Middle Ages - Knowledge

737: 4889: 853: 6097: 1823: 5192: 1902: 3321:: the eldest son's right to inherit the family domains undivided. Nobles were stratified in the land and people over whom they had authority; the lowest-ranking nobles did not hold land, and had no vassals. The nobility was never a closed group; kings could raise commoners to the aristocracy, wealthy commoners could marry into noble families, and impoverished aristocrats could lose their privileged status. Western aristocrats often moved to the peripheries of Latin Christendom with the support of local rulers who appreciated their military skills or as conquerors. French-speaking noblemen mainly settled in the British Isles, southern Italy or Iberia, and German aristocrats preferred Central and Eastern Europe. 2567: 66: 3069: 3872: 566: 4705: 3385: 1190: 1679: 3715: 5665: 2857: 1612: 2403: 2394: 2385: 3170: 19301: 4202: 5842: 2179: 5035: 19414: 1634:, and others on isolated farms. Since legislation made a clear distinction between free and unfree, there was no sharp difference between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat; it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise to the aristocracy through military service. Demand for slaves was covered with warring and raids. After the Anglo-Saxons' conversion to Christianity, slave hunters mainly targeted the pagan Slav tribes; the English word "slave" derives from 1414: 19277: 19397: 3515: 16822: 16812: 19363: 19380: 19346: 3088:-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the later Roman military, although the deployment of highly-specialised troops continued. The invading tribes had different emphases on types of soldiers, ranging from the primarily-infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths, who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies. The greatest change in military affairs was the adoption of the Hunnic 1205:, which allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than had been common in the Roman state, developed into legislative and judicial bodies. Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new political entities was based on Roman intellectual traditions. Many no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rent; with less need for large tax revenues, the 16832: 19329: 1889:. In addition, timber, fur and arms were delivered from Europe to the Mediterranean; Europe imported spices, medicine, incense, and silk. Large rivers, connecting distant regions, facilitated the expansion of transcontinental trade. Contemporaneous reports indicate that Anglo-Saxon merchants visited fairs at Paris, pirates preyed on tradesmen on the Danube, and Eastern Frankish merchants reached as far as 19289: 6125:, when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual culture with the past. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition. One misconception is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the 240: 5119:

abolished in many places, although in other regions (primarily central and eastern Europe) it was imposed on tenants who had been free. The rise of banking continued, fuelled partly by the cross-border movement of papal revenues with the mediation of large merchant houses. They also loaned money to warring royalty at great risk, and some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on loans.

200: 5432: 15332: 3277:. Commoners, about 98 per cent of the total population, were mainly rural peasants and artisans. The number of townspeople was growing, but never exceeded 10 per cent of the total population. Many peasants were no longer settled on isolated farms but had gathered into more-defensible small communities, usually known as manors or villages. In the system of 3368:

field-work at harvest time. Townswomen could engage in trade, but often only by right of their husband; unlike their male competitors, they were not always allowed to train apprentices. Noblewomen could inherit land in the absence of a male heir, but their potential to give birth was considered their principal virtue. Since women were not

4734:(tower castles) were preferred in central Europe and competing urban families built tall towers in Italian cities and towns. The great pilgrimages encouraged the construction of large churches along pilgrimage routes. This led to the development of stone architecture which resembled classical Roman building design and is known as 1560:) were typical of the age. Aristocratic culture focused on great feasts rather than literary pursuits. Family ties among the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour; these ties led to the prevalence of feuds in aristocratic society. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly, with the payment of 2886:, the largest single-roofed structure in the Roman world. As the spacious basilicas became less useful with the decline of urban centres in the west, they gave way to smaller churches until the basilica form of architecture revived in the Carolingian Empire. A new standard feature of Carolingian basilicas is the use of a 5091:. Peasants who survived the pandemic paid lower rents to landlords, but demand for agricultural products declined and lower prices barely covered their costs. Urban workers received higher salaries, but were heavily taxed. Governments occasionally tried to raise rural rents or keep urban salaries low, provoking 2909:, columns, and sculptured discs. After the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire, the spread of aristocratic castles indicates a transition from communal fortifications to private defence. Most castles were wooden structures, but the wealthiest lords built stone fortresses. One or more towers (now known as 3746:. Taxation quickly developed, because revenues from the royal domains could no more cover state expenditures. Extraordinary taxes were initially levied for military purposes, but by the end of the period taxes were collected more regularly. Effective taxation depended on consent which reinforced the role of 736: 3438:

As local commercial centres developed into towns, economic growth caused a new wave of urbanisation. Kings and aristocrats primarily supported the process in the hope of increased tax revenues. Most urban communities received privileges acknowledging their autonomy, but few cities could eliminate all

1567:

Women participated in aristocratic society primarily as wives and mothers, with the mother of an underage ruler especially prominent in Francia. The lack of many child rulers in Anglo-Saxon society meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was countered by the increased role played by

4039:) established centralised rule of southern Iberia in the 1110s and 1170s respectively, their empires quickly disintegrated and allowed further expansion of the Christian kingdoms. The Catholic Scandinavian states also expanded; the Norwegian kings assumed control of the Norse colonies in Iceland and 2278:

the Avars, facilitating the development of small Slav principalities primarily ruled by ambitious warlords under Frankish suzerainty. The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 marked the return of the Western Roman Empire, although the Byzantines did not recognise him as a second

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became rulers of Egypt. The Islamisation of the countryside in Al-Andalus was slow. Christians were regularly employed in state administration, but violent inter-religious conflicts could lead to their mass migration to the north. Except for Byzantium, Muslim Spain was the only place in Europe where

1127:

To deal with the migrations, the Eastern Roman elites combined the deployment of armed forces with gifts and grants of offices to the tribal leaders; the Western aristocrats failed to support the army and refused to pay tribute to prevent invasions by the tribes. These invasions led to the division

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are frequently exhibited in jurisdictions with liberal regulation such as England and Wales, but in other countries (such as Italy) finds from unofficial excavations are seldom published. Although medieval images and sculptures may provide useful information about everyday life, a critical approach

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Labour services owed by peasants for their land tenure were often changed into cash rent, providing landlords with a stable source of income. Landlords joined to extort privileges from their governments, but royal administrations began to protect the interests of the poor. Serfdom was officially

1487:

Justinian's re-conquests and building program have been criticised by historians for bringing his realm to the brink of bankruptcy, but many of the difficulties faced by his successors were due to other factors (including the massive expansion of the Avars and their Slav allies). Eastern border

1647:

City life and culture were declining. Although the northern Italian cities remained inhabited, they decreased significantly in size. Cities also shrank in northern Europe, and civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. Jewish communities survived in Spain,

3367:

Women were officially required to be subordinate to some male: their father, husband, or other kinsman. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestic tasks, such as child care. Peasant women could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home, and they did

1629:

patterns were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented holdings but large, contiguous blocks of land were the norm in other areas. These differences permitted a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others with a great deal of autonomy. Land

3489:

Economic growth provided opportunities for Jewish merchants to spread throughout Europe with the support of local rulers. Jews could not engage in prestigious trades outside their communities, and often took low-status jobs such as ragmen or tax collectors. They were especially active in

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existed at the end of the period. Successful dynasties reigned over several states (primarily in close cooperation with local elites), but could not freely redistribute resources throughout their realms. Fiscal and military matters were regularly discussed with representatives of elite

5827:(d. 1524) reached India in 1498. After visiting the African slave markets, the Portuguese became deeply involved in the slave trade with Europe and the Muslim world. Christopher Columbus proposed a westward, alternative route to India. He gained Isabella of Castile's support for 2425:(r. 814–40) – was still alive by 813. Louis's reign was marked by divisions of the empire among his sons and civil wars between various alliances of father and sons. Three years after his death, his three surviving sons divided the empire among themselves in the 1862:

nearly ceased but bronze Roman coins remained in circulation. Although gold coins were struck, they were mainly used for extraordinary expenditures such as the purchase of land or luxury goods. A shift from gold coinage to the mint of silver pennies began in the late

5289:

Succession trouble was not uncommon in the Iberian kingdoms; intermarriages between royal houses created conflicting claims to thrones, and royal bastards could successfully claim their paternal inheritance. Portugal opened a new theater of anti-Muslim warfare in

3305:(labour services). Peasants left their homelands in return for economic and legal privileges, typically lower taxes, and the right to administer justice in their communities. Cross-border peasant movement had radical demographic consequences, such as the eastward 5115:. Conflict polarised ethnic groups, and local statutes prohibited intermarriage and limited guild membership along ethnic lines. Private feuds were almost permanent in politically-fragmented regions, and local skirmishes often escalated into full-scale warfare. 15250: 1441:. Political life was marked by closer relations between the political state and the Christian Church, with theological matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of 2659:

in Rome in 962 demonstrated his claim to Charlemagne's legacy. Otto's successors remained keenly interested in Italian affairs, but the absentee German kings were unable to assert permanent authority over the local aristocracy. In the Iberian Peninsula, the

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and other narrative sources focusing on the deeds of powerful men. Professional historians treat medieval narratives cautiously, since they are often filled with distorted facts or unrealistic information. Documents of state or church administration such as

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As migrations and conquests disrupted trade networks throughout the old Roman lands, goods from long-range trade were replaced with local products. Non-local goods in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods or metal works. In the 7th and

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in the 11th century. People with surplus cash began investing in commodities such as salt, pepper, silk, wine and honey in faraway markets. Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first

5806:

Several factors, primarily a growing demand for gold and European merchants' eagerness to avoid customs payments, prompted the search for a direct maritime route to India along the African coasts. Initially, the Portuguese led the explorations;

4141:: a virtually-autonomous Mongol state. The Mongols extracted heavy tribute from the Rus' principalities, and the Rus' princes had to ingratiate themselves with the Mongol khans for economic and political concessions. Under Mongol pressure, the 6561:

These two groups—Germans and Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated when dealing with the northern rulers; the Italian city-states engaged in internecine strife, culminating in the

5009:. In contrast, the Mongols remained lightly-armoured steppe horsemen even after they adopted Chinese military devices. The extensive use of spies for reconnoitering enemy land was a prominent factor in their successful military campaigns. 453:

in regions where central authority was weak, but state power was on the rise by the end of the period. The settlement of Western European peasants and aristocrats towards the eastern and southern peripheries of Europe, often spurred by

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The idea of Christian unity endured, although differences in ideology and practice between the Eastern and Western Churches were increasing. Native Roman aversion to Arian conquerors reinforced the traditional Christian concept of the

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Those who decided to participate in a crusade took an oath and placed the mark of the cross on their clothes. The crusaders enjoyed privileges (including a moratorium on debts), but those who failed to fulfil the crusader oath faced

6197:. Monographs on the medieval history of certain groups such as women, Jews, slaves, heretics and homosexuals have been regularly published since the 1970s, with the influx of people from diverse social backgrounds into universities. 6133:

said, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed in the Age of Reason, they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".

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reached much of Europe around 1400, producing masterpieces in sculpture and miniature. Throughout Europe, secular art increase in quantity and quality; the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons during the

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in the west; this concept was alien to eastern clergymen, however, who regarded the Roman state as an instrument of divine providence. After the Muslim conquests, Byzantine emperors could less effectively intervene in the west. When

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in 884, although its units retained separate administrations. By his death, early in 888, the Carolingians were close to extinction; non-dynastic claimants assumed power in most of the successor states, such as the Parisian count

1468:, a popular revolt that destroyed half of Constantinople in 532. After crushing the revolt, he reinforced the autocratic elements of the imperial government and mobilised his troops against the western Arian kingdoms. The general 3043:

freely enriched their Insular heritage with Carolingian motifs such as sprigs of foliage. In post-Carolingian Germany, manuscripts illustrated with lively pictorial cycles indicate the impact of contemporary Byzantine art on

6592:

Most compromises were based on a distinction between a prelate's spiritual and temporal responsibilities, allowing bishops and abbots to swear an oath of fealty to the emperor (or king) in return for their investment in the

2453:(r. 843–77) received the western Frankish lands making up most of modern-day France. Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms among their descendants, eventually destroying all internal cohesion. 14210: 5319:

The idea of elective kingship revived in the central European and Scandinavian monarchies for a variety of reasons, including aristocratic aversion to foreign influence. Royal power was restored in Poland early in the

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The Jewish communities were permanently expelled from France and, provisionally, from most German cities and principalities. In contrast, Hungarian and Polish rulers encouraged the immigration of Jewish moneylenders.

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efforts to dominate Italy eventually led to the fall of his dynasty. In Germany, a period of interregnum civil war began during which Sicily—Frederick's maternal inheritance—was seized by the ambitious French prince

3596:, also involving other powers because kings did not relinquish control of appointments to bishoprics or abbeys voluntarily. All conflicts ended with a compromise—in the case of the Holy Roman Emperors, with the 1122 14016: 6117:, the medieval period has frequently been described as a "time of barbarism, ignorance, and superstition" which placed "religious authority above personal experience and rational activity". This is a legacy of the 5596:(d. 1327), a critic of Aquinas, urged the faithful to focus on perfecting their inner divine core. Although his works were censured for heresy, copies of his sermons survived which were read by Protestant reformer 3127:

The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period with the increasing dominance of elite heavy cavalry, although a large proportion of the armies appear to have been

3011:. The more naturalistic Mediterranean style was an important inspiration for western artists under Charlemagne, who considered the visual arts a powerful instrument of education and propaganda. After a long pause, 4477:

literature, but references to them could no longer override rational arguments. Scholastic academics summarised their (and other authors') views on specific subjects in comprehensive sentence collections known as

2477:(r. 911–18) as king. The dynasty was restored in West Francia in 898 and 936, but the last Carolingians could not control the aristocracy. In 987, the dynasty was replaced with the crowning of powerful aristocrat 6614:, Hildegard endorsed the traditional view of female fragility in her early works but later she emphasised that men and women were dependent on each other. Although a nun, she provided the first description of a 4125:(r. 1206–27), a new expansionist power reached Europe. The Mongols conquered Volga Bulgaria, shattered the Rus' principalities, and laid waste to large regions in Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia and Bulgaria 2484:

Frankish culture and the Carolingian methods of state administration had a significant impact on neighboring peoples. Frankish threat triggered the formation of new states along the empire's eastern frontier:

4502: 1061:. The settlement did not go smoothly and, when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder. Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the 1270:

marked by its co-operation between the natives and the conquerors. Power struggles between Romanised and traditionalist Ostrogothic groups followed his death, providing the opportunity for the Byzantines to

4907:

Technology developed primarily in minor innovations and the adoption of advanced technologies from Asia with Muslim mediation. Major technological advances included the first mechanical clocks and convex

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experienced anomalous cold. The ensuing famines led to riots and military coups in the Byzantine Empire, the Abbasid Caliphate, and Egypt, and forced masses of nomadic Turks to seek new pasture lands in

1295:, the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. Unlike other Germanic peoples, the Franks preferred mainstream Christianity to Arianism; this facilitated their cooperation with the native 3316:

were integrated into the traditional aristocracy, and the others were assimilated into the peasantry. The new elite's position was stabilised through the adoption of strict inheritance customs, such as

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Religious beliefs were in flux along the Eastern Roman and Persian frontiers, as state-sponsored Roman missionaries proselytised among the pagan steppe peoples and the Persians made attempts to enforce

4655:, which led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Around 1140, the monk Gratian (fl. 12th century)—a teacher at Bologna—wrote what became the standard text of 682:

countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: early ("high") and late ("low"). English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the period into thirds:

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could not prove God's existence. Under his influence, most scholars who researched subjects yielding verifiable conclusions (such as mathematics or physics) no longer analysed theological issues.

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metal works, was introduced into Roman territory by the invading peoples. Artisans working for post-Roman elites developed a distinct, abstract design characterised by ribbons and highly-stylised

6519:—in effect, unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had been warriors or government officials, allowing their descendants to hold fiefs and become knights while technically remaining serfs. 3763:(pope 1198–1216). As rulers of much of central Italy and feudal overlords of some of the Catholic rulers, the popes became deeply involved in secular politics. Sicily and southern Italy had been 2878:

were built in the major Roman cities and post-Roman kingdoms from the 4th to the 6th centuries. Byzantine church architecture adopted an alternative model imitating the rectangular plan and the

5581:, survived as an officially-recognised denomination in Bohemia. In the hope of western support against the Ottomans, Byzantine church leaders submitted themselves to the papacy at the 1438–39 3297:

and their hereditary status was regulated by agreements with their lords. Restrictions on their activities varied, but their freedom of movement was customarily limited and they usually owed

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In Germany, elected emperors were no more than supreme arbiters even if they had a significant power base in their hereditary lands. Imperial authority was even more limited in Italy, where

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Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. Slowness is less of a disadvantage in a siege, since a crossbowman can hide behind fortifications while reloading.

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long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun and the use of buttons to close garments enabled a better fit. Popular tailoring designs were quickly spread by pedlars, and trends in

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of monasteries. Women's influence on politics was fragile, and early medieval authors tended to depict powerful women in a bad light. Women were more respected in Scandinavian societies; a

4754:, but they have a number of regional variants. Traditional Byzantine religious architecture remained dominant in the Balkans, although some Serbian churches have a Romanesque influence. 2074:

for powerful families and centres of political authority; they were the main (and sometimes only) outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many surviving manuscripts of the Latin

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began in different regions at different times. Scholarly consensus characterises the period by the economic predominance of agriculture, exploitation of the peasantry, the importance of

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in growing numbers, wars began to be primarily fought by professional soldiers throughout nearly all of Europe in the mid-14th century. Mercenaries were initially hired for wars, but a

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term for Slavs. Christian ethics brought about significant changes in the position of slaves during the 7th and 8th centuries, since their right to a more humane treatment was enacted.

15706: 4888: 2497:. The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings, who also 16038: 13581: 1160:(r. 474–91). The Eastern Roman Empire (known as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart) had little ability to control the lost western territories, but its 4939:. Large scale construction projects advanced building technology, and increased demand for raw materials like timber, stone, and bricks. Shipbuilding improved with the use of the 2442: 6950:

The widespread dissemination of artistic motifs by copying and recopying sketches is indicated by the similarity between wall-paintings depicting the life of the Virgin Mary in

1867:, with the cessation of Byzantine subsidy payments to the Lombards and Franks. The elites' new emphasis on Christian charity also increased the demand for coins of lower value. 13783: 15568: 13694: 7160:

Initially a tiny principality, Muscovy gained strength against its more-powerful neighbors with support from the Mongol khans. During the 1320s, Moscow became the seat of the

5478:(r. 1451–81). Talented military commanders could repel individual Ottoman attacks but the Ottomans conquered almost all of the Balkans; Bulgaria was occupied in 1396, Serbia 2196:

The Merovingian kings customarily distributed Francia among their sons and destroyed their own power base with extensive land grants. In the northeastern Frankish kingdom of

1588:. The disparity in numbers between marriageable women and men led to the detailed regulation of legal institutions protecting women's interests, including their right to the 3435:

facilitated transactions between local and foreign merchants. Loans could be negotiated with them, which gave rise to the development of credit institutions known as banks.

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of the western part of the empire into smaller political units, ruled by the invading tribes. The 5th-century emperors were often controlled by military strongmen such as

5795:. Literacy improved as new schools and universities were established throughout Europe, often sponsored by urban authorities or wealthy individuals. The invention of the 1504:(r. 610–41) launched an unexpected counterattack against the heart of the Sassanian Empire two years later, recovering the territories previously lost to the Persians. 2309:. Literacy increased with development of the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, and liturgical and scriptural studies under the auspices of the Anglo-Saxon scholar 15163: 17046: 19199: 5140: 4503: 5076:

that spread throughout Europe and killed about one-third of the population. As plague continued to strike Europe until 1400, its total population fell by about

2140:—the sale of church offices—was a common practice. Simony aroused a general fear, since many believed that irregularly-appointed priests could not confer valid 877:, and the following two centuries saw the slow decline of Roman control of its outlying territories. Runaway inflation, external pressure on the frontiers, and 16275: 4770: 3753:

The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular influence, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the Christian world. The

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decimated the empire. Justinian developed an extensive system of border forts to compensate for the lack of military personnel, but stopped maintaining the

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for administrative tasks or as guardians or tutors of women and children, since they considered castrated men exceptionally intelligent and loyal servants.

19189: 14104: 5699:(d. 1342), however, was still inspired by Aristotle to argue in favor of a community's right to regulate its life and control the clergy. Scholars such as 280:. Major developments include the economic predominance of agriculture, exploitation of the peasantry, slow inter-regional communication, the importance of 15050: 4264:, but their security depended on external military assistance (which led to further crusades). Muslim resistance was raised by ambitious warlords such as 3545:

clerics on the papal throne. With popular support, they achieved the acknowledgement of their jurisdiction in church affairs in many parts of Europe. The

16777: 6173:(d. 1886). He emphasised primary sources and studied several aspects of history, but his students focused on political history. Historians of the French 5068:. Starving peasants slaughtered their draft animals, and survivors had to make extraordinary efforts to revive farming. This was followed in 1346 by the 16133: 4989:

In military affairs, the use of specialised infantry increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry

1530:, the principal means of religious instruction were music and art rather than books. Most intellectual efforts imitated classical scholarship, but some 19064: 14377: 7308:, estimations of literacy are uncertain because both terms are ambiguous; one estimate, in 1500, was ten per cent of males and one per cent of females. 4078:, but respected the liberties of the native aristocracy. They claimed (but only periodically achieved) suzerainty over other lands and peoples such as 2905:

Halls built of timber or stone were the centres of political and social life. Their design often adopted elements of later Roman architecture such as

2239:(r. 751–68) was crowned king with the consent of the Frankish leaders and the papacy. Pepin attacked the Lombards, enforcing their promise to respect 401:

faraway regions in return for economic and legal concessions. New towns developed from local commercial centers, and urban artisans united into local

15446: 14964: 13932: 13752: 6032:

Printing houses throughout Europe began the mass production of inexpensive playing cards and primitive religious images during the mid-15th century.

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to the king or a higher-ranking aristocrat, but their landholding was free of feudal obligations. In the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan states, the

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in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the

1484:. He resumed his expansionism in a decade, completing the conquest of the Ostrogothic kingdom and seizing much of southern Spain from the Visigoths. 549:

architects and artists revived several elements of classical culture in Italy. During the last medieval century, naval expeditions in search for new

14830:(2003). "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor". In Lindberg, David C.; 14484: 5963:—the city's most influential family—gathered a significant collection of classical sculptures and opened it to local artists. The Tuscan architect 5736:(d. 1400). French became standardised with theoretical discussions about chivalric literature. One of the sharpest critics of chivalric romances, 4220:

Clashes with secular powers led to the militarisation of the papacy. In response to a Byzantine appeal for military aid against the Seljuk Turks,

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Gold pouring into the tribal leaders from the Roman Empire was regularly remoulded into new artifacts, such as massive necklaces and eagle-shaped

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Facing financial crises and threats from the west, the restored Byzantine Empire was unable to prevent Turkish expansion in Anatolia. Revolts by

5188:. Legal procedures improved as discretionary justice, previously dispensed by kings and their retainers, was delegated to professional lawyers. 763:) are poorly documented, which limits a comprehensive study of the period. The systematic publication of medieval written sources began with the 6737:(d. 1263) who made four visits to Sarai to gain the Khans' favor. He overcame his rivals with Mongol assistance, crushed an anti-Mongol riot in 1596:("morning gift"). Early medieval laws acknowledged a man's right to have long-term sexual relationships with women other than his wife (such as 19204: 16290: 7051:

In Bohemia, a mid-14th-century Czech treatise accused the local German artisans of plotting to keep prices high. In 1392, the bakers' guild in

5408: 3466:, were the first to profit from the revival of commerce in the Mediterranean. In the north, German merchants established associations known as 13991: 3490:

moneylending, because they could ignore the Christian clerical condemnation of loan interest. Jewish moneylenders and pawn brokers reinforced

1791:. The Abbasids were concerned with the Middle East, losing control of portions of the Muslim lands in the west. Umayyad descendants took over 1476:

and attacked the Ostrogoths, but his campaign was interrupted by an unexpected Sasanian invasion from the east. Between 541 and 543, a deadly

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With the development of heavy cavalry, the uniform class of free warriors split into two groups. Those who could equip themselves as mounted

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of the free population declined. One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies known as the

2545: 2224:(d. 741), took advantage of the permanent Muslim threat to confiscate church property and raise troops by parcelling it out to the recruits. 1999: 13811: 18574: 16367: 15731: 5376: 4773:. Few wall paintings survive, although references to images abound in written sources. The employment of itinerant artists, and the use of 2603:

in Britain. By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had restored Anglo-Saxon control of the territory. In northern Britain,

1408: 1404: 1216:' culture had little impact on the Anglo-Saxon way of life, but the linguistic assimilation of the natives to the newcomers is evident. By 15674: 14235: 5298:

in 1415. Aragon and Castile were divided by conflicts between magnate factions or about the limits of royal government, but the Castilian

4824:(d. 1151). The new style quickly spread, dominating religious architecture in much of Catholic Europe until the end of the Middle Ages. 17485: 6687:

was known for his erudition and unconventional lifestyle; he had a harem and wore Arab-style garments, including a mantle decorated with

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to march to the east. They lived by looting, and attacked Jewish communities. Few of them reached Anatolia, and those who succeeded were

4188: 3943: 3856:(r. 1273–91), the first German king to be elected after the interregnum, realised that he could not control the whole empire. He granted 14885: 5803:

simplified the mass publication of books, and competition between publishing houses contributed to the quick spread of news and ideas.

5246:(r. 1413–22) to seize much of France. The unconquered French regions put up a strong resistance, boosted by the visions of peasant girl 3443:. These associations typically made rules governing quality, training, and pricing, and only their members had access to local markets. 3281:, a manor was the basic unit of landholding; it consisted of smaller components, such as parcels held by peasant tenants and the lord's 1526:

largely disappeared. Although literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than an indication of status. By the late

386: 17078: 16066: 15999: 15960: 15917: 15849: 15759: 15635: 15596: 15113: 14666: 13527: 6129:. This is untrue; lecturers in medieval universities commonly argued that evidence indicated the Earth was a sphere. Science historian 5538:

in 1312. Although the papal seat was returned to Rome in 1377 due to popular pressure, disputes among the church leadership led to the

5487: 5084: 2807: 2793: 893:. The need for revenue led to increased taxes, more centralised and bureaucratic state administration, and a decline in numbers of the 19386: 5550:

with the resignation of one pope and the deposition of his two rivals, which paved the way for the election of an Italian cardinal as

3989:. After a number of divisions and reunifications of the Christian states, the Christian north had coalesced into the four kingdoms of 2321:, which facilitated reading with the clear separation of words and the extensive use of punctuation. Charlemagne sponsored changes in 19144: 17036: 14371: 5144: 4986:, who required less pasture than oxen. Legumes such as peas, beans, and lentils were grown more widely, in addition to cereal crops. 2231:, as Charles Martel's descendants are known, succeeded the Merovingians as the royal dynasty of Francia in 751. The Merovingian king 1489: 955:

accelerated by the conversion of Constantine, although Christianity emerged as the empire's dominant religion only at the end of the

4360:

by church authorities. The crusades fused monastic life with military service in the framework of a new type of monastic order, the

18418: 13845: 6399: 3345: 1761: 852: 15025: 14459: 5514:

and conflicts with the Roman aristocracy had undermined papal authority in Italy, the seat of the papacy was moved to the city of

2156:

in 909 initiated a more radical change, since Cluny was freed from lay control and placed under the protection of the papacy. The

18058: 17427: 16105: 14586: 5643: 5092: 4421:, from the pope or the Holy Roman Emperor. The new educational institutions encouraged scholarly discussion. Debates between the 984: 506: 13609: 5929:

The wealthiest Italian and French princes regularly hired foreign artists, which led to the convergence of courtly styles. This

1804:

eunuchs played a preeminent role in administration and social life, holding positions such as guardians of religious shrines or

1352:

and Germanic tribes in the lowlands along the lower and middle Danube by the end of the 6th century. Another steppe people (the

18506: 15505: 15307: 4075: 3546: 2549: 14860: 13637: 5462:

in 1354. Within a century, the Ottomans reduced the competing southeastern European kingdoms, principalities and lordships to

3396:

The expansion of population, greater agricultural productivity, and relative political stability laid the foundations for the

2587:

The Viking settlement in the British Isles led to the formation of new political entities, including the small (but militant)

1660:. Muslim rulers employed Jewish courtiers, but Christian legislation forbade the appointment of Jews to government positions. 19084: 16245: 16172: 16147: 16119: 16091: 16052: 16024: 15985: 15942: 15899: 15874: 15835: 15810: 15784: 15745: 15720: 15688: 15660: 15621: 15582: 15548: 15523: 15491: 15463: 15430: 15405: 15378: 15346: 15321: 15296: 15268: 15236: 15205: 15177: 15152: 15126: 15094: 15068: 15039: 14981: 14899: 14874: 14849: 14817: 14791: 14712: 14684: 14652: 14624: 14599: 14571: 14498: 14473: 14445: 14417: 14389: 14360: 14328: 14305: 14277: 14249: 14224: 14196: 14175: 14147: 14116: 14086: 14058: 14030: 14005: 13977: 13949: 13916: 13888: 13857: 13825: 13797: 13769: 13736: 13708: 13683: 13651: 13623: 13595: 13570: 13541: 13513: 6533: 3580:—the appointment of clerics by secular rulers—was condemned at a 1059 assembly of bishops in Rome. Henry's son and successor 2282:

His empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor and about 300 imperial officials (known as

1753: 1749: 1653: 823:

has significantly contributed to studying the history of poorly-documented regions, periods, and groups (such as peasantry);

624:

and 1500, but its start and end years are arbitrary. A common starting point, first used by Bruni, is 476: the year the last

7341: 6265: 5328:, a loose confederation of mainly-pagan Lithuanian chieftains and Orthodox Rus' principalities. The common enemy prompted a 4067: 3238:

regulated fundamental social relations in many parts of Europe. In this system, a lord granted property—typically land—to a

1041:. Although these movements of peoples have been described as "invasions", they were often not just military expeditions but 19514: 17151: 15477: 7214: 7190: 7174: 6705: 6460:

As illuminated books were flowing from the British Isles to Francia, the Insular style had a marked impact on Frankish art.

5659: 5210:, and Venice exploited the power vacuum to expand. The centuries-old rivalry between England and France escalated into the 4879: 4272:

in 1187. New crusades prolonged the crusader states' existence for another century, until the last strongholds fell to the

4260:, allowing the Byzantines to recover western Anatolia. The westerners consolidated their conquests in the Middle East into 2498: 2078:

were copied by monks. Monks were also the authors of new works on history, theology, and other subjects by authors such as

1870:

The flourishing Islamic economies' constant demand for fresh labour force and raw materials opened a new market for Europe

1018:(large halls which had been used for administrative and commercial purposes) were adapted for Christian worship. The first 1011: 952: 17: 6395: 3439:

elements of external control. Townspeople engaged in the same trade or profession were united in confraternities known as

2148:. Monastic communities were the first to react to this fear with rigorous observance of their rules. The establishment of 19317: 18000: 17155: 16861: 16701: 16676: 16616: 5219: 4615:(d. 1287/88) also became popular. Previously present only in liturgy, polyphony appeared in secular songs in the form of 4548:, rather than Latin, and consisted of poems, stories, legends, and popular songs. Often the stories were written down in 2851: 2345:

in the west. Late-9th-century theoretical studies contain the earliest certain references to the arrangement of harmonic

2421:

Charlemagne continued the Frankish tradition of dividing his empire between his sons, but only one son –

17854: 17072: 17068: 16956: 16792: 16079: 16012: 15973: 15930: 15885: 15862: 15772: 15648: 15609: 7161: 6901: 5283: 4361: 3243: 2561: 1966:

looked to the papacy for leadership. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where

971:

survived through proselytising campaigns outside the empire or because of local ethnic-group support; examples include

3722:

The High Middle Ages saw the development of institutions that would dominate political life in Europe beyond the late

2895: 19249: 17349: 17041: 16971: 16952: 16835: 16797: 16327: 14764: 14738: 14638: 5868: 5278:(r. 1485–1509). The wars prevented the English from expanding in the British Isles, but royal power remained weak in 5239: 3764: 3690:(d. 1179/80) was a prolific and highly-respected scholar who proudly said that "no man can be made without a woman". 3608: 2141: 2015: 1240: 1105: 6247:(d. 589) was a vehement but unsuccessful opponent of her people's conversion to Catholicism, and the Frankish queen 3908:

The French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility. The kings faced a powerful rival in the

3502:. Church authorities' growing concerns about Jewish influence on Christian life inspired legal segregation and the 951:, with a widening gulf between rich and poor and a decline in the vitality of smaller towns. Another change was the 272:) lasted from approximately 500 to 1500 AD. It is the second of the three traditional divisions of Western history: 19079: 18440: 17985: 17580: 16990: 16979: 16975: 16948: 16164: 14078: 7143:

One of the most successful queens of the period, Margaret primarily ruled with her young male relatives—first with

6437: 5279: 4044: 3950:(r. 1180–1223). John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led to the 1215 3927: 3835: 3604: 2727: 2528:

in 955. In the Mediterranean, Arab pirates launched regular raids against Italy and southern France; the Aghlabids

1248: 847: 327: 135: 14186: 7270:(r. 1458–90) an excuse to conquer parts of the Czech lands. Poděbrady was succeeded by the Catholic Polish prince 3726:. The kings' right to rule without a foreign power's intercession became widely accepted, introducing the idea of 886: 30:

This article is about medieval Europe. For a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries, see

19494: 19489: 19484: 19479: 19474: 19469: 19179: 19114: 18159: 18010: 17613: 17478: 16928: 16924: 16877: 16295: 14923: 14348: 5828: 5333: 4692:

from Greek into Latin. Medicine was studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the

4389: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2022:

in the Balkans condemned sexual reproduction because they considered Satan the creator of the physical universe.

1201:

In the post-Roman world, the fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes is well documented.

741: 15191: 7274:(r. 1471–1516), but the Diet enacted the Czech right to freely choose between Hussitism and Catholicism in 1485. 6339:(fl. c. 840 – 850) is an early example of a western theoretical work on music. In the study, Aurelian discusses 6029:

to create a translucent surface and tiny bushes to achieve a more lifelike representation of the natural world.

3635:. Monastic reforms continued; the Cluniac monasteries' ceremonies were alien to those who preferred the simpler 3603:

The High Middle Ages was a time of great religious movements. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and

706:, however, use of that term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages. Historians who regard the Middle Ages as a 19464: 19459: 19454: 19449: 18370: 17797: 17630: 17568: 16999: 16920: 16854: 16661: 16601: 16573: 16332: 15313: 15000: 14730: 14616: 14291: 14269: 14044: 6091: 5749: 5029: 4040: 4014: 3981:

The Iberian Christian states began to push back against the Islamic powers in the south, a period known as the

3754: 2835: 2664: 1974:

to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Church attendance was low, and meetings with itinerant clergy and

1919: 1757: 1236: 857: 625: 4157:

in eastern Europe, facilitating the development of direct trade contacts between Europe and China through new

3954:, a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England. In France, Philip Augustus's son 3209:, Anatolia, and the Balkans. Their influx caused much destruction, and culminated in the establishment of the 2999:

tradition of realistic portrayal survived in the Mediterranean. Although the iconoclastic movement restricted

1156:(king) and took full control of Italy, although in theory he ruled as a representative of the eastern emperor 19369: 18523: 18005: 17914: 17007: 17003: 16747: 16578: 15511: 14672: 13839: 6169:

and the expansionism of empires. The professionalisation of historical study began with the German historian

6064:). Horror stories were widely read, including German booklets describing the cruel acts of Wallachian prince 5979:

for creating the illusion of depth was another innovation, demonstrated by reliefs on the bronze door of the

5527: 5495: 5483: 5341: 5065: 4883: 4834:

developed as a form of devotion for laypeople. Metalwork continued as the most prestigious form of art, with

4469:(a new method of intellectual discourse and pedagogy) required the study of authoritative texts, notably the 3830: 3810:

succeeded the Salians. Their recurring conflicts with the papacy allowed the northern Italian cities and the

3640: 3538: 2521: 1737: 1513: 1497: 778: 490: 338:. In the post-Roman world, taxation declined, the army was financed through land grants, and the blending of 19403: 3242:

in return for services (primarily military) rendered. In other parts of Europe such as Germany, Poland, and

2913:) were their most characteristic features, but castles often developed into multi-functional compounds with 2698:; the local inhabitants converted to Islam. Swedish traders and slave hunters ranged down the rivers of the 2690:

the Muslim expansion, and their leaders converted to Judaism. A new trade route developed at the end of the

2329:

in liturgical music for the churches. His commitment to liturgical uniformity stimulated the development of

628:

was deposed. There is no universally-agreed-upon end date; the most frequently-used dates include 1453 (the

19134: 19119: 19014: 17435: 17431: 17302: 15451: 14969: 13937: 13757: 5561:(d. 1384) criticised popular acts of devotion such as pilgrimages, and challenged Catholic doctrine on the 5295: 3926:

ascended the throne, since he had seized large areas of France through inheritance and marriage. The first

3620: 3581: 3491: 3072: 2557: 2553: 2266:(r. 768–71). When Carloman died, Charlemagne reunited Francia and embarked on a programme of expansion. He 284:

in power structures, and the weakness of state administration. The period is sometimes subdivided into the

180: 35: 6855: 6096: 5391:

completed Muscovy's dominance in the northeast. In southeastern Europe, the small Vlach principalities of

1771:

The conquerors bypassed the mountainous northwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula and a small kingdom,

18540: 18051: 17964: 17959: 17575: 16967: 16757: 15802: 15676:

Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century

14955: 14841: 14518: 14437: 13633: 7119: 5608:

emphasised lay piety, community experience and personal faith. In the Orthodox world, the Athonite monks

5329: 5191: 4377: 4006: 3530: 2675:

gained autonomy in the Carolingian border province. Asturias expanded slowly south, and continued as the

1437:

The Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival which lasted into the early

929: 882: 827:, however, is still uncertain. Legislation may influence archaeological research. New finds of coins and 766: 378:

quickly fell apart into competing kingdoms which later fragmented into autonomous duchies and lordships.

13499: 6639:(d. 1679), but the concept developed during conflicts between the emperors and the papacy. A 1202 papal 5894:

from the Christian population began supplying the Ottoman army with professional foot soldiers known as

3615:

rose to prominence. Popular movements emerged to support the implementation of church reform, but their

1822: 470:

stimulated a new method of intellectual discussion, with an emphasis on rational argumentation known as

65: 19267: 18411: 18134: 18020: 18015: 17471: 17345: 17083: 17026: 16916: 16752: 16742: 16706: 16548: 16450: 16083: 16016: 15977: 15934: 15866: 15776: 15652: 15613: 15483: 15031: 14891: 14490: 14465: 14297: 14241: 14216: 14108: 14022: 13997: 13789: 13700: 13523: 7182: 6668: 6441: 6083: 5471: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5412: 4253: 4244:

by the Turks. The official crusade departed in 1096 under the command of prominent aristocrats such as

4095: 4048: 3739: 3431:

also appeared, enabling the easy transmission of money. Since many types of coins were in circulation,

3008: 2647: 2083: 1276: 1161: 808:

are indispensable sources of medieval history, although many are forged. Other written sources include

760: 699: 664: 652: 518: 394: 381:

During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as the

297: 281: 6469:

Under the Macedonian emperors, the old churches were redecorated and newly-built churches such as the

6424: 1939:

in 843, issues such as the rivalry for ecclesiastic jurisdiction over newly-converted peoples and the

1006:. The solemnity of later Roman artists' abstract style effectively visualised Christian messages, and 19499: 19059: 19019: 18460: 17990: 17744: 17705: 17401: 17231: 17088: 16934: 16475: 16238: 15845: 15827: 15441: 14959: 14835: 14563: 14068: 14050: 13927: 13747: 13728: 7178: 6933:

illustrates the blending of Byzantine and Romanesque traditions in Serbia. Its west portal, with its

6580: 6498: 6365: 6306: 5997: 5586: 4693: 4269: 4162: 4126: 4107: 2941: 2714:. Contacts with Francia paved the way for missionary efforts by Christian clergy in Scandinavia, and 2529: 1901: 1741: 1584:, or even command ships. Women usually died at a considerably younger age than men, primarily due to 1531: 1523: 1223:, new political centres emerged; some local leaders accumulated considerable wealth, and a number of 4409:. Schools reaching the highest level of mastery in the disciplines they taught received the rank of 4017:

from the Genoese. Southern Iberia remained under the control of Islamic states, initially under the

1947:

in the west widened to the extent that differences were greater than similarities. In the west, the

1600:), but women were expected to remain faithful. Clerics censured sexual unions outside marriage, and 19509: 19159: 18887: 18649: 18609: 18599: 18547: 16995: 16985: 16962: 16939: 16911: 16726: 15283: 15256: 14634: 14352: 14167: 13959: 13558: 7271: 7238: 7106: 5948: 5546:, three rival lines of popes were each supported by several states. The schism was resolved at the 5325: 5324:, during a period when the Teutonic Knights' expansion intensified. The Knights primarily targeted 5267: 4442: 4322: 4257: 3923: 3887: 3864:' future dominance in central Europe. After his death, three Alpine peasant communities formed the 2240: 1983: 1851:

and amber were delivered from the Baltic region to western Europe, triggering the establishment of

1765: 1657: 1272: 756: 437:, a new aristocracy stabilised their position through strict inheritance customs. In the system of 14074:

The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest

13871: 13665: 7325:

in 1444. He is often, but not universally, described as the prime mover of Portuguese exploration.

6154: 4352:

became a leading element of medieval life. A crusader oath could be fulfilled with a cash payment

580:

The Middle Ages is the second of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme of analysing

18937: 18845: 18144: 18139: 17995: 17653: 17367: 17333: 16430: 16400: 16139: 15737: 15534: 15455: 15397: 15370: 15260: 15228: 15169: 15136: 15118: 15060: 14973: 14783: 14591: 14527: 14409: 14139: 13941: 13908: 13761: 13718: 13587: 13562: 6934: 6218: 5976: 5871:

were dictated by the Burgundian ducal court in much of 15th-century Europe. In metalworking, the

5491: 4817: 4735: 4723: 4430: 4249: 4099: 4010: 3747: 3593: 3570: 3519: 2937: 2815: 2651:(r. 936–73) crossed the Alps into Italy, married the young widow and had himself crowned king in 2520:. The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual 2306: 2094:, establishing the basis for a flourishing Slavic religious literature; a new script was adopted 1120:(r. 434–53) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451 and Italy in 452, but his 1113: 948: 832:

is necessary; irony, satire, and anachronism were popular stylistic devices of medieval artists.

479: 426: 422: 17280: 15416: 5494:

resistance was broken by 1488. Ottoman rule was highly centralised, and sultans often appointed

4018: 3409:. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, allowing risk to be shared within the framework of 1383:. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but Slav migrations expanded the area of 1033:

Civil wars between rival emperors diverted soldiers from the empire's frontier forces, allowing

604:(d. 1707). The adjective "medieval" or "mediaeval", pertaining to the Middle Ages, derives from 19109: 19099: 18688: 18619: 18604: 18085: 18044: 17819: 17648: 17420: 17416: 17328: 17195: 16787: 16543: 16317: 15473: 15278: 14662: 14427: 13993:

The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East, 950–1072

6837: 6721: 6643:

said that "a king is an emperor in his kingdom", implying the equal status of secular monarchs.

6336: 6248: 6126: 5565:. His teachings influenced two major movements condemned as heretical by Catholic authorities: 5372: 5303: 5263: 5161: 4827: 4342: 4314: 3612: 3353: 2867: 2762: 2735: 2052: 2003: 1852: 1745: 1683: 1673: 1426: 1361: 1252: 1019: 968: 629: 538: 355: 175: 71: 31: 14263: 7263: 7102: 6473:

in Greece were embellished with mosaics and icons. Richly-decorated ivory panels, such as the

6165:

sought the origins of modern nations in the Middle Ages, stimulating oppressed ethnic groups'

5726:

had matured into a literary language on a par with Latin. English reached the same level with

4722:

continued, with stone fortresses built in regions where central authority was weak. Many were

885:. The army doubled in size and military expenses steadily increased, primarily in response to 533:

against their Muslim neighbours. The prominence of personal faith is well documented, but the

19219: 19194: 19124: 18807: 18535: 18308: 18266: 18236: 17899: 17764: 16606: 16498: 16455: 15540: 15366: 15288: 15104: 15086: 15056: 14909: 14320: 14126:

Fößel, Amalie (2016) . "The Political Traditions of Female Rulership in Medieval Europe". In

13969: 13817: 13661: 13505: 7202: 7077: 6996: 6951: 6887:(towers) made some Italian towns look like brick-and-stone forests. The small Tuscan town of 6750:

After the fall of Constantinople to the crusaders, three Byzantine successor states emerged:

6222: 6214: 5845: 5360: 5345: 5299: 5251: 5215: 5211: 4652: 4422: 4306: 3939: 3913: 3880: 3871: 3865: 3670:

might present a challenge to clerical monopolies, but most respected official doctrines. The

3428: 3397: 2731: 2318: 2044: 2026: 1422: 933: 711: 510: 390: 165: 16158: 14370:

Harris, Stephen J. (2008). "Introduction". In Harris, Stephen J.; Grigsby, Bryon L. (eds.).

14072: 3960:(r. 1223–26) distributed large portions of his father's conquests among his younger sons as 3631:. To suppress heresies, the popes appointed special commissioners of investigation known as 3486:, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with one another and with local merchants. 3146:

as a military weapon. A technological advance with implications beyond the military was the

2566: 2043:. Most European monasteries focused on community experience of the spiritual life, known as 19444: 19439: 19214: 18969: 18882: 18860: 18783: 18779: 18708: 18624: 18569: 18564: 18387: 18231: 18120: 17954: 17949: 17889: 17824: 17729: 17375: 17186: 16825: 16767: 16563: 16470: 16440: 16425: 16231: 16044: 15995: 15956: 15913: 15440:

Vale, Malcolm (2001) . "The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500". In

15197: 14808:. Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Vol. 36. 14557: 7131: 7123: 7098: 6713: 6660: 6162: 6122: 5930: 5778: 5770: 5728: 5708: 5704: 5547: 5388: 5271: 5203: 4585: 4357: 3956: 3935: 3815: 3632: 3562: 3550: 3357: 3229: 3028: 2974:

ornamenting and extensive segmentation. Paintings have mostly survived in richly-decorated

2899: 2847: 2687: 2056: 1975: 1936: 1927:(r. 717–41) prohibited the display of paintings of human figures in places of worship, the 1924: 1535: 1448: 1321: 1062: 913: 824: 784: 633: 542: 475: 382: 343: 331: 150: 90: 75: 14431: 6340: 6040:

containing illustrations and text—rapidly became popular, with best-sellers including the

3352:

had exclusive jurisdiction over marital affairs, and church authorities supported popular

2803: 675:—in power structures, slow inter-regional communication, and a fragile state bureaucracy. 8: 19420: 19239: 19104: 18974: 18764: 18693: 18450: 18423: 18406: 18394: 18216: 18172: 17919: 17849: 17792: 17709: 17535: 17271: 17266: 17255: 17235: 17205: 16711: 16691: 16671: 16636: 16568: 16480: 16347: 16040:

The Formation of a Persecuting Society: Authority and Deviance in Western Europe 950-1250

15631: 15144: 7349: 7318: 7090: 6984: 6955: 6930: 6759: 6751: 6717: 6628: 6541: 6474: 6391: 6070: 5980: 5856: 5633: 5585:; most Orthodox believers rejected papal supremacy, however, and those who supported the 5582: 5523: 5436: 5132: 5104: 4797: 4675: 4577: 4418: 4369: 4334: 4245: 4237: 4229: 4213: 4205: 4196: 4063: 4002: 3947: 3918: 3772: 3731: 3687: 3675: 3214: 3174: 3068: 2985: 2699: 2672: 2474: 2402: 2393: 2384: 2228: 2205: 2091: 2087: 1772: 1630:

settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements with as many as

1477: 1296: 1292: 1267: 1263: 1022:—hand-written books decorated with colourful miniatures—were produced with the spread of 995: 601: 585: 565: 541:

presented a significant challenge to traditional power structures in the Western Church.

483: 467: 363: 307: 273: 222: 17102: 4376:. The Teutonic Knights focused much of their activity in the Baltic, where they founded 2810:, the destruction of old power centres accompanied the formation of the state under the 2055:, which was widely used in western monasteries. In the east, monastic rules compiled by 19504: 19281: 18959: 18875: 18865: 18698: 18661: 18591: 18530: 18513: 18467: 18377: 18291: 18105: 18025: 17929: 17713: 17665: 17660: 17563: 17553: 17510: 17502: 17397: 17296: 17261: 17251: 17245: 17239: 17217: 17213: 17176: 17147: 17094: 16944: 16815: 16651: 16626: 16528: 16405: 16357: 16352: 16342: 16280: 15570:

Contesting the Middle Ages: Debates that are Changing our Narrative of Medieval History

15389: 14943: 14914: 14809: 14775: 13722: 13675: 13533: 7198: 7144: 6972: 6915: 6868:

system in England developed through the adoption of principles and procedures (such as

6709: 6656: 6598: 6563: 6378: 6273: 6007: 5972: 5938:, commissioning small portraits and a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, 5737: 5696: 5692: 5380: 5353: 5243: 5227: 4893: 4762: 4558: 4433:" were especially heated. Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of 4349: 4290: 4182: 4055: 3998: 3990: 3975: 3965: 3853: 3845: 3822: 3780: 3597: 3503: 3455: 3447: 3285:. As churchmen prohibited the enslavement of coreligionists, a new form of dependency ( 3015:

rediscovered the human figure and Western artists often depicted people in illuminated

2819: 2758: 2719: 2668: 2656: 2630: 2596: 2525: 2513: 2470: 2412: 2173: 2161: 2133: 2048: 1736:(d. 632) brought about more radical changes. After his death, Islamic forces conquered 1701: 1648:

southern Gaul and Italy. The Visigothic kings made concentrated efforts to convert the

1581: 1313: 1184: 1145: 1086: 991: 964: 960: 841: 410: 375: 339: 335: 303: 17209: 7230: 6762:

in northeastern Anatolia. Michael VIII had ruled Nicaea before seizing Constantinople.

5863:

In cloth production, the second main employer after agriculture, the increased use of

5399:

emerged; their rulers primarily accepted the suzerainty of Hungarian or Polish kings.

5223: 3027:. Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative 2676: 2290:. The central administration supervised the counts with imperial emissaries, known as 19089: 18991: 18979: 18964: 18944: 18855: 18802: 18774: 18756: 18559: 18435: 18428: 18241: 18189: 18167: 18095: 17904: 17879: 17859: 17839: 17829: 17719: 17701: 17670: 17603: 17520: 17494: 17447: 17412: 17408: 17386: 17363: 17359: 17292: 17288: 17227: 17191: 17181: 17171: 17166: 17143: 16811: 16553: 16523: 16513: 16503: 16420: 16410: 16395: 16262: 16168: 16143: 16129: 16115: 16087: 16048: 16020: 15981: 15938: 15895: 15870: 15831: 15806: 15780: 15741: 15716: 15684: 15656: 15617: 15578: 15544: 15519: 15487: 15459: 15426: 15401: 15374: 15342: 15317: 15292: 15264: 15232: 15216: 15201: 15173: 15148: 15122: 15108: 15090: 15064: 15035: 15012: 14977: 14935: 14895: 14870: 14845: 14827: 14813: 14787: 14708: 14698: 14680: 14648: 14620: 14595: 14567: 14541: 14494: 14469: 14441: 14413: 14385: 14356: 14342: 14324: 14301: 14273: 14245: 14220: 14192: 14171: 14143: 14127: 14112: 14082: 14054: 14026: 14001: 13973: 13963: 13945: 13912: 13884: 13853: 13821: 13793: 13765: 13732: 13704: 13679: 13647: 13619: 13591: 13566: 13537: 13509: 7267: 7242: 7148: 7094: 6988: 6909: 6786: 6672: 6664: 6597:

of bishoprics and abbeys without formally sanctioning the monarch's claim to control

6537: 6318: 6170: 6142: 6114: 5988: 5820: 5681: 5459: 5384: 5337: 5291: 5259: 4944: 4913: 4897: 4766: 4662: 4636: 4632: 4569: 4564: 4394: 4298: 4280: 4241: 4146: 4032: 4028: 3994: 3902: 3894: 3791: 3784: 3759: 3727: 3679: 3523: 3459: 3217:

began in Europe and its estimated population grew from 35 to 80 million between

3206: 2777: 2723: 2642: 2588: 2575: 2322: 2244: 2153: 2039: 1971: 1788: 1784: 1711: 1577: 1380: 1317: 1189: 1173: 1034: 1007: 878: 772: 731: 683: 679: 581: 546: 526: 459: 285: 253: 109: 19234: 14584:(2005) . Wehmeier, Sally; McIntosh, Colin; Turnbull, Joanna; Ashby, Michael (eds.). 13926:

Denley, Peter (2001) . "The Mediterranean in the Age of Renaissance, 1200–1500". In

13902: 13746:

Brown, Thomas (2001) . "The Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean, 400–900". In

6652: 5879:, in 1447 in Venice, granted a ten-year monopoly to inventors for their inventions. 4708: 4704: 3643:

life" of poverty and preaching. New monastic orders were established, including the

3384: 2761:. The imperial court was the centre of a rebirth of classical learning known as the 1935:

to declare new dogmas with imperial edicts. Although the Byzantine Church condemned

1206: 19335: 18850: 18840: 18666: 18614: 18518: 18382: 18271: 18221: 18199: 18194: 18125: 17894: 17809: 17754: 17724: 17675: 17635: 17618: 17608: 17543: 17515: 17382: 17371: 17341: 17320: 17201: 17106: 17057: 17051: 17031: 16906: 16772: 16721: 16716: 16656: 16621: 16533: 16490: 16460: 16382: 16300: 16270: 15220: 15004: 14927: 14801: 14760: 14734: 14531: 14259: 14131: 13987: 13880: 7246: 7127: 6812: 6755: 6734: 6511:

In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the

6470: 6416: 6166: 6087: 6065: 6017: 5984: 5733: 5680:

Prominent late-medieval philosophers departed from Aristotelian logic. Among them,

5655: 5609: 5467: 5175: 5124: 5018: 4774: 4612: 4556:(songs of great deeds), glorifying their male heroes' often-brutal acts, including 4551: 4489: 4412: 4402: 4373: 4273: 4192: 4142: 4083: 4071: 3909: 3857: 3799: 3691: 3652: 3589: 3542: 3469: 3463: 3159: 3129: 3077: 3020: 2776:

Missionary efforts by Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the

2766: 2626: 2604: 2592: 2533: 2494: 2486: 2450: 2446: 2426: 2346: 2330: 2293: 2213: 1519: 1384: 1202: 1194: 1042: 917: 909: 691: 687: 569: 554: 514: 482:

churches, while structural innovations led to the development of the more delicate

463: 319: 315: 293: 289: 232: 145: 119: 114: 16216: 15143:. Vol. 12 (Transcendental meditation - Zwingli, Huldrych) (Second ed.). 14610: 14161: 8635: 7059:, "No one of Irish blood or birth" could hold office or be hired as an apprentice. 6015:(d. 1510). Flemish painters quickly improved their technique. When completing his 5664: 2465:

in Francia (r. 888–98). In the eastern lands, the dynasty ended with the death of

2305:

Charlemagne's court was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes known as the

2075: 1847:, new commercial networks were developing in northern Europe. Goods such as furs, 1611: 445:

owed military service to their lords in return for the lands they had received in

19224: 19164: 19049: 18897: 18892: 18870: 18790: 18744: 18501: 18455: 18353: 18330: 18313: 18286: 18071: 17934: 17909: 17697: 17680: 17525: 17443: 17355: 17223: 16846: 16782: 16696: 16666: 16390: 16307: 16206: 16111: 15702: 15422: 15338: 14722: 14644: 13849: 7322: 6992: 6980: 6976: 6701: 6492: 6185:(d. 1944) broadened their perspective, examining culture, society, and identity. 6106: 6101: 6043: 5955:

Florence emerged as the center of intellectual and artistic life for most of the

5816: 5715: 5613: 5603: 5593: 5543: 5451: 5167: 5136: 4870:

objects such as gaming pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.

4805: 4581: 4530: 4406: 4365: 4261: 4158: 4150: 4118: 4059: 3876: 3811: 3743: 3660: 3616: 3566: 3554: 3534: 3483: 3451: 3251: 3224:

and 1347. The exact causes remain unclear, and improved agricultural techniques,

3201: 3121: 3012: 2996: 2925: 2754: 2750: 2619: 2615: 2466: 2457: 2422: 2326: 2271: 2236: 2184: 2157: 2110: 2106: 2007: 1780: 1669: 1357: 1341: 890: 418: 406: 206: 140: 7287:(d. 1472), aroused Italian scholarly interest in Greek studies during his exile. 4293:

by 1248. The German and Scandinavian rulers' expansion against the neighbouring

1678: 1279:. Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and Celtic Britons established stable polities. 19293: 19254: 19174: 19129: 19069: 19034: 18826: 18739: 18644: 18552: 18343: 18177: 18100: 17884: 17874: 17869: 17864: 17844: 17834: 17749: 17692: 17585: 17548: 17439: 17393: 17061: 16686: 16631: 16585: 16538: 16518: 16362: 16285: 16101: 16062: 15952: 15909: 15698: 15592: 15187: 14831: 14553: 14455: 14157: 14096: 14040: 13605: 7229:(d. 1468) resisted Ottoman conquest for more than two decades at the head of a 6843: 6545: 6190: 6176: 6158: 6150: 5968: 5796: 5754: 5723: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5519: 5511: 5479: 5455: 5364: 5255: 5207: 5155:

Although the growth of central governments continued, more than 500 autonomous

5061: 4983: 4952: 4929: 4855: 4835: 4719: 4682:

allowed more-advanced mathematics. Astronomy benefited from the translation of

4668: 4495: 4474: 4310: 3931: 3849: 3826: 3795: 3333: 3325: 3294: 2970:. Religious art quickly assimilated several elements of secular style, such as 2958:

refer to great royal treasures, but only a few of them survived; they included

2827: 2789: 2695: 2366: 2314: 2221: 2129: 2030: 1967: 1906: 1859: 1827: 1721: 1649: 1641: 1585: 1392: 1388: 1375:, the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by 1349: 1337: 1325: 1213: 1157: 1133: 1109: 1023: 941: 921: 715: 593: 534: 522: 450: 323: 277: 211: 19352: 7034:

Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions; one town,

5995:

and eroticism (including homoerotocism) in artworks such as the bronze statue

5577:(d. 1415), who was burned at the stake at Constance. Hussitism, the target of 4070:

into autonomous duchies, enabling the Czech kings to expand in the prosperous

3968:(r. 1226–70) improved local administration by appointing inspectors, known as 3798:

in 1024. They protected the lesser nobility to reduce ducal power, and seized

3142:. In military technology, one of the main changes was the reappearance of the 2856: 2826:

of Kievan Rus' emerged as the rulers of East Europe's vast forest zones after

2341:. The systematic study of Byzantine liturgy contributed to the development of 2258:

Pepin left his kingdom in the hands of his sons: Charles, more often known as

19433: 19305: 19209: 19094: 19009: 18954: 18814: 18734: 18629: 18479: 18472: 18365: 18318: 18211: 18067: 17980: 17779: 17098: 16445: 15891: 15794: 15755: 15680: 15670: 15515: 15501: 15356: 15193:

Femina: A New History of the Middle Ages, Through the Women Written Out of It

15078: 15016: 14939: 14756: 14704: 14676: 14545: 14509: 14399: 14338: 14287: 13898: 13835: 13807: 13779: 13643: 6888: 6816: 6636: 6615: 6594: 6529: 6514: 6478: 5887: 5872: 5824: 5597: 5558: 5551: 5135:

was established to test their faith. Jews who refused to convert were exiled

5128: 5108: 5002: 4967: 4940: 4867: 4831: 4813: 4628: 4596: 4466: 4458: 4454: 4225: 4221: 4201: 4154: 4114: 3964:—virtually independent provinces—to facilitate their administration. His son 3776: 3768: 3735: 3475: 3432: 3337: 3329: 3318: 3210: 3097: 3089: 3032: 3000: 2980: 2862: 2823: 2811: 2785: 2490: 2462: 2232: 2102: 1932: 1283:

was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king about whom much is known is

976: 963:

intensified, and those who persisted with theological views condemned at the

813: 801: 597: 471: 434: 18036: 6773: 5522:, Frenchmen assumed leadership of the Catholic Church. When the French king 4738:. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls decorated with sculpture in 4236:—the remission of sins—to all who took part. Tens of thousands of commoners 4232:. He declared the liberation of Jerusalem as its ultimate goal, and offered 3714: 3686:

by church authorities. Many popular mystics were women. Among them, the nun

3348:—the ban on priestly marriage—distinguished Catholic clergy from the laity. 3104:

in Europe, and it was adopted by Byzantine cavalrymen before the end of the

2928:, by local goldsmiths. Their unrealistic style, often influenced by Iranian 2822:

used extensive violence to crush opposition by rival Magyar chieftains. The

2694:, bypassing Khazar territory and connecting Central Asia with Europe across 1492:

with the Sasanian Empire, and the Persians seized Egypt, Syria, and much of

19276: 19244: 19044: 18949: 18795: 18769: 18678: 18360: 18348: 18296: 18256: 18251: 18115: 18110: 17939: 17769: 17640: 17558: 17161: 16611: 16508: 16312: 15821: 14694: 14581: 14536: 14513: 14206: 13867: 13671: 8890: 7234: 7069: 6822: 6797: 6576: 6130: 6055: 6022: 5964: 5956: 5800: 5761: 5578: 5573:

in Bohemia. The Bohemian movement began with teachings of Czech theologian

5431: 5349: 4979: 4743: 4604: 4541: 4330: 4318: 4138: 4134: 4122: 3807: 3683: 3558: 3349: 3266: 3262:

system—landholding with limited rights—benefited the military aristocracy.

3133: 3113: 3057: 3045: 2883: 2571: 2370: 2362: 2342: 2299: 2252: 1944: 1848: 1835: 1473: 1365: 1329: 1102: 870: 788: 707: 660: 656: 398: 351: 326:, continued into the Early Middle Ages. The movement of peoples led to the 15887:

The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages

15008: 14293:

Sacred Foundations: The Religious and Medieval Roots of the European State

13639:

The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350

12671: 7429: 5442: 4161:

in the Black Sea region. The new land and sea routes to the Far East were

3584:(r. 1056–1105) wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as 2933: 19184: 18932: 18927: 18919: 18904: 18729: 18634: 18445: 18281: 18246: 18226: 18206: 18149: 17924: 17802: 17787: 17759: 16762: 16465: 16372: 16034: 14748: 6285:

Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to

6194: 6146: 6118: 5621: 5502:, the sultans began murdering their brothers to avoid succession crises. 5466:. International coalitions, such as the crusades of Nicopolis (1396) and 5313: 5247: 5195: 5069: 4997:

and engineers. Crossbow use increased, partly because of the increase in

4990: 4838:

a popular and relatively-affordable option. In Italy, the innovations of

4747: 4450: 3984: 3951: 3738:

assumed power as female succession was recognised in most countries. The

3656: 3648: 3644: 3624: 3577: 3495: 3410: 3306: 3278: 3049: 3004: 2989: 2975: 2959: 2945: 2259: 2149: 2064: 2060: 2034: 2011: 1991: 1910: 1878: 1626: 1597: 1539: 1481: 1454: 1345: 1284: 1151: 1098: 820: 641: 550: 530: 509:

and local conflicts often escalated into full-scale warfare, such as the

494: 347: 227: 170: 160: 14887:

Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, AD 300–900

6276:" was a woman interred with an axe, sword, quiver of arrows, and spears. 6149:

inspired several influential intellectuals, including British historian

4619:; their popularity led to the fading of older liturgical forms, such as 4021:(which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as 3169: 2890:: the "arms" of a T-shaped building which are perpendicular to the long 1121: 18715: 18703: 18673: 18639: 18579: 18261: 17687: 17276: 16337: 16223: 15246: 14947: 8503: 7226: 7186: 6869: 6865: 6632: 6420: 6244: 6182: 6033: 5992: 5899: 5808: 5088: 4909: 4901: 4790: 4782: 4757:

Romanesque art (especially metalwork) was at its most sophisticated in

4729: 4573: 4572:

praised chaste love, and eroticism was primarily expressed in poems by

4545: 4544:

developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the

4524: 4462: 4446: 4426: 4353: 4326: 4233: 4166: 3671: 3667: 3369: 3117: 3085: 3036: 2967: 2929: 2914: 2638: 2478: 2374: 2267: 2263: 2201: 2071: 2019: 1952: 1856: 1855:

stations and conflicts over their control. In the post-Roman kingdoms,

1792: 1591: 1469: 1465: 1376: 1259: 947:

Roman society stabilised in a new form which differed from the earlier

898: 805: 648: 589: 15083:

Medieval Warfare Source Book, Volume I: Warfare In Western Christendom

14405:

The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians

12659: 6891:

is an example, although only a few of the family towers have survived.

5600:(d. 1546). The most characteristic late-medieval reform movement, the 4816:

windows. Gothic architecture emerged during the reconstruction of the

2682:

The Eastern European trade routes towards Asia were controlled by the

1748:. The Eastern Romans halted the Muslim expansion at Constantinople in 19149: 18986: 18721: 18683: 18276: 18090: 17734: 16646: 16415: 15712: 15574: 14866: 14381: 14265:

Prints and Printmaking: An Introduction to the History and Techniques

13615: 8551: 7284: 7259: 7205:(d. 1383) and his opponents. Kantakouzenos was crowned co-emperor as 7018: 6026: 6012: 6002: 5895: 5891: 5883: 5841: 5812: 5719: 5669: 5617: 5562: 5475: 5392: 5098: 5041: 4956: 4781:

facilitated the transmission of artistic motifs over long distances.

4758: 4751: 4712: 4656: 4434: 4338: 4130: 3861: 3388:

Impression of the earliest known seal of the northern German city of

3235: 3225: 3147: 3109: 2971: 2438: 2350: 2302:

were responsible for recording important royal grants and decisions.

2298:, who were roving inspectors and troubleshooters. The clerics of the 2275: 2204:

were the most prominent beneficiaries of royal favour. As hereditary

2197: 2114: 1831: 1796: 1725: 1501: 1442: 1224: 1082: 1003: 937: 925: 796: 727: 668: 611: 438: 17463: 15697: 14931: 13813:

Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400–1400

12743: 7035: 5946:

pottery. In France and Flanders, tapestry weaving of series such as

5898:. In Bohemia, religious enthusiasm, stern discipline and the use of 5348:(r. 1387–1412) consolidated Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in the 1397 5198:

in peasant dress, wearing her arms, in a late-15th-century miniature

5034: 3300: 928:) stabilised the imperial government for about two decades. After a 718:", the "Muslim Middle Ages", and similar subjects are not uncommon. 296:, and the early medieval period is alternatively referred to as the 19139: 18835: 18656: 18484: 18399: 18338: 18301: 17944: 17739: 16681: 16558: 16435: 14958:(2001) . "Northern Europe Invades the Mediterranean, 900–1200". In 10428: 10380: 9130: 7335: 7056: 6905: 6738: 6640: 6611: 6348: 5943: 5700: 5673: 5570: 5566: 5474:(r. 1449–53), died during the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan 5454:

and recurring civil wars further weakened the empire, allowing the

5396: 5112: 5073: 5064:. Climate anomalies caused agricultural crises, culminating in the 4978:

allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently. The spread of

4974:, with a consequent increase in production. The improvement of the 4925: 4847: 4786: 4688: 4537: 4294: 4209: 4178: 4079: 3961: 3703: 3474:

and controlled trade routes connecting the British islands and the

3416: 3406: 3360:

their sins to a priest at least once a year beginning in the early

3274: 3270: 3143: 3035:

and, by the end of the period, near-life-sized figures such as the

3024: 2906: 2887: 2875: 2770: 2517: 2248: 2217: 1940: 1890: 1817: 1800: 1733: 1691: 1601: 1561: 1550: 1493: 1333: 1306: 1288: 1129: 1094: 1015: 972: 894: 809: 745: 672: 637: 455: 405:

to protect their common interests. Western church leaders accepted

155: 94: 16210: 14991:

Murray, Alexander (2004). "Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished?".

14018:

An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000–1500

12491: 12371: 11127: 10767: 9352: 8659: 5902:

were key factors in Hussite victories. The earliest references to

5470:(1444), could not stop their advance. The last Byzantine emperor, 3177:

with the three classes of medieval society: those who prayed (the

2718:

was closely associated with the growth of centralised kingdoms in

2178: 1371:

The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in language.

1251:

was divided into even smaller political units, perhaps as many as

342:

civilisation and the invaders' traditions is well documented. The

19054: 18909: 18821: 17814: 17625: 17138: 16322: 14615:. Memoires of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 259. 12755: 8359: 7073: 6796:), the lyric correspondence between Abelard and his former lover 6403: 6361: 6314: 6186: 6037: 5939: 5911: 5786: 5574: 5515: 5402: 5235: 5183: 5006: 4960: 4839: 4812:

importance. The new solutions allowed the extensive use of large

4809: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4622: 4533:

to her former lover, reminding him her beauty and unselfish love.

4470: 4265: 4036: 3628: 3585: 3389: 3286: 3282: 3257: 3186: 3101: 3093: 2963: 2950: 2918: 2746: 2683: 2661: 2600: 2145: 2082:(d. 735), a native of northern England. The Byzantine missionary 1995: 1620: 1616: 1573: 1430: 1353: 1280: 1141: 1137: 1070: 1058: 980: 791:

in the United Kingdom. These large collections primarily contain

573: 13379: 10743: 10731: 10671: 8539: 6741:, and received a grant of tax exemption for the Orthodox Church. 6688: 4631:

which required the invention of a new notation system, known as

3514: 2449:(r. 843–76) controlled the eastern lands in modern-day Germany. 1951:(originally a voluntarily contribution) began to be levied as a 1144:(d. 493), who were partly (or fully) non-Roman. Odoacer deposed 1101:

ended up in Gaul; the Germanic groups now collectively known as

19074: 16201: 16195: 16190: 14099:(1986) . "From Europe to the World". In Fossier, Robert (ed.). 12983: 12222: 11466: 10584: 8347: 7383: 7381: 5960: 5903: 5876: 5864: 5231: 5156: 4994: 4975: 4948: 4859: 4851: 4843: 4739: 4153:

on the Byzantine border. The Mongol conquest was followed by a

4091: 4087: 3978:

began hearing litigants in regular sessions almost year-round.

3898: 3636: 3607:

received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as

3499: 3402: 3313: 3239: 3182: 3178: 2781: 2580: 2310: 2287: 2137: 1979: 1963: 1886: 1882: 1776: 1569: 1458: 1418: 1232: 1228: 1117: 1090: 1054: 936:(r. 306–37) restored internal peace and re-founded the city of 862: 792: 442: 430: 397:

nearly disappeared, and peasants could improve their status by

367: 310:, the collapse of centralised authority, the mass migration of 16213:– Comparative and interdisciplinary articles about the period. 13355: 12707: 12647: 12635: 12335: 11909: 11907: 11673: 11565: 11312: 11310: 11031: 10947: 10625: 10623: 9955: 9210: 9208: 9195: 9193: 7543: 6213:

Medieval writers had divided history into periods such as the

5254:(r. 1422–61) expelled the English from the country except for 4133:(r. 1241–56)—a grandson of Genghis Khan—set up his capital in 3250:

remained the dominant forms of landholding. Their owners owed

2216:(d. 714), also assumed power in the central Frankish realm of 1413: 19311: 19039: 19029: 19024: 18496: 18491: 17284: 15708:

Why the Middle Ages Matter Medieval Light on Modern Injustice

15507:

The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages, 400–1000

12767: 11531: 11529: 11295: 9844: 9721: 8695: 8683: 8671: 7765: 7507: 6959: 6549: 6344: 6269: 5375:

began annexing the Rus' principalities (often in competition

4998: 4854:(d. 1337) greatly increased the sophistication and status of 4821: 4801: 4778: 4616: 4608: 4516: 4481: 4302: 4252:(d. 1105). The crusaders defeated the Turks in major battles 4023: 3916:(r. 1035–87). The cross-channel empire further expanded when 3750:, allowing them to exert influence on state administration. 3697: 3537:

Roman aristocrats during the early 11th century, but Emperor

3440: 3341: 3247: 3075:

chasing Muslim horsemen in a miniature from the 12th-century

3053: 3016: 2739: 2652: 2502: 2434: 2430: 2334: 2283: 2121: 1948: 1805: 1729: 1372: 1244: 1081:

in 406, and into present-day Spain in 409; a year later, the

1074: 1066: 1046: 828: 414: 402: 311: 15733:

World Medievalism: The Middle Ages in Modern Textual Culture

15388:

Swanson, Robert (2021). "The Church and Religious Life". In

15103: 12911: 12875: 12839: 12563: 12138: 12126: 12051: 10572: 10452: 10027: 9552: 9550: 9489: 9487: 9244: 8599: 8443: 7497: 7495: 7435: 7378: 6390:

Examples include a 4th-century basilica uncovered under the

6068:(r. 1456–62). The first large illustrated printed book, the 5831:

that led to the European discovery of the Americas in 1492.

5383:(r. 1462–1505), the conquest of the great trading cities of 4900:(1352), the first known (albeit anachronistic) depiction of 2235:(r. 743–51) was deposed that year, and Charles Martel's son 1148:(r. 475–76), the last western emperor, assumed the title of 775:(d. 1750), which was followed by similar series such as the 755:

Certain aspects of medieval society (including the lives of

19169: 13283: 13199: 13151: 13127: 13031: 12995: 12947: 12923: 12887: 12827: 12779: 12599: 12539: 12443: 12407: 12186: 12114: 12027: 12015: 11904: 11865: 11637: 11601: 11589: 11490: 11454: 11442: 11406: 11307: 11259: 11115: 11043: 10995: 10983: 10923: 10863: 10827: 10791: 10755: 10659: 10620: 10440: 10332: 10320: 10296: 10195: 10099: 10015: 9991: 9979: 9895: 9733: 9699: 9697: 9682: 9646: 9622: 9610: 9586: 9499: 9388: 9376: 9328: 9316: 9304: 9268: 9232: 9220: 9205: 9190: 9166: 9142: 9118: 9046: 9022: 8986: 8962: 8950: 8926: 8854: 8830: 8758: 8722: 8623: 8611: 8587: 8563: 8335: 8239: 7890: 7888: 7334:

The portal sculptures of the Burgundian ducal mausoleum at

7052: 6310: 5649: 5439:, from the late-16th-century Ottoman illuminated chronicle 4917: 4830:

gradually moved from monasteries to lay workshops, and the

4715:, completed in three phases from the 13th to 15th centuries 4600: 3479: 3372:

priests, the only roles open to them in the church were as

3138: 2955: 2910: 2891: 2879: 2831: 2765:. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors 2706:

from the Khazars, and attempted to seize Constantinople in

2703: 2079: 2014:

and those engaged in non-reproductive sexual acts (such as

1928: 1775:, emerged as the centre of local resistance. The defeat of 1379:

languages (which evolved from Latin) collectively known as

1078: 1050: 702:; with the adoption of the three subdivisions in the early 446: 417:

influence, which accelerated the separation of the western

239: 27:

Period of European history from the 5th to the 15th century

15225:

The Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe

14912:(April 1942). "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'". 14136:

The Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe

13343: 13319: 13259: 13139: 13019: 12863: 12719: 12695: 12683: 12551: 12479: 12455: 12234: 12080: 12078: 12039: 11882: 11880: 11853: 11841: 11829: 11817: 11793: 11553: 11541: 11526: 11502: 11418: 11370: 11334: 11271: 11247: 11223: 11163: 11091: 11079: 11055: 11007: 10971: 10839: 10815: 10560: 10548: 10404: 10284: 10111: 9873: 9871: 9856: 9817: 9805: 9793: 9412: 9400: 9082: 8866: 8842: 8455: 8419: 8407: 8371: 8323: 8311: 8275: 8227: 8155: 8068: 8056: 8044: 8008: 7900: 7283:

One of the main Byzantine supporters of the church union,

5836: 5306:(r. 1479–1516) reinforced royal power. They completed the 5222:

the French throne in 1337. The English won the battles of

4058:

into independent principalities. Among them, the northern

3328:

cared for believers' spiritual needs and mainly served in

3265:

Most medieval Western thinkers divided society into three

2128:. Aristocrats regarded the churches and monasteries under 2124:

influence over church affairs reached its apex during the

2117:(d. 1000) wrote the first non-liturgical medieval dramas. 2070:

Monasteries had a deep effect on local society, acting as

2059:(d. 826) gained popularity after they were adopted in the 1275:. The Burgundians settled in Gaul, where they reorganised 600:

in 1442, and it became standard with the German historian

199: 16191:

De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History

15139:(2005). "Science and Religion". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). 13439: 13367: 13307: 13295: 12971: 12935: 12815: 12611: 12575: 12467: 12431: 12419: 12395: 12311: 12258: 12102: 11805: 11781: 11757: 11709: 11697: 11685: 11661: 11211: 11187: 11175: 11151: 11139: 11103: 11067: 10875: 10683: 10635: 10368: 10344: 10248: 10183: 10147: 9834: 9832: 9757: 9745: 9574: 9562: 9547: 9523: 9511: 9484: 9472: 9460: 9436: 9424: 9364: 9010: 8998: 8902: 8818: 8806: 8794: 8770: 8527: 8191: 8020: 7825: 7719: 7717: 7704: 7702: 7651: 7492: 6937:, was completed by southern Italian builders in the late 5722:(d. 1375), both from Florence, indicate that the Italian 5616:(d. 1359) promoted a form of meditative prayers known as 5127:

led to the mass conversion of Spanish Jews in 1391. The "

4522: 4514: 4508: 3639:

monasticism of early Christianity, or wanted to live an "

3561:

in 1054. After a series of mutual excommunications, this

3373: 3200:

and 1060, severe droughts struck the Middle East and the

2208:, they were the power behind the throne beginning in the 513:. By the end of the period, the Byzantine Empire and the 15284:

Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians

14436:. Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching. Vol. 29. 14212:

Planets, Stars, and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200–1687

13427: 13403: 13331: 13187: 12959: 12791: 12527: 12347: 12277: 12275: 12273: 12210: 12162: 11931: 11733: 11649: 11382: 11358: 11346: 11235: 10512: 10500: 10488: 10308: 10272: 10238: 10236: 10234: 10207: 10051: 10003: 9694: 9670: 9658: 9634: 9598: 9058: 8878: 8782: 8395: 8287: 8251: 8203: 7984: 7924: 7885: 7873: 7849: 7789: 7777: 7741: 7675: 7591: 7321:(d. 1460) presided over an auction of African slaves at 6364:(d. 930) was one of the first music theorists to define 6234:

Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.

6145:

sparked intense nostalgia for the medieval period. This

6077: 4397:

were expected to operate a school beginning in the late

3742:

emerged as the central office of royal government and a

2325:, imposing the Roman form of worship on his domains and 19154: 15215:

Ringrose, Kathryn M. (2016) . "The Byzantine Body". In

13475: 13235: 13211: 13103: 13091: 13055: 13043: 12851: 12803: 12515: 12383: 12323: 12246: 12090: 12075: 12063: 12003: 11991: 11967: 11943: 11877: 11625: 11478: 11199: 11019: 10887: 10851: 10719: 10608: 10476: 10464: 10392: 10171: 10159: 9967: 9907: 9883: 9868: 9709: 9340: 9292: 9280: 9256: 9178: 9154: 8974: 8746: 8734: 8712: 8710: 8647: 8491: 7861: 7729: 7663: 7603: 7579: 6251:(d. 613) was torn to pieces by horses at the age of 70. 4651:

paved the way for the systematic study of Roman law at

3868:

to defend their judicial autonomy against his kinsmen.

3848:(r. 1266–85). During the civil war, the right of seven 3814:

to extort considerable concessions from them. In 1183,

3783:(r. 1105–54) united the Norman principalities into the 1986:

were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and

1615:

Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in

1243:

were still under the control of the native Britons and

385:

allowed crop yields to increase, and technological and

16107:

Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted

14806:

Secular Goldsmiths' Work in Medieval France: A History

14107:. Vol. III. Translated by Sarah Hanbury Tenison. 13415: 13391: 13271: 13175: 13163: 13115: 13067: 12623: 12503: 12359: 11955: 11892: 11769: 11745: 11577: 11514: 11430: 11394: 11283: 10959: 10935: 10779: 10647: 10596: 10536: 10524: 10416: 10219: 10135: 10123: 9829: 9781: 9448: 9106: 9094: 9070: 9034: 8914: 8479: 8431: 8383: 8299: 8179: 8167: 8133: 8131: 8104: 8092: 8080: 8032: 7960: 7936: 7912: 7714: 7699: 7687: 7639: 7627: 7615: 7531: 7296:

Although medieval documents often described people as

6221:, and considered their time to be the last before the 5971:

in Rome before completing the plan of the dome of the

5890:

was created in France in the late 1440s. Around 1438,

5875:

increased the quantity and quality of iron. The first

4313:

was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople and

2599:

in 879, acknowledging the existence of an independent

651:, "did not live to a single rhythm over this period". 370:

reunited many of the Western Roman lands by the early

19265: 13463: 13223: 13007: 12899: 12587: 12299: 12270: 11979: 11919: 11721: 11613: 10911: 10899: 10803: 10356: 10231: 10087: 10075: 10063: 10039: 9943: 9931: 9919: 9535: 8938: 8515: 8263: 8215: 7996: 7972: 7948: 7837: 7813: 7555: 7470: 7468: 7393: 6243:

Among the powerful women, the Arian Visigothic queen

4808:

to reinforce walls, and rib vaults to minimise their

4761:, in which distinct artistic personalities—including 4279:

The papacy also used the crusading ideology in other

4062:

emerged as the dominant power after Suzdalian troops

4005:

by 1230. Aragon emerged as a naval power, conquering

2738:

that hindered the accumulation of power by ambitious

2539: 1576:

woman could demand compensation from her husband for

1360:

a Byzantine imperial army in 681 and established the

14105:

The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages

14046:

Music in the Medieval West: Western Music in Context

13247: 13079: 12731: 12287: 12198: 12174: 12150: 11322: 10707: 10695: 10260: 9769: 8707: 8575: 8116: 7801: 7519: 7441: 7417: 5882:

As increased tax revenues allowed the employment of

5620:. A general fear of evil practices led to the first 5557:

Theological debates intensified. English theologian

4866:

resulted in greater production of secular art; many

3364:, which reinforced priestly control of their lives. 3232:, and the lack of invasions have been suggested. 3150:, which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain. 2356: 16135:

Europe After Rome: A New Cultural History, 500–1000

15951: 15908: 15312:. A History of East Central Europe. Vol. III. 13785:

The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom, 1000–1500

13451: 8467: 8143: 8128: 7753: 7567: 7453: 7122:, the Habsburgs were expanding in Austria, and the 5707:; many emphasised human dignity, and were known as 4963:allowed navigation at a great distance from shore. 4796:Structural innovations introduced the evolution of 4785:flourished; churches and castles were decorated by 3946:the northern French possessions to the French king 3289:) almost completely supplanted slavery by the late 2164:" could be achieved with submission to the papacy. 873:reached its greatest territorial extent during the 16876: 15823:Medieval Bodies: Life and Death in the Middle Ages 14774:Lee, Alexander (2021). "Culture and the Arts". In 14378:Routledge Studies in Medieval Religion and Culture 7480: 7465: 7405: 6381:, who was also a king of West Francia (r. 922–23). 4341:, provided an opportunity for the French monarchy 4301:, forcing the assimilation of a number of Slavic, 3930:in Ireland were established during his reign. The 3829:to elect their leaders; the princes' autonomy was 2270:the Saxons, conquered the Lombards, and created a 1305:—present-day Great Britain—settled in what is now 1045:into the empire. In 376, hundreds of thousands of 1002:, often by reinterpreting popular motifs of pagan 15447:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe 15309:East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500 14965:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe 14341:(2001). "Introduction". In Hankins, James (ed.). 13933:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe 13753:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe 7366: 7266:(r. 1457–71) king, which gave the Hungarian king 6377:Hugh Capet was a grandson of King Odo's brother, 4348:With its unique ceremonies and institutions, the 4309:peoples into the culture of Catholic Europe. The 3592:(pope 1073–85). Their quarrel developed into the 2921:or wells, halls, chapels, stables and workshops. 1990:. They were the first to use handbooks, known as 983:remained tolerated, although legislation limited 19431: 15883: 14612:Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes 14344:Leonardo Bruni: History of the Florentine People 7055:excluded those who married non-German women. In 5592:Mysticism and devotional literature flourished. 5332:sealed by the marriage of Lithuanian grand duke 5164:—at legislative assemblies known as parliament, 4145:disintegrated into small (but often aggressive) 3108:. Another development was the increasing use of 2773:(r. 976–1025) to expand the empire's frontiers. 2501:and settled there. In 911, the Viking chieftain 1057:(r. 364–78) to settle in Roman territory in the 908:) split the empire into separately-administered 560: 7164:the Orthodox Church in the Rus' principalities. 6853: 6343:and their association of specific varieties of 5258:. England fought a long civil war known as the 5053:The average annual temperature began declining 3974:, to oversee the royal officials' conduct. The 3666:Individuals who were thought to receive divine 3039:were common in important churches. In England, 2018:). In contrast with official Christianity, the 2010:and prescribed severe penances for adulterers, 1877:. The continent emerged as a major supplier of 1457:(r. 527–65). The Byzantines regularly employed 1364:, subjugating the local Slavic tribes near the 1235:) were formed. Smaller kingdoms in present-day 545:scholars began to emphasise human dignity, and 14286: 14049:. Western Music in Context: A Norton History. 13873:Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages (500–1300), 11571: 10773: 10749: 10737: 10677: 7201:(r. 1341–90), between the powerful aristocrat 5409:Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty 5403:Collapse of Byzantium and rise of the Ottomans 5046:revolt, from a 14th-century manuscript of the 4873: 916:in 286. This system, which eventually had two 18066: 18052: 17479: 16862: 16239: 14507: 14168:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 13816:. The Yale Intellectual History of the West. 7549: 7017:The Mongols were reportedly the first to use 6913: 6882: 6841: 6548:(d. 1219)—also an Anglo-Norman knight—seized 6415:Later Roman ornaments decorate Charlemagne's 5440: 5307: 5238:by 1360. Aristocratic feuds escalated into a 5181: 5173: 5160:groups—primarily the nobility, prelates, and 4955:, both of which increased sailing speed. The 4284: 4283:. The Iberian crusades became fused with the 3982: 3422: 3414: 3213:in the Middle East. In contrast, a period of 2546:Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty 2532:, and the Umayyads of Al-Andalus annexed the 2512:) received permission from the Frankish king 1340:. Coming from the Asian steppes, the nomadic 505:. Conflicts between ethnic and social groups 346:(or Byzantine Empire) survived, but lost the 16160:Women in Medieval History and Historiography 15729: 14514:"Introduction: Towards a Global Middle Ages" 7339: 6716:(r. 1137–1204) months after her marriage to 6174: 5784: 5776: 5768: 5758: 5505: 5096: 5039: 5001:warfare. This led to the use of closed-face 4727: 4699: 4645:The 11th-century discovery of a copy of the 4595:). Other literary genres included spiritual 4549: 3969: 3860:to his sons, establishing the basis for the 3806:. After an interval from 1125 and 1137, the 3757:reached its zenith under the pontificate of 3695: 3588:in his lands, but his appointments outraged 3467: 3298: 3255: 2637:, driving back the Magyars and fighting the 1589: 1409:Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty 1405:Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty 15994: 14486:An Environmental History of Medieval Europe 7303: 7297: 7151:. The Swedes left the Kalmar Union in 1448. 6820: 6512: 6332:Musica disciplina (The Discipline of Music) 6330: 6272:ship after her son died; the 10th-century " 6053: 6041: 5631: 5601: 5367:undermined the Golden Horde's power in the 5165: 4789:, and clerical vestments were adorned with 4660: 4646: 4620: 4487: 4479: 4410: 4189:Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty 3324:The clergy was divided into two types. The 2456:There was a brief reunion of the empire by 2291: 1635: 1604:also became the norm of secular law in the 1446: 1300: 1149: 776: 764: 740:A letter from Zhiznomir to Mikula, written 605: 18059: 18045: 17486: 17472: 16869: 16855: 16246: 16232: 15799:Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages 15252:The Middle Ages: A Very Short Introduction 15114:The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology 14562:. A Norton Introduction to Music History. 7436:Onions, Friedrichsen & Burchfield 1994 7181:(r. 1282–1328) disinherited his grandson, 6490:Examples include vivid caricatures in the 4090:. The Cumans supported the Bulgarians and 3541:(r. 1039–56) broke their power and placed 3063: 2333:, leading to the compilation of the first 2160:indicated that the reformist idea of the " 1982:were instrumental in religious education. 1652:to Christianity, but the Jewish community 1445:; the most comprehensive compilation, the 698:, the Middle Ages were often known as the 596:(d. 1444) was the first to use tripartite 15884:Kaufmann, J. E.; Kaufmann, H. W. (2004). 15479:The Making of Polities: Europe, 1300–1500 14883: 14800: 14721: 14535: 14426: 14258: 13986: 13879:. Brill's Companion to European History. 13611:The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320 13409: 13385: 13337: 9862: 9739: 9727: 9688: 9652: 9628: 9616: 9592: 8701: 8689: 8677: 8665: 8644:, pp. 15, 227–228, 236–237, 268–271. 8533: 8449: 7831: 5302:(r. 1474–1504) and her Aragonese husband 4765:(d. 1205)—became apparent, and an almost- 4635:, mainly developed by the music theorist 2445:, and his imperial title was recognised. 1197:after the end of the Western Roman Empire 16253: 16100: 15819: 15793: 15754: 15591: 15214: 15165:The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320 15023: 14826: 14727:Early Medieval Art in the British Museum 14482: 14314: 14184: 13965:The Pictorial Arts of the West: 800–1200 13846:Macmillan International Higher Education 13696:Women in Early Medieval Europe, 400–1100 13632: 13421: 12917: 12881: 12845: 12144: 12132: 12057: 11376: 10785: 10614: 10590: 10578: 10518: 10458: 10117: 10105: 10033: 8872: 8752: 8641: 8605: 8497: 8245: 7657: 6785:Examples include the spiritual works of 6496:and more naturalistic miniatures in the 6436:An early example of a stone fortress is 6193:, influenced historical research in the 6095: 5840: 5663: 5650:Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration 5498:to the highest offices. During the late 5430: 5190: 5033: 4887: 4703: 4500: 4200: 3870: 3718:Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190 3713: 3655:who earned their living by begging (the 3513: 3383: 3228:(bringing new lands into production), a 3168: 3067: 2855: 2565: 2524:until the invaders were defeated at the 2274:in northern Spain. Frankish troops also 2177: 1900: 1885:for Al-Andalus, northern Africa and the 1821: 1756:; in the west, Islamic troops conquered 1677: 1610: 1412: 1193:Post-Roman kingdoms and tribes, and the 1188: 851: 735: 617:It customarily spans the period between 564: 15630: 15532: 15500: 15414: 15387: 15355: 15330: 15186: 15077: 14908: 14862:The Routledge Companion to the Crusades 14398: 14337: 14095: 14039: 14014: 13958: 13834: 13724:The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150–750 13579: 13289: 13241: 13217: 13205: 13181: 13169: 13157: 13133: 13109: 13061: 13049: 13037: 13001: 12953: 12929: 12893: 12857: 12833: 12821: 12809: 12785: 12605: 12569: 12545: 12521: 12449: 12413: 12389: 12329: 12252: 12192: 12120: 12096: 12084: 12069: 12033: 12021: 12009: 11997: 11973: 11961: 11949: 11913: 11886: 11871: 11739: 11727: 11643: 11631: 11607: 11595: 11496: 11484: 11460: 11448: 11412: 11316: 11265: 11205: 11049: 11025: 11001: 10989: 10965: 10929: 10893: 10869: 10857: 10833: 10797: 10761: 10665: 10629: 10482: 10470: 10446: 10398: 10374: 10350: 10338: 10326: 10302: 10290: 10254: 10225: 10201: 10189: 10177: 10165: 10153: 10141: 10129: 10081: 10069: 10045: 10021: 9997: 9985: 9973: 9961: 9925: 9913: 9901: 9889: 9850: 9838: 9823: 9811: 9799: 9787: 9763: 9751: 9580: 9568: 9556: 9529: 9517: 9505: 9493: 9394: 9382: 9346: 9334: 9322: 9310: 9298: 9286: 9274: 9262: 9250: 9238: 9226: 9214: 9199: 9184: 9172: 9160: 9148: 9136: 9124: 9088: 9076: 9052: 9028: 8992: 8968: 8956: 8932: 8860: 8836: 8824: 8764: 8728: 8653: 8629: 8617: 8593: 8569: 8557: 8545: 8461: 8437: 8425: 8413: 8389: 8377: 8365: 8353: 8341: 8329: 8317: 8281: 8233: 8221: 8209: 8161: 8074: 8062: 8050: 8026: 8014: 8002: 7990: 7978: 7954: 7942: 7930: 7918: 7906: 7879: 7855: 7795: 7783: 7747: 7735: 7723: 7693: 7681: 7645: 7537: 7459: 7399: 7387: 7089:The most successful dynasties were the 6691:during his imperial coronation in Rome. 5924: 5837:Technological and military developments 4947:. Other improvements to ships included 4943:method rather than the Roman system of 4667:. Greek and Islamic influence replaced 4599:, chronicles, philosophical poems, and 4576:. Chivalric literature was inspired by 3356:in the west. Laypeople were obliged to 3336:lived under a religious rule as monks, 2841: 2641:. After an appeal by the widowed Queen 2245:donation of central Italian territories 433:and secular powers. With the spread of 14: 19432: 16156: 16061: 15669: 15566: 15305: 15277: 15168:. The Short Oxford History of Europe. 15135: 14990: 14954: 14700:The Pelican History of Medieval Europe 14661: 14608: 14580: 14552: 14464:. Elements in the Global Middle Ages. 14369: 13925: 13897: 13844:. History of Europe (Third ed.). 13806: 13778: 13660: 13604: 13550: 13532:. What is History? (Second ed.). 13522: 13481: 13433: 13397: 13349: 13325: 13277: 13265: 13193: 13145: 13121: 13073: 13025: 12989: 12869: 12773: 12749: 12725: 12701: 12689: 12653: 12629: 12509: 12461: 12365: 12240: 12228: 12045: 11985: 11937: 11925: 11898: 11859: 11847: 11835: 11823: 11799: 11775: 11751: 11679: 11655: 11619: 11583: 11559: 11547: 11535: 11520: 11508: 11472: 11436: 11424: 11400: 11340: 11289: 11277: 11253: 11229: 11169: 11121: 11097: 11085: 11061: 11013: 10977: 10953: 10941: 10845: 10821: 10653: 10602: 10566: 10554: 10542: 10530: 10506: 10494: 10434: 10422: 10410: 10386: 10362: 10314: 10278: 10242: 10213: 10093: 10057: 10009: 9949: 9877: 9703: 9676: 9664: 9640: 9454: 9418: 9406: 9112: 9100: 9064: 9040: 8944: 8920: 8884: 8788: 8521: 8509: 8197: 7807: 7669: 7609: 7597: 7585: 7573: 7513: 7501: 7423: 7411: 6971:Prominent examples include cathedrals 5023: 3912:, who conquered England in 1066 under 3802:before clashing with the papacy under 3709: 3048:. In Christian Spain, artists adopted 2806:consolidated authority in Bohemia. In 2788:, Magyars, and the inhabitants of the 2595:(r. 871–99) reached an agreement with 2578:, with Christ receiving a church from 2516:(r. 898–922) to settle in present-day 2469:(r. 899–911) and the selection of the 2025:The Early Middle Ages saw the rise of 1518:In Western Europe, values attached to 1262:moved to Italy from the Balkans under 1178: 18040: 17493: 17467: 16850: 16227: 16128: 16033: 15844: 15472: 15418:The Western Church in the Middle Ages 15245: 15161: 15027:Making Money in the Early Middle Ages 14747: 14633: 14233: 14205: 14156: 14125: 13866: 13745: 13717: 13692: 13497: 13469: 13457: 13445: 13373: 13361: 13313: 13301: 13229: 13013: 12977: 12941: 12905: 12680:, pp. 230–235, 250–252, 325–326. 12641: 12617: 12593: 12581: 12557: 12533: 12497: 12485: 12473: 12437: 12425: 12401: 12377: 12341: 12317: 12305: 12293: 12281: 12264: 12108: 11811: 11787: 11763: 11715: 11703: 11691: 11667: 11217: 11193: 11181: 11157: 11145: 11133: 11109: 11073: 11037: 10917: 10905: 10881: 10809: 10725: 10713: 10701: 10689: 10641: 10266: 9937: 9775: 9715: 9541: 9478: 9466: 9442: 9430: 9370: 9358: 9016: 9004: 8980: 8908: 8899:, pp. 183–189, 209–213, 219–220. 8896: 8848: 8812: 8800: 8776: 8740: 8716: 8581: 8485: 8473: 8401: 8305: 8293: 8269: 8257: 8185: 8173: 8149: 8137: 8122: 8110: 8098: 8086: 8038: 7966: 7894: 7771: 7759: 7708: 7633: 7621: 7525: 7486: 7474: 7447: 7372: 7042:of its population to the Black Death. 6956:Cathedral of Christ's Transfiguration 6627:The idea is mainly attributed to the 6400:Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe 6078:Modern perceptions and historiography 5530:against the wealthy Knights Templar, 4970:for crops increased land use by over 4627:. Composers seceded from traditional 4405:quickly marginalised the traditional 3794:, the Ottonians were replaced by the 3694:culminated in the compilation of the 3478:with Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. 3132:rather than true cavalry. The use of 2838:the Byzantines between 971 and 1018. 2167: 1905:An 11th-century illustration of Pope 1425:, bodyguards, clerics and courtiers ( 1398: 835: 537:and dissident movements condemned as 478:prompted the construction of massive 19318: 15705:; Remensnyder, Amy G., eds. (2012). 15439: 15048: 14858: 14693: 14587:Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary 14454: 14373:Misconceptions About the Middle Ages 14185:Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph (1973). 14067: 13253: 13085: 12965: 12797: 12761: 12737: 12713: 12677: 12665: 12353: 12216: 12204: 12180: 12168: 12156: 11388: 11364: 11352: 11328: 11301: 11241: 9604: 7867: 7843: 7819: 7561: 7353:) are International Gothic examples. 7209:(r. 1347–54), but his conflict with 5660:Spanish colonization of the Americas 5458:to establish a strategic bridgehead 5336:(r. 1377–1434) and the Polish queen 5143:in 1497. Most Spanish Jews left for 5131:" were suspected of heresy, and the 4880:List of medieval European scientists 4510:A chantar m'er de so qu'eu no volria 4383: 3938:(r. 1189–99), but Richard's brother 3526:, built mainly between 1130 and 1156 2441:(r. 817–55) to go with his lands in 1811: 1500:, but could not conquer it. Emperor 1474:seized North Africa from the Vandals 1167: 953:Christianisation of the Roman Empire 501:, began the Late Middle Ages in the 18001:History of the Mediterranean region 16831: 16276:Decline of the Western Roman Empire 16198:News and articles about the period. 14865:. Routledge Companions to History. 14773: 13097: 7101:in central and eastern Europe, the 5150: 5048:Chroniques de France ou de St Denis 5012: 4862:. Increasing prosperity during the 4325:(r. 1259–82), ruler of a Byzantine 3379: 3153: 3112:and the progressive replacement of 2966:and the rich Anglo-Saxon burial at 2898:became an extraordinary example of 2852:pre-Romanesque art and architecture 2830:raiders sacked the Khazar capital, 1994:, to determine appropriate acts of 1534:were also created. The writings of 24: 16368:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire 16157:Stuard, Susan Mosher, ed. (1987). 16080:The New Cambridge Medieval History 16013:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15974:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15931:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15863:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15773:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15649:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15610:The New Cambridge Medieval History 15559: 15396:. Short Oxford History of Europe. 14837:When Science and Christianity Meet 14782:. Short Oxford History of Europe. 13554:Fashion: A Very Short Introduction 7342:Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry 7076:firms during the 1340s, when King 6836:Among the earliest law codes, the 5518:in 1309. During the period of the 5286:was ruled by feuding local lords. 5234:, and took control of an expanded 4329:, recaptured the city in 1261 but 3852:to elect the king was reaffirmed. 3833:during the reign of his grandson, 3771:war bands from the local Lombard, 3619:sometimes led to the rejection of 3504:expulsion of the Jews from England 2540:New kingdoms and Byzantine revival 2337:prayer books by the middle of the 1507: 1312:Other monarchies were established 1299:aristocracy. Britons fleeing from 640:), and 1517 (the beginning of the 497:, which reduced the population by 25: 19526: 19250:Western European and Others Group 16798:Historiography in the Middle Ages 16183: 14237:God and Reason in the Middle Ages 13727:. Library of World Civilization. 13498:Adams, Laurie Schneider (2011) . 12668:, pp. 250, 290–293, 325–327. 8512:, pp. 77–78, 90–93, 116–117. 6655:(r. 1109–26) reigned in León and 5534:(pope 1305–14) could not prevent 4966:The development of a three-field 4928:were first built after 1100, and 4356:, which gave rise to the sale of 4333:remained under western rule. The 3734:was strengthening, and the first 3509: 3084:The creation of heavily-armoured 2591:in Ireland. The Anglo-Saxon king 2357:Breakup of the Carolingian Empire 2286:), who administered the empire's 1799:controlled North Africa, and the 1732:in Arabia during the lifetime of 1464:Justinian nearly died during the 1053:received permission from Emperor 1037:to encroach beginning in the mid- 710:concept tend to avoid its use in 19412: 19395: 19378: 19361: 19344: 19327: 19299: 19287: 19275: 17986:Bibliography of European history 17581:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 16830: 16821: 16820: 16810: 16202:Medieval History Database (MHDB) 16165:University of Pennsylvania Press 15801:. Translated by Howlett, Janet. 15482:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. 14489:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. 14079:The University of Michigan Press 13788:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. 13699:. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. 7328: 7311: 7290: 7277: 7252: 7237:(d. 1456) defeated the Ottomans 7220: 7193:was fought over the regency for 7167: 7154: 7137: 7112: 7083: 7062: 7045: 7028: 7011: 7002: 6965: 6944: 6929:The Church of the Virgin in the 6923: 6894: 6875: 6830: 6779: 6765: 6754:in northern Greece and Albania, 6744: 6727: 6694: 6678: 6646: 6621: 6604: 6586: 6569: 6555: 6522: 6505: 6484: 6463: 6454: 6430: 6409: 6384: 6371: 6354: 6324: 6299: 5952:became a major luxury industry. 5344:to Catholicism. In Scandinavia, 5083:The trauma of the plague led to 5038:Execution of ringleaders of the 4916:. In Europe, horizontal treadle 4289:, and reduced Al-Andalus to the 3482:were established and flourished 3019:. These were often protected by 2745:Byzantium revived under Emperor 2401: 2392: 2383: 1955:on agrarian products during the 1663: 1496:. The Avars, Slavs and Persians 1291:(r. 509–11), the founder of the 1108:, and the Vandals conquered the 848:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 238: 198: 136:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 64: 18011:History of Western civilization 17614:Christianity in the Middle Ages 16296:Christianity in the Middle Ages 16291:Decline of Hellenistic religion 16219:Resources for Medieval Studies. 15736:. Oxford Textual Perspectives. 14924:The University of Chicago Press 14640:Europe's Barbarians: AD 200–600 14349:The I Tatti Renaissance Library 13841:Early Medieval Europe, 300–1000 6279: 6254: 6237: 6228: 6181:school such as the medievalist 6157:(d. 1879), and German composer 5819:(d. 1500) sailed as far as the 4800:from Romanesque. They included 4390:Renaissance of the 12th century 4137:on the Volga, establishing the 4098:that led to the restoration of 3663:) were approved by the papacy. 3494:which manifested itself in the 2749:(r. 867–86) and his successors 2562:Christianisation of Kievan Rus' 975:among the Germanic peoples and 903: 647:Europe, according to historian 529:, Christian kingdoms won their 17855:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 17798:Christianity in the modern era 17569:Christianity in late antiquity 16878:European Middle Ages by region 16574:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 15337:. Daily Life through History. 15314:University of Washington Press 15001:West Virginia University Press 14755:. The Pelican History of Art. 14731:Trustees of the British Museum 14668:Europe in the High Middle Ages 14617:American Philosophical Society 14270:University of California Press 13580:Backman, Clifford R. (2022) . 7258:The Bohemian Diet elected the 7105:in the Mediterranean, and the 7080:repudiated their loans to him. 6864:) in Norway. In contrast, the 6309:(d. 823) held lands along the 6207: 6092:Middle Ages in popular culture 5750:The Book of the City of Ladies 5747:), wrote the feminist utopian 5703:(d. 1374) intensively studied 5266:(r. 1483–85) died fighting at 5087:and the self-mortification of 5030:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 4580:and the Celtic legends of the 4238:formed loosely-organised bands 4224:(pope 1088–99) proclaimed the 4074:. The kings of Hungary seized 3934:remained intact under his son 3623:by radical groups such as the 2550:Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180) 2101:, now known for Constantine's 1920:separation of church and state 1896: 1498:attacked Constantinople in 626 1010:became a principal element of 858:Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs 655:, the conversion of Europe to 13: 1: 18006:History of the European Union 16748:Disability in the Middle Ages 16421:Rise of the Republic of Genoa 16353:Rise of the Venetian Republic 15512:The Penguin History of Europe 15334:Daily Life in Medieval Europe 14673:The Penguin History of Europe 14483:Hoffmann, Richard C. (2014). 14317:Religion in the Medieval West 14166:. Translated by Peter Lewis. 13583:The Worlds of Medieval Europe 13490: 12752:, pp. 248–249, 251, 254. 8560:, pp. 143–150, 160, 226. 6801: 6790: 6579:on their clothes and live in 6575:Jews were required to wear a 6445: 6286: 6100:Medieval illustration of the 5915: 5849: 5741: 5685: 5624: 5359:After Polish, Hungarian, and 5054: 4933: 4884:military of the Mongol Empire 4742:and are typically covered by 4639: 4589: 4529:(female troubadour) known as 4149:such as the one ruled by the 3565:led to the separation of the 3218: 3194: 3185:), and those who worked (the 3007:triumph paved the way for an 2796: 2608: 2506: 2411:Territorial divisions of the 2095: 1871: 1554: 1543: 1514:Early medieval European dress 1421:of Justinian with Archbishop 1217: 779:Monumenta Germaniae Historica 618: 614:term first recorded in 1604. 561:Terminology and periodisation 194: 79: 53: 17303:Hereditary Kingdom of Norway 15452:Oxford Illustrated Histories 15415:Thomson, John A. F. (1998). 15331:Singman, Jeffrey L. (1999). 14970:Oxford Illustrated Histories 14884:McCormick, Michael (2010) . 13938:Oxford Illustrated Histories 13758:Oxford Illustrated Histories 12764:, pp. 424–425, 561–604. 12500:, pp. 328–332, 346–349. 12380:, pp. 180–181, 317–322. 11136:, pp. 336–337, 367–388. 10437:, pp. 166–167, 213–214. 10389:, pp. 209–212, 219–222. 9361:, pp. 131–134, 141–142. 7360: 6840:was compiled in Sicily, the 6827:, a hymn to the Virgin Mary. 6153:(d. 1881), French architect 5676:(French, early 15th century) 5630:and a popular handbook, the 5060:, gradually introducing the 4129:. Their commander-in-chief, 3702:, a 13th-century summary of 3557:and was excommunicated by a 3547:head of the Byzantine Church 3307:spread of German settlements 2992:of Ireland and Northumbria. 2792:. After Moravia fell due to 2757:(r. 913–59), members of the 2686:. Their multi-ethnic empire 2667:led to the formation of the 2558:Christianisation of Bulgaria 2251:marked the beginning of the 1488:defences collapsed during a 1164:maintained a claim on them. 1124:fell apart after his death. 897:(landowning) class. Emperor 489:Calamities which included a 181:Exploration of North America 36:Middle Ages (disambiguation) 7: 19515:History of Europe by period 17965:Russian invasion of Ukraine 17576:Crisis of the Third Century 15803:University of Chicago Press 15362:Early Medieval Architecture 14842:University of Chicago Press 14438:University of Toronto Press 14315:Hamilton, Bernard (2003) . 14015:Epstein, Steven A. (2009). 9139:, pp. xxvi–xxvii, 396. 7241:, and the Moldavian prince 7120:lands of the Bohemian Crown 5906:were recorded in the early 5848:, an agricultural calendar 5718:(d. 1321) and the prose of 5642:), laid the groundwork for 4874:Technology and the military 4769:is seen in works such as a 4208:in Syria, built during the 4172: 4047:, and the Swedes conquered 3779:between 1016 and 1091, and 3293:. Unlike slaves, serfs had 2614:) united the Picts and the 1787:and its replacement by the 1710: Expansion during the 1700: Expansion during the 1586:complications at childbirth 883:Crisis of the Third Century 767:Rerum italicarum scriptores 659:, took place in waves, and 10: 19531: 18021:Military history of Europe 18016:Maritime history of Europe 16549:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 16084:Cambridge University Press 16017:Cambridge University Press 15978:Cambridge University Press 15935:Cambridge University Press 15867:Cambridge University Press 15828:W. W. Norton & Company 15777:Cambridge University Press 15653:Cambridge University Press 15614:Cambridge University Press 15484:Cambridge University Press 15107:; Friedrichsen, G. W. S.; 15032:Princeton University Press 14993:Essays in Medieval Studies 14892:Cambridge University Press 14564:W. W. Norton & Company 14491:Cambridge University Press 14466:Cambridge University Press 14298:Princeton University Press 14242:Cambridge University Press 14217:Cambridge University Press 14109:Cambridge University Press 14023:Cambridge University Press 13998:Cambridge University Press 13968:. Pelican History of Art. 13790:Cambridge University Press 13729:W. W. Norton & Company 13701:Cambridge University Press 8368:, pp. 97–98, 117–118. 7338:and the miniatures in the 6540:in southern Scotland from 6499:Gospel Book of Charlemagne 6477:, indicate the renewal of 6442:Theobald I, Count of Blois 6396:Cathedral of Saint Étienne 6347:, and also the singing of 6104:in a 14th-century copy of 6084:Dark Ages (historiography) 6081: 5653: 5416: 5413:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 5406: 5027: 5016: 4877: 4820:, near Paris, under Abbot 4804:to reduce lateral thrust, 4387: 4297:tribes developed into the 4186: 4176: 4143:Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate 3164: 3157: 3023:made of gold, pearls, and 2845: 2655:in 951. His coronation as 2543: 2360: 2171: 1970:(pope 590–604) had sent a 1913:, dictating to a secretary 1815: 1667: 1511: 1402: 1182: 1171: 940:as the eastern capital of 845: 839: 725: 721: 588:, the Middle Ages and the 458:, led to the expansion of 29: 19020:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance 19000: 18918: 18755: 18590: 18461:Standard Average European 18329: 18158: 18078: 17991:Genetic history of Europe 17973: 17778: 17594: 17534: 17501: 17402:Principality of Chernigov 17311: 17232:Principality of Catalonia 17129: 17120: 17017: 16897: 16884: 16806: 16735: 16594: 16489: 16476:Mongol invasion of Europe 16381: 16261: 15976:. Vol. IV (Part 2). 15933:. Vol. IV (Part 1). 15730:D'Arcens, Louise (2021). 12716:, pp. 407, 412, 472. 7550:Holmes & Standen 2018 6758:in western Anatolia, and 6733:A good example is Prince 6421:royal palace at Ingelheim 6366:consonance and dissonance 6268:assumed the command of a 6074:, was published in 1493. 5829:his voyage of exploration 5753:. The standardisation of 5506:Controversy in the church 5066:Great Famine of 1315–1317 5005:, heavy body armour, and 4912:, and the manufacture of 4700:Architecture and the arts 4443:Ancient Greek philosopher 4343:to expand into the region 4337:, against the Cathars of 4054:In the east, Kievan Rus' 3748:representative assemblies 3571:Eastern Orthodox Churches 3181:), those who fought (the 2962:from Childeric's tomb at 2645:(d. 999) for protection, 2313:(d. 804). He developed a 2279:"emperor of the Romans". 2035:hagiographical literature 2029:. Monastic ideals spread 1453:, was made under Emperor 1008:Christ's enthroned figure 680:Romance language-speaking 218: 197: 189: 128: 102: 63: 52: 47: 19160:Lancaster House Treaties 18650:Christian existentialism 18610:Ancient Roman philosophy 18600:Ancient Greek philosophy 17381:Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 15306:Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). 15257:Very Short Introductions 15141:Encyclopedia of Religion 14609:Ilardi, Vincent (2007). 14353:Harvard University Press 14051:W. W. Norton and Company 13559:Very Short Introductions 13551:Arnold, Rebecca (2009). 13529:What is Medieval History 13501:A History of Western Art 13364:, pp. 241–253, 264. 12992:, pp. 302–315, 322. 12644:, pp. 177–178, 359. 12344:, pp. 165, 194–196. 12231:, pp. 153, 198–208. 11475:, pp. 266, 295–301. 11304:, pp. 107, 209–224. 11040:, pp. 185–188, 299. 8668:, pp. 753–754, 763. 8548:, pp. 136, 141–142. 8356:, pp. 116, 195–197. 7774:, pp. 65–68, 82–94. 7231:league of Albanian lords 7118:The Luxemburgs held the 6902:Basilica of Saint-Sernin 6815:(d. 1158), the poems of 6200: 5949:The Lady and the Unicorn 5914:quickly began to spread 5644:early modern witch hunts 5274:, consolidated power as 5085:pogroms against the Jews 4676:positional number system 4659:in Catholic Europe: the 4323:Michael VIII Palaiologos 4035:(two dynasties from the 3888:Robert, Count of Mortain 3096:composite bow. The Avar 2917:, fortified courtyards, 2554:Byzantine–Bulgarian wars 2499:raided the British Isles 2429:. A kingdom between the 2120:In Western Christendom, 1658:Muslim conquest of Spain 1324:in northwestern Iberia, 1287:(d. 481). Under his son 1266:(r. 493–526). He set up 521:a new Muslim power: the 387:agricultural innovations 18938:Equality before the law 18145:Romano-Germanic culture 17996:History of Christianity 17312:Central, Eastern Europe 17018:Central, Eastern Europe 16431:Investiture Controversy 16401:Second Bulgarian Empire 16140:Oxford University Press 15820:Hartnell, Jack (2019). 15738:Oxford University Press 15533:Wickham, Chris (2016). 15456:Oxford University Press 15398:Oxford University Press 15371:Oxford University Press 15261:Oxford University Press 15229:Oxford University Press 15170:Oxford University Press 15119:Oxford University Press 15061:Oxford University Press 15049:Nees, Lawrence (2002). 15024:Naismith, Rory (2023). 14974:Oxford University Press 14784:Oxford University Press 14663:Jordan, William Chester 14592:Oxford University Press 14528:Oxford University Press 14410:Oxford University Press 14188:Life in a Medieval City 14140:Oxford University Press 13942:Oxford University Press 13909:Oxford University Press 13762:Oxford University Press 13693:Bitel, Lisa M. (2002). 13588:Oxford University Press 13563:Oxford University Press 12656:, pp. 24, 394–395. 11682:, pp. 82, 93, 109. 10956:, pp. 60, 149–152. 7516:, pp. 21, 132–134. 7348:Very Rich Hours of the 7177:broke out when Emperor 7068:This happened with the 6908:is one of the earliest 6536:(d. 1141) received the 6425:kings' palace at Oviedo 6305:Among the Slav rulers, 6189:, with its emphasis on 6141:, the brutality of the 5910:, and the use of cheap 5855:, from a manuscript of 5526:(r. 1285–1314) brought 5330:Polish–Lithuanian union 5230:, captured the city of 4920:were introduced in the 4828:Manuscript illumination 4678:, and the invention of 4603:. Theatre developed in 4401:, and the more-lenient 4250:Raymond of Saint-Gilles 3886:and his half-brothers, 3651:. In the 13th century, 3594:Investiture Controversy 3092:in place of the weaker 3064:Military and technology 2896:Great Mosque of Córdoba 2834:, in 965. Bulgaria was 2437:rivers was created for 2307:Carolingian Renaissance 2134:their personal property 2051:(d. 547) developed the 1998:—typically prayers and 1941:unilateral modification 1795:(or Muslim Spain), the 1087:sacked the city of Rome 1020:illuminated manuscripts 881:combined to create the 714:, although studies of " 665:interpersonal relations 636:'s first voyage to the 427:Investiture Controversy 19495:15th century in Europe 19490:14th century in Europe 19485:13th century in Europe 19480:12th century in Europe 19475:11th century in Europe 19470:10th century in Europe 19100:Eastern European Group 18689:Continental philosophy 18620:Judeo-Christian ethics 18605:Hellenistic philosophy 18086:Cradle of civilization 17820:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 17196:Burgundian Netherlands 17037:Bosnia and Herzegovina 16788:Post-classical history 16544:Fall of Constantinople 16451:Capet–Plantagenet feud 16318:First Bulgarian Empire 15279:Russel, Jeffrey Burton 15162:Power, Daniel (2006). 14643:. The Medieval World. 14461:The Global Middle Ages 14234:Grant, Edward (2001). 13667:Art of the Middle Ages 13662:Benton, Janetta Rebold 13388:, pp. 17–18, 137. 12776:, pp. 26, 32, 96. 10593:, pp. 45–48, 116. 9964:, pp. 6, 11, 171. 7390:, pp. xvii–xviii. 7340: 7317:The Portuguese prince 7304: 7298: 6914: 6883: 6854: 6852:) in Castile, and the 6842: 6838:Constitutions of Melfi 6821: 6513: 6331: 6249:Brunhilda of Austrasia 6175: 6110: 6054: 6042: 5967:(d. 1446) studied the 5860: 5785: 5777: 5769: 5759: 5677: 5632: 5602: 5447: 5441: 5427:Hungarian–Ottoman Wars 5423:Bulgarian–Ottoman wars 5419:Byzantine–Ottoman wars 5379:). Under Grand Prince 5354:Danish–Norwegian union 5340:(r. 1384–99), and the 5308: 5199: 5182: 5174: 5166: 5097: 5050: 5040: 4904: 4728: 4716: 4661: 4647: 4621: 4550: 4534: 4523: 4515: 4509: 4488: 4480: 4445:, and his emphasis on 4429:about the concept of " 4411: 4317:in 1204, setting up a 4285: 4217: 3983: 3970: 3928:Anglo-Norman lordships 3905: 3719: 3696: 3527: 3468: 3423: 3415: 3393: 3344:. The introduction of 3299: 3256: 3190: 3100:introduced the use of 3081: 2871: 2870:from the British Isles 2868:illuminated manuscript 2763:Macedonian Renaissance 2665:fight for independence 2629:established itself in 2584: 2292: 2193: 1914: 1839: 1762:the Visigothic Kingdom 1716: 1690: Expansion under 1684:early Muslim conquests 1674:Early Muslim conquests 1636: 1623: 1590: 1447: 1434: 1427:Basilica of San Vitale 1362:First Bulgarian Empire 1301: 1198: 1150: 866: 777: 765: 752: 642:Protestant Reformation 630:fall of Constantinople 606: 577: 282:personal relationships 176:Fall of Constantinople 34:. For other uses, see 32:Post-classical history 19465:9th century in Europe 19460:8th century in Europe 19455:7th century in Europe 19450:6th century in Europe 19220:Three Seas Initiative 19195:Pacific Islands Forum 19060:British–Irish Council 18808:Greek Orthodox Church 18267:Industrial Revolution 18237:Scientific Revolution 17900:Industrial Revolution 17073:Late Medieval Kingdom 17069:High Medieval Kingdom 15996:McKitterick, Rosamond 15957:Riley-Smith, Jonathan 15914:Riley-Smith, Jonathan 15567:Aberth, John (2019). 15541:Yale University Press 15394:The Later Middle Ages 15367:Oxford History of Art 15289:Bloomsbury Publishing 15087:Arms and Armour Press 15057:Oxford History of Art 15009:10.1353/ems.2005.0010 14780:The Later Middle Ages 14355:. pp. ix–xviii. 13970:Yale University Press 13818:Yale University Press 9853:, pp. 41, 88–91. 7078:Edward III of England 7021:in Europe during the 6997:Saint Vitus Cathedral 6920:(Way of Saint James). 6881:Reportedly, the tall 6689:verses from the Quran 6538:Lordship of Annandale 6155:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 6099: 5977:one-point perspective 5846:Labours of the Months 5844: 5667: 5640:Hammer of the Witches 5434: 5346:Margaret I of Denmark 5342:Lithuanian conversion 5252:Charles VII of France 5194: 5037: 4892:Portrait of Cardinal 4891: 4878:Further information: 4707: 4507: 4461:(d. 1164) introduced 4204: 4127:between 1236 and 1242 4113:With the rise of the 4110:gained independence. 4096:anti-Byzantine revolt 4066:in 1169. Poland also 3914:William the Conqueror 3881:William the Conqueror 3874: 3717: 3682:(d. 1226), was often 3517: 3398:commercial revolution 3387: 3172: 3071: 3021:sumptuous book covers 2988:—two examples of the 2894:. In Al-Andalus, the 2859: 2818:, the princes of the 2802:, dukes of the Czech 2569: 2481:(r. 987–96) as king. 2319:Carolingian minuscule 2317:, presently known as 2181: 2162:Liberty of the Church 2027:Christian monasticism 1904: 1825: 1681: 1614: 1423:Maximianus of Ravenna 1416: 1192: 1014:. Under Constantine, 934:Constantine the Great 855: 739: 626:Western Roman Emperor 568: 391:commercial revolution 322:, which had begun in 19215:Special Relationship 18625:Christian philosophy 18570:Western Christianity 18232:Age of Enlightenment 18106:Hellenistic Kingdoms 17955:European debt crisis 17950:European integration 17890:Age of Enlightenment 17730:Republic of Florence 17281:Caliphate of Córdoba 17187:Republic of Florence 16768:Medieval reenactment 16564:Renaissance Humanism 16471:Medieval Warm Period 16441:Republic of Florence 16255:European Middle Ages 16045:Blackwell Publishing 15701:; Doubleday, Simon; 15632:Allmand, Christopher 15458:. pp. 297–351. 15231:. pp. 362–378. 14976:. pp. 175–234. 14910:Mommsen, Theodore E. 14859:Lock, Peter (2006). 14802:Lightbown, Ronald W. 14786:. pp. 109–134. 14590:(Seventh ed.). 14537:10.1093/pastj/gty030 14288:Grzymała-Busse, Anna 14111:. pp. 454–493. 13944:. pp. 235–296. 12572:, pp. 192, 231. 12560:, pp. 178, 198. 12488:, pp. 186, 328. 11124:, pp. 300, 333. 9253:, pp. 350, 365. 8851:, pp. 322, 495. 8498:Gies & Gies 1973 8344:, pp. 116, 197. 6958:in the Rus' city of 6712:by marrying heiress 6552:in Ireland by force. 6438:the residential keep 6163:Romantic nationalism 5931:International Gothic 5925:Art and architecture 5859:'s manual on farming 5729:The Canterbury Tales 5705:classical literature 5579:anti-heresy crusades 5548:Council of Constance 5361:Lithuanian invasions 5262:, which ended after 5250:(d. 1431). By 1453, 5107:in England, and the 4648:Corpus Juris Civilis 4586:Geoffrey of Monmouth 4546:vernacular languages 4214:Knights Hospitallers 4106:. West of Bulgaria, 4019:Caliphate of Córdoba 3976:royal court at Paris 3922:(r. 1154–89) of the 3551:Michael I Cerularius 3230:more clement climate 3215:population expansion 3173:13th-century French 3029:monumental sculpture 2900:Moorish architecture 2848:Migration Period art 2842:Architecture and art 2780:, Danubian Bulgars, 2415:in 843, 855, and 870 2206:Mayors of the Palace 2057:Theodore the Studite 1764:in 711, and invaded 1536:Sidonius Apollinaris 1449:Corpus Juris Civilis 1122:Hunnic confederation 1063:Battle of Adrianople 979:in Egypt and Syria. 825:chronological dating 634:Christopher Columbus 383:Medieval Warm Period 344:Eastern Roman Empire 332:Western Roman Empire 91:Parable of the Sower 76:Canterbury Cathedral 18:European Middle Ages 19240:West Nordic Council 19105:Eastern Partnership 18694:Analytic philosophy 18395:Classical tradition 18217:Early modern period 18173:Classical antiquity 18168:European Bronze Age 17920:Revolutions of 1848 17850:Early modern France 17631:Anglo-Saxon England 17536:Classical antiquity 17272:Lordship of Ireland 17267:Kingdom of Scotland 17256:Kingdom of Portugal 17236:Kingdom of Valencia 17206:Kingdom of Asturias 16481:Kingdom of Portugal 16348:Old Church Slavonic 16333:Anglo-Saxon England 15400:. pp. 79–107. 15390:Lazzarini, Isabella 15145:Macmillan Reference 14810:Thames & Hudson 14776:Lazzarini, Isabella 14753:Ars Sacra, 800–1200 14729:(Second ed.). 14508:Holmes, Catherine; 14319:(Second ed.). 14191:. Apollo Editions. 13676:Thames & Hudson 13614:(Second ed.). 13586:(Fourth ed.). 13448:, pp. 626–630. 13376:, pp. 265–267. 13352:, pp. 257–262. 13316:, pp. 237–238. 13304:, pp. 237–240. 13292:, pp. 294–298. 13268:, pp. 241–242. 13208:, pp. 203–204. 13160:, pp. 492–493. 13148:, pp. 284–285. 13136:, pp. 483–490. 13100:, pp. 131–134. 13040:, pp. 213–214. 13028:, pp. 213–222. 13004:, pp. 568–569. 12980:, pp. 460–462. 12968:, pp. 437–439. 12956:, pp. 211–213. 12944:, pp. 359–361. 12932:, pp. 199–200. 12920:, pp. 146–147. 12896:, pp. 213–217. 12884:, pp. 136–137. 12872:, pp. 389–390. 12848:, pp. 135–136. 12836:, pp. 193–194. 12800:, pp. 331–333. 12788:, pp. 164–170. 12728:, pp. 266–267. 12704:, pp. 385–387. 12692:, pp. 256–257. 12620:, pp. 177–178. 12608:, pp. 183–184. 12584:, pp. 200–201. 12548:, pp. 229–230. 12476:, pp. 184–186. 12464:, pp. 268–270. 12452:, pp. 220–221. 12440:, pp. 324–327. 12428:, pp. 344–345. 12416:, pp. 549–550. 12404:, pp. 320–322. 12356:, pp. 319–322. 12320:, pp. 171–172. 12267:, pp. 420–425. 12243:, pp. 105–114. 12219:, pp. 237–239. 12195:, pp. 246–247. 12171:, pp. 234–237. 12147:, pp. 236–242. 12135:, pp. 236–239. 12123:, pp. 531–542. 12111:, pp. 420–423. 12060:, pp. 323–325. 12048:, pp. 210–219. 12036:, pp. 294–296. 12024:, pp. 134–138. 11916:, pp. 193–194. 11874:, pp. 191–192. 11862:, pp. 248–250. 11850:, pp. 264–278. 11838:, pp. 245–247. 11826:, pp. 250–258. 11814:, pp. 199–219. 11802:, pp. 201–240. 11790:, pp. 205–219. 11766:, pp. 198–199. 11718:, pp. 240–250. 11706:, pp. 638–644. 11694:, pp. 639–640. 11670:, pp. 186–191. 11646:, pp. 138–147. 11610:, pp. 343–344. 11598:, pp. 333–337. 11572:Grzymała-Busse 2023 11562:, pp. 325–334. 11550:, pp. 209–211. 11538:, pp. 178–182. 11511:, pp. 413–414. 11499:, pp. 352–359. 11463:, pp. 433–434. 11451:, pp. 324–333. 11427:, pp. 409–410. 11415:, pp. 345–348. 11391:, pp. 353–355. 11367:, pp. 333–342. 11355:, pp. 313–317. 11343:, pp. 173–174. 11319:, pp. 423–424. 11280:, pp. 118–126. 11268:, pp. 313–314. 11256:, pp. 115–118. 11244:, pp. 139–140. 11232:, pp. 112–115. 11220:, pp. 716–717. 11196:, pp. 703–715. 11184:, pp. 711–712. 11172:, pp. 458–460. 11160:, pp. 660–666. 11148:, pp. 674–694. 11112:, pp. 300–305. 11100:, pp. 344–352. 11088:, pp. 307–315. 11076:, pp. 304–307. 11064:, pp. 322–325. 11052:, pp. 279–281. 11016:, pp. 266–268. 11004:, pp. 404–406. 10992:, pp. 400–401. 10980:, pp. 156–160. 10932:, pp. 261–264. 10884:, pp. 160–170. 10872:, pp. 409–413. 10848:, pp. 182–203. 10836:, pp. 259–260. 10824:, pp. 206–210. 10800:, pp. 371–379. 10776:, pp. 155–160. 10774:Grzymała-Busse 2023 10764:, pp. 395–399. 10750:Grzymała-Busse 2023 10738:Grzymała-Busse 2023 10692:, pp. 272–273. 10678:Grzymała-Busse 2023 10668:, pp. 395–396. 10644:, pp. 287–288. 10632:, pp. 188–191. 10581:, pp. 133–134. 10569:, pp. 199–203. 10557:, pp. 162–172. 10461:, pp. 140–143. 10449:, pp. 298–300. 10413:, pp. 217–218. 10341:, pp. 461–464. 10329:, pp. 110–118. 10305:, pp. 100–103. 10204:, pp. 177–178. 10036:, pp. 111–123. 10024:, pp. 221–222. 10000:, pp. 231–232. 9988:, pp. 220–221. 9904:, pp. 247–249. 9730:, pp. 233–238. 9607:, pp. 104–105. 9508:, pp. 232–233. 9481:, pp. 239–248. 9469:, pp. 289–300. 9445:, pp. 343–347. 9433:, pp. 391–400. 9421:, pp. 321–326. 9409:, pp. 318–320. 9397:, pp. 476–477. 9385:, pp. 366–370. 9373:, pp. 143–151. 9337:, pp. 376–386. 9325:, pp. 255–257. 9313:, pp. 394–411. 9277:, pp. 362–363. 9241:, pp. 394–395. 9229:, pp. 191–199. 9217:, pp. 488–489. 9202:, pp. 341–342. 9175:, pp. 401–403. 9151:, pp. 186–189. 9127:, pp. 318–331. 9055:, pp. 162–165. 9031:, pp. 159–162. 9019:, pp. 103–110. 9007:, pp. 105–110. 8995:, pp. 280–288. 8971:, pp. 276–279. 8959:, pp. 150–154. 8935:, pp. 214–216. 8911:, pp. 285–286. 8863:, pp. 185–187. 8839:, pp. 239–240. 8815:, pp. 527–530. 8803:, pp. 127–130. 8779:, pp. 130–133. 8767:, pp. 170–172. 8731:, pp. 220–233. 8704:, pp. 670–677. 8692:, pp. 791–792. 8680:, pp. 708–733. 8632:, pp. 347–349. 8620:, pp. 218–219. 8608:, pp. 372–373. 8596:, pp. 373–375. 8572:, pp. 376–377. 8464:, pp. 119–120. 8452:, pp. 733–744. 8428:, pp. 211–212. 8416:, pp. 205–210. 8404:, pp. 180–182. 8380:, pp. 113–118. 8332:, pp. 195–199. 8320:, pp. 189–193. 8296:, pp. 174–181. 8284:, pp. 138–141. 8260:, pp. 150–156. 8248:, pp. 374–375. 8236:, pp. 130–131. 8200:, pp. 235–238. 8164:, pp. 203–209. 8077:, pp. 164–165. 8065:, pp. 156–159. 8053:, pp. 102–103. 8017:, pp. 116–134. 7909:, pp. 145–180. 7897:, pp. 122–124. 7870:, pp. 156–157. 7504:, pp. 291–293. 7319:Henry the Navigator 7264:George of Poděbrady 6985:Salisbury Cathedral 6931:Studenica Monastery 6910:pilgrimage churches 6776:or excommunication. 6718:Louis VII of France 6581:their own districts 6475:Harbaville Triptych 6423:, and the Asturian 6392:Barcelona Cathedral 6266:Unn the Deep-Minded 6071:Nuremberg Chronicle 5981:Florence Baptistery 5857:Pietro de Crescenzi 5634:Malleus Maleficarum 5583:Council of Florence 5482:, Byzantine Greece 5452:Catalan mercenaries 5437:Battle of Nicopolis 5133:Spanish Inquisition 5095:which included the 5024:Society and economy 4798:Gothic architecture 4578:classical mythology 4565:The Poem of the Cid 4453:. Scholars such as 4358:plenary indulgences 4335:Albigensian Crusade 4246:Godfrey of Bouillon 4230:Council of Clermont 4206:Krak des Chevaliers 4197:Rhineland massacres 3732:hereditary monarchy 3710:Rise of state power 3688:Hildegard of Bingen 3553:(d. 1059), refused 3267:fundamental classes 3175:historiated initial 3134:militia-type levies 2986:Lindisfarne Gospels 2700:East European Plain 2673:counts of Barcelona 2092:liturgical language 2088:Old Church Slavonic 2086:(d. 869) developed 2047:. The Italian monk 1978:to popular saints' 1728:. The emergence of 1293:Merovingian dynasty 1264:Theoderic the Great 1253:150 tribal kingdoms 1179:Post-Roman kingdoms 1012:early Christian art 996:their own symbolism 967:faced persecution. 965:ecumenical councils 930:period of civil war 879:outbreaks of plague 602:Christoph Cellarius 484:Gothic architecture 364:Carolingian dynasty 308:counterurbanisation 223:Early modern period 18699:Post-structuralism 18662:Christian humanism 18292:Universal suffrage 18026:Crusading movement 17930:Russian Revolution 17765:Hundred Years' War 17661:Maritime republics 17564:Early Christianity 17554:Hellenistic period 17511:Paleolithic Europe 17432:Grand Principality 17350:Kingdom of Croatia 17297:Emirate of Granada 17262:Kingdom of England 17246:Kingdom of Navarre 17240:Kingdom of Majorca 17218:Kingdom of Galicia 17214:Kingdom of Castile 17177:Republic of Venice 17148:Kingdom of Bohemia 16662:In popular culture 16627:Crusading movement 16499:Hundred Years' War 16358:Civitas Schinesghe 16343:Carolingian Empire 16328:Kingdom of Croatia 16281:Barbarian kingdoms 15217:Bennett, Judith M. 15052:Early Medieval Art 14832:Numbers, Ronald L. 14828:Lindberg, David C. 14554:Hoppin, Richard H. 14519:Past & Present 14142:. pp. 68–83. 14128:Bennett, Judith M. 13504:(Fifth ed.). 13328:, p. 253–256. 12536:, pp. 64, 86. 10293:, pp. 83, 89. 10108:, pp. 32, 79. 9826:, pp. 59, 67. 9814:, pp. 58, 76. 9802:, pp. 34, 39. 9091:, pp. 45, 49. 8029:, pp. 98–101. 7600:, pp. 37, 40. 7285:Basilios Bessarion 7203:John Kantakouzenos 7185:(r. 1328–41), for 7107:Valois of Burgundy 6954:in Venice and the 6952:St Mark's Basilica 6916:Camino de Santiago 6872:) in royal courts. 6819:(d. 1202/03), and 6564:War of Saint Sabas 6544:(r. 1124–53), but 6481:during the period. 6419:, the Carolingian 6394:, the five-aisled 6292:by the end of the 6167:national awakening 6111: 6008:The Birth of Venus 5973:Florence Cathedral 5861: 5738:Christine de Pizan 5697:Marsilius of Padua 5693:natural philosophy 5678: 5448: 5316:Granada in 1492. 5270:and his opponent, 5244:Henry V of England 5218:(r. 1327–77) laid 5212:Hundred Years' War 5200: 5145:the Ottoman Empire 5051: 4982:led to the use of 4905: 4894:Hugh of Saint-Cher 4763:Nicholas of Verdun 4717: 4657:ecclesiastical law 4559:The Song of Roland 4535: 4463:Aristotelian logic 4395:Cathedral chapters 4350:crusading movement 4291:Emirate of Granada 4270:captured Jerusalem 4218: 4183:Crusading movement 4086:, and the nomadic 3948:Philip II Augustus 3906: 3854:Rudolf of Habsburg 3846:Charles I of Anjou 3720: 3598:Concordat of Worms 3528: 3484:in northern France 3448:maritime republics 3394: 3269:: the clergy, the 3191: 3082: 3050:Islamic decorative 3025:polished gemstones 2872: 2759:Macedonian dynasty 2732:settled in Iceland 2730:. Norse colonists 2669:Kingdom of Navarre 2657:Holy Roman Emperor 2585: 2526:Battle of Lechfeld 2514:Charles the Simple 2413:Carolingian Empire 2262:(r. 768–814), and 2194: 2174:Carolingian Empire 2168:Carolingian Europe 2049:Benedict of Nursia 2006:. They emphasised 1984:Irish missionaries 1915: 1909:, inspired by the 1840: 1768:beginning in 713. 1717: 1702:Rashidun Caliphate 1624: 1478:outbreak of plague 1435: 1399:Byzantine survival 1203:Popular assemblies 1199: 1185:Barbarian kingdoms 1146:Romulus Augustulus 1116:. The Hunnic king 1106:settled in Britain 961:Christian theology 922:junior co-emperors 867: 842:Later Roman Empire 836:Later Roman Empire 753: 610:("middle age"), a 578: 511:Hundred Years' War 425:and triggered the 376:Carolingian Empire 304:Population decline 166:Hundred Years' War 19263: 19262: 19090:Council of Europe 18992:International law 18945:Constitutionalism 18803:Eastern Orthodoxy 18309:Post–Cold War era 18242:Age of Revolution 18096:Greco-Roman world 18034: 18033: 17960:COVID-19 pandemic 17905:French Revolution 17880:Habsburg monarchy 17860:Cossack Hetmanate 17840:Portuguese Empire 17830:Absolute monarchy 17825:Thirty Years' War 17720:Holy Roman Empire 17645:Bulgarian Empire 17604:Early Middle Ages 17521:Bronze Age Europe 17495:History of Europe 17461: 17460: 17457: 17456: 17413:Novgorod Republic 17387:Kingdom of Bosnia 17325:Bulgarian Empire 17228:Kingdom of Aragon 17192:Duchy of Burgundy 17182:Republic of Genoa 17172:Kingdom of Naples 17167:Kingdom of Sicily 17156:Swiss Confederacy 17144:Holy Roman Empire 17116: 17115: 16844: 16843: 16753:Basic topics list 16554:Swiss mercenaries 16504:Wars of the Roses 16411:Kingdom of Poland 16396:Holy Roman Empire 16263:Early Middle Ages 16174:978-0-8122-1290-7 16149:978-0-19-924427-0 16121:978-0-19-820648-4 16093:978-1-139-05572-7 16082:. Vol. III. 16054:978-1-405-12964-0 16026:978-1-139-05571-0 15987:978-1-139-05403-4 15944:978-1-139-05402-7 15901:978-0-2747-9776-9 15876:978-1-139-05574-1 15837:978-1-324-00216-1 15812:978-0-226-31083-1 15786:978-1-139-05393-8 15747:978-0-19-882595-1 15722:978-0-415-78065-0 15690:978-0-688-12302-4 15671:Cantor, Norman F. 15662:978-1-139-05575-8 15651:. Vol. VII. 15623:978-1-139-05573-4 15584:978-0-415-72930-7 15550:978-0-3002-0834-4 15525:978-0-713-99429-2 15493:978-0-521-79664-4 15465:978-0-19-285220-5 15432:978-0-340-60118-1 15407:978-0-19-873163-4 15380:978-0-19-284223-7 15348:978-0-313-36076-3 15323:978-0-295-97290-9 15298:978-0-275-95904-3 15270:978-0-19-969729-8 15238:978-0-19-877938-4 15221:Karras, Ruth Mazo 15207:978-0-7535-5957-4 15179:978-0-19-925312-8 15154:978-0-02-865980-0 15128:978-0-19-861112-7 15109:Burchfield, R. W. 15096:978-1-854-09236-6 15070:978-0-19-284243-5 15041:978-0-691-17740-3 14983:978-0-19-285220-5 14901:978-0-521-66102-7 14876:978-0-415-39312-6 14851:978-0-226-48214-9 14844:. pp. 7–32. 14819:978-0-500-99027-8 14793:978-0-19-873163-4 14714:978-0-14-021085-9 14686:978-0-140-16664-4 14675:. Vol. III. 14654:978-0-582-77296-0 14626:978-0-87169-259-7 14601:978-0-19-431606-4 14573:978-0-393-09090-1 14512:(November 2018). 14500:978-0-521-70037-5 14475:978-1-009-16116-9 14447:978-0-8020-6984-9 14428:Henderson, George 14419:978-0-19-532541-6 14391:978-0-415-87113-6 14384:. pp. 1–27. 14362:978-0-674-00506-8 14330:978-0-340-80839-9 14307:978-0-6912-4508-9 14279:978-0-520-20714-1 14260:Griffiths, Antony 14251:978-0-521-80279-6 14226:978-0-521-43344-0 14198:978-0-8152-0345-2 14177:978-0-674-05562-9 14149:978-0-19-877938-4 14132:Karras, Ruth Mazo 14118:978-0-521-26646-8 14088:978-0-472-08260-5 14060:978-0-393-92915-7 14032:978-0-521-70653-7 14007:978-1-107-02335-2 13988:Ellenblum, Ronnie 13979:978-0-300-06493-3 13951:978-0-19-285220-5 13918:978-0-19-520912-9 13904:Europe: A History 13890:978-90-04-41534-8 13859:978-0-333-69381-0 13827:978-0-300-07852-7 13808:Colish, Marcia L. 13799:978-0-521-84666-0 13771:978-0-19-285220-5 13764:. pp. 1–62. 13738:978-0-393-95803-4 13710:978-0-521-59773-9 13685:978-0-500-20350-7 13653:978-0-140-15409-2 13625:978-0-415-17415-2 13597:978-0-1975-7153-8 13572:978-0-19-954790-6 13543:978-1-5095-3256-8 13515:978-0-07-337922-7 13436:, pp. 49–58. 13196:, pp. 6, 51. 12824:, pp. 83–86. 11940:, pp. 69–70. 11658:, pp. 61–62. 11379:, pp. 46–47. 10752:, pp. 92–98. 10740:, pp. 86–90. 10728:, pp. 75–79. 10680:, pp. 68–70. 10509:, pp. 87–94. 10497:, pp. 93–94. 10377:, pp. 78–83. 10353:, pp. 78–81. 10317:, pp. 48–49. 10281:, pp. 70–71. 10257:, pp. 74–85. 10216:, pp. 41–42. 10192:, pp. 14–15. 10156:, pp. 11–12. 10120:, pp. 24–39. 10060:, pp. 36–37. 10012:, pp. 10–12. 9766:, pp. 30–31. 9754:, pp. 28–29. 9742:, pp. 60–77. 9718:, pp. 16–18. 9706:, pp. 47–49. 9691:, pp. 40–41. 9679:, pp. 32–38. 9667:, pp. 36–37. 9655:, pp. 22–28. 9643:, pp. 41–42. 9631:, pp. 63–64. 9619:, pp. 47–57. 9595:, pp. 35–40. 9583:, pp. 83–90. 9571:, pp. 88–89. 9559:, pp. 96–97. 9532:, pp. 43–44. 9520:, pp. 21–44. 9496:, pp. 28–29. 9067:, pp. 66–70. 8983:, pp. 97–99. 8887:, pp. 63–65. 8875:, pp. 43–44. 8827:, pp. 75–77. 8791:, pp. 62–63. 8743:, pp. 45–46. 8488:, pp. 24–26. 8308:, pp. 45–49. 8212:, pp. 81–82. 8188:, pp. 71–77. 8176:, pp. 51–59. 8113:, pp. 79–81. 8101:, pp. 77–78. 8089:, pp. 82–94. 8041:, pp. 11–13. 7993:, pp. 96–97. 7969:, pp. 67–69. 7933:, pp. 59–60. 7882:, pp. 31–33. 7858:, pp. 21–23. 7846:, pp. 52–56. 7822:, pp. 32–36. 7798:, pp. 60–75. 7786:, pp. 43–45. 7750:, pp. 23–24. 7711:, pp. 24–25. 7684:, pp. 10–14. 7672:, pp. 47–50. 7660:, pp. 17–19. 7636:, pp. 28–29. 7624:, pp. 17–23. 7612:, pp. 44–45. 7588:, pp. 26–27. 7564:, pp. 18–24. 7552:, pp. 15–16. 7268:Matthias Corvinus 7262:Czech aristocrat 7243:Stephen the Great 7038:in Germany, lost 6989:Cologne Cathedral 6862:Code of the Realm 6787:Guibert of Nogent 6720:(r. 1137–80) was 6577:distinctive badge 6398:in Paris and the 6337:Aurelian of Réôme 6319:March of Pannonia 6171:Leopold von Ranke 6143:French Revolution 5991:artists restored 5989:Early Renaissance 5821:Cape of Good Hope 5691:) concluded that 5682:William of Ockham 5668:Clerics studying 5536:their suppression 5371:, the princes of 5365:succession crises 5260:Wars of the Roses 5093:popular uprisings 4953:stern-post rudder 4945:mortise and tenon 4914:distilled spirits 4898:Tommaso da Modena 4818:Saint-Denis Abbey 4806:flying buttresses 4694:school at Salerno 4663:Decretum Gratiani 4637:Franco of Cologne 4633:mensural notation 4611:such as those by 4570:Chivalric romance 4552:chansons de geste 4540:and the ethos of 4505: 4403:cathedral schools 4384:Intellectual life 4354:beginning in 1213 4315:captured the city 4299:Northern Crusades 4043:, Denmark seized 3910:Dukes of Normandy 3903:Duchy of Normandy 3866:Swiss Confederacy 3825:the right of the 3792:Holy Roman Empire 3785:Kingdom of Sicily 3730:. The concept of 3728:state sovereignty 3680:Francis of Assisi 3524:Maria Laach Abbey 3429:Bills of exchange 3346:clerical celibacy 3073:Byzantine cavalry 3041:book illuminators 2804:Přemyslid dynasty 2753:(r. 886–912) and 2643:Adelaide of Italy 2639:disobedient dukes 2589:Kingdom of Dublin 2576:Magdeburg Ivories 2243:. His subsequent 2241:papal possessions 2067:during the 960s. 2037:, especially the 1968:Gregory the Great 1907:Gregory the Great 1812:Trade and economy 1789:Abbasid Caliphate 1785:Umayyad Caliphate 1724:on the Christian 1712:Umayyad Caliphate 1578:domestic violence 1520:Latin scholarship 1381:Romance languages 1318:Iberian Peninsula 1174:Early Middle Ages 1168:Early Middle Ages 1085:(a Gothic group) 1049:fleeing from the 819:Since the 1950s, 773:Ludovico Muratori 748:during the early 732:historical source 547:Early Renaissance 531:centuries-old war 527:Iberian Peninsula 519:were conquered by 464:cathedral schools 460:Latin Christendom 423:Orthodox Churches 356:Muslim conquerors 254:history of Europe 250: 249: 246: 245: 110:Early Middle Ages 16:(Redirected from 19522: 19500:Christianization 19425: 19417: 19416: 19415: 19408: 19407:from Wikiversity 19400: 19399: 19398: 19391: 19383: 19382: 19381: 19374: 19366: 19365: 19364: 19357: 19349: 19348: 19347: 19340: 19332: 19331: 19330: 19320: 19304: 19303: 19302: 19292: 19291: 19290: 19280: 19279: 19271: 19135:EU Customs Union 18667:Secular humanism 18615:Christian ethics 18565:East–West Schism 18548:Physical culture 18272:Great Divergence 18222:Age of Discovery 18061: 18054: 18047: 18038: 18037: 17895:Great Divergence 17810:Age of Discovery 17755:Late Middle Ages 17725:High Middle Ages 17636:Byzantine Empire 17619:Christianization 17609:Migration Period 17544:Classical Greece 17516:Neolithic Europe 17488: 17481: 17474: 17465: 17464: 17383:Banate of Bosnia 17321:Byzantine Empire 17202:Crown of Castile 17152:Kingdom of Italy 17127: 17126: 16895: 16894: 16871: 16864: 16857: 16848: 16847: 16834: 16833: 16824: 16823: 16814: 16773:Medieval studies 16617:Church and State 16491:Late Middle Ages 16383:High Middle Ages 16301:Christianization 16271:Migration Period 16248: 16241: 16234: 16225: 16224: 16211:Official website 16196:Medievalists.net 16178: 16153: 16125: 16097: 16058: 16043:(2nd ed.). 16035:Moore, Robert I. 16030: 16015:. Vol. II. 15991: 15948: 15905: 15880: 15865:. Vol. VI. 15841: 15816: 15790: 15751: 15726: 15703:Lifshitz, Felice 15694: 15666: 15627: 15588: 15554: 15529: 15514:. Vol. II. 15497: 15469: 15436: 15411: 15384: 15352: 15327: 15302: 15274: 15242: 15211: 15183: 15158: 15147:. p. 8182. 15132: 15111:, eds. (1994) . 15100: 15074: 15045: 15020: 14987: 14956:Morris, Rosemary 14951: 14905: 14880: 14855: 14823: 14797: 14770: 14744: 14723:Kitzinger, Ernst 14718: 14690: 14658: 14630: 14605: 14577: 14549: 14539: 14504: 14479: 14451: 14423: 14395: 14366: 14334: 14311: 14283: 14255: 14230: 14202: 14181: 14153: 14122: 14092: 14069:Fine, John V. A. 14064: 14036: 14011: 13983: 13955: 13922: 13894: 13863: 13831: 13803: 13775: 13742: 13714: 13689: 13657: 13634:Bartlett, Robert 13629: 13601: 13576: 13547: 13519: 13485: 13484:, pp. 8–15. 13479: 13473: 13467: 13461: 13455: 13449: 13443: 13437: 13431: 13425: 13419: 13413: 13407: 13401: 13395: 13389: 13383: 13377: 13371: 13365: 13359: 13353: 13347: 13341: 13335: 13329: 13323: 13317: 13311: 13305: 13299: 13293: 13287: 13281: 13275: 13269: 13263: 13257: 13251: 13245: 13239: 13233: 13227: 13221: 13215: 13209: 13203: 13197: 13191: 13185: 13179: 13173: 13167: 13161: 13155: 13149: 13143: 13137: 13131: 13125: 13119: 13113: 13107: 13101: 13095: 13089: 13083: 13077: 13071: 13065: 13059: 13053: 13047: 13041: 13035: 13029: 13023: 13017: 13011: 13005: 12999: 12993: 12987: 12981: 12975: 12969: 12963: 12957: 12951: 12945: 12939: 12933: 12927: 12921: 12915: 12909: 12903: 12897: 12891: 12885: 12879: 12873: 12867: 12861: 12855: 12849: 12843: 12837: 12831: 12825: 12819: 12813: 12807: 12801: 12795: 12789: 12783: 12777: 12771: 12765: 12759: 12753: 12747: 12741: 12735: 12729: 12723: 12717: 12711: 12705: 12699: 12693: 12687: 12681: 12675: 12669: 12663: 12657: 12651: 12645: 12639: 12633: 12627: 12621: 12615: 12609: 12603: 12597: 12591: 12585: 12579: 12573: 12567: 12561: 12555: 12549: 12543: 12537: 12531: 12525: 12519: 12513: 12507: 12501: 12495: 12489: 12483: 12477: 12471: 12465: 12459: 12453: 12447: 12441: 12435: 12429: 12423: 12417: 12411: 12405: 12399: 12393: 12387: 12381: 12375: 12369: 12363: 12357: 12351: 12345: 12339: 12333: 12327: 12321: 12315: 12309: 12303: 12297: 12291: 12285: 12279: 12268: 12262: 12256: 12250: 12244: 12238: 12232: 12226: 12220: 12214: 12208: 12202: 12196: 12190: 12184: 12178: 12172: 12166: 12160: 12154: 12148: 12142: 12136: 12130: 12124: 12118: 12112: 12106: 12100: 12094: 12088: 12082: 12073: 12067: 12061: 12055: 12049: 12043: 12037: 12031: 12025: 12019: 12013: 12007: 12001: 11995: 11989: 11983: 11977: 11971: 11965: 11959: 11953: 11947: 11941: 11935: 11929: 11923: 11917: 11911: 11902: 11896: 11890: 11884: 11875: 11869: 11863: 11857: 11851: 11845: 11839: 11833: 11827: 11821: 11815: 11809: 11803: 11797: 11791: 11785: 11779: 11773: 11767: 11761: 11755: 11749: 11743: 11742:, pp. 7–44. 11737: 11731: 11725: 11719: 11713: 11707: 11701: 11695: 11689: 11683: 11677: 11671: 11665: 11659: 11653: 11647: 11641: 11635: 11629: 11623: 11617: 11611: 11605: 11599: 11593: 11587: 11581: 11575: 11569: 11563: 11557: 11551: 11545: 11539: 11533: 11524: 11518: 11512: 11506: 11500: 11494: 11488: 11482: 11476: 11470: 11464: 11458: 11452: 11446: 11440: 11434: 11428: 11422: 11416: 11410: 11404: 11398: 11392: 11386: 11380: 11374: 11368: 11362: 11356: 11350: 11344: 11338: 11332: 11326: 11320: 11314: 11305: 11299: 11293: 11287: 11281: 11275: 11269: 11263: 11257: 11251: 11245: 11239: 11233: 11227: 11221: 11215: 11209: 11203: 11197: 11191: 11185: 11179: 11173: 11167: 11161: 11155: 11149: 11143: 11137: 11131: 11125: 11119: 11113: 11107: 11101: 11095: 11089: 11083: 11077: 11071: 11065: 11059: 11053: 11047: 11041: 11035: 11029: 11023: 11017: 11011: 11005: 10999: 10993: 10987: 10981: 10975: 10969: 10963: 10957: 10951: 10945: 10939: 10933: 10927: 10921: 10915: 10909: 10903: 10897: 10891: 10885: 10879: 10873: 10867: 10861: 10855: 10849: 10843: 10837: 10831: 10825: 10819: 10813: 10807: 10801: 10795: 10789: 10783: 10777: 10771: 10765: 10759: 10753: 10747: 10741: 10735: 10729: 10723: 10717: 10711: 10705: 10699: 10693: 10687: 10681: 10675: 10669: 10663: 10657: 10651: 10645: 10639: 10633: 10627: 10618: 10612: 10606: 10600: 10594: 10588: 10582: 10576: 10570: 10564: 10558: 10552: 10546: 10540: 10534: 10528: 10522: 10516: 10510: 10504: 10498: 10492: 10486: 10480: 10474: 10468: 10462: 10456: 10450: 10444: 10438: 10432: 10426: 10420: 10414: 10408: 10402: 10396: 10390: 10384: 10378: 10372: 10366: 10360: 10354: 10348: 10342: 10336: 10330: 10324: 10318: 10312: 10306: 10300: 10294: 10288: 10282: 10276: 10270: 10264: 10258: 10252: 10246: 10240: 10229: 10223: 10217: 10211: 10205: 10199: 10193: 10187: 10181: 10175: 10169: 10163: 10157: 10151: 10145: 10139: 10133: 10127: 10121: 10115: 10109: 10103: 10097: 10091: 10085: 10079: 10073: 10067: 10061: 10055: 10049: 10043: 10037: 10031: 10025: 10019: 10013: 10007: 10001: 9995: 9989: 9983: 9977: 9971: 9965: 9959: 9953: 9947: 9941: 9935: 9929: 9923: 9917: 9911: 9905: 9899: 9893: 9887: 9881: 9880:, pp. 5–10. 9875: 9866: 9865:, pp. 3–11. 9860: 9854: 9848: 9842: 9836: 9827: 9821: 9815: 9809: 9803: 9797: 9791: 9785: 9779: 9773: 9767: 9761: 9755: 9749: 9743: 9737: 9731: 9725: 9719: 9713: 9707: 9701: 9692: 9686: 9680: 9674: 9668: 9662: 9656: 9650: 9644: 9638: 9632: 9626: 9620: 9614: 9608: 9602: 9596: 9590: 9584: 9578: 9572: 9566: 9560: 9554: 9545: 9539: 9533: 9527: 9521: 9515: 9509: 9503: 9497: 9491: 9482: 9476: 9470: 9464: 9458: 9452: 9446: 9440: 9434: 9428: 9422: 9416: 9410: 9404: 9398: 9392: 9386: 9380: 9374: 9368: 9362: 9356: 9350: 9344: 9338: 9332: 9326: 9320: 9314: 9308: 9302: 9296: 9290: 9284: 9278: 9272: 9266: 9260: 9254: 9248: 9242: 9236: 9230: 9224: 9218: 9212: 9203: 9197: 9188: 9182: 9176: 9170: 9164: 9158: 9152: 9146: 9140: 9134: 9128: 9122: 9116: 9110: 9104: 9098: 9092: 9086: 9080: 9074: 9068: 9062: 9056: 9050: 9044: 9038: 9032: 9026: 9020: 9014: 9008: 9002: 8996: 8990: 8984: 8978: 8972: 8966: 8960: 8954: 8948: 8942: 8936: 8930: 8924: 8918: 8912: 8906: 8900: 8894: 8888: 8882: 8876: 8870: 8864: 8858: 8852: 8846: 8840: 8834: 8828: 8822: 8816: 8810: 8804: 8798: 8792: 8786: 8780: 8774: 8768: 8762: 8756: 8750: 8744: 8738: 8732: 8726: 8720: 8714: 8705: 8699: 8693: 8687: 8681: 8675: 8669: 8663: 8657: 8651: 8645: 8639: 8633: 8627: 8621: 8615: 8609: 8603: 8597: 8591: 8585: 8579: 8573: 8567: 8561: 8555: 8549: 8543: 8537: 8531: 8525: 8519: 8513: 8507: 8501: 8495: 8489: 8483: 8477: 8471: 8465: 8459: 8453: 8447: 8441: 8435: 8429: 8423: 8417: 8411: 8405: 8399: 8393: 8387: 8381: 8375: 8369: 8363: 8357: 8351: 8345: 8339: 8333: 8327: 8321: 8315: 8309: 8303: 8297: 8291: 8285: 8279: 8273: 8272:, pp. 8–10. 8267: 8261: 8255: 8249: 8243: 8237: 8231: 8225: 8219: 8213: 8207: 8201: 8195: 8189: 8183: 8177: 8171: 8165: 8159: 8153: 8147: 8141: 8135: 8126: 8120: 8114: 8108: 8102: 8096: 8090: 8084: 8078: 8072: 8066: 8060: 8054: 8048: 8042: 8036: 8030: 8024: 8018: 8012: 8006: 8000: 7994: 7988: 7982: 7976: 7970: 7964: 7958: 7952: 7946: 7940: 7934: 7928: 7922: 7916: 7910: 7904: 7898: 7892: 7883: 7877: 7871: 7865: 7859: 7853: 7847: 7841: 7835: 7834:, pp. 1–15. 7829: 7823: 7817: 7811: 7805: 7799: 7793: 7787: 7781: 7775: 7769: 7763: 7757: 7751: 7745: 7739: 7738:, pp. 8–11. 7733: 7727: 7721: 7712: 7706: 7697: 7691: 7685: 7679: 7673: 7667: 7661: 7655: 7649: 7643: 7637: 7631: 7625: 7619: 7613: 7607: 7601: 7595: 7589: 7583: 7577: 7571: 7565: 7559: 7553: 7547: 7541: 7535: 7529: 7523: 7517: 7511: 7505: 7499: 7490: 7484: 7478: 7472: 7463: 7457: 7451: 7445: 7439: 7433: 7427: 7421: 7415: 7409: 7403: 7397: 7391: 7385: 7376: 7370: 7354: 7345: 7332: 7326: 7315: 7309: 7307: 7301: 7294: 7288: 7281: 7275: 7260:moderate Hussite 7256: 7250: 7224: 7218: 7212: 7208: 7196: 7195:Andronikos III's 7191:second civil war 7171: 7165: 7158: 7152: 7147:, then with her 7145:her underage son 7141: 7135: 7116: 7110: 7087: 7081: 7066: 7060: 7049: 7043: 7041: 7032: 7026: 7024: 7023:mid-13th century 7015: 7009: 7006: 7000: 6969: 6963: 6948: 6942: 6940: 6927: 6921: 6919: 6898: 6892: 6886: 6879: 6873: 6859: 6847: 6834: 6828: 6826: 6813:Otto of Freising 6806: 6803: 6795: 6792: 6783: 6777: 6769: 6763: 6748: 6742: 6735:Alexander Nevsky 6731: 6725: 6700:Henry inherited 6698: 6692: 6686: 6682: 6676: 6671:(r. 1194–98) in 6663:(r. 1137–62) in 6650: 6644: 6625: 6619: 6608: 6602: 6590: 6584: 6573: 6567: 6559: 6553: 6526: 6520: 6518: 6509: 6503: 6488: 6482: 6471:Daphni Monastery 6467: 6461: 6458: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6434: 6428: 6417:palace at Aachen 6413: 6407: 6388: 6382: 6375: 6369: 6358: 6352: 6334: 6328: 6322: 6317:(d. 861) in the 6303: 6297: 6295: 6291: 6288: 6283: 6277: 6263: 6258: 6252: 6241: 6235: 6232: 6226: 6223:end of the world 6211: 6180: 6140: 6107:L'Image du monde 6088:Medieval studies 6066:Vlad the Impaler 6059: 6047: 6018:Ghent Altarpiece 5985:Lorenzo Ghiberti 5937: 5920: 5917: 5909: 5854: 5851: 5794: 5790: 5782: 5774: 5766: 5746: 5743: 5734:Geoffrey Chaucer 5690: 5687: 5656:Age of Discovery 5637: 5629: 5626: 5610:Gregory of Sinai 5607: 5510:Since prolonged 5501: 5464:tributary states 5446: 5370: 5323: 5311: 5277: 5187: 5179: 5171: 5151:State resurgence 5105:Peasants' Revolt 5102: 5079: 5059: 5056: 5045: 5019:Late Middle Ages 5013:Late Middle Ages 4973: 4938: 4935: 4923: 4865: 4733: 4726:structures, but 4724:motte-and-bailey 4713:Rayonnant Gothic 4711:, an example of 4666: 4650: 4641: 4626: 4613:Adam de la Halle 4594: 4591: 4555: 4528: 4520: 4512: 4506: 4493: 4490:Summa Theologica 4486:, including the 4485: 4440: 4416: 4413:studium generale 4407:monastic schools 4400: 4374:Teutonic Knights 4364:, including the 4288: 4274:Mamluks of Egypt 4193:List of Crusades 4159:Genoese colonies 4147:Turkic lordships 4105: 4072:Duchy of Silesia 4045:parts of Estonia 4027:). Although the 4011:Italian Angevins 3988: 3973: 3959: 3921: 3842: 3838: 3818: 3805: 3762: 3744:court of appeals 3725: 3701: 3692:Jewish mysticism 3653:mendicant orders 3590:Pope Gregory VII 3563:East–West Schism 3473: 3426: 3420: 3380:Economic revival 3363: 3304: 3292: 3261: 3223: 3220: 3199: 3196: 3160:High Middle Ages 3154:High Middle Ages 3130:mounted infantry 3107: 3078:Madrid Skylitzes 3046:Ottonian artists 3009:artistic renewal 2978:, including the 2860:A page from the 2801: 2798: 2794:Magyar invasions 2769:(r. 969–76) and 2736:political system 2716:Christianisation 2693: 2650: 2636: 2627:Ottonian dynasty 2613: 2610: 2605:Kenneth MacAlpin 2593:Alfred the Great 2583: 2574:plaque from the 2534:Balearic Islands 2530:conquered Sicily 2511: 2508: 2451:Charles the Bald 2447:Louis the German 2427:Treaty of Verdun 2405: 2396: 2387: 2340: 2331:musical notation 2297: 2214:Pepin of Herstal 2211: 2182:A page from the 2127: 2100: 2097: 2053:Benedictine Rule 1989: 1958: 1876: 1873: 1866: 1846: 1709: 1699: 1689: 1639: 1633: 1607: 1595: 1559: 1556: 1548: 1545: 1529: 1452: 1440: 1385:Slavic languages 1314:by the Visigoths 1304: 1222: 1219: 1212:In Britain, the 1207:taxation systems 1195:Byzantine Empire 1155: 1040: 1029: 1001: 992:early Christians 959:. Debates about 958: 949:classical period 907: 905: 876: 782: 770: 751: 705: 697: 678:Historians from 661:(re)urbanisation 653:Christianisation 623: 620: 609: 582:European history 570:Palais des Papes 555:Age of Discovery 504: 500: 462:. The spread of 449:. Stone castles 373: 361: 334:and the rise of 320:Christianisation 316:Germanic peoples 294:Late Middle Ages 276:, medieval, and 242: 233:Age of Discovery 202: 195: 151:East–West Schism 146:Treaty of Verdun 120:Late Middle Ages 115:High Middle Ages 89:, depicting the 88: 84: 81: 68: 59: – 1500 58: 55: 45: 44: 21: 19530: 19529: 19525: 19524: 19523: 19521: 19520: 19519: 19510:Historical eras 19430: 19429: 19428: 19424:from Wikivoyage 19418: 19413: 19411: 19401: 19396: 19394: 19384: 19379: 19377: 19373:from Wikisource 19367: 19362: 19360: 19350: 19345: 19343: 19333: 19328: 19326: 19323: 19319:sister projects 19316:at Knowledge's 19310: 19300: 19298: 19288: 19286: 19274: 19266: 19264: 19259: 19225:UKUSA Agreement 19165:Lublin Triangle 19050:Baltic Assembly 19002: 18996: 18914: 18751: 18586: 18456:Eurolinguistics 18325: 18314:Information age 18287:Interwar period 18154: 18074: 18065: 18035: 18030: 17969: 17935:Interwar period 17910:Napoleonic Wars 17774: 17745:Mongol invasion 17698:Crown of Aragon 17590: 17530: 17526:Iron Age Europe 17497: 17492: 17462: 17453: 17398:Kingdom of Rus' 17356:Crusader states 17313: 17307: 17224:Crown of Aragon 17210:Kingdom of León 17139:Frankish Empire 17132:Northern Europe 17131: 17122: 17112: 17019: 17013: 16900:Northern Europe 16899: 16891:political units 16890: 16888: 16886: 16880: 16875: 16845: 16840: 16802: 16783:Neo-medievalism 16731: 16667:Itinerant court 16590: 16485: 16406:Georgian Empire 16391:Norman Conquest 16377: 16323:Frankish Empire 16257: 16252: 16222: 16207:Medieval Worlds 16186: 16181: 16175: 16150: 16122: 16112:Clarendon Press 16102:Reynolds, Susan 16094: 16063:Reuter, Timothy 16055: 16027: 15988: 15959:, eds. (2004). 15953:Luscombe, David 15945: 15916:, eds. (2004). 15910:Luscombe, David 15902: 15877: 15838: 15813: 15787: 15775:. Vol. I. 15748: 15723: 15699:Chazelle, Celia 15691: 15663: 15624: 15612:. Vol. V. 15593:Abulafia, David 15585: 15562: 15560:Further reading 15557: 15551: 15536:Medieval Europe 15526: 15494: 15466: 15433: 15408: 15381: 15349: 15339:Greenwood Press 15324: 15299: 15271: 15239: 15208: 15188:Ramirez, Janina 15180: 15155: 15129: 15097: 15071: 15042: 14984: 14932:10.2307/2856364 14902: 14877: 14852: 14820: 14794: 14767: 14741: 14715: 14687: 14655: 14645:Pearson Longman 14627: 14602: 14574: 14501: 14476: 14456:Heng, Geraldine 14448: 14420: 14392: 14380:. Vol. 7. 14363: 14331: 14308: 14280: 14252: 14227: 14199: 14178: 14163:The Middle Ages 14158:Fried, Johannes 14150: 14119: 14097:Fossier, Robert 14089: 14061: 14041:Fassler, Margot 14033: 14008: 13980: 13952: 13919: 13891: 13860: 13850:Red Globe Press 13828: 13800: 13772: 13739: 13711: 13686: 13654: 13626: 13606:Barber, Malcolm 13598: 13573: 13544: 13524:Arnold, John H. 13516: 13493: 13488: 13480: 13476: 13472:, pp. 6–9. 13468: 13464: 13456: 13452: 13444: 13440: 13432: 13428: 13420: 13416: 13408: 13404: 13396: 13392: 13384: 13380: 13372: 13368: 13360: 13356: 13348: 13344: 13336: 13332: 13324: 13320: 13312: 13308: 13300: 13296: 13288: 13284: 13276: 13272: 13264: 13260: 13252: 13248: 13240: 13236: 13228: 13224: 13216: 13212: 13204: 13200: 13192: 13188: 13180: 13176: 13168: 13164: 13156: 13152: 13144: 13140: 13132: 13128: 13120: 13116: 13108: 13104: 13096: 13092: 13084: 13080: 13072: 13068: 13060: 13056: 13048: 13044: 13036: 13032: 13024: 13020: 13012: 13008: 13000: 12996: 12988: 12984: 12976: 12972: 12964: 12960: 12952: 12948: 12940: 12936: 12928: 12924: 12916: 12912: 12904: 12900: 12892: 12888: 12880: 12876: 12868: 12864: 12856: 12852: 12844: 12840: 12832: 12828: 12820: 12816: 12808: 12804: 12796: 12792: 12784: 12780: 12772: 12768: 12760: 12756: 12748: 12744: 12736: 12732: 12724: 12720: 12712: 12708: 12700: 12696: 12688: 12684: 12676: 12672: 12664: 12660: 12652: 12648: 12640: 12636: 12628: 12624: 12616: 12612: 12604: 12600: 12592: 12588: 12580: 12576: 12568: 12564: 12556: 12552: 12544: 12540: 12532: 12528: 12520: 12516: 12508: 12504: 12496: 12492: 12484: 12480: 12472: 12468: 12460: 12456: 12448: 12444: 12436: 12432: 12424: 12420: 12412: 12408: 12400: 12396: 12388: 12384: 12376: 12372: 12364: 12360: 12352: 12348: 12340: 12336: 12328: 12324: 12316: 12312: 12304: 12300: 12292: 12288: 12280: 12271: 12263: 12259: 12251: 12247: 12239: 12235: 12227: 12223: 12215: 12211: 12203: 12199: 12191: 12187: 12179: 12175: 12167: 12163: 12155: 12151: 12143: 12139: 12131: 12127: 12119: 12115: 12107: 12103: 12095: 12091: 12083: 12076: 12068: 12064: 12056: 12052: 12044: 12040: 12032: 12028: 12020: 12016: 12008: 12004: 11996: 11992: 11984: 11980: 11972: 11968: 11960: 11956: 11948: 11944: 11936: 11932: 11924: 11920: 11912: 11905: 11901:, pp. 4–5. 11897: 11893: 11885: 11878: 11870: 11866: 11858: 11854: 11846: 11842: 11834: 11830: 11822: 11818: 11810: 11806: 11798: 11794: 11786: 11782: 11774: 11770: 11762: 11758: 11750: 11746: 11738: 11734: 11726: 11722: 11714: 11710: 11702: 11698: 11690: 11686: 11678: 11674: 11666: 11662: 11654: 11650: 11642: 11638: 11630: 11626: 11618: 11614: 11606: 11602: 11594: 11590: 11582: 11578: 11570: 11566: 11558: 11554: 11546: 11542: 11534: 11527: 11519: 11515: 11507: 11503: 11495: 11491: 11483: 11479: 11471: 11467: 11459: 11455: 11447: 11443: 11435: 11431: 11423: 11419: 11411: 11407: 11399: 11395: 11387: 11383: 11375: 11371: 11363: 11359: 11351: 11347: 11339: 11335: 11327: 11323: 11315: 11308: 11300: 11296: 11288: 11284: 11276: 11272: 11264: 11260: 11252: 11248: 11240: 11236: 11228: 11224: 11216: 11212: 11204: 11200: 11192: 11188: 11180: 11176: 11168: 11164: 11156: 11152: 11144: 11140: 11132: 11128: 11120: 11116: 11108: 11104: 11096: 11092: 11084: 11080: 11072: 11068: 11060: 11056: 11048: 11044: 11036: 11032: 11024: 11020: 11012: 11008: 11000: 10996: 10988: 10984: 10976: 10972: 10964: 10960: 10952: 10948: 10940: 10936: 10928: 10924: 10916: 10912: 10904: 10900: 10892: 10888: 10880: 10876: 10868: 10864: 10856: 10852: 10844: 10840: 10832: 10828: 10820: 10816: 10808: 10804: 10796: 10792: 10784: 10780: 10772: 10768: 10760: 10756: 10748: 10744: 10736: 10732: 10724: 10720: 10712: 10708: 10700: 10696: 10688: 10684: 10676: 10672: 10664: 10660: 10652: 10648: 10640: 10636: 10628: 10621: 10613: 10609: 10601: 10597: 10589: 10585: 10577: 10573: 10565: 10561: 10553: 10549: 10541: 10537: 10529: 10525: 10521:, pp. 7–8. 10517: 10513: 10505: 10501: 10493: 10489: 10481: 10477: 10469: 10465: 10457: 10453: 10445: 10441: 10433: 10429: 10421: 10417: 10409: 10405: 10397: 10393: 10385: 10381: 10373: 10369: 10361: 10357: 10349: 10345: 10337: 10333: 10325: 10321: 10313: 10309: 10301: 10297: 10289: 10285: 10277: 10273: 10265: 10261: 10253: 10249: 10241: 10232: 10224: 10220: 10212: 10208: 10200: 10196: 10188: 10184: 10176: 10172: 10164: 10160: 10152: 10148: 10140: 10136: 10128: 10124: 10116: 10112: 10104: 10100: 10092: 10088: 10080: 10076: 10068: 10064: 10056: 10052: 10044: 10040: 10032: 10028: 10020: 10016: 10008: 10004: 9996: 9992: 9984: 9980: 9972: 9968: 9960: 9956: 9948: 9944: 9936: 9932: 9924: 9920: 9916:, pp. 4–6. 9912: 9908: 9900: 9896: 9888: 9884: 9876: 9869: 9861: 9857: 9849: 9845: 9837: 9830: 9822: 9818: 9810: 9806: 9798: 9794: 9786: 9782: 9774: 9770: 9762: 9758: 9750: 9746: 9738: 9734: 9726: 9722: 9714: 9710: 9702: 9695: 9687: 9683: 9675: 9671: 9663: 9659: 9651: 9647: 9639: 9635: 9627: 9623: 9615: 9611: 9603: 9599: 9591: 9587: 9579: 9575: 9567: 9563: 9555: 9548: 9540: 9536: 9528: 9524: 9516: 9512: 9504: 9500: 9492: 9485: 9477: 9473: 9465: 9461: 9453: 9449: 9441: 9437: 9429: 9425: 9417: 9413: 9405: 9401: 9393: 9389: 9381: 9377: 9369: 9365: 9357: 9353: 9345: 9341: 9333: 9329: 9321: 9317: 9309: 9305: 9297: 9293: 9285: 9281: 9273: 9269: 9261: 9257: 9249: 9245: 9237: 9233: 9225: 9221: 9213: 9206: 9198: 9191: 9183: 9179: 9171: 9167: 9159: 9155: 9147: 9143: 9135: 9131: 9123: 9119: 9111: 9107: 9099: 9095: 9087: 9083: 9075: 9071: 9063: 9059: 9051: 9047: 9039: 9035: 9027: 9023: 9015: 9011: 9003: 8999: 8991: 8987: 8979: 8975: 8967: 8963: 8955: 8951: 8943: 8939: 8931: 8927: 8919: 8915: 8907: 8903: 8895: 8891: 8883: 8879: 8871: 8867: 8859: 8855: 8847: 8843: 8835: 8831: 8823: 8819: 8811: 8807: 8799: 8795: 8787: 8783: 8775: 8771: 8763: 8759: 8751: 8747: 8739: 8735: 8727: 8723: 8715: 8708: 8700: 8696: 8688: 8684: 8676: 8672: 8664: 8660: 8652: 8648: 8640: 8636: 8628: 8624: 8616: 8612: 8604: 8600: 8592: 8588: 8580: 8576: 8568: 8564: 8556: 8552: 8544: 8540: 8532: 8528: 8520: 8516: 8508: 8504: 8500:, pp. 3–4. 8496: 8492: 8484: 8480: 8472: 8468: 8460: 8456: 8448: 8444: 8436: 8432: 8424: 8420: 8412: 8408: 8400: 8396: 8388: 8384: 8376: 8372: 8364: 8360: 8352: 8348: 8340: 8336: 8328: 8324: 8316: 8312: 8304: 8300: 8292: 8288: 8280: 8276: 8268: 8264: 8256: 8252: 8244: 8240: 8232: 8228: 8220: 8216: 8208: 8204: 8196: 8192: 8184: 8180: 8172: 8168: 8160: 8156: 8148: 8144: 8136: 8129: 8121: 8117: 8109: 8105: 8097: 8093: 8085: 8081: 8073: 8069: 8061: 8057: 8049: 8045: 8037: 8033: 8025: 8021: 8013: 8009: 8001: 7997: 7989: 7985: 7977: 7973: 7965: 7961: 7953: 7949: 7941: 7937: 7929: 7925: 7917: 7913: 7905: 7901: 7893: 7886: 7878: 7874: 7866: 7862: 7854: 7850: 7842: 7838: 7830: 7826: 7818: 7814: 7806: 7802: 7794: 7790: 7782: 7778: 7770: 7766: 7758: 7754: 7746: 7742: 7734: 7730: 7722: 7715: 7707: 7700: 7696:, pp. 3–6. 7692: 7688: 7680: 7676: 7668: 7664: 7656: 7652: 7644: 7640: 7632: 7628: 7620: 7616: 7608: 7604: 7596: 7592: 7584: 7580: 7572: 7568: 7560: 7556: 7548: 7544: 7536: 7532: 7524: 7520: 7512: 7508: 7500: 7493: 7485: 7481: 7473: 7466: 7458: 7454: 7450:, p. viii. 7446: 7442: 7434: 7430: 7422: 7418: 7410: 7406: 7398: 7394: 7386: 7379: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7358: 7357: 7333: 7329: 7316: 7312: 7295: 7291: 7282: 7278: 7257: 7253: 7245:(r. 1457–1504) 7225: 7221: 7215:third civil war 7210: 7206: 7194: 7175:first civil war 7172: 7168: 7159: 7155: 7142: 7138: 7117: 7113: 7088: 7084: 7067: 7063: 7050: 7046: 7039: 7033: 7029: 7022: 7016: 7012: 7007: 7003: 6993:Milan Cathedral 6981:Sainte-Chapelle 6970: 6966: 6949: 6945: 6938: 6928: 6924: 6899: 6895: 6880: 6876: 6835: 6831: 6804: 6793: 6784: 6780: 6770: 6766: 6749: 6745: 6732: 6728: 6699: 6695: 6684: 6683: 6679: 6651: 6647: 6626: 6622: 6609: 6605: 6591: 6587: 6574: 6570: 6560: 6556: 6527: 6523: 6510: 6506: 6493:Utrecht Psalter 6489: 6485: 6468: 6464: 6459: 6455: 6448: 6435: 6431: 6414: 6410: 6389: 6385: 6376: 6372: 6359: 6355: 6329: 6325: 6304: 6300: 6293: 6289: 6284: 6280: 6261: 6259: 6255: 6242: 6238: 6233: 6229: 6212: 6208: 6203: 6138: 6102:spherical Earth 6094: 6080: 6044:Biblia pauperum 6025:(d. 1441) used 6011:by the painter 5935: 5927: 5918: 5907: 5852: 5839: 5817:Bartolomeu Dias 5792: 5755:song structures 5744: 5688: 5662: 5654:Main articles: 5652: 5627: 5614:Gregory Palamas 5604:Devotio Moderna 5594:Meister Eckhart 5589:died in exile. 5569:in England and 5512:papal elections 5508: 5499: 5492:Albanian lords' 5429: 5415: 5407:Main articles: 5405: 5368: 5352:, but only the 5350:Union of Kalmar 5321: 5275: 5153: 5125:Massive pogroms 5103:in France, the 5077: 5057: 5032: 5026: 5021: 5015: 4971: 4968:rotation system 4936: 4930:spinning wheels 4921: 4886: 4876: 4863: 4767:classical style 4702: 4597:autobiographies 4592: 4582:Arthurian cycle 4531:Comtessa de Dia 4501: 4465:into theology. 4438: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4378:their own state 4366:Knights Templar 4331:parts of Greece 4281:theaters of war 4268:(d. 1193), who 4262:crusader states 4199: 4185: 4177:Main articles: 4175: 4155:peaceful period 4119:Eurasian Steppe 4103: 4060:Vladimir-Suzdal 3955: 3942:(r. 1199–1216) 3924:Angevin dynasty 3917: 3877:Bayeux Tapestry 3850:prince-electors 3840: 3834: 3816: 3803: 3758: 3723: 3712: 3617:anticlericalism 3555:papal supremacy 3531:Papal elections 3512: 3382: 3361: 3354:peace movements 3330:parish churches 3290: 3221: 3202:Eurasian Steppe 3197: 3167: 3162: 3156: 3122:lamellar armour 3105: 3066: 3052:motifs such as 3013:Carolingian art 2954:and the Nordic 2882:of Justinian's 2854: 2844: 2824:Rurikid princes 2799: 2755:Constantine VII 2691: 2677:Kingdom of León 2646: 2634: 2620:Kingdom of Alba 2611: 2597:Danish invaders 2579: 2564: 2542: 2509: 2467:Louis the Child 2458:Charles the Fat 2423:Louis the Pious 2419: 2418: 2417: 2416: 2408: 2407: 2406: 2398: 2397: 2389: 2388: 2377: 2361:Main articles: 2359: 2338: 2327:Gregorian chant 2272:border province 2237:Pepin the Short 2210:mid-7th century 2209: 2185:Utrecht Psalter 2176: 2170: 2158:Cluniac Reforms 2130:their patronage 2125: 2098: 2040:Life of Anthony 2008:sexual morality 1987: 1956: 1899: 1893:in Al-Andalus. 1874: 1864: 1844: 1820: 1814: 1781:Battle of Tours 1715: 1707: 1705: 1697: 1695: 1687: 1676: 1670:Spread of Islam 1668:Main articles: 1666: 1654:quickly revived 1632:700 inhabitants 1631: 1605: 1557: 1546: 1527: 1516: 1510: 1508:Western society 1438: 1411: 1403:Main articles: 1401: 1344:conquered most 1273:reconquer Italy 1220: 1187: 1181: 1176: 1170: 1043:mass migrations 1038: 1027: 999: 969:Heretical views 956: 902: 891:Sasanian Empire 874: 850: 844: 838: 816:, and letters. 749: 744:in the city of 734: 724: 703: 695: 671:, kinship, and 621: 563: 553:introduced the 502: 498: 407:papal supremacy 371: 362:. Although the 359: 262:medieval period 237: 216: 193: 185: 141:Spread of Islam 124: 98: 86: 82: 56: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 19528: 19518: 19517: 19512: 19507: 19502: 19497: 19492: 19487: 19482: 19477: 19472: 19467: 19462: 19457: 19452: 19447: 19442: 19427: 19426: 19409: 19392: 19390:from Wikibooks 19375: 19358: 19356:from Wikiquote 19341: 19312: 19309: 19308: 19296: 19284: 19261: 19260: 19258: 19257: 19255:Westernization 19252: 19247: 19242: 19237: 19235:Visegrád Group 19232: 19227: 19222: 19217: 19212: 19207: 19202: 19197: 19192: 19187: 19182: 19177: 19175:Nordic Council 19172: 19167: 19162: 19157: 19152: 19147: 19142: 19137: 19132: 19127: 19122: 19117: 19112: 19107: 19102: 19097: 19092: 19087: 19082: 19077: 19072: 19070:Bucharest Nine 19067: 19062: 19057: 19052: 19047: 19042: 19037: 19035:Arctic Council 19032: 19027: 19022: 19017: 19012: 19006: 19004: 18998: 18997: 18995: 18994: 18989: 18984: 18983: 18982: 18977: 18972: 18967: 18962: 18957: 18947: 18942: 18941: 18940: 18930: 18924: 18922: 18916: 18915: 18913: 18912: 18907: 18902: 18901: 18900: 18895: 18890: 18885: 18880: 18879: 18878: 18873: 18868: 18863: 18853: 18848: 18843: 18833: 18832: 18831: 18830: 18829: 18819: 18818: 18817: 18812: 18811: 18810: 18800: 18799: 18798: 18788: 18787: 18786: 18761: 18759: 18753: 18752: 18750: 18749: 18748: 18747: 18737: 18732: 18727: 18726: 18725: 18713: 18712: 18711: 18701: 18696: 18691: 18686: 18681: 18676: 18671: 18670: 18669: 18664: 18654: 18653: 18652: 18645:Existentialism 18642: 18637: 18632: 18627: 18622: 18617: 18612: 18607: 18602: 18596: 18594: 18588: 18587: 18585: 18584: 18583: 18582: 18577: 18572: 18567: 18557: 18556: 18555: 18545: 18544: 18543: 18538: 18528: 18527: 18526: 18516: 18511: 18510: 18509: 18504: 18499: 18489: 18488: 18487: 18477: 18476: 18475: 18465: 18464: 18463: 18458: 18448: 18443: 18438: 18433: 18432: 18431: 18421: 18416: 18415: 18414: 18404: 18403: 18402: 18392: 18391: 18390: 18380: 18375: 18374: 18373: 18363: 18358: 18357: 18356: 18351: 18346: 18335: 18333: 18327: 18326: 18324: 18323: 18322: 18321: 18316: 18306: 18305: 18304: 18299: 18294: 18289: 18284: 18279: 18274: 18269: 18264: 18259: 18254: 18249: 18244: 18239: 18234: 18229: 18224: 18219: 18209: 18204: 18203: 18202: 18197: 18192: 18182: 18181: 18180: 18178:Late antiquity 18170: 18164: 18162: 18156: 18155: 18153: 18152: 18147: 18142: 18137: 18132: 18131: 18130: 18129: 18128: 18123: 18113: 18108: 18103: 18093: 18088: 18082: 18080: 18076: 18075: 18064: 18063: 18056: 18049: 18041: 18032: 18031: 18029: 18028: 18023: 18018: 18013: 18008: 18003: 17998: 17993: 17988: 17983: 17977: 17975: 17971: 17970: 17968: 17967: 17962: 17957: 17952: 17947: 17942: 17937: 17932: 17927: 17922: 17917: 17912: 17907: 17902: 17897: 17892: 17887: 17885:Russian Empire 17882: 17877: 17875:British Empire 17872: 17870:Dutch Republic 17867: 17865:Swedish Empire 17862: 17857: 17852: 17847: 17845:Spanish Empire 17842: 17837: 17835:Ottoman Empire 17832: 17827: 17822: 17817: 17812: 17807: 17806: 17805: 17795: 17790: 17784: 17782: 17776: 17775: 17773: 17772: 17767: 17762: 17757: 17752: 17750:Serbian Empire 17747: 17742: 17737: 17732: 17727: 17722: 17717: 17695: 17690: 17685: 17684: 17683: 17678: 17673: 17668: 17658: 17657: 17656: 17651: 17643: 17638: 17633: 17628: 17623: 17622: 17621: 17611: 17606: 17600: 17598: 17592: 17591: 17589: 17588: 17586:Late antiquity 17583: 17578: 17573: 17572: 17571: 17561: 17556: 17551: 17549:Roman Republic 17546: 17540: 17538: 17532: 17531: 17529: 17528: 17523: 17518: 17513: 17507: 17505: 17499: 17498: 17491: 17490: 17483: 17476: 17468: 17459: 17458: 17455: 17454: 17452: 17451: 17424: 17409:Rus' Khaganate 17405: 17390: 17379: 17353: 17338: 17337: 17336: 17331: 17323: 17317: 17315: 17309: 17308: 17306: 17305: 17300: 17274: 17269: 17264: 17259: 17248: 17243: 17221: 17199: 17189: 17184: 17179: 17174: 17169: 17164: 17159: 17141: 17135: 17133: 17124: 17118: 17117: 17114: 17113: 17111: 17110: 17091: 17086: 17081: 17076: 17065: 17054: 17049: 17044: 17039: 17034: 17029: 17023: 17021: 17015: 17014: 17012: 17011: 16993: 16988: 16983: 16965: 16960: 16942: 16937: 16932: 16914: 16909: 16903: 16901: 16892: 16882: 16881: 16874: 16873: 16866: 16859: 16851: 16842: 16841: 16839: 16838: 16828: 16818: 16807: 16804: 16803: 16801: 16800: 16795: 16790: 16785: 16780: 16778:Misconceptions 16775: 16770: 16765: 16760: 16755: 16750: 16745: 16739: 16737: 16733: 16732: 16730: 16729: 16724: 16719: 16714: 16709: 16704: 16699: 16694: 16689: 16684: 16679: 16674: 16669: 16664: 16659: 16654: 16649: 16644: 16639: 16634: 16629: 16624: 16619: 16614: 16609: 16604: 16598: 16596: 16592: 16591: 16589: 16588: 16586:Little Ice Age 16583: 16582: 16581: 16571: 16566: 16561: 16556: 16551: 16546: 16541: 16539:Western Schism 16536: 16531: 16526: 16521: 16516: 16511: 16506: 16501: 16495: 16493: 16487: 16486: 16484: 16483: 16478: 16473: 16468: 16463: 16458: 16453: 16448: 16443: 16438: 16433: 16428: 16423: 16418: 16413: 16408: 16403: 16398: 16393: 16387: 16385: 16379: 16378: 16376: 16375: 16370: 16365: 16360: 16355: 16350: 16345: 16340: 16335: 16330: 16325: 16320: 16315: 16310: 16305: 16304: 16303: 16293: 16288: 16286:Late antiquity 16283: 16278: 16273: 16267: 16265: 16259: 16258: 16251: 16250: 16243: 16236: 16228: 16221: 16220: 16214: 16204: 16199: 16193: 16187: 16185: 16184:External links 16182: 16180: 16179: 16173: 16154: 16148: 16126: 16120: 16098: 16092: 16065:, ed. (2000). 16059: 16053: 16031: 16025: 15998:, ed. (1995). 15992: 15986: 15949: 15943: 15906: 15900: 15881: 15875: 15848:, ed. (2000). 15846:Jones, Michael 15842: 15836: 15817: 15811: 15795:Gurevich, Aron 15791: 15785: 15758:, ed. (2005). 15756:Fouracre, Paul 15752: 15746: 15727: 15721: 15695: 15689: 15667: 15661: 15634:, ed. (1998). 15628: 15622: 15595:, ed. (1999). 15589: 15583: 15563: 15561: 15558: 15556: 15555: 15549: 15530: 15524: 15502:Wickham, Chris 15498: 15492: 15470: 15464: 15442:Holmes, George 15437: 15431: 15412: 15406: 15385: 15379: 15357:Stalley, Roger 15353: 15347: 15328: 15322: 15303: 15297: 15275: 15269: 15243: 15237: 15212: 15206: 15184: 15178: 15159: 15153: 15133: 15127: 15101: 15095: 15079:Nicolle, David 15075: 15069: 15046: 15040: 15021: 14988: 14982: 14960:Holmes, George 14952: 14906: 14900: 14881: 14875: 14856: 14850: 14824: 14818: 14798: 14792: 14771: 14765: 14745: 14739: 14719: 14713: 14691: 14685: 14659: 14653: 14631: 14625: 14606: 14600: 14578: 14572: 14559:Medieval Music 14550: 14510:Standen, Naomi 14505: 14499: 14480: 14474: 14452: 14446: 14433:Early Medieval 14424: 14418: 14400:Heather, Peter 14396: 14390: 14367: 14361: 14339:Hankins, James 14335: 14329: 14312: 14306: 14284: 14278: 14256: 14250: 14231: 14225: 14203: 14197: 14182: 14176: 14154: 14148: 14123: 14117: 14093: 14087: 14065: 14059: 14037: 14031: 14012: 14006: 13984: 13978: 13960:Dodwell, C. R. 13956: 13950: 13928:Holmes, George 13923: 13917: 13899:Davies, Norman 13895: 13889: 13864: 13858: 13836:Collins, Roger 13832: 13826: 13804: 13798: 13780:Chazan, Robert 13776: 13770: 13748:Holmes, George 13743: 13737: 13715: 13709: 13690: 13684: 13658: 13652: 13630: 13624: 13602: 13596: 13577: 13571: 13548: 13542: 13520: 13514: 13494: 13492: 13489: 13487: 13486: 13474: 13462: 13450: 13438: 13426: 13414: 13410:Griffiths 1996 13402: 13400:, p. 451. 13390: 13386:Griffiths 1996 13378: 13366: 13354: 13342: 13338:Lightbown 1978 13330: 13318: 13306: 13294: 13282: 13280:, p. 233. 13270: 13258: 13256:, p. 323. 13246: 13244:, p. 212. 13234: 13232:, p. 221. 13222: 13220:, p. 213. 13210: 13198: 13186: 13174: 13162: 13150: 13138: 13126: 13124:, p. 284. 13114: 13112:, p. 490. 13102: 13090: 13088:, p. 346. 13078: 13076:, p. 287. 13066: 13064:, p. 224. 13054: 13052:, p. 484. 13042: 13030: 13018: 13016:, p. 241. 13006: 12994: 12982: 12970: 12958: 12946: 12934: 12922: 12910: 12908:, p. 370. 12898: 12886: 12874: 12862: 12860:, p. 218. 12850: 12838: 12826: 12814: 12812:, p. 213. 12802: 12790: 12778: 12766: 12754: 12742: 12740:, p. 563. 12730: 12718: 12706: 12694: 12682: 12670: 12658: 12646: 12634: 12632:, p. 380. 12622: 12610: 12598: 12596:, p. 201. 12586: 12574: 12562: 12550: 12538: 12526: 12524:, p. 231. 12514: 12512:, p. 281. 12502: 12490: 12478: 12466: 12454: 12442: 12430: 12418: 12406: 12394: 12392:, p. 211. 12382: 12370: 12368:, p. 308. 12358: 12346: 12334: 12332:, p. 225. 12322: 12310: 12308:, p. 171. 12298: 12286: 12284:, p. 414. 12269: 12257: 12255:, p. 103. 12245: 12233: 12221: 12209: 12207:, p. 238. 12197: 12185: 12183:, p. 237. 12173: 12161: 12159:, p. 318. 12149: 12137: 12125: 12113: 12101: 12099:, p. 189. 12089: 12087:, p. 210. 12074: 12072:, p. 531. 12062: 12050: 12038: 12026: 12014: 12012:, p. 124. 12002: 12000:, p. 125. 11990: 11978: 11976:, p. 225. 11966: 11954: 11952:, p. 241. 11942: 11930: 11918: 11903: 11891: 11889:, p. 344. 11876: 11864: 11852: 11840: 11828: 11816: 11804: 11792: 11780: 11778:, p. 152. 11768: 11756: 11754:, p. 150. 11744: 11732: 11720: 11708: 11696: 11684: 11672: 11660: 11648: 11636: 11634:, p. 142. 11624: 11612: 11600: 11588: 11586:, p. 153. 11576: 11574:, p. 131. 11564: 11552: 11540: 11525: 11523:, p. 182. 11513: 11501: 11489: 11487:, p. 129. 11477: 11465: 11453: 11441: 11439:, p. 265. 11429: 11417: 11405: 11403:, p. 332. 11393: 11381: 11369: 11357: 11345: 11333: 11331:, p. 112. 11321: 11306: 11294: 11292:, p. 118. 11282: 11270: 11258: 11246: 11234: 11222: 11210: 11208:, p. 181. 11198: 11186: 11174: 11162: 11150: 11138: 11126: 11114: 11102: 11090: 11078: 11066: 11054: 11042: 11030: 11028:, p. 145. 11018: 11006: 10994: 10982: 10970: 10958: 10946: 10944:, p. 257. 10934: 10922: 10920:, p. 104. 10910: 10908:, p. 319. 10898: 10896:, p. 413. 10886: 10874: 10862: 10860:, p. 411. 10850: 10838: 10826: 10814: 10812:, p. 271. 10802: 10790: 10778: 10766: 10754: 10742: 10730: 10718: 10706: 10694: 10682: 10670: 10658: 10656:, p. 105. 10646: 10634: 10619: 10607: 10605:, p. 324. 10595: 10583: 10571: 10559: 10547: 10545:, p. 199. 10535: 10533:, p. 137. 10523: 10511: 10499: 10487: 10485:, p. 301. 10475: 10473:, p. 309. 10463: 10451: 10439: 10427: 10425:, p. 213. 10415: 10403: 10401:, p. 107. 10391: 10379: 10367: 10355: 10343: 10331: 10319: 10307: 10295: 10283: 10271: 10259: 10247: 10230: 10218: 10206: 10194: 10182: 10180:, p. 209. 10170: 10168:, p. 252. 10158: 10146: 10134: 10122: 10110: 10098: 10086: 10074: 10062: 10050: 10038: 10026: 10014: 10002: 9990: 9978: 9976:, p. 220. 9966: 9954: 9942: 9940:, p. 467. 9930: 9918: 9906: 9894: 9892:, p. 221. 9882: 9867: 9863:Ellenblum 2012 9855: 9843: 9828: 9816: 9804: 9792: 9780: 9768: 9756: 9744: 9740:Kitzinger 1969 9732: 9728:Henderson 1993 9720: 9708: 9693: 9689:Kitzinger 1969 9681: 9669: 9657: 9653:Kitzinger 1969 9645: 9633: 9629:Henderson 1993 9621: 9617:Henderson 1993 9609: 9597: 9593:Henderson 1993 9585: 9573: 9561: 9546: 9544:, p. 172. 9534: 9522: 9510: 9498: 9483: 9471: 9459: 9457:, p. 334. 9447: 9435: 9423: 9411: 9399: 9387: 9375: 9363: 9351: 9349:, p. 500. 9339: 9327: 9315: 9303: 9301:, p. 169. 9291: 9289:, p. 368. 9279: 9267: 9265:, p. 196. 9255: 9243: 9231: 9219: 9204: 9189: 9187:, p. 254. 9177: 9165: 9163:, p. 337. 9153: 9141: 9129: 9117: 9115:, p. 187. 9105: 9103:, p. 189. 9093: 9081: 9069: 9057: 9045: 9043:, p. 302. 9033: 9021: 9009: 8997: 8985: 8973: 8961: 8949: 8937: 8925: 8923:, p. 163. 8913: 8901: 8889: 8877: 8865: 8853: 8841: 8829: 8817: 8805: 8793: 8781: 8769: 8757: 8745: 8733: 8721: 8706: 8702:McCormick 2010 8694: 8690:McCormick 2010 8682: 8678:McCormick 2010 8670: 8666:McCormick 2010 8658: 8656:, p. 354. 8646: 8634: 8622: 8610: 8598: 8586: 8574: 8562: 8550: 8538: 8536:, p. 649. 8534:McCormick 2010 8526: 8514: 8502: 8490: 8478: 8466: 8454: 8450:McCormick 2010 8442: 8440:, p. 215. 8430: 8418: 8406: 8394: 8392:, p. 120. 8382: 8370: 8358: 8346: 8334: 8322: 8310: 8298: 8286: 8274: 8262: 8250: 8238: 8226: 8214: 8202: 8190: 8178: 8166: 8154: 8142: 8127: 8125:, p. 124. 8115: 8103: 8091: 8079: 8067: 8055: 8043: 8031: 8019: 8007: 7995: 7983: 7971: 7959: 7947: 7945:, p. 417. 7935: 7923: 7921:, p. 219. 7911: 7899: 7884: 7872: 7860: 7848: 7836: 7832:Kitzinger 1969 7824: 7812: 7800: 7788: 7776: 7764: 7752: 7740: 7728: 7726:, p. 111. 7713: 7698: 7686: 7674: 7662: 7650: 7648:, p. 204. 7638: 7626: 7614: 7602: 7590: 7578: 7566: 7554: 7542: 7540:, p. 226. 7530: 7528:, p. 304. 7518: 7506: 7491: 7479: 7464: 7452: 7440: 7438:, p. 566. 7428: 7426:, p. 955. 7416: 7404: 7402:, p. 238. 7392: 7377: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7356: 7355: 7327: 7310: 7289: 7276: 7251: 7219: 7197:underage son, 7183:Andronikos III 7166: 7153: 7136: 7111: 7082: 7061: 7044: 7027: 7010: 7001: 6995:in Italy, and 6964: 6943: 6922: 6893: 6874: 6844:Siete Partidas 6829: 6809:The Two Cities 6778: 6764: 6743: 6726: 6693: 6677: 6645: 6635:(d. 1596) and 6620: 6603: 6599:their election 6585: 6568: 6566:in the Levant. 6554: 6546:John de Courcy 6521: 6504: 6483: 6462: 6453: 6429: 6408: 6383: 6370: 6353: 6323: 6298: 6278: 6253: 6236: 6227: 6205: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6191:class conflict 6159:Richard Wagner 6151:Thomas Carlyle 6127:Earth was flat 6115:David Lindberg 6079: 6076: 6050:Paupers' Bible 6005:(d. 1466) and 5926: 5923: 5838: 5835: 5797:printing press 5791:—in the early 5767:(fixed forms)— 5724:Tuscan dialect 5714:The poetry of 5651: 5648: 5612:(d. 1346) and 5540:Western Schism 5532:Pope Clement V 5520:Avignon Papacy 5507: 5504: 5472:Constantine XI 5404: 5401: 5377:with Lithuania 5152: 5149: 5129:new Christians 5062:Little Ice Age 5028:Main article: 5025: 5022: 5017:Main article: 5014: 5011: 4984:draught horses 4951:sails and the 4875: 4872: 4856:panel painting 4836:Limoges enamel 4802:pointed arches 4720:Encastellation 4709:León Cathedral 4701: 4698: 4669:Roman numerals 4629:rhythmic modes 4496:Thomas Aquinas 4457:(d. 1142) and 4388:Main article: 4385: 4382: 4362:military order 4311:Fourth Crusade 4248:(d. 1100) and 4174: 4171: 3932:Angevin Empire 3875:Detail of the 3841:Frederick II's 3839:(r. 1220–50). 3827:Lombard cities 3812:German princes 3755:Papal Monarchy 3736:queens regnant 3711: 3708: 3621:Catholic dogma 3567:Roman Catholic 3511: 3510:Church reforms 3508: 3433:money changers 3381: 3378: 3334:regular clergy 3326:secular clergy 3295:legal capacity 3246:, inalienable 3166: 3163: 3158:Main article: 3155: 3152: 3065: 3062: 3058:Moorish arches 2942:Literary works 2843: 2840: 2734:and created a 2696:Volga Bulgaria 2541: 2538: 2522:Magyar assault 2410: 2409: 2400: 2399: 2391: 2390: 2382: 2381: 2380: 2379: 2378: 2367:Middle Francia 2358: 2355: 2323:church liturgy 2294:missi dominici 2222:Charles Martel 2172:Main article: 2169: 2166: 1898: 1895: 1883:slave soldiers 1838:(r. 533–47/48) 1813: 1810: 1779:forces at the 1760:, annihilated 1722:Zoroastrianism 1706: 1696: 1686: 1665: 1662: 1642:Medieval Latin 1532:original works 1509: 1506: 1400: 1397: 1393:eastern Europe 1338:northern Italy 1225:small kingdoms 1214:Celtic Britons 1183:Main article: 1180: 1177: 1172:Main article: 1169: 1166: 1024:silent reading 942:Constantinople 924:(known as the 914:western halves 906: 284–305 875:2nd century AD 840:Main article: 837: 834: 802:royal charters 723: 720: 716:Medieval India 712:global history 594:Leonardo Bruni 592:. The Italian 562: 559: 535:Western Schism 523:Ottoman Empire 389:introduced a " 328:disintegration 324:late antiquity 248: 247: 244: 243: 236: 235: 230: 225: 219: 217: 215: 214: 212:Late antiquity 209: 203: 187: 186: 184: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 138: 132: 130: 126: 125: 123: 122: 117: 112: 106: 104: 100: 99: 69: 61: 60: 50: 49: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 19527: 19516: 19513: 19511: 19508: 19506: 19503: 19501: 19498: 19496: 19493: 19491: 19488: 19486: 19483: 19481: 19478: 19476: 19473: 19471: 19468: 19466: 19463: 19461: 19458: 19456: 19453: 19451: 19448: 19446: 19443: 19441: 19438: 19437: 19435: 19423: 19422: 19421:Travel guides 19410: 19406: 19405: 19393: 19389: 19388: 19376: 19372: 19371: 19359: 19355: 19354: 19342: 19338: 19337: 19325: 19324: 19321: 19315: 19307: 19297: 19295: 19285: 19283: 19278: 19273: 19272: 19269: 19256: 19253: 19251: 19248: 19246: 19243: 19241: 19238: 19236: 19233: 19231: 19228: 19226: 19223: 19221: 19218: 19216: 19213: 19211: 19208: 19206: 19203: 19201: 19200:PROSUR/PROSUL 19198: 19196: 19193: 19191: 19188: 19186: 19183: 19181: 19178: 19176: 19173: 19171: 19168: 19166: 19163: 19161: 19158: 19156: 19153: 19151: 19148: 19146: 19143: 19141: 19138: 19136: 19133: 19131: 19128: 19126: 19123: 19121: 19118: 19116: 19113: 19111: 19108: 19106: 19103: 19101: 19098: 19096: 19095:Craiova Group 19093: 19091: 19088: 19086: 19083: 19081: 19078: 19076: 19073: 19071: 19068: 19066: 19063: 19061: 19058: 19056: 19053: 19051: 19048: 19046: 19043: 19041: 19038: 19036: 19033: 19031: 19028: 19026: 19023: 19021: 19018: 19016: 19013: 19011: 19010:ABCANZ Armies 19008: 19007: 19005: 18999: 18993: 18990: 18988: 18985: 18981: 18978: 18976: 18973: 18971: 18968: 18966: 18963: 18961: 18958: 18956: 18953: 18952: 18951: 18948: 18946: 18943: 18939: 18936: 18935: 18934: 18931: 18929: 18926: 18925: 18923: 18921: 18917: 18911: 18908: 18906: 18903: 18899: 18896: 18894: 18891: 18889: 18886: 18884: 18881: 18877: 18874: 18872: 18869: 18867: 18864: 18862: 18859: 18858: 18857: 18854: 18852: 18849: 18847: 18844: 18842: 18839: 18838: 18837: 18834: 18828: 18825: 18824: 18823: 18820: 18816: 18815:Protestantism 18813: 18809: 18806: 18805: 18804: 18801: 18797: 18794: 18793: 18792: 18789: 18785: 18781: 18778: 18777: 18776: 18773: 18772: 18771: 18768: 18767: 18766: 18763: 18762: 18760: 18758: 18754: 18746: 18743: 18742: 18741: 18738: 18736: 18735:Sovereigntism 18733: 18731: 18728: 18724: 18723: 18719: 18718: 18717: 18714: 18710: 18707: 18706: 18705: 18702: 18700: 18697: 18695: 18692: 18690: 18687: 18685: 18682: 18680: 18677: 18675: 18672: 18668: 18665: 18663: 18660: 18659: 18658: 18655: 18651: 18648: 18647: 18646: 18643: 18641: 18638: 18636: 18633: 18631: 18630:Scholasticism 18628: 18626: 18623: 18621: 18618: 18616: 18613: 18611: 18608: 18606: 18603: 18601: 18598: 18597: 18595: 18593: 18589: 18581: 18578: 18576: 18573: 18571: 18568: 18566: 18563: 18562: 18561: 18558: 18554: 18551: 18550: 18549: 18546: 18542: 18539: 18537: 18534: 18533: 18532: 18529: 18525: 18522: 18521: 18520: 18517: 18515: 18512: 18508: 18505: 18503: 18500: 18498: 18495: 18494: 18493: 18490: 18486: 18483: 18482: 18481: 18478: 18474: 18471: 18470: 18469: 18466: 18462: 18459: 18457: 18454: 18453: 18452: 18449: 18447: 18444: 18442: 18439: 18437: 18434: 18430: 18427: 18426: 18425: 18422: 18420: 18417: 18413: 18410: 18409: 18408: 18405: 18401: 18398: 18397: 18396: 18393: 18389: 18386: 18385: 18384: 18381: 18379: 18376: 18372: 18369: 18368: 18367: 18364: 18362: 18359: 18355: 18352: 18350: 18347: 18345: 18342: 18341: 18340: 18337: 18336: 18334: 18332: 18328: 18320: 18319:War on terror 18317: 18315: 18312: 18311: 18310: 18307: 18303: 18300: 18298: 18295: 18293: 18290: 18288: 18285: 18283: 18280: 18278: 18275: 18273: 18270: 18268: 18265: 18263: 18260: 18258: 18255: 18253: 18250: 18248: 18245: 18243: 18240: 18238: 18235: 18233: 18230: 18228: 18225: 18223: 18220: 18218: 18215: 18214: 18213: 18212:Modern period 18210: 18208: 18205: 18201: 18198: 18196: 18193: 18191: 18188: 18187: 18186: 18183: 18179: 18176: 18175: 18174: 18171: 18169: 18166: 18165: 18163: 18161: 18157: 18151: 18148: 18146: 18143: 18141: 18138: 18136: 18133: 18127: 18124: 18122: 18119: 18118: 18117: 18114: 18112: 18109: 18107: 18104: 18102: 18099: 18098: 18097: 18094: 18092: 18089: 18087: 18084: 18083: 18081: 18077: 18073: 18069: 18068:Western world 18062: 18057: 18055: 18050: 18048: 18043: 18042: 18039: 18027: 18024: 18022: 18019: 18017: 18014: 18012: 18009: 18007: 18004: 18002: 17999: 17997: 17994: 17992: 17989: 17987: 17984: 17982: 17981:Art of Europe 17979: 17978: 17976: 17972: 17966: 17963: 17961: 17958: 17956: 17953: 17951: 17948: 17946: 17943: 17941: 17938: 17936: 17933: 17931: 17928: 17926: 17923: 17921: 17918: 17916: 17913: 17911: 17908: 17906: 17903: 17901: 17898: 17896: 17893: 17891: 17888: 17886: 17883: 17881: 17878: 17876: 17873: 17871: 17868: 17866: 17863: 17861: 17858: 17856: 17853: 17851: 17848: 17846: 17843: 17841: 17838: 17836: 17833: 17831: 17828: 17826: 17823: 17821: 17818: 17816: 17813: 17811: 17808: 17804: 17801: 17800: 17799: 17796: 17794: 17791: 17789: 17786: 17785: 17783: 17781: 17780:Modern period 17777: 17771: 17768: 17766: 17763: 17761: 17758: 17756: 17753: 17751: 17748: 17746: 17743: 17741: 17738: 17736: 17733: 17731: 17728: 17726: 17723: 17721: 17718: 17715: 17711: 17707: 17703: 17699: 17696: 17694: 17691: 17689: 17686: 17682: 17679: 17677: 17674: 17672: 17669: 17667: 17664: 17663: 17662: 17659: 17655: 17652: 17650: 17647: 17646: 17644: 17642: 17639: 17637: 17634: 17632: 17629: 17627: 17624: 17620: 17617: 17616: 17615: 17612: 17610: 17607: 17605: 17602: 17601: 17599: 17597: 17593: 17587: 17584: 17582: 17579: 17577: 17574: 17570: 17567: 17566: 17565: 17562: 17560: 17557: 17555: 17552: 17550: 17547: 17545: 17542: 17541: 17539: 17537: 17533: 17527: 17524: 17522: 17519: 17517: 17514: 17512: 17509: 17508: 17506: 17504: 17500: 17496: 17489: 17484: 17482: 17477: 17475: 17470: 17469: 17466: 17449: 17445: 17441: 17437: 17433: 17429: 17425: 17422: 17418: 17414: 17410: 17406: 17403: 17399: 17395: 17391: 17388: 17384: 17380: 17377: 17373: 17369: 17365: 17361: 17357: 17354: 17351: 17347: 17343: 17339: 17335: 17332: 17330: 17327: 17326: 17324: 17322: 17319: 17318: 17316: 17314:and Near East 17310: 17304: 17301: 17298: 17294: 17290: 17286: 17282: 17278: 17275: 17273: 17270: 17268: 17265: 17263: 17260: 17257: 17253: 17249: 17247: 17244: 17241: 17237: 17233: 17229: 17225: 17222: 17219: 17215: 17211: 17207: 17203: 17200: 17197: 17193: 17190: 17188: 17185: 17183: 17180: 17178: 17175: 17173: 17170: 17168: 17165: 17163: 17160: 17157: 17153: 17149: 17145: 17142: 17140: 17137: 17136: 17134: 17128: 17125: 17119: 17108: 17104: 17100: 17096: 17092: 17090: 17087: 17085: 17082: 17080: 17077: 17074: 17070: 17066: 17063: 17059: 17055: 17053: 17050: 17048: 17045: 17043: 17040: 17038: 17035: 17033: 17030: 17028: 17025: 17024: 17022: 17020:and Near East 17016: 17009: 17005: 17001: 16997: 16994: 16992: 16989: 16987: 16984: 16981: 16977: 16973: 16969: 16966: 16964: 16961: 16958: 16954: 16950: 16946: 16943: 16941: 16938: 16936: 16933: 16930: 16926: 16922: 16918: 16915: 16913: 16910: 16908: 16905: 16904: 16902: 16896: 16893: 16883: 16879: 16872: 16867: 16865: 16860: 16858: 16853: 16852: 16849: 16837: 16829: 16827: 16819: 16817: 16813: 16809: 16808: 16805: 16799: 16796: 16794: 16791: 16789: 16786: 16784: 16781: 16779: 16776: 16774: 16771: 16769: 16766: 16764: 16761: 16759: 16756: 16754: 16751: 16749: 16746: 16744: 16741: 16740: 16738: 16734: 16728: 16725: 16723: 16720: 16718: 16715: 16713: 16710: 16708: 16705: 16703: 16700: 16698: 16695: 16693: 16690: 16688: 16685: 16683: 16680: 16678: 16675: 16673: 16670: 16668: 16665: 16663: 16660: 16658: 16655: 16653: 16650: 16648: 16645: 16643: 16640: 16638: 16635: 16633: 16630: 16628: 16625: 16623: 16620: 16618: 16615: 16613: 16610: 16608: 16605: 16603: 16600: 16599: 16597: 16593: 16587: 16584: 16580: 16577: 16576: 16575: 16572: 16570: 16567: 16565: 16562: 16560: 16557: 16555: 16552: 16550: 16547: 16545: 16542: 16540: 16537: 16535: 16532: 16530: 16527: 16525: 16522: 16520: 16517: 16515: 16512: 16510: 16507: 16505: 16502: 16500: 16497: 16496: 16494: 16492: 16488: 16482: 16479: 16477: 16474: 16472: 16469: 16467: 16464: 16462: 16459: 16457: 16454: 16452: 16449: 16447: 16446:Scholasticism 16444: 16442: 16439: 16437: 16434: 16432: 16429: 16427: 16424: 16422: 16419: 16417: 16414: 16412: 16409: 16407: 16404: 16402: 16399: 16397: 16394: 16392: 16389: 16388: 16386: 16384: 16380: 16374: 16371: 16369: 16366: 16364: 16361: 16359: 16356: 16354: 16351: 16349: 16346: 16344: 16341: 16339: 16336: 16334: 16331: 16329: 16326: 16324: 16321: 16319: 16316: 16314: 16311: 16309: 16308:Rise of Islam 16306: 16302: 16299: 16298: 16297: 16294: 16292: 16289: 16287: 16284: 16282: 16279: 16277: 16274: 16272: 16269: 16268: 16266: 16264: 16260: 16256: 16249: 16244: 16242: 16237: 16235: 16230: 16229: 16226: 16218: 16217:The Labyrinth 16215: 16212: 16208: 16205: 16203: 16200: 16197: 16194: 16192: 16189: 16188: 16176: 16170: 16166: 16162: 16161: 16155: 16151: 16145: 16141: 16137: 16136: 16131: 16127: 16123: 16117: 16113: 16109: 16108: 16103: 16099: 16095: 16089: 16085: 16081: 16077: 16076: 16072: 16068: 16064: 16060: 16056: 16050: 16046: 16042: 16041: 16036: 16032: 16028: 16022: 16018: 16014: 16010: 16009: 16005: 16001: 15997: 15993: 15989: 15983: 15979: 15975: 15971: 15970: 15966: 15962: 15958: 15954: 15950: 15946: 15940: 15936: 15932: 15928: 15927: 15923: 15919: 15915: 15911: 15907: 15903: 15897: 15893: 15892:Da Capo Press 15889: 15888: 15882: 15878: 15872: 15868: 15864: 15860: 15859: 15855: 15851: 15847: 15843: 15839: 15833: 15829: 15825: 15824: 15818: 15814: 15808: 15804: 15800: 15796: 15792: 15788: 15782: 15778: 15774: 15770: 15769: 15765: 15761: 15757: 15753: 15749: 15743: 15739: 15735: 15734: 15728: 15724: 15718: 15714: 15710: 15709: 15704: 15700: 15696: 15692: 15686: 15682: 15681:HarperCollins 15678: 15677: 15672: 15668: 15664: 15658: 15654: 15650: 15646: 15645: 15641: 15637: 15633: 15629: 15625: 15619: 15615: 15611: 15607: 15606: 15602: 15598: 15594: 15590: 15586: 15580: 15576: 15572: 15571: 15565: 15564: 15552: 15546: 15542: 15538: 15537: 15531: 15527: 15521: 15517: 15516:Penguin Books 15513: 15509: 15508: 15503: 15499: 15495: 15489: 15485: 15481: 15480: 15475: 15471: 15467: 15461: 15457: 15453: 15449: 15448: 15443: 15438: 15434: 15428: 15424: 15420: 15419: 15413: 15409: 15403: 15399: 15395: 15391: 15386: 15382: 15376: 15372: 15368: 15364: 15363: 15358: 15354: 15350: 15344: 15340: 15336: 15335: 15329: 15325: 15319: 15315: 15311: 15310: 15304: 15300: 15294: 15290: 15286: 15285: 15280: 15276: 15272: 15266: 15262: 15258: 15254: 15253: 15248: 15244: 15240: 15234: 15230: 15226: 15222: 15218: 15213: 15209: 15203: 15199: 15195: 15194: 15189: 15185: 15181: 15175: 15171: 15167: 15166: 15160: 15156: 15150: 15146: 15142: 15138: 15134: 15130: 15124: 15120: 15116: 15115: 15110: 15106: 15105:Onions, C. T. 15102: 15098: 15092: 15088: 15084: 15080: 15076: 15072: 15066: 15062: 15058: 15054: 15053: 15047: 15043: 15037: 15033: 15029: 15028: 15022: 15018: 15014: 15010: 15006: 15002: 14998: 14994: 14989: 14985: 14979: 14975: 14971: 14967: 14966: 14961: 14957: 14953: 14949: 14945: 14941: 14937: 14933: 14929: 14925: 14921: 14917: 14916: 14911: 14907: 14903: 14897: 14893: 14889: 14888: 14882: 14878: 14872: 14868: 14864: 14863: 14857: 14853: 14847: 14843: 14839: 14838: 14833: 14829: 14825: 14821: 14815: 14811: 14807: 14803: 14799: 14795: 14789: 14785: 14781: 14777: 14772: 14768: 14762: 14758: 14757:Penguin Books 14754: 14750: 14746: 14742: 14736: 14732: 14728: 14724: 14720: 14716: 14710: 14706: 14705:Penguin Books 14702: 14701: 14696: 14695:Keen, Maurice 14692: 14688: 14682: 14678: 14677:Penguin Books 14674: 14670: 14669: 14664: 14660: 14656: 14650: 14646: 14642: 14641: 14636: 14635:James, Edward 14632: 14628: 14622: 14618: 14614: 14613: 14607: 14603: 14597: 14593: 14589: 14588: 14583: 14582:Hornby, A. S. 14579: 14575: 14569: 14565: 14561: 14560: 14555: 14551: 14547: 14543: 14538: 14533: 14529: 14525: 14521: 14520: 14515: 14511: 14506: 14502: 14496: 14492: 14488: 14487: 14481: 14477: 14471: 14467: 14463: 14462: 14457: 14453: 14449: 14443: 14439: 14435: 14434: 14429: 14425: 14421: 14415: 14411: 14407: 14406: 14401: 14397: 14393: 14387: 14383: 14379: 14375: 14374: 14368: 14364: 14358: 14354: 14350: 14346: 14345: 14340: 14336: 14332: 14326: 14322: 14318: 14313: 14309: 14303: 14299: 14295: 14294: 14289: 14285: 14281: 14275: 14271: 14267: 14266: 14261: 14257: 14253: 14247: 14243: 14239: 14238: 14232: 14228: 14222: 14218: 14214: 14213: 14208: 14207:Grant, Edward 14204: 14200: 14194: 14190: 14189: 14183: 14179: 14173: 14169: 14165: 14164: 14159: 14155: 14151: 14145: 14141: 14137: 14133: 14129: 14124: 14120: 14114: 14110: 14106: 14102: 14098: 14094: 14090: 14084: 14080: 14076: 14075: 14070: 14066: 14062: 14056: 14052: 14048: 14047: 14042: 14038: 14034: 14028: 14024: 14020: 14019: 14013: 14009: 14003: 13999: 13995: 13994: 13989: 13985: 13981: 13975: 13971: 13967: 13966: 13961: 13957: 13953: 13947: 13943: 13939: 13935: 13934: 13929: 13924: 13920: 13914: 13910: 13906: 13905: 13900: 13896: 13892: 13886: 13882: 13878: 13877: 13874: 13869: 13868:Curta, Florin 13865: 13861: 13855: 13851: 13847: 13843: 13842: 13837: 13833: 13829: 13823: 13819: 13815: 13814: 13809: 13805: 13801: 13795: 13791: 13787: 13786: 13781: 13777: 13773: 13767: 13763: 13759: 13755: 13754: 13749: 13744: 13740: 13734: 13730: 13726: 13725: 13720: 13716: 13712: 13706: 13702: 13698: 13697: 13691: 13687: 13681: 13677: 13673: 13669: 13668: 13663: 13659: 13655: 13649: 13645: 13644:Penguin Books 13641: 13640: 13635: 13631: 13627: 13621: 13617: 13613: 13612: 13607: 13603: 13599: 13593: 13589: 13585: 13584: 13578: 13574: 13568: 13564: 13560: 13556: 13555: 13549: 13545: 13539: 13535: 13531: 13530: 13525: 13521: 13517: 13511: 13507: 13503: 13502: 13496: 13495: 13483: 13478: 13471: 13466: 13459: 13454: 13447: 13442: 13435: 13430: 13423: 13422:Lindberg 2003 13418: 13412:, p. 18. 13411: 13406: 13399: 13394: 13387: 13382: 13375: 13370: 13363: 13358: 13351: 13346: 13340:, p. 78. 13339: 13334: 13327: 13322: 13315: 13310: 13303: 13298: 13291: 13286: 13279: 13274: 13267: 13262: 13255: 13250: 13243: 13238: 13231: 13226: 13219: 13214: 13207: 13202: 13195: 13190: 13184:, p. 38. 13183: 13178: 13172:, p. 36. 13171: 13166: 13159: 13154: 13147: 13142: 13135: 13130: 13123: 13118: 13111: 13106: 13099: 13094: 13087: 13082: 13075: 13070: 13063: 13058: 13051: 13046: 13039: 13034: 13027: 13022: 13015: 13010: 13003: 12998: 12991: 12986: 12979: 12974: 12967: 12962: 12955: 12950: 12943: 12938: 12931: 12926: 12919: 12918:Hamilton 2003 12914: 12907: 12902: 12895: 12890: 12883: 12882:Hamilton 2003 12878: 12871: 12866: 12859: 12854: 12847: 12846:Hamilton 2003 12842: 12835: 12830: 12823: 12818: 12811: 12806: 12799: 12794: 12787: 12782: 12775: 12770: 12763: 12758: 12751: 12746: 12739: 12734: 12727: 12722: 12715: 12710: 12703: 12698: 12691: 12686: 12679: 12674: 12667: 12662: 12655: 12650: 12643: 12638: 12631: 12626: 12619: 12614: 12607: 12602: 12595: 12590: 12583: 12578: 12571: 12566: 12559: 12554: 12547: 12542: 12535: 12530: 12523: 12518: 12511: 12506: 12499: 12494: 12487: 12482: 12475: 12470: 12463: 12458: 12451: 12446: 12439: 12434: 12427: 12422: 12415: 12410: 12403: 12398: 12391: 12386: 12379: 12374: 12367: 12362: 12355: 12350: 12343: 12338: 12331: 12326: 12319: 12314: 12307: 12302: 12296:, p. 98. 12295: 12290: 12283: 12278: 12276: 12274: 12266: 12261: 12254: 12249: 12242: 12237: 12230: 12225: 12218: 12213: 12206: 12201: 12194: 12189: 12182: 12177: 12170: 12165: 12158: 12153: 12146: 12145:Bartlett 1994 12141: 12134: 12133:Bartlett 1994 12129: 12122: 12117: 12110: 12105: 12098: 12093: 12086: 12081: 12079: 12071: 12066: 12059: 12058:Hoffmann 2014 12054: 12047: 12042: 12035: 12030: 12023: 12018: 12011: 12006: 11999: 11994: 11988:, p. 76. 11987: 11982: 11975: 11970: 11964:, p. 45. 11963: 11958: 11951: 11946: 11939: 11934: 11928:, p. 64. 11927: 11922: 11915: 11910: 11908: 11900: 11895: 11888: 11883: 11881: 11873: 11868: 11861: 11856: 11849: 11844: 11837: 11832: 11825: 11820: 11813: 11808: 11801: 11796: 11789: 11784: 11777: 11772: 11765: 11760: 11753: 11748: 11741: 11736: 11729: 11724: 11717: 11712: 11705: 11700: 11693: 11688: 11681: 11676: 11669: 11664: 11657: 11652: 11645: 11640: 11633: 11628: 11622:, p. 13. 11621: 11616: 11609: 11604: 11597: 11592: 11585: 11580: 11573: 11568: 11561: 11556: 11549: 11544: 11537: 11532: 11530: 11522: 11517: 11510: 11505: 11498: 11493: 11486: 11481: 11474: 11469: 11462: 11457: 11450: 11445: 11438: 11433: 11426: 11421: 11414: 11409: 11402: 11397: 11390: 11385: 11378: 11377:Hamilton 2003 11373: 11366: 11361: 11354: 11349: 11342: 11337: 11330: 11325: 11318: 11313: 11311: 11303: 11298: 11291: 11286: 11279: 11274: 11267: 11262: 11255: 11250: 11243: 11238: 11231: 11226: 11219: 11214: 11207: 11202: 11195: 11190: 11183: 11178: 11171: 11166: 11159: 11154: 11147: 11142: 11135: 11130: 11123: 11118: 11111: 11106: 11099: 11094: 11087: 11082: 11075: 11070: 11063: 11058: 11051: 11046: 11039: 11034: 11027: 11022: 11015: 11010: 11003: 10998: 10991: 10986: 10979: 10974: 10968:, p. 85. 10967: 10962: 10955: 10950: 10943: 10938: 10931: 10926: 10919: 10914: 10907: 10902: 10895: 10890: 10883: 10878: 10871: 10866: 10859: 10854: 10847: 10842: 10835: 10830: 10823: 10818: 10811: 10806: 10799: 10794: 10787: 10786:Hamilton 2003 10782: 10775: 10770: 10763: 10758: 10751: 10746: 10739: 10734: 10727: 10722: 10716:, p. 75. 10715: 10710: 10704:, p. 64. 10703: 10698: 10691: 10686: 10679: 10674: 10667: 10662: 10655: 10650: 10643: 10638: 10631: 10626: 10624: 10617:, p. 32. 10616: 10615:Hamilton 2003 10611: 10604: 10599: 10592: 10591:Hamilton 2003 10587: 10580: 10579:Hamilton 2003 10575: 10568: 10563: 10556: 10551: 10544: 10539: 10532: 10527: 10520: 10519:Hamilton 2003 10515: 10508: 10503: 10496: 10491: 10484: 10479: 10472: 10467: 10460: 10459:Hamilton 2003 10455: 10448: 10443: 10436: 10431: 10424: 10419: 10412: 10407: 10400: 10395: 10388: 10383: 10376: 10371: 10365:, p. 61. 10364: 10359: 10352: 10347: 10340: 10335: 10328: 10323: 10316: 10311: 10304: 10299: 10292: 10287: 10280: 10275: 10269:, p. 99. 10268: 10263: 10256: 10251: 10245:, p. 58. 10244: 10239: 10237: 10235: 10228:, p. 15. 10227: 10222: 10215: 10210: 10203: 10198: 10191: 10186: 10179: 10174: 10167: 10162: 10155: 10150: 10144:, p. 87. 10143: 10138: 10132:, p. 11. 10131: 10126: 10119: 10118:Bartlett 1994 10114: 10107: 10106:Bartlett 1994 10102: 10096:, p. 40. 10095: 10090: 10083: 10078: 10071: 10066: 10059: 10054: 10047: 10042: 10035: 10034:Bartlett 1994 10030: 10023: 10018: 10011: 10006: 9999: 9994: 9987: 9982: 9975: 9970: 9963: 9958: 9952:, p. 73. 9951: 9946: 9939: 9934: 9927: 9922: 9915: 9910: 9903: 9898: 9891: 9886: 9879: 9874: 9872: 9864: 9859: 9852: 9847: 9841:, p. 80. 9840: 9835: 9833: 9825: 9820: 9813: 9808: 9801: 9796: 9790:, p. 41. 9789: 9784: 9778:, p. 52. 9777: 9772: 9765: 9760: 9753: 9748: 9741: 9736: 9729: 9724: 9717: 9712: 9705: 9700: 9698: 9690: 9685: 9678: 9673: 9666: 9661: 9654: 9649: 9642: 9637: 9630: 9625: 9618: 9613: 9606: 9601: 9594: 9589: 9582: 9577: 9570: 9565: 9558: 9553: 9551: 9543: 9538: 9531: 9526: 9519: 9514: 9507: 9502: 9495: 9490: 9488: 9480: 9475: 9468: 9463: 9456: 9451: 9444: 9439: 9432: 9427: 9420: 9415: 9408: 9403: 9396: 9391: 9384: 9379: 9372: 9367: 9360: 9355: 9348: 9343: 9336: 9331: 9324: 9319: 9312: 9307: 9300: 9295: 9288: 9283: 9276: 9271: 9264: 9259: 9252: 9247: 9240: 9235: 9228: 9223: 9216: 9211: 9209: 9201: 9196: 9194: 9186: 9181: 9174: 9169: 9162: 9157: 9150: 9145: 9138: 9133: 9126: 9121: 9114: 9109: 9102: 9097: 9090: 9085: 9079:, p. 51. 9078: 9073: 9066: 9061: 9054: 9049: 9042: 9037: 9030: 9025: 9018: 9013: 9006: 9001: 8994: 8989: 8982: 8977: 8970: 8965: 8958: 8953: 8947:, p. 87. 8946: 8941: 8934: 8929: 8922: 8917: 8910: 8905: 8898: 8893: 8886: 8881: 8874: 8873:Hamilton 2003 8869: 8862: 8857: 8850: 8845: 8838: 8833: 8826: 8821: 8814: 8809: 8802: 8797: 8790: 8785: 8778: 8773: 8766: 8761: 8755:, p. 35. 8754: 8753:Hamilton 2003 8749: 8742: 8737: 8730: 8725: 8719:, p. 41. 8718: 8713: 8711: 8703: 8698: 8691: 8686: 8679: 8674: 8667: 8662: 8655: 8650: 8643: 8642:Naismith 2023 8638: 8631: 8626: 8619: 8614: 8607: 8606:Ringrose 2016 8602: 8595: 8590: 8584:, p. 15. 8583: 8578: 8571: 8566: 8559: 8554: 8547: 8542: 8535: 8530: 8524:, p. 92. 8523: 8518: 8511: 8506: 8499: 8494: 8487: 8482: 8476:, p. 26. 8475: 8470: 8463: 8458: 8451: 8446: 8439: 8434: 8427: 8422: 8415: 8410: 8403: 8398: 8391: 8386: 8379: 8374: 8367: 8362: 8355: 8350: 8343: 8338: 8331: 8326: 8319: 8314: 8307: 8302: 8295: 8290: 8283: 8278: 8271: 8266: 8259: 8254: 8247: 8246:Ringrose 2016 8242: 8235: 8230: 8224:, p. 83. 8223: 8218: 8211: 8206: 8199: 8194: 8187: 8182: 8175: 8170: 8163: 8158: 8152:, p. 77. 8151: 8146: 8140:, p. 78. 8139: 8134: 8132: 8124: 8119: 8112: 8107: 8100: 8095: 8088: 8083: 8076: 8071: 8064: 8059: 8052: 8047: 8040: 8035: 8028: 8023: 8016: 8011: 8005:, p. 86. 8004: 7999: 7992: 7987: 7981:, p. 79. 7980: 7975: 7968: 7963: 7957:, p. 80. 7956: 7951: 7944: 7939: 7932: 7927: 7920: 7915: 7908: 7903: 7896: 7891: 7889: 7881: 7876: 7869: 7864: 7857: 7852: 7845: 7840: 7833: 7828: 7821: 7816: 7810:, p. 35. 7809: 7804: 7797: 7792: 7785: 7780: 7773: 7768: 7762:, p. 34. 7761: 7756: 7749: 7744: 7737: 7732: 7725: 7720: 7718: 7710: 7705: 7703: 7695: 7690: 7683: 7678: 7671: 7666: 7659: 7658:Naismith 2023 7654: 7647: 7642: 7635: 7630: 7623: 7618: 7611: 7606: 7599: 7594: 7587: 7582: 7575: 7570: 7563: 7558: 7551: 7546: 7539: 7534: 7527: 7522: 7515: 7510: 7503: 7498: 7496: 7488: 7483: 7476: 7471: 7469: 7461: 7456: 7449: 7444: 7437: 7432: 7425: 7420: 7413: 7408: 7401: 7396: 7389: 7384: 7382: 7374: 7369: 7365: 7352: 7351: 7350:Duke of Berry 7344: 7343: 7337: 7331: 7324: 7320: 7314: 7306: 7300: 7293: 7286: 7280: 7273: 7272:Vladislaus II 7269: 7265: 7261: 7255: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7223: 7216: 7204: 7200: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7180: 7179:Andronikos II 7176: 7170: 7163: 7157: 7150: 7146: 7140: 7133: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7115: 7108: 7104: 7100: 7099:Jagiellonians 7096: 7092: 7086: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7065: 7058: 7054: 7048: 7037: 7031: 7020: 7014: 7005: 6998: 6994: 6991:in Germany, 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6968: 6961: 6957: 6953: 6947: 6936: 6932: 6926: 6918: 6917: 6911: 6907: 6903: 6897: 6890: 6889:San Gimignano 6885: 6878: 6871: 6870:trial by jury 6867: 6863: 6858: 6857: 6851: 6846: 6845: 6839: 6833: 6825: 6824: 6818: 6817:Alan of Lille 6814: 6810: 6799: 6788: 6782: 6775: 6768: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6747: 6740: 6736: 6730: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6708:, and seized 6707: 6703: 6697: 6690: 6681: 6674: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6649: 6642: 6638: 6637:Thomas Hobbes 6634: 6631:philosophers 6630: 6624: 6617: 6616:female orgasm 6613: 6610:Often facing 6607: 6600: 6596: 6589: 6583:of the towns. 6582: 6578: 6572: 6565: 6558: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6525: 6517: 6516: 6515:ministerialis 6508: 6501: 6500: 6495: 6494: 6487: 6480: 6479:ivory carving 6476: 6472: 6466: 6457: 6443: 6439: 6433: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6412: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6387: 6380: 6374: 6367: 6363: 6357: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6333: 6327: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6302: 6290: 30,000 6282: 6275: 6274:Birka Warrior 6271: 6267: 6257: 6250: 6246: 6240: 6231: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6210: 6206: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6184: 6179: 6178: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6135: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6123:Enlightenment 6120: 6116: 6113:According to 6109: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6075: 6073: 6072: 6067: 6063: 6058: 6057: 6051: 6046: 6045: 6039: 6035: 6030: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6019: 6014: 6010: 6009: 6004: 6000: 5999: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5975:. The use of 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5953: 5951: 5950: 5945: 5941: 5932: 5922: 5913: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5892:child tribute 5889: 5888:standing army 5885: 5880: 5878: 5874: 5873:blast furnace 5870: 5866: 5858: 5847: 5843: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5826: 5825:Vasco da Gama 5823:in 1486, and 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5804: 5802: 5798: 5789: 5788: 5781: 5780: 5773: 5772: 5765: 5763: 5757:led to three 5756: 5752: 5751: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5730: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5712: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5683: 5675: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5657: 5647: 5645: 5641: 5636: 5635: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5606: 5605: 5599: 5598:Martin Luther 5595: 5590: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5559:John Wycliffe 5555: 5553: 5552:Pope Martin V 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5528:false charges 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5503: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5456:Ottoman Turks 5453: 5445: 5444: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5414: 5410: 5400: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5356:was lasting. 5355: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5317: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5296:seizing Ceuta 5293: 5287: 5285: 5281: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5186: 5185: 5178: 5177: 5170: 5169: 5163: 5158: 5148: 5146: 5142: 5141:from Portugal 5139:in 1492, and 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5120: 5116: 5114: 5110: 5109:Ciompi Revolt 5106: 5101: 5100: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5081: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5049: 5044: 5043: 5036: 5031: 5020: 5010: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4987: 4985: 4981: 4980:horse collars 4977: 4969: 4964: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4941:rib-and-plank 4931: 4927: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4903: 4899: 4896:(d. 1263) by 4895: 4890: 4885: 4881: 4871: 4869: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4832:book of hours 4829: 4825: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4814:stained glass 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4794: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4771:font at Liège 4768: 4764: 4760: 4755: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4732: 4731: 4725: 4721: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4697: 4695: 4691: 4690: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4664: 4658: 4654: 4649: 4643: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4625: 4624: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4605:mystery plays 4602: 4598: 4587: 4584:collected by 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4566: 4561: 4560: 4554: 4553: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4532: 4527: 4526: 4519: 4518: 4511: 4499: 4498:(d. 1274). 4497: 4492: 4491: 4484: 4483: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4467:Scholasticism 4464: 4460: 4459:Peter Lombard 4456: 4455:Peter Abelard 4452: 4448: 4444: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4415: 4414: 4408: 4404: 4396: 4391: 4381: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4346: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4321:in the east. 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4226:First Crusade 4223: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4184: 4180: 4170: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4115:Mongol Empire 4111: 4109: 4101: 4097: 4094:during their 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4068:disintegrated 4065: 4061: 4057: 4052: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4025: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3987: 3986: 3979: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3911: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3889: 3885: 3882: 3878: 3873: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3837: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3821:(r. 1155–90) 3820: 3813: 3809: 3808:Hohenstaufens 3801: 3797: 3793: 3788: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3777:Muslim rulers 3774: 3770: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3716: 3707: 3705: 3700: 3699: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3664: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3609:Monte Gargano 3606: 3601: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3543:reform-minded 3540: 3536: 3535:controlled by 3532: 3525: 3521: 3516: 3507: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3487: 3485: 3481: 3480:Trading fairs 3477: 3476:Low Countries 3472: 3471: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3444: 3442: 3436: 3434: 3430: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3399: 3391: 3386: 3377: 3375: 3371: 3365: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3350:Church courts 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3322: 3320: 3319:primogeniture 3315: 3310: 3308: 3303: 3302: 3296: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3263: 3260: 3259: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3231: 3227: 3216: 3212: 3211:Seljuk Empire 3208: 3203: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3161: 3151: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3140: 3135: 3131: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3103: 3099: 3098:heavy cavalry 3095: 3091: 3090:composite bow 3087: 3080: 3079: 3074: 3070: 3061: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3033:Christian art 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 3001:Byzantine art 2998: 2993: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2982: 2981:Book of Kells 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2952: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2938:animal motifs 2935: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2903: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2869: 2865: 2864: 2863:Book of Kells 2858: 2853: 2849: 2839: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2820:Árpád dynasty 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2774: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2685: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2663: 2658: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2640: 2633:in the early 2632: 2628: 2623: 2621: 2617: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2582: 2577: 2573: 2570:10th-century 2568: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2537: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2482: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2459: 2454: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2414: 2404: 2395: 2386: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2303: 2301: 2296: 2295: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2233:Childeric III 2230: 2225: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2191: 2187: 2186: 2180: 2175: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2123: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2103:monastic name 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2041: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2023: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1988:7th centuries 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1960: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1921: 1912: 1908: 1903: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1868: 1861: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1845:8th centuries 1837: 1833: 1829: 1824: 1819: 1809: 1807: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1769: 1767: 1766:southern Gaul 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1713: 1703: 1693: 1685: 1680: 1675: 1671: 1664:Rise of Islam 1661: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1650:Hispanic Jews 1645: 1643: 1638: 1628: 1622: 1618: 1613: 1609: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1593: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1565: 1563: 1552: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1525: 1521: 1515: 1505: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1485: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1460: 1456: 1451: 1450: 1444: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1406: 1396: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1277:their kingdom 1274: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1215: 1210: 1208: 1204: 1196: 1191: 1186: 1175: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1153: 1147: 1143: 1140:(d. 472), or 1139: 1135: 1131: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1077:crossed into 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1036: 1031: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 997: 993: 988: 986: 982: 978: 977:monophysitism 974: 970: 966: 962: 954: 950: 945: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 872: 864: 860: 859: 854: 849: 843: 833: 830: 826: 822: 817: 815: 811: 807: 803: 798: 794: 790: 786: 781: 780: 774: 769: 768: 762: 758: 747: 743: 742:on birch bark 738: 733: 729: 719: 717: 713: 709: 701: 694:. During the 693: 689: 685: 681: 676: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 645: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 615: 613: 608: 603: 599: 598:periodisation 595: 591: 587: 583: 575: 571: 567: 558: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 496: 492: 487: 485: 481: 477: 473: 472:scholasticism 469: 465: 461: 457: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 435:heavy cavalry 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 379: 377: 369: 365: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 241: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 220: 213: 210: 208: 205: 204: 201: 196: 192: 188: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 133: 131: 127: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 107: 105: 101: 96: 92: 77: 73: 72:stained-glass 67: 62: 57: AD 500 51: 46: 43: 41: 37: 33: 19: 19419: 19402: 19385: 19368: 19351: 19339:from Commons 19334: 19313: 19245:Western Bloc 19045:AUSCANNZUKUS 19001:Contemporary 18950:Human rights 18796:Latin Church 18770:Christianity 18720: 18679:Conservatism 18524:contemporary 18361:Architecture 18297:World War II 18257:Emancipation 18252:Abolitionism 18184: 18140:Romanization 18135:Roman legacy 18116:Roman Empire 17940:World War II 17793:Early modern 17770:Kalmar Union 17641:Papal States 17595: 17559:Roman Empire 17428:Principality 17162:Papal States 16887:histories of 16607:Architecture 16579:Great Famine 16569:Universities 16509:Hussite Wars 16426:Great Schism 16313:Papal States 16254: 16159: 16134: 16130:Smith, Julia 16106: 16074: 16070: 16067: 16039: 16007: 16003: 16000: 15968: 15964: 15961: 15925: 15921: 15918: 15886: 15857: 15853: 15850: 15822: 15798: 15767: 15763: 15760: 15732: 15707: 15675: 15643: 15639: 15636: 15604: 15600: 15597: 15569: 15535: 15506: 15478: 15445: 15417: 15393: 15361: 15333: 15308: 15282: 15251: 15224: 15192: 15164: 15140: 15112: 15082: 15051: 15026: 14996: 14992: 14963: 14919: 14913: 14886: 14861: 14836: 14805: 14779: 14752: 14749:Lasko, Peter 14726: 14699: 14667: 14639: 14611: 14585: 14558: 14526:(suppl_13). 14523: 14517: 14485: 14460: 14432: 14404: 14372: 14343: 14316: 14292: 14264: 14236: 14211: 14187: 14162: 14135: 14100: 14073: 14045: 14017: 13992: 13964: 13931: 13903: 13876: 13872: 13840: 13812: 13784: 13751: 13723: 13719:Brown, Peter 13695: 13672:World of Art 13666: 13638: 13610: 13582: 13553: 13528: 13500: 13477: 13465: 13460:, p. 9. 13453: 13441: 13429: 13424:, p. 7. 13417: 13405: 13393: 13381: 13369: 13357: 13345: 13333: 13321: 13309: 13297: 13290:Nicolle 1996 13285: 13273: 13261: 13249: 13242:Wickham 2016 13237: 13225: 13218:Epstein 2009 13213: 13206:Epstein 2009 13201: 13189: 13182:Singman 1999 13177: 13170:Singman 1999 13165: 13158:Fossier 1986 13153: 13141: 13134:Fossier 1986 13129: 13117: 13110:Fossier 1986 13105: 13093: 13081: 13069: 13062:Singman 1999 13057: 13050:Backman 2022 13045: 13038:Fassler 2014 13033: 13021: 13009: 13002:Backman 2022 12997: 12985: 12973: 12961: 12954:Thomson 1998 12949: 12937: 12930:Thomson 1998 12925: 12913: 12901: 12894:Thomson 1998 12889: 12877: 12865: 12858:Thomson 1998 12853: 12841: 12834:Thomson 1998 12829: 12822:Swanson 2021 12817: 12810:Wickham 2016 12805: 12793: 12786:Thomson 1998 12781: 12769: 12757: 12745: 12733: 12721: 12709: 12697: 12685: 12673: 12661: 12649: 12637: 12625: 12613: 12606:Wickham 2016 12601: 12589: 12577: 12570:Wickham 2016 12565: 12553: 12546:Wickham 2016 12541: 12529: 12522:Wickham 2016 12517: 12505: 12493: 12481: 12469: 12457: 12450:Wickham 2016 12445: 12433: 12421: 12414:Backman 2022 12409: 12397: 12390:Wickham 2016 12385: 12373: 12361: 12349: 12337: 12330:Wickham 2016 12325: 12313: 12301: 12289: 12260: 12253:Swanson 2021 12248: 12236: 12224: 12212: 12200: 12193:Epstein 2009 12188: 12176: 12164: 12152: 12140: 12128: 12121:Backman 2022 12116: 12104: 12097:Singman 1999 12092: 12085:Wickham 2016 12070:Backman 2022 12065: 12053: 12041: 12034:Nicolle 1996 12029: 12022:Nicolle 1996 12017: 12010:Singman 1999 12005: 11998:Nicolle 1996 11993: 11981: 11974:Backman 2022 11969: 11962:Epstein 2009 11957: 11950:Backman 2022 11945: 11933: 11921: 11914:Epstein 2009 11894: 11887:Backman 2022 11872:Epstein 2009 11867: 11855: 11843: 11831: 11819: 11807: 11795: 11783: 11771: 11759: 11747: 11740:Dodwell 1993 11735: 11730:, p. 7. 11728:Dodwell 1993 11723: 11711: 11699: 11687: 11675: 11663: 11651: 11644:Nicolle 1996 11639: 11632:Nicolle 1996 11627: 11615: 11608:Backman 2022 11603: 11596:Backman 2022 11591: 11579: 11567: 11555: 11543: 11516: 11504: 11497:Backman 2022 11492: 11485:Fassler 2014 11480: 11468: 11461:Backman 2022 11456: 11449:Backman 2022 11444: 11432: 11420: 11413:Backman 2022 11408: 11396: 11384: 11372: 11360: 11348: 11336: 11324: 11317:Backman 2022 11297: 11285: 11273: 11266:Backman 2022 11261: 11249: 11237: 11225: 11213: 11206:Wickham 2016 11201: 11189: 11177: 11165: 11153: 11141: 11129: 11117: 11105: 11093: 11081: 11069: 11057: 11050:Backman 2022 11045: 11033: 11026:Wickham 2016 11021: 11009: 11002:Backman 2022 10997: 10990:Backman 2022 10985: 10973: 10966:Wickham 2016 10961: 10949: 10937: 10930:Backman 2022 10925: 10913: 10901: 10894:Backman 2022 10889: 10877: 10870:Backman 2022 10865: 10858:Backman 2022 10853: 10841: 10834:Backman 2022 10829: 10817: 10805: 10798:Backman 2022 10793: 10788:, p. 7. 10781: 10769: 10762:Backman 2022 10757: 10745: 10733: 10721: 10709: 10697: 10685: 10673: 10666:Backman 2022 10661: 10649: 10637: 10630:Ramirez 2022 10610: 10598: 10586: 10574: 10562: 10550: 10538: 10526: 10514: 10502: 10490: 10483:Backman 2022 10478: 10471:Backman 2022 10466: 10454: 10447:Backman 2022 10442: 10430: 10418: 10406: 10399:Epstein 2009 10394: 10382: 10375:Epstein 2009 10370: 10358: 10351:Epstein 2009 10346: 10339:Backman 2022 10334: 10327:Epstein 2009 10322: 10310: 10303:Epstein 2009 10298: 10291:Epstein 2009 10286: 10274: 10262: 10255:Epstein 2009 10250: 10226:Singman 1999 10221: 10209: 10202:Singman 1999 10197: 10190:Singman 1999 10185: 10178:Thomson 1998 10173: 10166:Backman 2022 10161: 10154:Singman 1999 10149: 10142:Thomson 1998 10137: 10130:Singman 1999 10125: 10113: 10101: 10089: 10084:, p. 3. 10082:Singman 1999 10077: 10072:, p. 8. 10070:Singman 1999 10065: 10053: 10048:, p. 2. 10046:Singman 1999 10041: 10029: 10022:Backman 2022 10017: 10005: 9998:Backman 2022 9993: 9986:Backman 2022 9981: 9974:Backman 2022 9969: 9962:Singman 1999 9957: 9945: 9933: 9928:, p. 6. 9926:Singman 1999 9921: 9914:Singman 1999 9909: 9902:Backman 2022 9897: 9890:Backman 2022 9885: 9858: 9851:Nicolle 1996 9846: 9839:Nicolle 1996 9824:Nicolle 1996 9819: 9812:Nicolle 1996 9807: 9800:Nicolle 1996 9795: 9788:Nicolle 1996 9783: 9771: 9764:Nicolle 1996 9759: 9752:Nicolle 1996 9747: 9735: 9723: 9711: 9684: 9672: 9660: 9648: 9636: 9624: 9612: 9600: 9588: 9581:Stalley 1999 9576: 9569:Stalley 1999 9564: 9557:Stalley 1999 9537: 9530:Stalley 1999 9525: 9518:Stalley 1999 9513: 9506:Wickham 2009 9501: 9494:Stalley 1999 9474: 9462: 9450: 9438: 9426: 9414: 9402: 9395:Wickham 2009 9390: 9383:Collins 2010 9378: 9366: 9354: 9347:Wickham 2009 9342: 9335:Collins 2010 9330: 9323:Backman 2022 9318: 9311:Collins 2010 9306: 9299:Wickham 2009 9294: 9287:Collins 2010 9282: 9275:Collins 2010 9270: 9263:Backman 2022 9258: 9251:Collins 2010 9246: 9239:Collins 2010 9234: 9227:Backman 2022 9222: 9215:Wickham 2009 9200:Collins 2010 9185:Backman 2022 9180: 9173:Wickham 2009 9168: 9161:Collins 2010 9156: 9149:Backman 2022 9144: 9137:Wickham 2009 9132: 9125:Collins 2010 9120: 9108: 9096: 9089:Fassler 2014 9084: 9077:Fassler 2014 9072: 9060: 9053:Backman 2022 9048: 9036: 9029:Backman 2022 9024: 9012: 9000: 8993:Collins 2010 8988: 8976: 8969:Collins 2010 8964: 8957:Backman 2022 8952: 8940: 8933:Backman 2022 8928: 8916: 8904: 8892: 8880: 8868: 8861:Wickham 2009 8856: 8844: 8837:Collins 2010 8832: 8825:Collins 2010 8820: 8808: 8796: 8784: 8772: 8765:Wickham 2009 8760: 8748: 8736: 8729:Collins 2010 8724: 8697: 8685: 8673: 8661: 8654:Collins 2010 8649: 8637: 8630:Collins 2010 8625: 8618:Wickham 2009 8613: 8601: 8594:Collins 2010 8589: 8577: 8570:Collins 2010 8565: 8558:Collins 2010 8553: 8546:Collins 2010 8541: 8529: 8517: 8505: 8493: 8481: 8469: 8462:Backman 2022 8457: 8445: 8438:Wickham 2009 8433: 8426:Wickham 2009 8421: 8414:Wickham 2009 8409: 8397: 8390:Backman 2022 8385: 8378:Ramirez 2022 8373: 8366:Ramirez 2022 8361: 8354:Wickham 2009 8349: 8342:Wickham 2009 8337: 8330:Wickham 2009 8325: 8318:Wickham 2009 8313: 8301: 8289: 8282:Collins 2010 8277: 8265: 8253: 8241: 8234:Backman 2022 8229: 8222:Wickham 2009 8217: 8210:Wickham 2009 8205: 8193: 8181: 8169: 8162:Collins 2010 8157: 8145: 8118: 8106: 8094: 8082: 8075:Wickham 2009 8070: 8063:Wickham 2009 8058: 8051:Wickham 2009 8046: 8034: 8027:Wickham 2009 8022: 8015:Collins 2010 8010: 8003:Wickham 2009 7998: 7991:Wickham 2009 7986: 7979:Wickham 2009 7974: 7962: 7955:Collins 2010 7950: 7943:Heather 2006 7938: 7931:Collins 2010 7926: 7919:Heather 2006 7914: 7907:Heather 2006 7902: 7880:Collins 2010 7875: 7863: 7856:Stalley 1999 7851: 7839: 7827: 7815: 7803: 7796:Collins 2010 7791: 7784:Backman 2022 7779: 7767: 7755: 7748:Collins 2010 7743: 7736:Collins 2010 7731: 7724:Heather 2006 7694:Collins 2010 7689: 7682:Heather 2006 7677: 7665: 7653: 7646:Wickham 2009 7641: 7629: 7617: 7605: 7593: 7581: 7576:, p. 4. 7569: 7557: 7545: 7538:Mommsen 1942 7533: 7521: 7509: 7489:, p. 5. 7482: 7477:, p. 1. 7462:, p. 1. 7460:Wickham 2016 7455: 7443: 7431: 7419: 7414:, p. 4. 7407: 7400:Mommsen 1942 7395: 7388:Hankins 2001 7375:, p. 3. 7368: 7347: 7330: 7313: 7292: 7279: 7254: 7235:John Hunyadi 7222: 7169: 7156: 7149:young nephew 7139: 7124:Wittelsbachs 7114: 7085: 7064: 7047: 7030: 7013: 7004: 6987:in England, 6967: 6946: 6939:12th century 6925: 6896: 6877: 6861: 6849: 6832: 6823:Stabat Mater 6808: 6781: 6767: 6746: 6729: 6696: 6685:Frederick II 6680: 6648: 6629:early modern 6623: 6606: 6588: 6571: 6557: 6542:King David I 6534:Robert Bruce 6530:Anglo-Norman 6524: 6507: 6497: 6491: 6486: 6465: 6456: 6432: 6411: 6386: 6373: 6356: 6326: 6301: 6281: 6256: 6239: 6230: 6219:Four Empires 6209: 6139:19th century 6136: 6131:Edward Grant 6112: 6105: 6069: 6062:Art of Dying 6061: 6056:Ars moriendi 6049: 6031: 6023:Jan van Eyck 6016: 6006: 5996: 5965:Brunelleschi 5957:Quattrocento 5954: 5947: 5942:chests, and 5936:15th century 5928: 5908:14th century 5881: 5862: 5833: 5805: 5801:movable type 5793:14th century 5762:formes fixes 5748: 5727: 5713: 5679: 5639: 5622:witch trials 5591: 5587:church union 5556: 5509: 5500:15th century 5460:at Gallipoli 5449: 5369:14th century 5358: 5322:14th century 5318: 5304:Ferdinand II 5288: 5282:and much of 5201: 5154: 5121: 5117: 5082: 5052: 5047: 5007:horse armour 4988: 4965: 4922:11th century 4906: 4868:carved-ivory 4864:12th century 4826: 4795: 4756: 4718: 4687: 4644: 4607:, but comic 4563: 4557: 4542:courtly love 4536: 4399:11th century 4393: 4370:Hospitallers 4347: 4319:Latin Empire 4278: 4254:at Dorylaeum 4219: 4163:described by 4151:Ottoman clan 4139:Golden Horde 4123:Genghis Khan 4112: 4104:12th century 4102:in the late 4053: 4022: 3980: 3907: 3897:, Bishop of 3890: 3883: 3836:Frederick II 3789: 3760:Innocent III 3752: 3724:18th century 3721: 3665: 3602: 3575: 3559:papal legate 3549:, Patriarch 3529: 3492:antisemitism 3488: 3446:The Italian 3445: 3437: 3411:partnerships 3395: 3366: 3362:13th century 3323: 3311: 3291:11th century 3264: 3234: 3192: 3137: 3126: 3114:scale armour 3083: 3076: 3056:letters and 3005:iconophiles' 2994: 2979: 2976:Gospel Books 2949: 2944:such as the 2923: 2904: 2884:Hagia Sophia 2873: 2861: 2775: 2744: 2681: 2635:10th century 2624: 2601:Viking realm 2586: 2483: 2455: 2420: 2371:West Francia 2363:East Francia 2343:music theory 2304: 2300:royal chapel 2281: 2257: 2253:Papal States 2229:Carolingians 2226: 2195: 2189: 2188:, completed 2183: 2126:10th century 2119: 2069: 2038: 2024: 1992:penitentials 1962:Few western 1961: 1957:10th century 1945:Nicene Creed 1916: 1879:house slaves 1869: 1849:walrus ivory 1841: 1836:Theudebert I 1770: 1758:North Africa 1718: 1646: 1625: 1566: 1562:compensation 1517: 1486: 1482:public roads 1463: 1436: 1370: 1366:Danube Delta 1330:North Africa 1311: 1257: 1211: 1200: 1126: 1103:Anglo-Saxons 1032: 989: 946: 871:Roman Empire 868: 856: 818: 789:Rolls Series 754: 750:12th century 704:20th century 696:19th century 677: 657:Christianity 646: 616: 607:medium aevum 579: 551:trade routes 503:14th century 491:great famine 488: 468:universities 429:between the 421:and eastern 380: 352:North Africa 336:new kingdoms 302: 269: 265: 264:(also spelt 261: 257: 251: 190: 42: 40: 19445:5th century 19440:Middle Ages 19314:Middle Ages 19282:Middle Ages 19185:Open Balkan 19003:integration 18933:Rule of law 18928:Natural law 18905:Agnosticism 18883:Hellenistic 18861:Anglo-Saxon 18791:Catholicism 18730:Atlanticism 18635:Rationalism 18441:Immigration 18424:Esotericism 18282:World War I 18247:Romanticism 18227:Reformation 18207:Renaissance 18185:Middle Ages 18150:Christendom 18079:Foundations 17925:World War I 17915:Nationalism 17803:Reformation 17788:Renaissance 17760:Black Death 17693:Kievan Rus' 17596:Middle Ages 17394:Kievan Rus' 17130:Western and 17123:territories 17047:Czech lands 16898:Western and 16836:WikiProject 16763:Medievalism 16602:Agriculture 16466:Manorialism 16461:Communalism 16456:Monasticism 16373:Reconquista 16363:Kievan Rus' 15474:Watts, John 15247:Rubin, Miri 15137:Peters, Ted 14926:: 226–242. 14766:14-056036-X 14740:7141-1327-1 13506:McGraw Hill 13482:Arnold 2021 13434:Russel 1991 13398:Sedlar 1994 13350:Benton 2002 13326:Benton 2002 13278:Sedlar 1994 13266:Sedlar 1994 13194:Arnold 2009 13146:Denley 2001 13122:Denley 2001 13074:Denley 2001 13026:Colish 2002 12990:Colish 2002 12870:Sedlar 1994 12774:Sedlar 1994 12750:Sedlar 1994 12726:Denley 2001 12702:Sedlar 1994 12690:Denley 2001 12654:Sedlar 1994 12630:Sedlar 1994 12510:Denley 2001 12462:Denley 2001 12366:Jordan 2002 12241:Chazan 2006 12229:Chazan 2006 12046:Sedlar 1994 11986:Barber 2004 11938:Barber 2004 11926:Barber 2004 11899:Ilardi 2007 11860:Benton 2002 11848:Benton 2002 11836:Benton 2002 11824:Benton 2002 11800:Benton 2002 11776:Benton 2002 11752:Benton 2002 11680:Benton 2002 11656:Benton 2002 11620:Jordan 2002 11584:Jordan 2002 11560:Hoppin 1978 11548:Colish 2002 11536:Colish 2002 11521:Colish 2002 11509:Barber 2004 11473:Colish 2002 11437:Colish 2002 11425:Barber 2004 11401:Barber 2004 11341:Barber 2004 11290:Barber 2004 11278:Barber 2004 11254:Barber 2004 11230:Barber 2004 11170:Barber 2004 11122:Barber 2004 11098:Barber 2004 11086:Barber 2004 11062:Barber 2004 11014:Barber 2004 10978:Jordan 2002 10954:Jordan 2002 10942:Barber 2004 10846:Barber 2004 10822:Barber 2004 10654:Chazan 2006 10603:Jordan 2002 10567:Morris 2001 10555:Barber 2004 10543:Morris 2001 10531:Barber 2004 10507:Barber 2004 10495:Barber 2004 10435:Chazan 2006 10423:Chazan 2006 10411:Chazan 2006 10387:Chazan 2006 10363:Barber 2004 10315:Barber 2004 10279:Barber 2004 10243:Barber 2004 10214:Barber 2004 10094:Barber 2004 10058:Barber 2004 10010:Jordan 2002 9950:Sedlar 1994 9878:Jordan 2002 9704:Benton 2002 9677:Benton 2002 9665:Benton 2002 9641:Benton 2002 9455:Barber 2004 9419:Davies 1996 9407:Davies 1996 9113:Hoppin 1978 9101:Hoppin 1978 9065:Colish 2002 9041:Davies 1996 8945:Barber 2004 8921:Colish 2002 8885:Colish 2002 8789:Colish 2002 8522:Chazan 2006 8510:Chazan 2006 8198:Davies 1996 7808:Chazan 2006 7670:Arnold 2021 7610:Arnold 2021 7598:Arnold 2021 7586:Arnold 2021 7574:Harris 2008 7514:Arnold 2021 7502:Davies 1996 7424:Hornby 2005 7412:Murray 2004 7305:illiteratus 7239:at Belgrade 7213:caused the 7103:Trastámaras 7091:Luxembourgs 7040:90 per cent 6983:in France, 6973:in Chartres 6850:Seven Parts 6805: 1164 6794: 1125 6595:possessions 6532:aristocrat 6341:eight modes 6313:river, and 6294:6th century 6262:9th century 6195:Soviet Bloc 6161:(d. 1883). 6147:medievalism 6137:During the 6119:Renaissance 6034:Block books 5987:(d. 1455). 5919: 1360 5900:wagon forts 5896:Jannisaries 5884:mercenaries 5853: 1470 5745: 1430 5689: 1348 5628: 1450 5554:(1417–31). 5542:; two and, 5309:Reconquista 5272:Henry Tudor 5264:Richard III 5248:Joan of Arc 5242:, allowing 5196:Joan of Arc 5089:flagellants 5070:Black Death 5058: 1200 4991:crossbowmen 4972:30 per cent 4937: 1200 4593: 1155 4574:troubadours 4451:rationalism 4427:nominalists 4286:Reconquista 4242:annihilated 4169:(d. 1324). 4165:the trader 4064:sacked Kyiv 3985:Reconquista 3952:Magna Carta 3817:Frederick I 3704:kabbalistic 3674:of popular 3668:revelations 3657:Franciscans 3649:Cistercians 3645:Carthusians 3633:inquisitors 3625:Waldensians 3578:investiture 3496:blood libel 3403:in Florence 3279:manorialism 3222: 1000 3106:6th century 2997:Hellenistic 2990:Insular art 2960:grave goods 2946:Old English 2915:drawbridges 2812:Piast dukes 2790:Kievan Rus' 2702:, captured 2692:9th century 2339:9th century 2260:Charlemagne 2220:. His son, 2150:Cluny Abbey 2084:Constantine 2072:land trusts 2065:Mount Athos 2061:Great Lavra 2016:homosexuals 2012:fornicators 1976:pilgrimages 1911:Holy Spirit 1897:Church life 1865:7th century 1627:Landholding 1606:9th century 1580:, act as a 1540:Cassiodorus 1528:6th century 1439:7th century 1326:the Vandals 1297:Gallo-Roman 1285:Childeric I 1099:Burgundians 1039:4th century 1028:5th century 1000:3rd century 957:4th century 821:archaeology 806:chrysobulls 708:Eurocentric 667:—violence, 507:intensified 499:50 per cent 495:Black Death 476:pilgrimages 372:9th century 360:7th century 348:Middle East 340:Later Roman 258:Middle Ages 228:Renaissance 171:Black Death 161:Magna Carta 87: 1180 83: 1175 74:panel from 48:Middle Ages 19434:Categories 19353:Quotations 19205:Rio Treaty 18716:Relativism 18674:Liberalism 18640:Empiricism 18592:Philosophy 18580:Secularism 18531:Philosophy 18468:Literature 18262:Capitalism 17688:Viking Age 17503:Prehistory 17289:Almoravids 17277:al-Andalus 17250:Portugal ( 17093:Anatolia ( 16758:Land terms 16712:Technology 16692:Philosophy 16672:Literature 16637:Demography 16338:Viking Age 13491:References 13470:Rubin 2014 13458:Grant 2001 13446:Grant 1994 13374:Adams 2011 13362:Adams 2011 13314:Adams 2011 13302:Adams 2011 13230:Watts 2014 13014:Adams 2011 12978:Fried 2015 12942:Fried 2015 12906:Fried 2015 12642:Watts 2014 12618:Watts 2014 12594:Watts 2014 12582:Watts 2014 12558:Watts 2014 12534:Watts 2014 12498:Watts 2014 12486:Watts 2014 12474:Watts 2014 12438:Watts 2014 12426:Watts 2014 12402:Watts 2014 12378:Watts 2014 12342:Watts 2014 12318:Watts 2014 12306:Watts 2014 12294:Rubin 2014 12282:Watts 2014 12265:Watts 2014 12109:Fried 2015 11812:Adams 2011 11788:Adams 2011 11764:Adams 2011 11716:Lasko 1972 11704:Curta 2019 11692:Curta 2019 11668:Adams 2011 11218:Curta 2019 11194:Curta 2019 11182:Curta 2019 11158:Curta 2019 11146:Curta 2019 11134:Curta 2019 11110:Curta 2019 11074:Fried 2015 11038:Fried 2015 10918:Watts 2014 10906:Fried 2015 10882:Watts 2014 10810:Fried 2015 10726:Fößel 2016 10714:Fößel 2016 10702:Watts 2014 10690:Fried 2015 10642:Bitel 2002 10267:Rubin 2014 9938:Curta 2019 9776:Curta 2019 9716:Lasko 1972 9542:Adams 2011 9479:Curta 2019 9467:Curta 2019 9443:Curta 2019 9431:Curta 2019 9371:Curta 2019 9359:Curta 2019 9017:Curta 2019 9005:Curta 2019 8981:Brown 2001 8909:Bitel 2002 8897:Curta 2019 8849:Curta 2019 8813:Curta 2019 8801:Bitel 2002 8777:Bitel 2002 8741:Brown 2001 8717:Brown 2001 8582:Brown 2001 8486:Brown 2001 8474:Brown 2001 8402:Bitel 2002 8306:Brown 2001 8294:Brown 1989 8270:Brown 2001 8258:Brown 1989 8186:Curta 2019 8174:Curta 2019 8150:James 2009 8138:James 2009 8123:Brown 1989 8111:James 2009 8099:James 2009 8087:James 2009 8039:Rubin 2014 7967:James 2009 7895:Brown 1989 7772:Brown 1989 7760:Brown 1989 7709:Brown 1989 7634:Curta 2019 7622:Curta 2019 7526:Power 2006 7487:Rubin 2014 7475:Rubin 2014 7448:Fried 2015 7373:Power 2006 7227:Skanderbeg 7187:fratricide 7132:Palatinate 6999:in Prague. 6979:, and the 6866:common law 6706:his father 6661:Petronilla 6633:Jean Bodin 6449: 950 6245:Goiswintha 6183:Marc Bloch 6082:See also: 5877:patent law 5865:sheep with 5811:landed at 5809:Dinis Dias 5490:, and the 5417:See also: 5314:conquering 5300:Isabella I 5216:Edward III 5137:from Spain 5078:50 percent 4910:spectacles 4902:spectacles 4846:, and the 4791:needlework 4787:tapestries 4783:Embroidery 4752:rib vaults 4736:Romanesque 4730:Bergfriede 4525:trobairitz 4447:empiricism 4431:universals 4419:university 4327:rump state 4234:indulgence 4187:See also: 4167:Marco Polo 4056:fell apart 4029:Almoravids 3971:enquêteurs 3957:Louis VIII 3831:recognised 3823:sanctioned 3819:Barbarossa 3706:teaching. 3684:sanctioned 3678:, such as 3672:veneration 3661:Dominicans 3637:hermetical 3605:Compostela 3522:Church of 3520:Romanesque 3450:, such as 3332:, and the 3273:, and the 3198: 950 3110:longswords 3086:cataphract 3037:Gero Cross 2968:Sutton Hoo 2948:epic poem 2930:polychrome 2846:See also: 2836:annexed by 2800: 900 2740:chieftains 2612: 860 2544:See also: 2510: 931 2479:Hugh Capet 2471:Franconian 2375:Viking Age 2268:subjugated 2202:Arnulfings 2142:sacraments 2099: 900 2045:cenobitism 2031:from Egypt 1953:church tax 1937:iconoclasm 1875: 750 1857:base metal 1832:Austrasian 1816:See also: 1808:servants. 1793:Al-Andalus 1656:after the 1598:concubines 1592:Morgengabe 1558: 525 1547: 585 1538:(d. 489), 1512:See also: 1470:Belisarius 1466:Nika riots 1377:vernacular 1332:, and the 1260:Ostrogoths 1221: 600 1209:declined. 1136:(d. 454), 1132:(d. 408), 1097:, and the 994:developed 899:Diocletian 846:See also: 797:chronicles 726:See also: 649:Miri Rubin 622: 500 590:modern era 480:Romanesque 451:were built 399:colonising 191:Chronology 129:Key events 85: – c. 19505:Dark ages 19404:Resources 19387:Textbooks 19150:Five Eyes 19145:EU–UK TCA 18987:Democracy 18876:Old Norse 18765:Abrahamic 18722:Peritrope 18704:Tolerance 18684:Socialism 18514:Mythology 18502:Classical 18451:Languages 18429:Astrology 18277:Modernism 18091:Old World 17735:Feudalism 17706:Catalonia 17448:Despotate 17392:Ukraine ( 17376:Jerusalem 17340:Croatia ( 17095:Byzantine 17067:Hungary ( 17058:Byzantine 16957:1169–1536 16743:Dark Ages 16652:Household 16647:Hastilude 16416:Feudalism 16104:(2001) . 16037:(2006) . 15713:Routledge 15673:(1993) . 15575:Routledge 15476:(2014) . 15017:1538-4608 14940:0038-7134 14867:Routledge 14725:(1969) . 14697:(1976) . 14665:(2002) . 14546:0031-2746 14430:(1993) . 14402:(2006) . 14382:Routledge 14160:(2015) . 14101:1250–1520 14071:(2009) . 13838:(2010) . 13810:(2002) . 13721:(1989) . 13636:(1994) . 13616:Routledge 13608:(2004) . 13526:(2021) . 13254:Vale 2001 13086:Vale 2001 12966:Fine 2009 12798:Vale 2001 12762:Fine 2009 12738:Fine 2009 12714:Fine 2009 12678:Fine 2009 12666:Fine 2009 12354:Vale 2001 12217:Keen 1976 12205:Keen 1976 12181:Keen 1976 12169:Keen 1976 12157:Vale 2001 11389:Lock 2006 11365:Lock 2006 11353:Lock 2006 11329:Lock 2006 11302:Lock 2006 11242:Lock 2006 9605:Nees 2002 7868:Nees 2002 7844:Nees 2002 7820:Nees 2002 7562:Heng 2021 7361:Citations 7299:literatus 7247:at Vaslui 7095:Habsburgs 7019:gunpowder 6760:Trebizond 6710:Aquitaine 6669:Constance 6444:(d. 975) 6440:built by 6360:The monk 6349:antiphons 6027:oil paint 6013:Boticelli 6003:Donatello 5815:in 1444, 5813:Cap Verde 5720:Boccaccio 5709:humanists 5670:astronomy 5618:Hesychasm 5571:Hussitism 5563:Eucharist 5524:Philip IV 5486:, Bosnia 5476:Mehmed II 5443:Hünername 5393:Wallachia 5326:Lithuania 5276:Henry VII 5240:civil war 5099:Jacquerie 5042:Jacquerie 4957:astrolabe 4932:appeared 4926:windmills 4759:Mosan art 4671:with the 4475:patristic 4435:Aristotle 4380:in 1226. 4339:Occitania 4276:in 1291. 4131:Batu Khan 4041:Greenland 4009:from the 3962:appanages 3936:Richard I 3901:, in the 3862:Habsburgs 3773:Byzantine 3641:apostolic 3539:Henry III 3424:compagnia 3413:known as 3275:commoners 3236:Feudalism 3226:assarting 3187:peasantry 3148:horseshoe 2972:strapwork 2934:cloisonné 2907:pilasters 2876:basilicas 2778:Moravians 2618:into the 2439:Lothair I 2351:polyphony 2347:intervals 2276:destroyed 2198:Austrasia 2115:Hrosvitha 2090:as a new 1933:his claim 1931:rejected 1797:Aghlabids 1726:Armenians 1714:, 661–750 1704:, 632–661 1694:, 622–632 1524:education 1502:Heraclius 1472:(d. 565) 1455:Justinian 1443:Roman law 1322:the Suebi 1302:Britannia 1268:a kingdom 1227:(such as 1083:Visigoths 1016:basilicas 1004:Roman art 938:Byzantium 926:Tetrarchy 889:with the 861:, now in 728:Cartulary 700:Dark Ages 669:patronage 632:), 1492 ( 612:Neo-Latin 586:antiquity 576:, France) 525:; in the 439:feudalism 298:Dark Ages 274:antiquity 266:mediaeval 207:Antiquity 103:Including 97:narrative 19210:Schengen 19140:Eurozone 18980:Property 18975:Religion 18866:Frankish 18856:Germanic 18836:Paganism 18757:Religion 18745:European 18657:Humanism 18560:Religion 18519:Painting 18485:Internet 18436:Folklore 18407:Clothing 18378:Calendar 18354:Cyrillic 18339:Alphabet 18302:Cold War 17974:See also 17945:Cold War 17740:Crusades 17710:Valencia 17444:Lordship 17426:Serbia ( 17407:Russia ( 17346:Pannonia 17342:Dalmatia 17293:Almohads 17121:Medieval 17056:Greece ( 16968:Scotland 16953:800–1169 16885:Medieval 16826:Category 16793:Timeline 16682:Minstrel 16677:Medicine 16559:Chivalry 16514:Burgundy 16436:Crusades 16132:(2005). 15797:(1992). 15504:(2009). 15359:(1999). 15281:(1991). 15249:(2014). 15223:(eds.). 15198:WH Allen 15190:(2022). 15081:(1996). 15003:: 1–22. 14915:Speculum 14834:(eds.). 14804:(1978). 14751:(1972). 14637:(2009). 14556:(1978). 14530:: 1–44. 14458:(2021). 14290:(2023). 14262:(1996). 14209:(1994). 14134:(eds.). 14043:(2014). 13990:(2012). 13962:(1993). 13901:(1996). 13875:Volume I 13870:(2019). 13782:(2006). 13664:(2002). 13098:Lee 2021 7336:Champmol 7130:and the 7057:Limerick 6935:tympanum 6906:Toulouse 6856:Landslov 6739:Novgorod 6722:annulled 6641:decretal 6612:misogyny 6379:Robert I 6307:Liudewit 6215:Six Ages 6038:woodcuts 5993:the nude 5969:Pantheon 5944:maiolica 5912:handguns 5701:Petrarch 5674:geometry 5567:Lollardy 5397:Moldavia 5385:Novgorod 5381:Ivan III 5280:Scotland 5268:Bosworth 5228:Poitiers 5220:claim to 5204:Florence 5162:burghers 5157:polities 5113:Florence 5074:pandemic 4848:Trecento 4793:images. 4775:sketches 4689:Almagest 4642:1260. 4538:Chivalry 4425:and the 4423:realists 4372:and the 4222:Urban II 4212:for the 4210:crusades 4179:Crusades 4173:Crusades 4100:Bulgaria 4080:Dalmatia 4033:Almohads 4031:and the 4015:Sardinia 4003:Portugal 3966:Louis IX 3919:Henry II 3884:(centre) 3879:showing 3804:Henry IV 3800:Burgundy 3781:Roger II 3740:chancery 3659:and the 3647:and the 3586:prelates 3582:Henry IV 3417:commenda 3370:ordained 3309:. 3271:nobility 3193:Between 3144:crossbow 3102:stirrups 3094:Scythian 2984:and the 2919:cisterns 2888:transept 2771:Basil II 2688:resisted 2671:and the 2572:Ottonian 2518:Normandy 2475:Conrad I 2288:counties 2264:Carloman 2249:Holy See 2218:Neustria 2154:Burgundy 2144:such as 2107:Cyrillic 2076:classics 2020:Bogomils 1891:Zaragoza 1818:Saqaliba 1801:Tulunids 1773:Asturias 1734:Muhammad 1692:Muhammad 1637:slavicus 1602:monogamy 1570:abbesses 1551:Boethius 1494:Anatolia 1433:, Italy) 1358:defeated 1334:Lombards 1307:Brittany 1289:Clovis I 1241:Scotland 1162:emperors 1130:Stilicho 1110:province 1095:Alemanni 1035:invaders 987:rights. 973:Arianism 944:in 330. 920:and two 810:graffiti 787:and the 746:Novgorod 673:charisma 638:Americas 543:Humanist 539:heresies 493:and the 456:crusades 441:, noble 419:Catholic 314:(mainly 270:mediæval 156:Crusades 95:biblical 19294:History 19268:Portals 19055:Benelux 18960:Thought 18910:Atheism 18851:Finnish 18827:Culture 18822:Judaism 18784:Eastern 18780:Western 18775:Culture 18709:Paradox 18575:Decline 18536:Science 18412:History 18400:Studies 18383:Cuisine 18371:Periods 18331:Culture 18160:History 18126:Eastern 18121:Western 18072:culture 17815:Baroque 17714:Majorca 17626:Francia 17436:Kingdom 17368:Antioch 17364:Tripoli 17107:Ottoman 17084:Romania 17062:Ottoman 17052:Georgia 17042:Croatia 17032:Armenia 17027:Albania 16949:400–800 16945:Ireland 16940:Germany 16917:England 16912:Denmark 16907:Corsica 16889:current 16736:Related 16722:Warfare 16717:Theatre 16707:Slavery 16702:Science 16657:Hunting 16622:Cuisine 16595:Culture 16534:Castile 16529:England 15444:(ed.). 15392:(ed.). 14962:(ed.). 14948:2856364 14778:(ed.). 13930:(ed.). 13750:(ed.). 7207:John VI 7162:head of 7128:Bavaria 7074:Peruzzi 6912:on the 6798:Héloïse 6714:Eleanor 6657:Castile 6404:Ravenna 6362:Hucbald 6315:Pribina 6260:In the 6217:or the 6187:Marxism 6177:Annales 5940:cassone 5904:cannons 5869:fashion 5787:virelai 5779:ballade 5771:rondeau 5575:Jan Hus 5516:Avignon 5488:in 1463 5484:in 1460 5480:in 1459 5373:Muscovy 5338:Jadwiga 5334:Jogaila 5292:Morocco 5284:Ireland 5236:Gascony 5184:Landtag 5003:helmets 4995:sappers 4961:compass 4850:master 4840:Cimabue 4684:Ptolemy 4680:algebra 4673:decimal 4653:Bologna 4623:organum 4521:by the 4471:Vulgate 4441:), the 4266:Saladin 4258:Antioch 4228:at the 4117:in the 4076:Croatia 4049:Finland 4037:Maghreb 3999:Navarre 3991:Castile 3891:(right) 3858:Austria 3796:Salians 3790:In the 3676:mystics 3629:Cathars 3500:pogroms 3390:Hamburg 3358:confess 3314:knights 3301:corvées 3287:serfdom 3283:demesne 3258:pronoia 3244:Hungary 3183:knights 3165:Society 3017:codices 2964:Tournai 2951:Beowulf 2926:fibulae 2816:Hungary 2747:Basil I 2720:Denmark 2684:Khazars 2631:Germany 2495:Croatia 2491:Moravia 2487:Bohemia 2247:to the 2212:. One, 2146:baptism 2004:sinners 1996:penance 1980:shrines 1972:mission 1964:bishops 1943:of the 1925:Leo III 1860:coinage 1830:of the 1828:solidus 1621:Germany 1617:Bavaria 1582:seeress 1549:), and 1490:new war 1459:eunuchs 1431:Ravenna 1389:central 1354:Bulgars 1316:in the 1281:Francia 1249:Ireland 1142:Odoacer 1138:Ricimer 1071:Vandals 1059:Balkans 1026:in the 998:by the 981:Judaism 910:eastern 887:the war 865:, Italy 785:Germany 722:Sources 574:Avignon 517:states 474:. 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