417:
391:
the UN in 1967 by Malta, prompting in 1973 a third United
Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in New York City. In an attempt to reduce the possibility of groups of nation-states dominating the negotiations, the conference used a consensus process rather than majority vote. With more than 160 nations participating, the conference lasted until 1982, resulting in the UN Convention of the Law of the Sea, also known as the Law of the Sea Treaty, which defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's oceans.
341:
413:, explicitly providing that the oceans are open to all states, with no state being able to subject any part to its sovereignty. Consequently, state parties cannot unilaterally extend their sovereignty beyond their EEZ, the 200 nautical miles in which that state has exclusive rights to fisheries, minerals, and sea-floor deposits. "Innocent passage" is permitted through both territorial waters and the EEZ, even by military vessels, provided they do no harm to the country or break any of its laws.
1746:
514:
248:
479:(ITLOS), based in Hamburg, Germany, to adjudicate all disputes concerning the interpretation or application of the convention (subject to the provisions of Article 297 and to the declarations made in accordance with article 298 of the convention). Its 21 judges are drawn from a wide variety of nations. Because the EEZ is so extensive, many ITLOS cases concern competing claims over the ocean boundaries between states As of 2017, ITLOS had settled 25 cases.
27:
528:
455:; the four treaties concluded in the first UN Conference in 1956 were consequently superseded. As of June 2019, UNCLOS has been ratified by 168 states. Many of the countries that have not ratified the treaty, such as the U.S., nonetheless recognize its provisions as reflective of international customary law. Thus, it remains the most widely recognized and followed source of international law with respect to the sea.
1291:
333:
320:, well beyond the territorial waters of the country. Truman's proclamation cited the customary international law principle of a nation's right to protect its natural resources. Other nations quickly followed suit: Between 1946 and 1950, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador extended their rights to a distance of 200 nautical miles (370 km) to cover their
502:, which concerns maritime issues and disputes among private parties, such as individuals, international organizations, or corporations. However, the International Maritime Organisation, a UN agency that plays a major role in implementing law of the sea, also helps to develop, codify, and regulate certain rules and standards of maritime law.
255:
As a growing number of nations began to expand their naval presence across the world, conflicting claims over the open sea mounted. This prompted maritime states to moderate their stance and to limit the extent of their jurisdiction towards the sea from land. This was aided by the compromise position
390:
was widely considered a success, it left open the important issue of the extent of territorial waters. In 1960, the UN held a second
Conference on the Law of the Sea ("UNCLOS II"), but this did not result in any new agreements. The pressing issue of varying claims of territorial waters was raised at
230:
The air belongs to this class of things for two reasons. First, it is not susceptible of occupation; and second its common use is destined for all men. For the same reasons the sea is common to all, because it is so limitless that it cannot become a possession of any one, and because it is adapted
243:
that the sea was as capable of appropriation by sovereign powers as terrestrial territory. Rejecting
Grotius' premise, Selden claimed there was no historical basis for the sea to be treated differently than land, nor was there anything inherent in the nature of the sea that precluded states from
77:
While drawn from a number of international customs, treaties, and agreements, modern law of the sea derives largely from the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. That convention is effective since 1994, and is generally accepted as a codification of
221:
and that all nations were thus free to use it for trade. He premised this argument on the idea that "every nation is free to travel to every other nation, and to trade with it." Thus, there was a right to innocent passage over land and a similar right of
312:, but no agreements resulted. By the mid 20th century, technological improvements in fishing and oil exploration expanded the nautical range in which countries could detect and exploit natural resources. This prompted United States President
967:
458:
Between 2018 and 2020, there is a conference on a possible change to the law of the sea regarding conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (General
Assembly resolution 72/249).
1466:
348:
The first attempt to promulgate and codify a comprehensive law of the sea was in the 1950s, shortly after the Truman proclamation on the continental shelf. In 1956, the United
Nations held its first Conference on the Law of the Sea
271:" became virtually universal through the 20th century, following the global dominance of European naval powers. National rights and jurisdiction over the seas were limited to a specified belt of water extending from a nation's
1441:
1414:
881:
379:
994:
402:, the exploitation regime, protection of the marine environment, scientific research, and settlement of disputes. It also set the limit of various areas, measured from a carefully defined sea
475:, which was established by the convention to organize, regulate and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond territorial limits. UNCLOS established the
1496:
1544:
1431:
467:
Although UNCLOS was created under the auspices of the UN, the organization has no direct operational role in its implementation. However, a specialized agency of the UN, the
196:(1455) recognized Portugal's exclusive right to navigation, trade, and fishing in the seas near discovered land, and on this basis the Portuguese claimed a monopoly on
1436:
1399:
1534:
1044:
244:
exercising dominion over parts of it. In essence, international law could evolve to accommodate the emerging framework of national jurisdiction over the sea.
361:
1119:
1592:
487:
226:
at sea. Grotius observed that unlike land, on which sovereigns could demarcate their jurisdiction, the sea was akin to air, a common property of all:
1421:
350:
67:
296:
In the early 20th century, some nations expressed their desire to extend national maritime claims, namely to exploit mineral resources, protect
1702:
1391:
787:
476:
754:
127:
promulgated between 600 and 800 C.E. to govern trade and navigation in the
Mediterranean. Maritime law codes were also created during the
264:(1702), established the principle that maritime dominion was limited to the distance within which cannons could effectively protect it.
394:
UNCLOS introduced a number of provisions, of which the most significant concerned navigation, archipelagic status and transit regimes,
1476:
1328:
1212:
706:
1187:
901:
1426:
62:. It concerns matters such as navigational rights, sea mineral claims, and coastal waters jurisdiction. The connotation of
1471:
1404:
468:
386:
The
Convention on the Continental Shelf effectively codified Truman's proclamation as customary international law. While
367:
1597:
1364:
764:
724:
1137:
1481:
471:, plays a role in monitoring and enforcing certain provisions of the convention, along with the intergovernmental
1664:
1295:
94:
1697:
1491:
1019:
472:
1539:
1524:
70:(UNCLOS)) is so comprehensive that it covers all areas of ocean law as well (e.g., marine environmental law,
1712:
1567:
1562:
1347:
1321:
1237:
416:
1409:
831:
373:
79:
1776:
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1451:
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led this trend, staking claims over both the land and sea routes they discovered. Spain considered the
451:
The convention came into force on 16 November 1994, one year after it was ratified by the 60th state,
1781:
1654:
1384:
1374:
395:
1095:"Intergovernmental Conference on Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction |"
788:"The Freedom of the Seas (Latin and English version, Magoffin trans.) – Online Library of Liberty"
1771:
1720:
1634:
1379:
1314:
231:
for the use of all, whether we consider it from the point of view of navigation or of fisheries.
1639:
1586:
1501:
1467:
London
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter
941:
855:
483:
257:
20:
1659:
1529:
290:
285:
218:
128:
813:"Chapter 1: International Law, Adoption of the Law of the Sea Convention – Law of the Sea"
136:
8:
1689:
716:
410:
268:
187:
was periodically patrolled by
Spanish fleets to prevent entrance by foreign vessels. The
1216:
1674:
1369:
886:
Customary International Law in Times of Fundamental Change: Recognizing Grotian Moments
705:
Rothwell, Donald; Oude Elferink, Alex; Scott, Karen; Stephens, Tim, eds. (2015-03-01).
648:
301:
184:
1262:
132:
1738:
1629:
1624:
1120:"First ever high-seas conservation treaty would protect life in international waters"
986:
897:
760:
720:
541:
317:
305:
161:
51:
1191:
1069:
93:(also known as maritime law), which applies to private maritime issues, such as the
1644:
1456:
889:
712:
640:
583:
551:
546:
482:
Other types of intergovernental organizations enforcing the law of the sea include
321:
276:
223:
192:
157:
146:
118:
106:
812:
607:
1679:
1649:
1619:
1506:
1461:
893:
420:
Parties to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (as of June 2019).
399:
313:
179:
literally a "closed sea" off limits to other naval powers—in part to protect its
156:
international law of the sea was in 17th century Europe, which saw unprecedented
122:
1669:
1415:
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas
432:
403:
165:
142:
102:
98:
55:
26:
340:
117:
Among the earliest examples of legal codes concerning maritime affairs is the
1765:
1733:
990:
533:
169:
90:
316:
in 1945 to extend American jurisdiction to all the natural resources of its
1446:
1067:
666:
499:
380:
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas
209:
204:
200:
trade, prompting opposition and conflict from other European naval powers.
174:
82:
of the sea, and is sometimes regarded as the "constitution of the oceans".
71:
36:
31:
571:
Making the Law of the Sea: A Study in the Development of International Law
1141:
297:
236:
180:
1750:
756:
Cornelius Van Bynkershoek: His Role in the History of International Law
652:
519:
188:
86:
527:
203:
Amid growing competition over sea trade, Dutch jurist and philosopher
309:
247:
217:), published in 1609, which set forth the principle that the sea was
1745:
644:
513:
1497:
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
387:
1545:
Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina
704:
357:, Switzerland, which resulted in four treaties concluded in 1958:
1306:
289:
principle, all waters beyond national boundaries were considered
1432:
Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage
462:
1290:
1241:
819:. The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University.
452:
354:
280:
197:
183:. Similarly, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the
1535:
Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits (1936)
1263:"International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea: List of Cases"
336:
Maritime zones are a core component of modern law of the sea.
272:
66:
is somewhat broader, but the law of the sea (anchored in the
59:
1422:
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III)
1162:
1020:"UNCLOS and Agreement on Part XI - Preamble and frame index"
916:
332:
207:—considered the father of international law generally—wrote
1094:
1437:
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
1302:
IILSS - International institute for Law of the Sea Studies
1400:
Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone
946:
Australia's Magna Carta Institute - Rule of Law Education
860:
Australia's Magna Carta Institute - Rule of Law Education
965:
327:
293:: Free to all nations, but belonging to none of them.
1301:
1163:"International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea: Home"
362:
Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone
509:
608:"Law of the Sea | international law [1982]"
235:Writing in response to Grotius, the English jurist
882:"The Truman Proclamation on the Continental Shelf"
631:Lytle Schurz, William (1922), "The Spanish Lake",
145:, enacted among the mercantile city-states of the
16:International law concerning maritime environments
1530:Treaty of Versailles, Part XII, Section VI (1919)
1068:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
972:: Legal Analysis of United States Claims, Part 1"
1763:
888:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 107–122,
251:"Mare clausum" in the European Age of Discovery.
1593:UNEP regional seas conventions and action plans
488:UNEP regional seas conventions and action plans
484:UN FAO regional fishery bodies and arrangements
68:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
39:is one of the earliest works on law of the sea.
675:] (in Latin). Lodewijk Elzevir. p. 7.
1703:International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
1392:Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
1322:
942:"The Truman Proclamation and the Rule of Law"
856:"The Truman Proclamation and the Rule of Law"
477:International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
463:Recognition and enforcement of law of the sea
398:(EEZs), continental shelf jurisdiction, deep
759:. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 150.
630:
498:Law of the sea should be distinguished from
832:"Unclos: 'Mare Liberum' or 'Mare Clausum'?"
279:(5.6 km), according to Bynkershoek's "
152:However, the earliest known formulation of
1329:
1315:
917:"United Nations - Office of Legal Affairs"
446: Non-parties that are not signatories
1477:International Plant Protection Convention
741:Of the Dominion, or, Ownership of the Sea
708:The Oxford Handbook of the Law of the Sea
431: Parties, dually represented by the
415:
339:
331:
246:
25:
752:
739:Marchamont Nedham translation of 1652,
685:
664:
633:The Hispanic American Historical Review
1764:
966:Major Thomas E. Behuniak (Fall 1978).
879:
829:
440: Non-parties that are signatories
1310:
830:Romulo, Ricardo J. (13 August 2016).
624:
376:, entry into force: 30 September 1962
364:, entry into force: 10 September 1964
1427:United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement
473:International Seabed Authority (ISA)
1472:Ballast Water Management Convention
1405:Convention on the Continental Shelf
985:. Department of the Army: 114–121.
469:International Maritime Organization
368:Convention on the Continental Shelf
328:UN Convention of the Law of the Sea
54:governing the rights and duties of
13:
1598:List of maritime boundary treaties
1365:Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
1336:
1045:"United Nations Treaty Collection"
717:10.1093/law/9780198715481.001.0001
256:presented by Dutch legal theorist
158:navigation, exploration, and trade
14:
1793:
1283:
968:"The Seizure and Recovery of the
584:"Rhodian Sea Law | Byzantine law"
382:, entry into force: 20 March 1966
1744:
1587:UN FAO regional fisheries bodies
1540:Egypt–Israel peace treaty (1979)
1482:International Health Regulations
1289:
753:Akashi, Kinji (2 October 1998).
526:
512:
370:, entry into force: 10 June 1964
1665:Law of carriage of goods by sea
1255:
1230:
1205:
1180:
1155:
1130:
1112:
1087:
1061:
1037:
1012:
959:
934:
909:
873:
848:
823:
817:Law of the Sea: A Policy Primer
805:
780:
493:
1698:International Seabed Authority
1492:Terrestrial Animal Health Code
746:
733:
698:
679:
658:
600:
576:
563:
1:
1525:Copenhagen Convention of 1857
1070:"What is the law of the sea?"
694:] (in Latin). p. 28.
557:
409:The convention also codified
1563:Convention of Constantinople
894:10.1017/cbo9781139649407.006
304:. To that end, in 1930, the
7:
1410:Convention on the High Seas
1076:. US Department of Commerce
880:Scharf, Michael P. (2013),
711:. Oxford University Press.
505:
374:Convention on the High Seas
160:across the world's oceans.
80:customary international law
10:
1798:
1487:Aquatic Animal Health Code
1452:Seabed Arms Control Treaty
112:
18:
1729:
1711:
1688:
1610:
1576:
1553:
1515:
1357:
1346:
1655:International piracy law
1568:Torrijos–Carter Treaties
1385:Fourth Geneva Convention
1375:Second Geneva Convention
396:exclusive economic zones
95:carriage of goods by sea
1721:Geneva Naval Conference
1635:Exclusive economic zone
1380:Third Geneva Convention
743:pp. 3-5, 8-11, 168-179.
692:The Freedom of the Seas
673:The Freedom of the Seas
612:Encyclopedia Britannica
588:Encyclopedia Britannica
219:international territory
215:The Freedom of the Seas
19:For the 1931 film, see
1585:Treaties establishing
686:Grotius, Hugo (1609).
665:Grotius, Hugo (1609).
448:
345:
337:
283:shot" rule. Under the
252:
233:
85:Law of the sea is the
40:
1640:Freedom of navigation
1518:international straits
1396:UNCLOS I Conventions
1074:oceanservice.noaa.gov
419:
343:
335:
308:called conference at
267:Grotius' concept of "
258:Cornelius Bynkershoek
250:
228:
60:maritime environments
29:
21:Law of the Sea (film)
1690:International courts
1660:International waters
1298:at Wikimedia Commons
1138:"ITLOS jurisdiction"
836:opinion.inquirer.net
291:international waters
277:three nautical miles
129:European Middle Ages
1556:global significance
1000:on 28 December 2016
979:Military Law Review
792:oll.libertyfund.org
269:freedom of the seas
181:possessions in Asia
1675:Territorial waters
1554:Maritime canals of
1370:Geneva Conventions
449:
411:freedom of the sea
346:
338:
302:pollution controls
253:
185:Strait of Magellan
135:, which drew from
41:
1777:International law
1759:
1758:
1739:International law
1630:Custom of the sea
1625:Continental shelf
1606:
1605:
1502:Hague–Visby Rules
1294:Media related to
903:978-1-107-03523-2
542:Custom of the Sea
324:fishing grounds.
318:continental shelf
306:League of Nations
52:international law
1789:
1782:Maritime history
1749:
1748:
1645:Innocent passage
1611:Main and related
1589:and arrangements
1457:SOLAS Convention
1355:
1354:
1340:
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1317:
1308:
1307:
1293:
1278:
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1259:
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1250:
1249:
1240:. Archived from
1234:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1215:. Archived from
1209:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1199:
1190:. Archived from
1184:
1178:
1177:
1175:
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1159:
1153:
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1149:
1140:. Archived from
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1128:
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993:. Archived from
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569:James Harrison,
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552:Ocean governance
547:Nansen Institute
536:
531:
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522:
517:
516:
445:
439:
430:
424:
344:UNCLOS sea areas
322:Humboldt Current
262:De dominio maris
224:innocent passage
193:Romanus Pontifex
147:Hanseatic League
107:marine insurance
1797:
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1788:
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1762:
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1680:Transit passage
1650:Internal waters
1620:Contiguous zone
1612:
1602:
1578:
1572:
1555:
1549:
1517:
1511:
1507:Rotterdam Rules
1462:STCW Convention
1442:OPRC Convention
1349:
1342:
1338:
1335:
1286:
1281:
1271:
1269:
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1103:
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1093:
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1079:
1077:
1066:
1062:
1053:
1051:
1049:treaties.un.org
1043:
1042:
1038:
1028:
1026:
1018:
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1003:
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997:
974:
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663:
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645:10.2307/2506024
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496:
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441:
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428:
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330:
314:Harry S. Truman
133:Rolls of Oléron
115:
103:ship collisions
89:counterpart to
50:) is a body of
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1795:
1785:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1772:Law of the sea
1757:
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1751:Law portal
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1670:Law of salvage
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1348:Sources of law
1344:
1343:
1339:Law of the sea
1334:
1333:
1326:
1319:
1311:
1305:
1304:
1299:
1296:Law of the sea
1285:
1284:External links
1282:
1280:
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1188:"ITLOS judges"
1179:
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