ekaterinburg province alone. The White Terror, as it would become known, killed about 300,000 people in total. 3085:. Volunteers of the small army were mostly officers of the old Russian army, military cadets and students. In December 1917, Alekseev was joined by General Lavr Kornilov, Denikin and other Tsarist officers who had escaped from the jail, where they had been imprisoned following the abortive Kornilov affair just before the Revolution. On 9 December, the 3907:. On 14 November 1919 the Red Army captured Omsk. Adm. Kolchak lost control of his government shortly after the defeat; White Army forces in Siberia had essentially ceased to exist by December. Retreat of the eastern front by White armies lasted three months, until mid-February 1920, when the survivors, after crossing Lake Baikal, reached the 8062:, 28 August 1934: In addition to supplying White Army forces and their sympathizers with food, a successful seizure of the 1920 Ukrainian grain harvest would have had a devastating effect on food supplies to Bolshevik-held cities, while depriving both Red Army and Ukrainian Insurgent Army troops of their usual bread rations. 4233:

disastrous Novorossiysk evacuation, Denikin stepped down and the military council elected Wrangel as the new Commander-in-Chief of the White Army. He was able to restore order to the dispirited troops and reshape an army that could fight as a regular force again. It remained an organized force in the Crimea throughout 1920.

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for a little army of 15,000 ex-officers to master a working-class capital of 700,000 inhabitants." He settled on a strategy of urban defense, proclaiming that the city would "defend itself on its own ground" and that the White Army would be lost in a labyrinth of fortified streets and there "meet its grave".

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collapsed, with barter increasingly replacing money as a medium of exchange and, by 1921, heavy industry output had fallen to 20% of 1913 levels. 90% of wages were paid with goods rather than money. 70% of locomotives were in need of repair, and food requisitioning, combined with the effects of seven

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and joined Semyonov's troops, forming the Far Eastern army. With the support of the Japanese army, it was able to hold Chita, but after the withdrawal of Japanese soldiers from Transbaikalia, Semenov's position became untenable and in November 1920 he was driven by the Red Army from Transbaikalia and

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By the beginning of 1920, the main body of the Armed Forces of South Russia was rapidly retreating towards the Don, to Rostov. Denikin hoped to hold the crossings of the Don, then rest and reform his troops, but the White Army was not able to hold the Don area, and at the end of February 1920 started

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By February 1919 the British government had pulled its military forces out of Central Asia. Despite the success for the Red Army, the White Army's assaults in European Russia and other areas broke communication between Moscow and Tashkent. For a time, Central Asia was completely cut off from Red Army

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was put down by the Bolsheviks, mass arrests of Socialist-Revolutionaries followed, and executions became more frequent. Chamberlin noted, "The time of relative leniency toward former fellow-revolutionists was over. The Left Socialist Revolutionaries, of course, were no longer tolerated as members of

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on 22 February 1918, where they joined with the Kuban Cossacks to mount an abortive assault on Yekaterinodar. The Soviets recaptured Rostov on the next day. Kornilov was killed in the fighting on 13 April, and Denikin took over command. Fighting off its pursuers without respite, the army succeeded in

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of the rural peasantry into the Red Army. The Bolsheviks overcame opposition of rural Russians to Red Army conscription units by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary in order to force compliance. The forced conscription drive had mixed results, successfully creating a larger army than the

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by refusing to till the land. By 1921, cultivated land had shrunk to 62% of the pre-war area, and the harvest yield was only about 37% of normal. The number of horses declined from 35 million in 1916 to 24 million in 1920 and cattle from 58 to 37 million. The exchange rate with the US

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in Irkutsk. Six days later, the regime was replaced by a Bolshevik-dominated Military-Revolutionary Committee. On 6–7 February Kolchak and his prime minister Victor Pepelyaev were shot, and their bodies were thrown through the ice of the frozen Angara River, just before the arrival of the White Army

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to include socialist and anarchist groups, economic freedom for peasants and workers, dissolution of the bureaucratic governmental organs created during the civil war, and the restoration of worker rights for the working class. The workers and sailors of the Kronstadt rebellion were promptly crushed

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for single-handedly storming and capturing the fortified city of Tsaritsyn, under heavy shell fire in a single tank, which led to the capture of over 40,000 prisoners. The fall of Tsaritsyn is viewed "as one of the key battles of the Russian Civil War" and greatly helped the White Russian cause. The

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Trotsky armed all available workers, men and women, and ordered the transfer of military forces from Moscow. Within a few weeks, the Red Army defending Petrograd had tripled in size and outnumbered Yudenich three to one. Yudenich, short of supplies, then decided to call off the siege of the city and

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In 1919, 616 "hardcore" deserters of the total 837,000 draft dodgers and deserters were executed following Trotsky's draconian measures. According to Figes, "a majority of deserters (most registered as "weak-willed") were handed back to the military authorities, and formed into units for transfer to

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established Kolchak as supreme leader. Two members of the Directory were arrested, and subsequently deported, while Kolchak was proclaimed "Supreme Ruler", and "Commander-in-Chief of all Land and Naval Forces of Russia." By mid-December 1918, the White armies had to leave Ufa, but they balanced that

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on the Eastern Front, encountering virtually no resistance in a campaign that lasted 11 days. Signing a formal peace treaty was the only option in the eyes of the Bolsheviks because the Russian Army was demobilized, and the newly formed Red Guard could not stop the advance. They also understood that

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Kenez states, "In October Denikin ruled more than forty million people and controlled the economically most valuable parts of the Russian Empire." Yet, "The White armies, which had fought victoriously during the summer and early fall, fell back in disorder in November and December." Denikin's front

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In February 1918, the Red Army overthrew the White Russian-supported Kokand Autonomy of Turkestan. Although that move seemed to solidify Bolshevik power in Central Asia, more troubles soon arose for the Red Army as the Allied Forces began to intervene. British support of the White Army provided the

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The second period of the war lasted from January to November 1919. At first the White armies' advances from the south (under Denikin), the east (under Kolchak) and the northwest (under Yudenich) were successful, forcing the Red Army and its allies back on all three fronts. In July 1919 the Red Army

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My name is Fanya Kaplan. Today I shot Lenin. I did it on my own. I will not say from whom I obtained my revolver. I will give no details. I had resolved to kill Lenin long ago. I consider him a traitor to the Revolution. I was exiled to Akatui for participating in an assassination attempt against a

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Of all the revolutionary elements in Russia it is the Anarchists who now suffer the most ruthless and systematic persecution. Their suppression by the Bolsheviki began already in 1918, when — in the month of April of that year — the Communist Government attacked, without provocation or warning, the

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had 352 delegates compared to 745 Bolsheviks out of 1132 total. The Left SRs raised disagreements on the suppression of rival parties, the death penalty, and mainly, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The Bolsheviks excluded the Right SRs and Mensheviks from the government on 14 June for associating with

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By 1919, the White armies were in retreat and by the start of 1920 were defeated on all three fronts. Although the Bolsheviks were victorious, the territorial extent of the Russian state had been reduced, for many non-Russian ethnic groups had used the disarray to push for national independence. In

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See Jonathan D. Smele. Op. cit., p.32 ("Op. cit." means to refer to a work cited earlier in the citations. this means you copied it from a citation list, and are citing something that you have not read. instead you should cite what you read and say it refers to this, or if you can get the original

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The results of the civil war were momentous. Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that 300,000 men were killed in action during the Civil War and Polish-Soviet War – 125,000 in the Red Army, 175,500 White armies and Poles – and the total number of military personnel from both sides dead from

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By 19 October, Yudenich's troops had reached the outskirts of the city. Some members of the Bolshevik central committee in Moscow were willing to give up Petrograd, but Trotsky refused to accept the loss of the city and personally organized its defenses. Trotsky himself declared, "It is impossible

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well-executed, using night attacks and lightning cavalry maneuvers to turn the flanks of the defending Red Army. Yudenich also had six British tanks, which caused panic whenever they appeared. The Allies gave large quantities of aid to Yudenich, but he complained of receiving insufficient support.

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How do things stand with the blocking units? As far as I am aware they have not been included in our establishment and it appears they have no personnel. It is absolutely essential that we have at least an embryonic network of blocking units and that we work out a procedure for bringing them up to

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began amassing support. The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk also resulted in direct Allied intervention in Russia and the arming of military forces opposed to the Bolshevik government. There were also many German commanders who offered support against the Bolsheviks, fearing a confrontation

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The Union of Regeneration was founded in Moscow in April 1918 as an underground agency organizing democratic resistance to the Bolshevik dictatorship, composed of the Popular Socialists, Right Socialist Revolutionaries, and Defensists, among others. They were tasked with propping up anti-Bolshevik

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and, according to some critics, made the democratic procedures within the party an empty formality, and helped Stalin to consolidate much more authority under the party. Soviets were transformed into the bureaucratic structure that existed for the rest of the history of the Soviet Union and were

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had gathered the remnants of Denikin's armies, occupying much of the Crimea. An attempted invasion of southern Ukraine was rebuffed by the Insurgent Army under Makhno's command. Pursued into Crimea by Makhno's troops, Wrangel went over to the defensive in the Crimea. After an abortive move north

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That rendered possible another threat to the Red Army, from General Yudenich, who had spent the summer organizing the Northwestern Army in Estonia with local and British support. In October 1919, he tried to capture Petrograd in a sudden assault with a force of around 20,000 men. The attack was

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had been a demand of the Bolsheviks against the Provisional Government, which kept delaying it. After the October Revolution the elections were run by the body appointed by the previous Provisional Government. It was based on universal suffrage but used party lists from before the Left-Right SR

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As many as 10 million people died as a result of the Russian Civil War, and the overwhelming majority of these were civilian casualties. There is no consensus among the Western historians on the number of deaths from the Red Terror. One source gives estimates of 28,000 executions per year from

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In a mid-August 1920 letter, having received information that in Estonia and Latvia, with which Soviet Russia had concluded peace treaties, volunteers were being enrolled in anti-Bolshevik detachments, Lenin wrote to E. M. Sklyansky, deputy chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the

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In Ukraine, the German-Austrian Operation Faustschlag had by April 1918 removed the Bolsheviks from Ukraine. The German and Austro-Hungarian victories in Ukraine were caused by the apathy of the locals and the inferior fighting skills of Bolsheviks troops to their Austro-Hungarian and German

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proved to be a dark event for the White Army. Russian and Allied ships evacuated about 40,000 of Denikin's men from Novorossiysk to the Crimea, without horses or any heavy equipment, while about 20,000 men were left behind and either dispersed or were captured by the Red Army. Following the

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political movement representing an array of political opinions in Russia united in their opposition to the Bolsheviks—from the republican-minded liberals and Kerenskyite social-democrats on the left through monarchists and supporters of a united multinational Russia to the ultra-nationalist

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Communication difficulties with Red Army forces in Siberia and European Russia ceased to be a problem by mid-November 1919. Red Army successes north of Central Asia caused communication with Moscow to be re-established and the Bolsheviks to claim victory over the White Army in Turkestan.

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and recognized the Union's leading role, putting aside political ideology and class for the purpose of Russia's salvation. They decided to start an uprising against the Bolsheviks with the goal of reconvening the Russian Constituent Assembly. While preparations were under way, the

2055:); sometimes their families were taken hostage in order to ensure their loyalty. At the start of the civil war, former Tsarist officers formed three-quarters of the Red Army officer-corps. By its end, 83% of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers. 3534:), the Siberian Army (of the Siberian Provisional Government) and insurgent Cossack units of Orenburg, the Urals, Siberia, Semirechye, Baikal, and Amur and Ussuri Cossacks, nominally under the orders of Gen. V.G. Boldyrev, Commander-in-Chief, appointed by the Ufa Directorate. 4299:

in March 1921, followed by peasant revolts – all of which were put down by the Bolsheviks. The outset of the year was marked by strikes and demonstrations – in both Moscow and Petrograd, as well as the countryside – due to discontent with the results of policies that made up

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After a series of reverses at the front, the Bolsheviks' War Commissar, Trotsky, instituted increasingly harsh measures in order to prevent unauthorised withdrawals, desertions, and mutinies in the Red Army. In the field, the Cheka Special Investigations Forces (termed the

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that formal democracy was impossible because of class conflicts, conflicts with Ukraine and the Kadet-Kaledin uprising. He argued the Constituent Assembly must unconditionally accept sovereignty of the soviet government or it would be dealt with "by revolutionary means".

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and Crimea, but evacuated Odessa on 6 April 1919, and the Crimea by the end of the month. According to Chamberlin, "France gave far less practical aid to the Whites than did England; its sole independent venture in intervention, at Odessa, ended in a complete fiasco."

7064:, p. 419 "It was partly a case of the usual military failings: units had been sent into battle without machine-guns; untrained soldiers had been ordered to engage in complex maneuvers using hand grenades and ended up throwing them without first pulling the pins." 4697:

in 1914 to 1,200 Rbls in 1920. Although Russia experienced extremely rapid economic growth in the 1930s, the combined effect of World War I and the Civil War left a lasting scar on Russian society and had permanent effects on the development of the Soviet Union.

2683:. The order was carried out by the commander of the Kremlin, the former Baltic sailor P. D. Malkov and a group of Latvian Bolsheviks on September 3, 1918, with a bullet to the back of the head. Her corpse was bundled into a barrel and set alight. The order came from 3950:

Denikin's military strength continued to grow in 1919, with significant munitions supplied by the British. In January, Denikin's Armed Forces of South Russia (AFSR) completed the elimination of Red forces in the northern Caucasus and moved north, in an effort to

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Anarchist Club of Moscow and by the use of machine guns and artillery "liquidated" the whole organisation. It was the beginning of Anarchist hounding, but it was sporadic in character, breaking out now and then, quite planless, and frequently self-contradictory.

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These events persuaded the government to heed Dzerzhinsky's lobbying for greater terror against opposition. The campaign of mass repressions would officially begin thereafter. The Red Terror is considered to have officially begun between 17 and 30 August 1918.

3452:—known as the "Komuch". By July the authority of the Komuch extended over much of the area controlled by the Czechoslovak Legion. The Komuch pursued an ambivalent social policy, combining democratic and socialist measures, such as the institution of an 3061:

The first attempt to regain power from the Bolsheviks was made by the Kerensky-Krasnov uprising in October 1917. It was supported by the Junker Mutiny in Petrograd but was quickly put down by the Red Guard, notably including the Latvian Rifle Division.

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planned an intervention to help the Whites in Russia capture Petrograd. However, he did not gain the necessary support for the endeavour. Lenin considered it "completely certain, that the slightest aid from Finland would have determined the fate of ".

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The Cossacks had been unable to organise and capitalise on their successes at the end of 1918. By 1919 they had begun to run short of supplies. Consequently, when the Soviet Russian counteroffensive began in January 1919 under the Bolshevik commander

1923:, which until then had been controlled by the Socialist Revolutionaries. Promising an end to the war and "all power to the Soviets", the Bolsheviks then ended dual power by overthrowing the Provisional Government in late October, on the eve of the 2800:

with Great Britain and France sending troops into Russian ports. There were violent clashes with the Bolsheviks. Britain intervened in support of the White forces to defeat the Bolsheviks and prevent the spread of communism across Europe.

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was used, while almost every individual formation had its own characteristics. The military art of the White Army was based on the experience of World War I, which, however, left a strong imprint on the specifics of the Civil War.

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and the possibility that Communist revolutionary ideas would spread (a concern shared by many Central Powers). Hence, many of the countries expressed their support for the Whites, including the provision of troops and supplies.

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Lenin, who sought to eliminate political dissent, opposition, and any other threat to Bolshevik power. As a result of the failed attempt on Lenin's life, he began to crack down on his political enemies in an event known as the

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allies were opposed to it, but on 25 July the majority of the Soviets voted to call in the British and the Bolsheviks resigned. The Baku Soviet Commune ended its existence and was replaced by the Central Caspian Dictatorship.

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one of the rear armies or directly to the front". Even those registered as "malicious" deserters were returned to the ranks when the demand for reinforcements became desperate". Forges also noted that the Red Army instituted

13856: 8615:[Historian Sergei Volkov: "Russia's genetic pool suffered monstrous damage, so far not repaired" (interview with the famous historian of the Civil War, Doctor of Historical Sciences Sergei Vladimirovich Volkov)]. 2550:

Great plan! Finish it with Dzerzhinsky. While pretending to be the "greens" (we will blame them later), we will advance by 10–20 miles (versts) and hang kulaks, priests, landowners. Prize: 100.000 rubles for each hanged

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no longer faced an acute military threat to its existence and power. However, the perceived threat of continued popular discontent, combined with the failure of socialist revolutions in other countries—most notably the

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fled Russia, many with General Wrangel, some through the Far East and others west into the newly independent Baltic countries. The émigrés included a large percentage of the educated and skilled population of Russia.

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Although Britain had withdrawn its own troops from the theatre, it continued to give significant military aid (money, weapons, food, ammunition and some military advisers) to the White Armies during 1919. Major

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began with an attempted assassination of Makhno by Cheka agents. Anger at continued repression by the Bolshevik Communist government and at its liberal use of the Cheka to put down anarchist elements led to a

3198:. The Soviets acceded to a peace treaty, and the formal agreement, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, was ratified on 3 March. The Soviets viewed the treaty as merely a necessary and expedient means to end the war. 2971:

Most of the fighting in the first period was sporadic, involved only small groups and had a fluid and rapidly shifting strategic situation. Among the antagonists were the Czechoslovak Legion, the Poles of the

1924: 5877: 3903:. In September 1919 a White offensive was launched against the Tobol Front, the last attempt to change the course of events. However, on 14 October the Reds counterattacked, and thus began the uninterrupted 3895:

on the 7th and continued to push forward. Both sides had victories and losses, but by the middle of summer the Red Army was larger than the White Army and had managed to recapture territory previously lost.

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and peace talks began. As a condition for peace, the proposed treaty by the Central Powers conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting

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and the famine of 1921–22", the roughly number of "victims of the various kinds of terror, and red and white repressions" amounting to a few hundred thousand— which is indeed a dreadful number in itself,

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Liddell Hart, Basil. "The Tanks: The History Of The Royal Tank Regiment And Its Predecessors, Heavy Branch Machine-Gun Corps, Tank Corps And Royal Tank Corps, 1914–1945. Vol I". Cassell: 1959, p. 211.

5974:: Typically, men of military age (17 to 40 years old) in a village would vanish when Red Army draft-units approached. The taking of hostages and a few summary executions usually brought the men back. 12720: 12572: 4313:

by Red Army forces, with a thousand rebels killed in battle and another thousand executed the following weeks, with many more fleeing abroad and to the countryside. These events coincided with the

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Do all this so that for miles (versts) around people see it all, understand it, tremble, and tell themselves that we are killing the bloodthirsty kulaks and that we will continue to do so ...

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line was overstretched, while his reserves dealt with Makhno's anarchists in the rear. Between September and October, the Reds mobilized one hundred thousand new soldiers and adopted the Trotsky-

12619: 2022: 3835:

alongside United States forces. With the retreat of Kolchak in Siberia, they pulled their troops out of the cities before the winter trapped them in the port. The remaining White forces under

3600:, to station blocking detachments behind unreliable Red Army infantry regiments in the 1st Red Army, with orders to shoot if front-line troops either deserted or retreated without permission. 13369: 13352: 13070: 13469: 6371: 1303: 13487: 13479: 10139:

Smele, Jonathan D. "'If Grandma had Whiskers...': Could the Anti-Bolsheviks have won the Russian Revolutions and Civil Wars? Or, the Constraints and Conceits of Counterfactual History."

4081:, threatening to split the Don and Volunteer Armies. Fierce fighting took place at the key rail junction of Kastornoye, which was taken on 15 November. Kursk was retaken two days later. 13374: 13364: 12676: 5394:

between 1914 and 1922 were about 16 million, of which 4–5 were military, the rest civilian; the overwhelming majority of the latter resulted from "starvation, typhus, epidemics, the

3112:). The White Russians supported that government body, which lasted several months because of Bolshevik troop isolation from Moscow. In January 1918 the Soviet forces, under Lt. Col. 15535: 5263: 4108:

strategy with the Ninth and Tenth armies forming V. I. Shorin's Southeastern Front between Tsaritsyn and Bobrov, while the Eighth, Twelfth, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth armies formed

2921:

In the European part of Russia the war was fought across three main fronts: the eastern, the southern and the northwestern. It can also be roughly split into the following periods.

3401:. Uprisings overthrew other Bolshevik towns. On 7 July, the western portion of the legion declared itself to be a new eastern front, anticipating allied intervention. According to 11918: 4132:'s Caucasian army at Tsaritsyn, and an additional was in the Northern Caucasus attempting to capture Astrakhan. On 20 October, May–Mayevsky was forced to evacuate Orel during the 4053:

Denikin's forces constituted a real threat and for a time threatened to reach Moscow. The Red Army, stretched thin by fighting on all fronts, was forced out of Kiev on 30 August.

2306:

forces and to create a Russian state system based on civil liberties, patriotism, and state-consciousness with the goal to liberate the country from the "Germano-Bolshevik" yoke.

3186:. Leon Trotsky, representing the Bolsheviks, refused at first to sign the treaty while continuing to observe a unilateral cease-fire, following the policy of "No war, no peace". 11933: 4212:

At the beginning of 1920, Denikin was reduced to defending Novorossia, the Crimean peninsula, and the Northern Caucasus. On 26 January, the Caucasian army retreated beyond the

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were taken, on 20 September and 14 October, respectively. The latter, only 205 miles (330 km) from Moscow, was the closest the AFSR would come to its target. The Cossack

3603:

In December 1918, Trotsky ordered that detachments of additional barrier troops be raised for attachment to each infantry formation in the Red Army. On December 18 he cabled:

12685: 7076:, p. 412 "This new civic patriotism did not extend beyond the urban middle classes, although the leaders of the Provisional Government deluded themselves that it did." 15939: 15922: 2286:

with all opposition parties outlawed. A simultaneous demonstration in favor of the Constituent Assembly was dispersed with force, but there was little protest afterwards.

7179: 15969: 13345: 10162: 4373:, finally pulled their troops out as Bolshevik forces gradually asserted control over the Russian Far East. On 25 October 1922 Vladivostok fell to the Red Army, and the 3859:

At the beginning of March 1919, the general offensive of the Whites on the eastern front began. Ufa was retaken on 13 March; by mid-April, the White Army stopped at the

3194:

the impending counter-revolutionary resistance was more dangerous than the concessions of the treaty, which Lenin viewed as temporary in the light of aspirations for a

15118: 13396: 13217: 6082: 4304:. The Bolsheviks, in response to the protests, enacted martial law and sent the Red Army to disperse the workers. This was followed up by mass arrests executed by the 3685: 17: 6025:

Military Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editorial Board: Alexander Gorkin, Vladimir Zolotarev et al. – Moscow: Great Russian Encyclopedia, RIPOL Classic, 2002 – 1664 Pages

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which was exacerbated by a range of factors including the war, the presence of the White Army and the methods of war communism. The outbreaks of diseases such as

1979:

parties in proportion to their vote share at the Congress. The dissolution of the Constituent Assembly was also approved by the Left Socialist Revolutionaries and

15912: 14480: 13222: 13185: 12094: 1481: 1235: 2780:. They were worried about a possible Russo-German alliance, the prospect of the Bolsheviks making good on their threats to default on Imperial Russia's massive 16432: 15932: 13379: 13357: 12122: 10629: 8039: 4290:

After the defeat of Wrangel, the Red Army immediately repudiated its 1920 treaty of alliance with Nestor Makhno and attacked the anarchist Insurgent Army; the

4291: 3065:

The initial groups that fought against the Communists were local Cossack armies that had declared their loyalty to the Provisional Government. Kaledin of the

16697: 15172: 12874: 12310: 12037: 11729: 10687: 4580:

in 1920 to 1922 resulting from the war, executions, and imprisonment in concentration camps as approximately 240,000. By 1922, there were at least 7,000,000

2159:, in the Russian Civil War and that to a lesser extent continued operating as militarized associations of rebels both outside and within Russian borders in 15958: 15927: 13804: 13254: 13165: 13107: 13085: 12417: 9808: 8984: 5258: 4271:

Stymied in his efforts to consolidate his hold, Wrangel then attacked north in an attempt to take advantage of recent Red Army defeats at the close of the

4268:

attacked and defeated several regiments of Wrangel's troops in southern Ukraine, forcing him to retreat before he could capture that year's grain harvest.

4030:. After six weeks of heavy fighting the counteroffensive failed, and Denikin was able to capture more territory. By November, White Forces had reached the 1276: 7334:, p. 31 Frequently the deserters' families were taken hostage to force a surrender; a portion were customarily executed, as an example to the others. 3359:, thirteen thousand soldiers under Wrangel and Kazanovich in the center of the front, Stankevich's almost three thousand men with the Don Cossacks, while 2334:

region in late May-early June 1918 and the center of SR activity shifted there. On June 8, 1918, five Constituent Assembly members formed the All-Russian

1939:, and the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the Bolsheviks in retaliation. The Bolsheviks soon lost the support of other far-left allies, such as the 15917: 15869: 15221: 13846: 12325: 12080: 8594: 5283: 3093:

rebelled, with the Bolsheviks controlling the city for five days until the Alekseev Organization supported Kaledin in recapturing the city. According to

2238:

and some followers were arrested for organizing a conspiracy. This was the first time Bolsheviks used this kind of repression against a socialist party.

2076: 1726: 297: 239: 234: 7673: 13249: 13102: 12854: 12320: 12010: 11961: 11876: 4688:

War communism saved the Soviet government during the Civil War, but much of the Russian economy had ground to a standstill. Some peasants responded to

4352:

as the new leader of the White Army in Siberia. Not long afterward, Kolchak was arrested by the disaffected Czechoslovak Legion as he traveled towards

10341: 8789: 7794: 4321:

within the Bolshevik party still assured democracy. However, faced with support for Kronstadt within Bolshevik ranks, Lenin also issued a "temporary"

3927:

Anti-Bolshevik propaganda poster "For united Russia" representing Soviet Russia as a fallen communist dragon and the White Cause as a crusading knight

3000:

against the Red Army, Wrangel's troops were forced south by Red Army and Insurgent Army forces; Wrangel and the remains of his army were evacuated to

2274:

The Constituent Assembly met on January 18, 1918. The Right SR Chernov was elected president defeating the Bolshevik supported candidate, the Left SR

16166: 13384: 12766: 12164: 10185: 7310: 4220:

started fighting the Fourteenth Red Army. On 20 February, Denikin succeeded in recapturing Rostov, his last victory, before giving it up soon after.

10286: 15187: 14517: 13212: 4523:, commander of the Dungan Cavalry Regiment, to fight against the Basmachis. The Communist Party did not completely dismantle the group until 1934. 3684:

greatest threat to the Red Army in Central Asia during 1918. Britain sent three prominent military leaders to the area. One was Lieutenant Colonel

3449: 3410: 3380: 3035:

and immediately began the armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former Russian Empire. In January 1918 the Bolsheviks dissolved the

2453:(Sovnarkom) decided to liquidate criminal recklessness associated with anarchists and disarm all anarchist groups in the face of their militancy. 2335: 2282:, she was shot on Stalin's orders in 1941). The Bolsheviks subsequently disbanded the Constituent Assembly and proceeded to rule the country as a 15306: 12005: 11363: 3541:'s White detachment captured Kazan on 7 August, but Red Forces recaptured the city on 8 September 1918 following a counteroffensive. On the 11th 10047: 5642: 4023:

comments that Bruce's tank action during the battle is to be seen as "one of the most remarkable feats in the whole history of the Tank Corps".

3031:

In the October Revolution, the Bolshevik Party directed the Red Guard (armed groups of workers and Imperial army deserters) to seize control of

2936:

The first period lasted from the Revolution until the Armistice, or roughly March 1917 to November 1918. Already on the date of the Revolution,

2261:

made a resolution saying the slogan "all power to the constituent assembly" was counterrevolutionary and equivalent to "down with the soviets".

15384: 15051: 14743: 13023: 12831: 4745:

and Soviet Union, under which both renounced all territorial and financial claims against each other and opened friendly diplomatic relations.

4322: 3552:

In Omsk, the Russian Provisional Government quickly came under the influence and later the dominance of its new War Minister, the rear-admiral

2039:

In June 1918, when it had become apparent that a revolutionary army composed solely of workers would not suffice, Trotsky instituted mandatory

1383: 10794: 4519:(armed bands of Islamic guerrillas) had formed to fight the Bolshevik takeover. The Soviets engaged non-Russian peoples in Central Asia, like 15864: 15477: 15160: 10856: 6334: 2347: 1626:, opposed the Bolsheviks, the Whites and the foreign interventionists. Thirteen foreign nations intervened against the Red Army, notably the 434: 7370:, p. 180: By December 1918 Trotsky had ordered the formation of special detachments to serve as blocking units throughout the Red Army. 6697: 2675:

Kaplan referenced the Bolsheviks' growing authoritarianism, citing their forcible shutdown of the Constituent Assembly in January 1918, the

15530: 15401: 13799: 13771: 13627: 13033: 12065: 11995: 11634: 10846: 10757: 4591:, worsened the disaster still further, killing roughly 5 million people. Disease had reached pandemic proportions, with 3,000,000 dying of 3235: 2797: 2771: 2395: 2383: 2072: 1627: 1533: 1393: 1373: 1271: 482: 201: 97: 8906:

Rex A. Wade, "The Revolution at One Hundred: Issues and Trends in the English Language Historiography of the Russian Revolution of 1917."

8325: 1649:

The Bolsheviks initially consolidated control over most of the former empire. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was an emergency peace with the

16049: 16019: 15113: 15108: 14368: 12552: 12089: 10980: 10434: 8339: 8196: 3923: 3620:

The barrier troops were also used to enforce Bolshevik control over food supplies in areas controlled by the Red Army as part of Lenin's

3158:

The Bolsheviks decided to immediately make peace with the Central Powers, as they had promised the Russian people before the Revolution.

2297:

in Petrograd began in April 1918. On May 1, 1918, a pitched battle took place in Moscow between the anarchists and the Bolshevik police.

2018: 1579:. Bolshevik seizure of power was not universally accepted, and the country descended into civil war. The two largest combatants were the 1228: 511: 6132: 16722: 16306: 16266: 16176: 15987: 15503: 15029: 14429: 13876: 10657: 4343: 3101: 2884: 2676: 2379: 2217: 1936: 1310: 1266: 3617:

weeks to prohibit punitive measures against desertion which encouraged the voluntary return of 98,000-132,000 deserters to the army.

3484:– stationed behind unreliable Red Army units and given orders to shoot anyone withdrawing from the battle line without authorisation. 2104: 16294: 16189: 16061: 15847: 10987: 2363: 16702: 16199: 16116: 16009: 14655: 13584: 12924: 10639: 6482: 2647: 2387: 14346: 12315: 5803: 5776: 5749: 3585:). The barrier troops comprised personnel drawn from the Cheka punitive detachments or from regular Red Army infantry regiments. 3077:

were prominent among them. The leading Tsarist officers of the Imperial Russian Army also started to resist. In November, General

16677: 16139: 15946: 15813: 14510: 14495: 13888: 13831: 13155: 12976: 12841: 12660: 12582: 12247: 12085: 12072: 12029: 11938: 11664: 11466: 11373: 11275: 11033: 10680: 10375: 7597: 4817:

Other prominent works of fiction by the Soviet writers that didn't follow the methods and doctrine of Socialist realism include:

4331: 4265: 2900: 2829: 2714:

The policies of "food dictatorship" proclaimed by the Bolsheviks in May 1918 sparked violent resistance in numerous districts of

2258: 2068: 1968: 1344: 969: 10159: 10063:

Ford, Chris. "Reconsidering the Ukrainian Revolution 1917–1921: The Dialectics of National Liberation and Social Emancipation."

7570: 7123: 2607:

incomplete sentence starting with 'and sought to eliminate...'. Next sentence explains 'the term', which hasn't been introduced.

2570:

on August 17, 1918, outside the Petrograd Cheka headquarters in retaliation for the execution of his friend and other officers.

15837: 15682: 15261: 15192: 14485: 14419: 13943: 13734: 13119: 12587: 12439: 12429: 12297: 7176: 3805: 3406: 2908: 1417: 1221: 214: 10223: 7543: 16324: 15825: 15791: 15779: 15774: 15665: 14789: 12211: 12145: 11982: 11861: 11534: 10553: 10409: 9978: 9959: 9929: 9906: 9887: 9868: 9849: 9818: 9774: 9755: 9736: 9710: 9687: 9661: 9642: 9619: 9600: 9579: 9558: 9540: 9522: 9479: 9456: 9408: 9385: 9366: 9344: 9321: 9242: 9184: 9153: 9123: 9095: 9074: 8889: 8773: 8713: 7724: 7607: 7580: 7553: 7433: 6679: 6652: 6571: 6344: 6284: 6230: 6203: 6176: 6014: 5971: 5921: 5852: 5813: 5786: 5759: 5587: 5493: 5466: 4192:, as half of the participants perished. In March 1920 her remnants crossed the border into the Northwestern region of China. 2378:, Lenin's wartime measures such as banning opposition parties was prompted by the fact that several political parties either 16251: 13544: 7040: 4348:

In Siberia, Admiral Kolchak's army had disintegrated. He himself gave up command after the loss of Omsk and designated Gen.

2394:

who were democratically elected to the Soviets in some areas, then proceeded to use their mandate to welcome in Tsarist and

1927:, in what would be the second Revolution of 1917. The initial stage of the October Revolution which involved the assault on 16682: 16361: 16129: 15140: 15130: 14424: 12386: 11806: 10591: 7423: 4643: 4546: 4141: 3731:

the Soviets; from this time the Soviet regime became a pure and undiluted dictatorship of the Communist Party." Similarly,

3573:

In the Red Army, the concept of barrier troops first arose in August 1918 with the formation of the заградительные отряды (

3240: 10354: 9988:

Werth, Nicolas; Bartosek, Karel; Panne, Jean-Louis; Margolin, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Courtois, Stephane (1999).

7694: 3735:'s surprise attacks were suppressed, with many of the conspirators being executed, as "Mass Red Terror" became a reality. 2796:

After the treaty, it looked like much of that material would fall into the hands of the Germans. To meet that danger, the

1907:, was unable to solve the most pressing issues of the country, most importantly to end the war with the Central Powers. A 16241: 15907: 15854: 15842: 15165: 13925: 13574: 12157: 11481: 11109: 10614: 6848: 6825: 5386:

In particular, they seem quite at odds with the demographic considerations elaborated by Italian historian and professor

4398: 3624:

policies, a role which soon earned them the hatred of the Russian civilian population. These policies in part led to the

3255: 2852: 2456:

From early 1918, the Bolsheviks started physical elimination of opposition, other socialist and revolutionary fractions.

1642:

also intervened, rivaling the Allied intervention with the main goal of retaining the territory they had received in the

1584: 902: 227: 13564: 13554: 12371: 8613:"Istorik Sergey Volkov: "Geneticheskomu fondu Rossii byl nanesen chudovishchnyy, ne vospolnennyy do sego vremeni, uron"" 7205: 4587:

At the end of the Civil War the Russian SFSR was exhausted and near ruin. The droughts of 1920 and 1921, as well as the

3499:

In September 1918, the Komuch, the Siberian Provisional Government, and other anti-Bolshevik Russians agreed during the

1877:, elected councils of workers, soldiers, and peasants, were organized throughout the country, leading to a situation of 16667: 16289: 16284: 16004: 15952: 15379: 15211: 15098: 14577: 14295: 13594: 13135: 12981: 12356: 11646: 11048: 10806: 4088: 3504: 3384: 2611: 1678: 1666: 1449: 1434: 359: 31: 10319: 7156: 3440:

fighting against Soviet control of food supplies. In May 1918, with the support of the Czechoslovak Legion, they took

16541: 16492: 16425: 16236: 15964: 15566: 15470: 15321: 14940: 14886: 14881: 14829: 14824: 14814: 14779: 14774: 14764: 14754: 14732: 14727: 14704: 14699: 14674: 14650: 14645: 14630: 14490: 13160: 13130: 12934: 12884: 12699: 12231: 11925: 11741: 11013: 10484: 9997: 9797: 9498: 9302: 9045: 9027: 8873: 8586: 8497: 8314: 8230: 7732: 7519: 6736: 6546: 6463: 6385: 5546: 5278: 4731: 4480: 4229: 3474:

Special Punitive Department of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combat of Counter-Revolution and Sabotage

3376: 3290: 3274:

breaking its way through back towards the Don by May, where the Cossack uprising against the Bolsheviks had started.

2837: 2629: 2450: 1805: 1765:

were occupied by the Red Army. By 1921, Soviet Russia had defeated the Ukrainian national movements and occupied the

1654: 1424: 421: 10330: 10124:

Smele, Jonathan D. "Still Searching for the 'Third Way': Geoffrey Swain's Interventions in the Russian Civil Wars".

5580:

Churchill's Secret War with Lenin: British and Commonwealth Military Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1918–20'

2655:. More broadly, the term is usually applied to Bolshevik political repression throughout the Civil War (1917–1922), 16692: 16571: 16559: 16383: 16373: 16329: 16144: 15820: 15769: 15652: 14923: 14859: 14684: 14597: 13866: 13620: 12914: 12899: 12633: 12609: 11411: 10449: 6759: 5535:

Churchill's Secret War with Lenin: British and Commonwealth Military Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1918–20

5118: 4596: 4010:

of the British Army had volunteered to command a British tank mission assisting the White Army. He was awarded the

3669: 3086: 2040: 4172:

and their families, totaling about 15,000 people, headed south along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea towards

3456:, with "restorative" actions, such as returning both factories and land to their former owners. After the fall of 2679:

to which they had lost. When it became clear that Kaplan would not implicate any accomplices, she was executed in

2514:(1) Hang (I mean hang publicly, so that people see it) at least 100 kulaks, rich bastards, and known bloodsuckers. 16717: 16576: 16564: 16420: 16405: 16319: 16221: 15803: 15623: 15316: 15076: 15061: 15002: 14361: 13933: 13761: 12986: 12545: 12482: 12287: 12267: 12054: 11990: 11813: 11682: 10586: 10506: 10444: 10240: 8302: 4458: 4413:, but were only partially successful at re-establishing territorial control of the other provinces of the former 4284: 4027: 3625: 3418: 2841: 1809: 1793: 1758: 1694: 1398: 1327: 347: 15216: 11147: 10269: 4184:

and other troops who rebelled against the Bolsheviks. During the winter 1919–20, the Orenburg Army retreated to

2960:

out of the hands of the Provisional Government and White Army, setting up a base for the Communist Party in the

1951:

had assumed positions in Lenin's government and lead commissariats in several areas. This included agriculture (

16517: 16497: 16194: 15808: 15633: 15561: 14784: 14748: 14315: 14212: 14184: 14012: 13965: 13913: 13836: 12282: 12277: 12272: 12262: 11956: 10601: 10576: 10474: 10297: 8746: 8459: 6644: 5377:

See note regarding Library of Congress Country Studies. Chapter 7 – The Communist Party. Democratic Centralism.

5113: 4430: 4426: 4374: 3876: 3715: 3286: 3282: 3251: 3207: 3108:, Muslim elites formed an autonomous government in Turkestan, commonly called the "Kokand autonomy" (or simply 2423: 2367: 1976: 1948: 1940: 1870: 1718: 1714: 1690: 1619: 1572: 1545: 1525: 1454: 455: 335: 9418:

Grebenkin, I. N. (2017). "The Disintegration of the Russian Army in 1917: Factors and Actors in the Process".

9252:——— (December 1951). "The Kronstadt Revolt of 1921: A Study in the Dynamics of Revolution". 6890: 5911: 5894: 16672: 16588: 16415: 16279: 16231: 15992: 15786: 15660: 15643: 15199: 14950: 14679: 14505: 14500: 14455: 14151: 13960: 13707: 13681: 13291: 13271: 12944: 12849: 12705: 12257: 12252: 12216: 12150: 12042: 11888: 11471: 11323: 10861: 10789: 10720: 10489: 10459: 10454: 10259: 7670: 6195:

The lost opportunity: attempts at unification of the anti-Bolsheviks, 1917–1919 – Moscow, Kiev, Jassy, Odessa

4349: 3508: 3211: 3125: 2667:

Tsarist official in Kiev. I spent 11 years at hard labour. After the Revolution, I was freed. I favoured the

2510:

uprising in your five districts must be crushed without pity ... You must make example of these people.

2310: 1967:) and local government (Trutovsky). The Bolsheviks also reserved a number of vacant seats in the Soviets and 1920: 1900: 1351: 798: 5962: 4595:

throughout the war. Millions more also died of widespread starvation, wholesale massacres by both sides and

2247: 1812:

in November 1920. After that, anti-Bolshevik resistance was sporadic for several years until the capture of

16184: 15859: 15754: 15555: 15463: 15276: 15246: 15241: 15182: 15071: 15066: 15034: 14975: 14896: 14854: 14737: 14290: 13871: 13766: 13751: 13170: 13038: 12919: 12809: 12206: 11833: 11773: 11670: 11575: 11338: 11124: 10828: 10667: 10566: 7782: 5273: 5220: 5143: 4828: 4810: 4462: 4454: 4438: 4020: 3952: 3758: 3744: 3553: 3333: 3231: 3113: 3070: 3036: 2688: 2668: 2212: 1762: 1754: 1730: 1469: 1403: 1388: 1368: 1317: 396: 290: 8814: 8357: 7302: 3424: 1653:, who had captured vast swathes of the Russian territory during the chaos of the revolution. In May 1918, 16687: 16465: 16447: 16213: 16071: 16032: 15999: 15689: 15677: 15593: 15495: 15411: 15394: 15266: 15135: 15103: 15039: 14928: 14819: 14804: 14640: 13756: 13613: 13150: 12814: 12444: 11881: 11866: 11724: 11676: 11441: 10992: 10866: 10779: 10774: 10543: 10531: 10526: 9314:

The Soviet High Command: A Military-Political History, 1918–1941: A Military Political History, 1918–1941

7867: 6713:

Howard Fuller, "Great Britain and Russia's Civil War: The Necessity for a Definite and Coherent Policy".

5939:, p. 166 " the Russian Army disintegrated after the failure of the Galician offensive in July 1917." 5605: 5186: 5091: 5018: 4624: 4446: 4334:. Red Army attacks on the anarchist forces and their sympathisers increased in ferocity throughout 1921. 4109: 4011: 3748: 3460:, Vladimir Lenin called for the dispatch of Petrograd workers to the Kazan Front: "We must send down the 3078: 2977: 2973: 2883:

formed their own armies immediately after the abolition of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and the start of the

2833: 1738: 1631: 1322: 555: 11053: 3688:, who recorded a mission to Tashkent, from where the Bolsheviks forced him to flee. Another was General 3588:

The first use of the barrier troops by the Red Army occurred in the late summer and fall of 1918 in the

2437:

The Bolsheviks had begun to see the anarchists as a legitimate threat and associate criminality such as

16652: 16460: 16437: 16410: 15311: 14849: 14839: 14809: 14799: 14414: 14354: 14335: 14310: 13977: 13908: 13532: 13333: 13003: 12864: 12538: 12424: 12381: 11658: 11416: 11401: 11303: 11172: 10740: 10652: 10609: 10363: 9835: 8967: 8145: 5083: 4792: 4787: 3223: 3163: 3121: 2996: 1698: 1444: 1378: 10275: 7118: 5649: 3277:

The Baku Soviet Commune was established on 13 April. Germany landed its Caucasus Expedition troops in

1824:

until 1934. There were an estimated 7 to 12 million casualties during the war, mostly civilians.

16502: 16475: 16378: 15150: 15044: 14844: 14305: 13323: 12894: 12819: 12789: 12731: 12366: 12134: 11718: 11706: 11461: 11446: 11167: 11058: 10752: 10730: 10479: 10469: 10402: 9720: 6594:

Lyandres, Semion (Autumn 1989). "The 1918 Attempt on the Life of Lenin: A New Look at the Evidence".

5639: 4997: 4450: 4357: 4177: 3944: 3822: 3351:

In December, three-fourths of the army was in the Northern Caucasus. That included three thousand of

3048: 2790: 2602: 1742: 1658: 1293: 408: 16470: 11313: 10041:

Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War: Political Parties and Social Movements in Russia, 1918–1922

3774: 1532:, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. It resulted in the formation of the 16712: 16707: 16662: 16657: 16583: 15291: 14997: 14572: 14376: 14320: 14300: 13722: 13712: 13435: 13239: 13207: 13053: 12939: 12929: 12909: 12879: 12341: 11828: 11818: 11747: 11700: 11688: 11628: 11436: 11431: 11353: 10762: 10735: 10439: 7599:

Experiencing Russia's Civil War: Politics, Society, and Revolutionary Culture in Saratov, 1917-1922

7511: 4738: 4727: 4713: 4707: 4484: 4390: 4275:

of 1919–1920. The Red Army eventually halted the offensive, and Wrangel's troops had to retreat to

3999: 3904: 3402: 2538: 2491: 1781: 1746: 1682: 1552: 1459: 1361: 60: 10308: 4950: 1935:. Despite the Bolsheviks' seizure of power, they lost to the Socialist Revolutionary Party in the 15832: 15204: 14933: 14552: 13717: 12949: 12889: 12412: 12404: 12346: 12106: 11801: 11564: 11391: 11386: 11318: 11177: 11162: 11157: 11137: 11018: 10895: 8259:

Collective of authors. Revolution and Civil War in Russia: 1917-1923. Encyclopedia in 4 volumes -

6694: 6336:

Confronting Dostoevsky's Demons: Anarchism and the Specter of Bakunin in Twentieth-century Russia

5778:

The French Revolutionary Tradition in Russian and Soviet Politics, Political Thought, and Culture

5311: 5194: 5151: 4861: 4719: 4276: 4245: 3908: 3141: 2814: 2789:

declared that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle". The British and French had supported

2206: 2112: 1944: 1643: 686: 11358: 3808:, most of Yudenich's soldiers went into exile. Former Imperial Russian and then Finnish General 3081:, the Tsar's Chief of Staff during the First World War, began to organize the Volunteer Army in 16512: 16104: 16042: 15406: 15081: 14602: 14537: 14330: 13786: 13244: 12869: 12756: 12179: 11903: 11838: 11694: 11421: 11348: 11298: 11283: 11265: 11238: 11152: 11119: 10784: 10745: 10725: 10536: 10429: 8922:"Rapallo Reexamined: A New Look at Germany's Secret Military Collaboration with Russia in 1922" 6671:

Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923

6640:

Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, 1918–1923

5483: 5159: 4898: 4881: 4773: 4630:(1879–1956) published a detailed account on the Red Terror in Russia, where he cited Professor 4612: 4588: 4434: 3390: 2868: 1722: 311: 14794: 9175:

The Russian Revolution, Volume II: 1918–1921: From the Civil War to the Consolidation of Power

8211: 5989:, p. 446 By the end of the civil war, one-third of all Red Army officers were ex-Tsarist 2502:

who resisted, sometimes violently, the requisitioning of their grain by military detachments:

16631: 15603: 15336: 15296: 15056: 14985: 14434: 14325: 14002: 13809: 13746: 13515: 13430: 13286: 13197: 13175: 12954: 12794: 12169: 11823: 11712: 11488: 11451: 11381: 11328: 11250: 11218: 11192: 11142: 11073: 10975: 10928: 10712: 10581: 10464: 9292: 9066: 7572:

Inventing a Soviet Countryside: State Power and the Transformation of Rural Russia, 1917-1929

7529: 6083:Концепция социалистической демократии: опыт реализации в СССР и современные перспективы в СНГ 5202: 5124: 5052: 4782: 4768: 4584:

in Russia as a result of nearly ten years of devastation from World War I and the civil war.

4570: 4534: 4422: 4318: 4272: 4121: 3967: 3935: 3589: 3360: 3314: 3190: 3129: 2904: 2860: 2563: 2419: 2294: 2006: 1866: 1750: 1706: 1662: 1429: 1337: 539: 117: 8763: 6096:

The Bolsheviks: the intellectual and political history of the triumph of communism in Russia

5456: 5390:

in the light of the good quality Tsarist and early Soviet statistics. According to him, the

3332:

On 8 October, Alekseev died. On 8 January 1919, Denikin became the Supreme Commander of the

2848:. Following Germany's Armistice in World War I in November 1918, the states were abolished. 1843:

The Russian Empire fought in World War I from 1914 alongside France and the United Kingdom (

16393: 16256: 16076: 15874: 15588: 14869: 14542: 14439: 14409: 12519: 12434: 11114: 11088: 11038: 10395: 8581:(reprint of the 1924 Olga Diakow edition) (in German). Berlin: OEZ. p. 186, note 182. 5618:

Robert L. Willett, "Russian Sideshow" (Washington, D.C., Brassey's Inc., 2003), p. 267

5268: 5135: 5102: 4955: 4261: 4253: 4133: 4092: 3762: 3593: 3500: 3097:, "The operation, begun on December 9, can be regarded as the beginning of the Civil War." 2872: 2864: 2033: 1611: 1356: 920: 840: 16480: 13570: 13540: 11063: 8410:

The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia

8223:

Nestor Makhno — Anarchy's Cossack: The Struggle for Free Soviets in the Ukraine, 1917–1921

3162:'s political enemies attributed that decision to his sponsorship by the Foreign Office of 2390:

and other Bolshevik leaders. Liebman noted that opposition parties such as the Cadets and

8: 16620: 16349: 16154: 16083: 15891: 15740: 15618: 15540: 15513: 15444: 15374: 15231: 14759: 14694: 14465: 14222: 13972: 13898: 13791: 13661: 13492: 13259: 13028: 12859: 12826: 12804: 12736: 12501: 11640: 11504: 11456: 11333: 11293: 11288: 11233: 10916: 10910: 10811: 9215: 8466:... the best estimates set the probable number of executions at about a hundred thousand. 7790: 6438: 5250: 5010: 4805: 4777: 4722:-inspired revolutions was a sobering experience in Moscow, and the Bolsheviks moved from 4566: 4326: 4296: 4046: 4015: 3752: 3530:

By the fall of 1918, anti-Bolshevik White forces in the east included the People's Army (

3389:

The revolt of the Czechoslovak Legion broke out in May 1918, and proceeded to occupy the

3298: 2825: 2708: 2319: 2187: 2010: 2002: 1860: 1789: 1686: 1603: 1560: 1488: 1474: 1332: 1017: 982: 852: 91: 13550: 12454: 10254: 8723: 8593:

An online English translation of the second edition of Melgunov's work is accessible at

6479: 4077:'s cavalrymen defeated them there on 24 October. That allowed the Red Army to cross the 3947:, the Cossack forces rapidly fell apart. The Red Army captured Kiev on 3 February 1919. 16487: 16398: 15715: 15628: 15518: 15508: 15434: 15416: 15369: 15351: 15331: 14970: 14722: 14620: 14592: 14475: 14460: 14240: 14164: 13676: 13636: 13425: 13303: 13281: 13145: 13080: 12693: 12461: 12376: 11735: 11599: 11581: 11546: 11510: 11343: 11308: 11260: 11245: 11132: 11083: 10922: 10881: 10561: 10369: 9839: 9725: 9631: 9468: 9435: 9279: 8994: 8949: 8683: 7474: 7412:, transl. and edited by Harold Shukman, HarperCollins Publishers, London (1996), p. 180 7213: 7151: 6619: 6611: 5858: 5387: 4925: 4527: 4280: 4078: 4037: 4007: 3983: 3931: 3778: 3709: 3512: 3429: 3246: 3219: 3018: 2880: 2555: 2399: 2235: 1904: 1894: 1607: 1564: 1541: 1529: 1261: 706: 50: 13590: 10381: 10345: 10334: 10323: 10312: 10301: 10290: 10279: 8662:

Kenez, Peter (1991). "The Prosecution of Soviet History: A Critique of Richard Pipes'

8598: 6308: 4631: 4576:

disease as 450,000. Boris Sennikov estimated the total losses among the population of

4105: 3899:

Following the abortive offensive at Chelyabinsk, the White armies withdrew beyond the

16595: 16535: 16314: 16100: 15796: 15598: 15583: 15341: 15281: 15088: 15014: 14891: 14769: 14582: 14557: 14547: 14382: 14207: 14136: 14053: 14030: 13729: 13328: 13048: 13013: 12746: 12494: 12488: 12449: 12351: 12184: 11767: 11605: 11406: 11228: 11208: 11043: 11028: 10958: 10946: 10647: 10624: 10571: 10270:

Newsreels about Russian Civil War // Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive

10156:

The White Armies of Russia: A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention

10012: 9993: 9974: 9955: 9948: 9925: 9902: 9883: 9864: 9845: 9814: 9793: 9770: 9751: 9732: 9706: 9683: 9657: 9638: 9615: 9596: 9575: 9554: 9536: 9518: 9494: 9475: 9452: 9439: 9404: 9381: 9362: 9340: 9333: 9317: 9298: 9271: 9238: 9221: 9180: 9149: 9142: 9119: 9091: 9070: 9059: 9041: 9023: 9001: 8941: 8869: 8769: 8742: 8582: 8493: 8455: 8310: 8226: 7728: 7720: 7603: 7576: 7549: 7466: 7429: 7113: 6732: 6675: 6648: 6623: 6577: 6567: 6542: 6459: 6381: 6340: 6280: 6226: 6199: 6172: 6124: 6010: 5967: 5917: 5862: 5848: 5809: 5782: 5755: 5583: 5542: 5489: 5462: 5437: 4961: 4944: 4905: 4866: 4797: 4759: 4501: 4474: 4442: 4403: 4200: 4181: 3979: 3516: 3492: 3432:

killed by Bolsheviks, 1918. Above them stand also members of the Czechoslovak Legion.

3326: 3173:

On 16 December 1917 an armistice was signed between Russia and the Central Powers in

3146: 3074: 2965: 2945: 2916: 2888: 2876: 2856: 2786: 2703:

Protests against grain requisitioning of the peasantry were a major component of the

2597: 2470: 2415: 2275: 2268: 2086: 1984: 1932: 1817: 1777: 1770: 1734: 1622:, were involved in conflict against the Bolsheviks. They, as well as non-ideological 1498: 1493: 1288: 872: 724: 391: 9899:

The White Armies of Russia A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention

9676: 8034:

Viktor G. Bortnevski, "White Administration and White Terror (the Denikin Period)."

7755:

Ian C.D. Moffat, "The Allies Act—Murmansk and Archangel." in Ian C. D. Moffat. ed.,

5951:, p. 237 By 1920, 77% of the Red Army's enlisted ranks were peasant conscripts. 15326: 15271: 15177: 14918: 14689: 14659: 14625: 14470: 14235: 14131: 14101: 14068: 13851: 13781: 13776: 13605: 13411: 13406: 13234: 13090: 13065: 13043: 12710: 11552: 11522: 11516: 11426: 11255: 11223: 11213: 10952: 10876: 10871: 10799: 10619: 10519: 10220: 10144: 10129: 9427: 9354: 9263: 8933: 8675: 8479: 8447: 7458: 6806: 6801: 6789: 6603: 6524:

Malkov P. Notes of the Kremlin commandant. – M.: Molodaya gvardiya, 1968.S. 148–149

6421: 5844: 5840: 5391: 5302: 5207: 5096: 4988: 4966: 4833: 4723: 4661: 4309: 4241: 4125: 4117: 4066: 3998:

on 30 June, which forced the Reds to abandon Crimea. On 3 July, Denikin issued his

3990:, increasing his army's strength in the process. On 25 June, May–Mayevsky captured 3971: 3789: 3770: 3727: 3705: 3693: 3689: 3597: 3578: 3465: 3352: 3195: 2991:

The third period of the war was the extended siege of the last White forces in the

2981: 2751: 2704: 2680: 2346:

and declared it the new supreme authority in the country. The Social Revolutionary

2127: 1956: 1952: 1882: 1874: 1785: 1576: 1464: 1410: 1213: 924: 786: 746: 10148: 10133: 9431: 8893: 6751:

Mieczysław B. Biskupski, "War and the Diplomacy of Polish Independence, 1914–18."

6726: 6397: 3966:

Denikin then reorganized the Armed Forces of South Russia under the leadership of

3628:, which killed about five million people. However, the famine was preceded by bad 2924: 1610:

opposition to Bolshevik rule. In addition, rival militant socialists, notably the

711: 16507: 15720: 15672: 15578: 15346: 15093: 14945: 14913: 14587: 14567: 14270: 14121: 13671: 13340: 13140: 12991: 12971: 12361: 12201: 11540: 11093: 11068: 10767: 10675: 10514: 10358: 10227: 10189: 10166: 10051: 9917: 9590: 9512: 9113: 9085: 9061:

The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB

9017: 8597:, whence the following translated text is drawn (p. 85, note n. 128): "Professor 8576: 8572: 8555: 8306: 8046: 7770:

Civil war in Siberia: the anti-Bolshevik government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918–1920

7677: 7506: 7209: 7187: 7183: 7032: 6832: 6763: 6701: 6669: 6638: 6505: 6491: 6486: 6475: 6274: 6220: 6193: 6166: 5646: 4886: 4855: 4822: 4763: 4742: 4689: 4627: 4620: 4581: 4520: 4515: 4173: 4161: 4137: 4074: 3723: 3665: 3538: 3524: 3405:, "Two governments emerged as a result of the first successes of the Czechs: the 3318: 2961: 2845: 2759: 2747: 2739: 2715: 2498:

in response to a suspected civilian uprising there, and to "crush" landowners in

2495: 2283: 1960: 1947:

presented by the German Empire. Conversely, a number of prominent members of the

1908: 1821: 1670: 1587: 1439: 593: 497: 54: 4607: 4287:

on 14 November 1920, ending the struggle of Reds and Whites in Southern Russia.

3039:

and proclaimed the Soviets (workers' councils) as the new government of Russia.

3023: 2386:, or participated in sabotage, collaboration with the deposed Tsarists, or made 1563:, and Russia was in a state of political flux. A tense summer culminated in the 16527: 16455: 15735: 15725: 15429: 15256: 15019: 15009: 14386: 14250: 14174: 14169: 14159: 14126: 14111: 14091: 14040: 14025: 13994: 13841: 13075: 13018: 13008: 12194: 12174: 11845: 11558: 11396: 11187: 11078: 10934: 10838: 10821: 10351: 7690: 6822:

The Baltic revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the path to independence

5832: 5655: 5075: 5026: 4972: 4919: 4513:

In Central Asia, Red Army troops continued to face resistance into 1923, where

4414: 4217: 4189: 4113: 3912: 3836: 3732: 3673: 3546: 3481: 3453: 3227: 3166:, offered to Lenin in hope that, with a revolution, Russia would withdraw from 3159: 3056: 2949: 2941: 2929: 2684: 2567: 2559: 2487: 2442: 2375: 2327: 2251: 2244:

said the arrest was not related to his membership in the Constituent Assembly.

2200: 2148: 2098: 2064: 2021:). In January 1918, after significant Bolshevik reverses in combat, the future 1964: 1848: 1844: 1801: 1639: 1615: 1595: 1591: 1521: 1100: 1090: 1028: 810: 682: 670: 634: 608: 473: 265: 147: 10089:

The White Generals: An Account of the White Movement and the Russian Civil War

9699: 8559: 6844: 6581: 6309:"How the 'Red Terror' Exposed the True Turmoil of Soviet Russia 100 Years Ago" 6222:

Dear comrades: Menshevik reports on the Bolshevik revolution and the civil war

3265:

Under Soviet pressure, the Volunteer Army embarked on the epic Ice March from

2207:

Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, early Constituent Assembly rebellions

2051:

The Red Army also utilized former Tsarist officers as "military specialists" (

2013:

as their main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the

16646: 16388: 15389: 15226: 14864: 14260: 14230: 14202: 14192: 14116: 14073: 14063: 14058: 14048: 13686: 13464: 12305: 11593: 11587: 11023: 10940: 10851: 10110: 10016: 9671: 9275: 9254: 8945: 7470: 7462: 7202: 6790:"Revolutionary ferment in Finland and the origins of the civil war 1917–1918" 6776:

The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999

5228: 5178: 5172: 5063: 4892: 4681: 4577: 4557: 4418: 4410: 4365: 4301: 4257: 4169: 4129: 4042: 3995: 3975: 3852: 3719: 3677: 3621: 3441: 3414: 3345: 3337: 3174: 3090: 3082: 3052: 2781: 2743: 2431: 2032:

in order to create a more effective fighting force. The Bolsheviks appointed

1912: 1710: 1650: 1110: 1041: 915: 884: 822: 774: 762: 742: 729: 658: 578: 525: 278: 85: 4084: 69: 16271: 16092: 15486: 15145: 14669: 14635: 14390: 14255: 14197: 14141: 14106: 13904:

Group of forces in battle with the counterrevolution in the South of Russia

13893: 13883: 12655: 11755: 11182: 9225: 9207: 9197: 8524: 8326:

And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918–1930

7451:"The Red Army and Mass Mobilization during the Russian Civil War 1918-1920" 6437:

Llewellyn, Jennifer; McConnell, Michael; Thompson, Steve (11 August 2019).

6128: 5329:

The old spelling was retained by the Whites to differentiate from the Reds.

5107: 5037: 4875: 4673: 4530: 4225: 4205: 4096: 3880: 3847: 3637: 3562: 3557: 3364: 3183: 3151: 3066: 2957: 2912: 2821: 2809: 2755: 2643: 2474: 2164: 2025: 1674: 1623: 1537: 1033: 646: 460: 173: 14906: 9950:

A Vision Unfulfilled. Russia and the Soviet Union in the Twentieth Century

9294:

Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940

9005: 8536: 8197:"Chaos and Utopia: The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution and Civil War" 7146: 2482:

On 11 August 1918, prior to the events that would officially catalyze the

16134: 16096: 16088: 15710: 15694: 15608: 15550: 15251: 14980: 14901: 14834: 14664: 14265: 14245: 14096: 14020: 11966: 11871: 11569: 10997: 10418: 10070: 9508: 9211: 9013: 8761: 6882: 5395: 5167: 5046: 4983: 4977: 4844: 4839: 4677: 4549:

with the Soviet Union in 1925, when their forces were finally withdrawn.

3832: 3398: 3356: 3179: 3167: 3094: 2351: 2331: 2090: 1925:

Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies

1838: 1813: 1635: 1556: 10182: 8839: 6756: 4356:

without the protection of the army and was turned over to the socialist

3254:

at the time, before the annexation of the Austro-Hungarian lands of the

2523:(4) Single out the hostages per my instructions in yesterday's telegram. 16124: 15286: 15236: 15155: 15024: 14083: 13953: 13948: 13741: 13510: 13276: 12751: 12650: 10044: 9491:

Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia's Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921

9283: 8953: 8921: 7545:

Humanitarianism in the Modern World: The Moral Economy of Famine Relief

7504: 7425:

Russia's Army: A History from the Napoleonic Wars to the War in Ukraine

7246: 6615: 5129: 4489: 3986:, and then captured Tsaritsyn on 1 July. Sidorin advanced north toward 3872: 3809: 3784: 3313:

In June 1918 the Volunteer Army, numbering some 9,000 men, started its

2944:

refused to recognize it and assumed full governmental authority in the

2777: 2652: 2483: 2426:. He was the director of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (aka 2391: 2168: 2152: 2036:

to each unit of the Red Army to maintain morale and to ensure loyalty.

1980: 1916: 1878: 1568: 1298: 1001: 416: 103: 15455: 9810:

Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence

8687: 7478: 7450: 6729:

Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identity and Cultural Differences

4652:

Victims of a pogrom perpetrated by Ukrainian forces in Khodorkiv, 1919

4099:, which abstractly represents the defeat of the Whites by the Red Army 2824:

within its sphere of influence after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: the

1865:

The February Revolution of 1917 resulted in the abdication of Emperor

16344: 16339: 16161: 16054: 15884: 15545: 14874: 13666: 13502: 12966: 11761: 11528: 10075:

Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army

9235:

A Documentary History of Communism in Russia: From Lenin to Gorbachev

8612: 8297: 4930: 4850: 4538: 4370: 4165: 3864: 3322: 3294: 3266: 3215: 3032: 2457: 2438: 2403: 2045: 1972: 1928: 1784:. Bolshevik forces advanced east, despite encountering resistance in 1517: 1046: 384: 12530: 10342:

Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Russian Empire)

10103:

The Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918–1920: The Diplomacy of Chaos

9267: 8937: 6607: 3879:

at the end of April. The Red 5th Army, led by the capable commander

3487: 2278:(she would later break with the Bolsheviks and after the decades of 2264: 16334: 15879: 15613: 15573: 15439: 15301: 13861: 12645: 12021: 10346: