266:, much shorter than gas lasers used for welding, and as a result require that operators wear special eyewear or use special screens to prevent retina damage. Nd:YAG lasers can operate in both pulsed and continuous mode, but the other types are limited to pulsed mode. The original and still popular solid-state design is a single crystal shaped as a rod approximately 20 mm in diameter and 200 mm long, and the ends are ground flat. This rod is surrounded by a
3003:
31:
278:. When flashed, a pulse of light lasting about two milliseconds is emitted by the laser. Disk shaped crystals are growing in popularity in the industry, and flashlamps are giving way to diodes due to their high efficiency. Typical power output for ruby lasers is 10–20 W, while the Nd:YAG laser outputs between 0.04–6,000 W. To deliver the laser beam to the weld area, fiber optics are usually employed.
748:
1225:
330:
in prediction of welding parameters such as depth of fusion, cooling rates, and residual stresses. Due to the complexity of the pulsed laser process, it is necessary to employ a procedure that involves a development cycle. The cycle involves constructing a mathematical model, calculating a thermal cycle using numerical modeling techniques like either
497:
151:(GMAW). This combination allows for greater positioning flexibility, since GMAW supplies molten metal to fill the joint, and due to the use of a laser, increases the welding speed over what is normally possible with GMAW. Weld quality tends to be higher as well, since the potential for undercutting is reduced.
1088:
759:
analogous to an air pocket. The air pocket is in a state of flux. Forces such as the recoil pressure of the evaporated metal open the keyhole while gravity (aka hydrostatic forces) and metal surface tension tend to collapse it. At even higher power densities, the vapor can be ionized to form a plasma.
381:
Rosenthal point source assumption leaves an infinitely high temperature discontinuity which is addressed by assuming a
Gaussian distribution instead. Radiant energy is also not uniformly distributed within the beam. Some devices produce Gaussian energy distributions, whereas others can be bimodal. A
1845:
The physics of pulsed laser can be very complex and therefore, some simplifying assumptions need to be made to either speed up calculation or compensate for a lack of materials properties. The temperature-dependence of material properties such as specific heat are ignored to minimize computing time.
758:
Lasers can weld in one of two modes: conduction and keyhole. Which mode is in operation depends on whether the power density is sufficiently high enough to cause evaporation. Conduction mode occurs below the vaporization point while keyhole mode occurs above the vaporization point. The keyhole is
377:
is absorbed and turned into heat for welding. Some of the radiant energy is absorbed in the plasma created by vaporizing and then subsequently ionizing the gas. In addition, the absorptivity is affected by the wavelength of the beam, the surface composition of the material being welded, the angle of
329:
Pulsed-laser welding has advantages over continuous wave (CW) laser welding. Some of these advantages are lower porosity and less spatter. Pulsed-laser welding also has some disadvantages such as causing hot cracking in aluminum alloys. Thermal analysis of the pulsed-laser welding process can assist
316:
Modern laser beam welding machines can be grouped into two types. In the traditional type, the laser output is moved to follow the seam. This is usually achieved with a robot. In many modern applications, remote laser beam welding is used. In this method, the laser beam is moved along the seam with
36:
35:
32:
1493:
Unlike CW (Continuous Wave) laser welding which involves one moving thermal cycle, pulsed laser involves repetitively impinging on the same spot, thus creating multiple overlapping thermal cycles. A method of addressing this is to add a step function that multiplies the heat flux by one when the
37:
1696:
80:
and high heating and cooling rates. The spot size of the laser can vary between 0.2 mm and 13 mm, though only smaller sizes are used for welding. The depth of penetration is proportional to the amount of power supplied, but is also dependent on the location of the
34:
1792:
905:
291:
gas laser beam is 10.6 Ī¼m, deep infrared, i.e. 'heat'. Fiber optic cable absorbs and is destroyed by this wavelength, so a rigid lens and mirror delivery system is used. Power outputs for gas lasers can be much higher than solid-state lasers, reaching
743:{\displaystyle \alpha _{\theta }=1-R_{\theta }=1-0.5{{1+(1-\epsilon \cos \theta )^{2} \over {1+{1+\epsilon \cos \theta )^{2}}}}+{{{\epsilon ^{2}}-2\epsilon \cos \theta +2\cos ^{2}\theta } \over {\epsilon ^{2}}+2\epsilon \cos \theta +2\cos ^{2}\theta }}}
1533:, where Ī“= the Kronecker delta, qe=experimentally determined heat flux. The problem with this method, is it does not allow you to see the effect of pulse duration. One way of solving this is to a use a modifier that is time-dependent function such as:
1484:
1220:{\displaystyle {\partial {\overrightarrow {v}} \over \partial t}+({\overrightarrow {v}}*\bigtriangledown ){\overrightarrow {v}}=-{1 \over \rho }\bigtriangledown P+v\bigtriangledown {\overrightarrow {v}}+\beta {\overrightarrow {g}}\Delta T}
1297:
1033:
286:
Gas lasers use high-voltage, low-current power sources to supply the energy needed to excite the gas mixture used as a lasing medium. These lasers can operate in both continuous and pulsed mode, and the wavelength of the
489:
Using a temperature distribution instead of a point source assumption allows for easier calculation of temperature-dependent material properties such as absorptivity. On the irradiated surface, when a keyhole is formed,
88:
A continuous or pulsed laser beam may be used depending upon the application. Millisecond-long pulses are used to weld thin materials such as razor blades while continuous laser systems are employed for deep welds.
1538:
183:, expanded to development of open source laser welding systems. Such systems have been fully characterized and can be used in a wide scale of applications while reducing conventional manufacturing costs.
750:, where Īµ is a function of dielectric constant, electric conductivity, and laser frequency. Īø is the angle of incidence. Understanding the absorption efficiency is key to calculating thermal effects.
1082:
60:. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates. The process is frequently used in high volume and precision requiring applications using
33:
2068:
1710:
765:
457:
1981:
Reinhart, G., Munzert, U. and Vogl, W., 2008. A programming system for robot-based remote-laser-welding with conventional optics. CIRP Annals-Manufacturing
Technology, 57(1), pp.37-40.
1837:
Results can be validated by specific experimental observations or trends from generic experiments. These experiments have involved metallographic verification of the depth of fusion.
1819:
1326:
321:, so that the robotic arm does not need to follow the seam any more. The advantages of remote laser welding are the higher speed and the higher precision of the welding process.
1990:
Kim, P., Rhee, S. and Lee, C.H., 1999. Automatic teaching of welding robot for free-formed seam using laser vision sensor. Optics and Lasers in
Engineering, 31(3), pp.173-182.
1531:
1359:
484:
116:. The speed of welding is proportional to the amount of power supplied but also depends on the type and thickness of the workpieces. The high power capability of
1346:
1231:
1849:
The liquid temperature can be overestimated if the amount of heat loss due to mass loss from vapor leaving the liquid-metal interface is not accounted for.
308:, the main medium is the optical fiber itself. They are capable of power up to 50 kW and are increasingly being used for robotic industrial welding.
1890:
Cieslak, M. (1988). "On the weldability, composition, and hardness of pulsed and continuous Nd: YAG laser welds in aluminum alloys 6061, 5456, and 5086".
918:
2387:
915:
is the equilibrium temperature at the liquid-vapor interface. Using the assumption that the vapor flow is limited to sonic velocities, one gets that
2041:
Sabbaghzadeh, Jamshid; Azizi, Maryam; Torkamany, M. Javad (2008). "Numerical and experimental investigation of seam welding with a pulsed laser".
2349:
1486:, where kn=the thermal conductivity normal to the surface impinged on by the laser, h=convective heat transfer coefficient for air, Ļ is the
2203:
Chen, Guibo; Gu, Xiuying; Bi, Juan (2016). "Numerical analysis of thermal effect in aluminum alloy by repetition frequency pulsed laser".
1829:
Incrementing is done by discretizing the governing equations presented in the previous steps and applying the next time and length steps.
1691:{\displaystyle f(n)={\begin{cases}1,&{\text{if }}n/v\leq t\leq n/v+\tau \\0,&{\text{if }}n/v+\tau \leq t\leq (n+1)/v\end{cases}}}
2322:
494:(the almost complete absorption of the beam energy due to multiple reflection within the keyhole cavity) occurs and can be modeled by
2963:
112:. Due to high cooling rates, cracking is a concern when welding high-carbon steels. The weld quality is high, similar to that of
2380:
1048:
2122:
2069:
Open Source Laser
Polymer Welding System: Design and Characterization of Linear Low-Density Polyethylene Multilayer Welds
1348:=viscosity, Ī²=thermal expansion coefficient, g=gravity, and F is the volume fraction of fluid in a simulation grid cell.
2003:
Cline, H. E.; Anthony, T. R. (1977-09-01). "Heat treating and melting material with a scanning laser or electron beam".
1356:
In order to determine the boundary temperature at the laser impingement surface, you would apply an equation like this.
2373:
2342:
2300:
2285:
2270:
1787:{\displaystyle \rho C_{p}({\partial T \over \partial t}+{\overrightarrow {v}}\bigtriangledown T)=k\bigtriangledown T}
120:
make them especially suitable for high volume applications. LBW is particularly dominant in the automotive industry.
900:{\displaystyle {dP \over dT}={d\Delta H_{LV} \over dT\Delta V_{LV}}\thickapprox {d\Delta H_{LV} \over T_{LV}V_{LV}}}
2702:
385:
338:(FDM) or analytical models with simplifying assumptions, and validating the model by experimental measurements.
2872:
2318:
Weld morphology and thermal modeling in dual-beam laser welding; research article from the 2002 Welding
Journal
1707:
2nd Law to obtain the internal temperature distribution. Assuming no internal heat generation, the solution is
1487:
97:
17:
1949:
1494:
beam is on but multiplies the heat flux by zero when the beam is off. One way to achieve this is by using a
2525:
2335:
1925:
1797:
1304:
165:
3032:
2928:
2470:
164:
Although laser beam welding can be accomplished by hand, most systems are automated and use a system of
2732:
2447:
180:
64:, as in the automotive and aeronautics industries. It is based on keyhole or penetration mode welding.
2462:
382:
Gaussian energy distribution can be applied by multiplying the power density by a function like this:
1562:
3027:
2437:
1490:
for radiation, and Īµ is the emissivity of the material being welded on, q is laser beam heat flux.
1479:{\displaystyle k_{n}{\partial T \over \partial n}-q+h(T-T_{o})+\sigma \epsilon (T^{4}-T_{o}^{2})=0}
253:
Regardless of type, however, when the medium is excited, it emits photons and forms the laser beam.
76:(EBW), laser beam welding has high power density (on the order of 1 MW/cm) resulting in small
1501:
2664:
2412:
2902:
2722:
2520:
2427:
1858:
352:
169:
85:: penetration is maximized when the focal point is slightly below the surface of the workpiece
2790:
2505:
2500:
2475:
2452:
2432:
335:
331:
148:
113:
73:
2897:
2780:
2768:
2695:
2571:
2515:
462:
144:
1292:{\displaystyle {\partial F \over \partial t}+({\overrightarrow {v}}*\bigtriangledown )F=0}
8:
2948:
2867:
2807:
2727:
2480:
348:
Calculating the recoil pressure based on temperatures and a
Clausius-Clapeyron equation.
2597:
2535:
2485:
2442:
2417:
2317:
2312:
2174:
1907:
1331:
491:
77:
2162:
2968:
2842:
2817:
2639:
2634:
2296:
2281:
2266:
2178:
2166:
2118:
2020:
1911:
193:
2054:
3037:
2978:
2943:
2923:
2892:
2495:
2396:
2212:
2158:
2110:
2050:
2012:
1899:
1704:
1028:{\displaystyle P_{r}\approxeq 0.54P_{o}exp(\Delta H_{LV}{T-T_{LV} \over RTT_{LV}})}
907:, where P is the equilibrium vapor pressure, T is the liquid surface temperature, H
3006:
2887:
2877:
2688:
2607:
1495:
101:
2216:
2146:
2983:
2973:
2933:
2882:
2800:
2753:
2737:
2602:
2566:
2067:
John J. Laureto, Serguei V. Dessiatoun, Michael M. Ohadi and Joshua M. Pearce.
374:
318:
243:
212:
82:
2114:
56:
technique used to join pieces of metal or thermoplastics through the use of a
3021:
2938:
2918:
2859:
2785:
2581:
2576:
2540:
2490:
2422:
2170:
2024:
131:
127:
the laser beam can be transmitted through air rather than requiring a vacuum
2958:
2827:
2822:
2763:
2561:
2530:
2358:
1043:
This pertains to keyhole profiles. Fluid flow velocities are determined by
762:
The recoil pressure is determined by using the
Clausius-Clapeyron equation.
93:
2147:"Mechanism of keyhole formation and stability in stationary laser welding"
207:
The first type uses one of several solid media, including synthetic ruby (
172:. Laser welding can also be coupled with milling to form a finished part.
2988:
2849:
2832:
2812:
2612:
2404:
305:
2837:
2659:
2654:
2313:
Dual beam laser welding; research article from the 2002 Welding
Journal
2239:
Frewin (January 1999). "Finite
Element Model of Pulsed Laser Welding".
1903:
267:
263:
197:
61:
1794:, where k=thermal conductivity, Ļ=density, Cp=specific heat capacity,
2953:
2795:
2775:
2758:
2649:
2644:
2556:
2016:
220:
216:
117:
2323:
Laser welding articles from the
Industrial Laser Solutions Magazine
239:
208:
109:
105:
2145:
Lee, Jae Y.; Ko, Sung H.; Farson, Dave F.; Yoo, Choong D. (2002).
2669:
2629:
275:
262:
Solid-state lasers operate at wavelengths on the order of 1
224:
53:
1700:
where v= pulse frequency, n=0,1, 2,...,v-1), Ļ= pulse duration.
2327:
341:
A methodology combining some of the published models involves:
235:
228:
201:
176:
147:, combines the laser of LBW with an arc welding method such as
1035:, where Po is atmospheric pressure and Pr is recoil pressure.
459:, where r is the radial distance from the center of the beam,
2711:
1703:
Next, you would apply this boundary condition and solve for
271:
57:
2295:
5th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.
1684:
324:
2040:
1840:
2680:
1950:"Laser Beam Welding - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
1077:{\displaystyle \bigtriangledown *{\overrightarrow {v}}=0}
123:
Some of the advantages of LBW in comparison to EBW are:
293:
1885:
1883:
2265:. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.
1800:
1713:
1541:
1504:
1362:
1334:
1328:
is the velocity vector, P=pressure, Ļ= mass density,
1307:
1234:
1091:
1051:
921:
768:
500:
465:
388:
1880:
1813:
1786:
1690:
1525:
1478:
1340:
1320:
1291:
1219:
1076:
1027:
899:
742:
478:
451:
3019:
378:incidence, and the temperature of the material.
2291:Kalpakjian, Serope and Schmid,Steven R.(2006).
2105:Steen, William M.; Mazumder, Jyotirmoy (2010).
219:in glass (Nd:glass), and the most common type,
92:LBW is a versatile process, capable of welding
2234:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2144:
351:Calculate the fluid flow velocities using the
2696:
2381:
2343:
2261:Cary, Howard B. and Scott C. Helzer (2005).
2104:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2036:
2034:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2002:
1998:
1996:
345:Determining the power absorption efficiency.
41:A robot performs remote fibre laser welding.
2223:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2134:
452:{\displaystyle f(r)=\exp(-r^{2}/a_{o}^{2})}
2703:
2689:
2388:
2374:
2350:
2336:
2091:
2031:
192:The two types of lasers commonly used are
2185:
1993:
358:Calculating the temperature distribution.
234:Gas lasers use mixtures of gases such as
2293:Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
2202:
2131:
325:Thermal modeling of pulsed-laser welding
29:
2964:Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator
1889:
1841:Consequences of simplifying assumptions
14:
3020:
2238:
311:
179:project, which historically worked on
2684:
2369:
2331:
2151:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
2079:(3), 14; doi: 10.3390/machines4030014
1926:"Ensuring the Quality of Laser Welds"
1814:{\displaystyle {\overrightarrow {v}}}
1321:{\displaystyle {\overrightarrow {v}}}
911:is the latent heat of vaporization, T
159:
130:the process is easily automated with
361:Increment time and repeat steps 1ā4.
139:LBW results in higher quality welds
24:
1741:
1733:
1384:
1376:
1246:
1238:
1211:
1110:
1095:
960:
850:
822:
798:
25:
3049:
2306:
841:
3002:
3001:
2357:
2448:Shielded metal (Stick/MMA/SMAW)
2438:Gas tungsten (Heliarc/TIG/GTAW)
2255:
2082:
2061:
2055:10.1016/j.optlastec.2007.05.005
2873:Amplified spontaneous emission
2433:Gas metal (Microwire/MIG/GMAW)
1984:
1975:
1966:
1942:
1918:
1871:
1769:
1727:
1670:
1658:
1551:
1545:
1467:
1436:
1424:
1405:
1277:
1258:
1141:
1122:
1022:
957:
611:
574:
552:
446:
410:
398:
392:
257:
13:
1:
2043:Optics & Laser Technology
1864:
1498:which modifies q as follows:
2413:Atomic hydrogen (Athydo/AHW)
1892:Metallurgical Transactions B
1526:{\displaystyle q=\delta *qe}
166:computer aided manufacturing
154:
67:
7:
2929:Chirped pulse amplification
2395:
2280:. New York: CRC Press LLC.
2217:10.1016/j.ijleo.2016.08.010
2163:10.1088/0022-3727/35/13/320
1852:
486:=beam radius or spot size.
10:
3054:
2733:List of laser applications
2710:
2278:Welding processes handbook
2005:Journal of Applied Physics
181:fused filament fabrication
2997:
2911:
2858:
2746:
2718:
2625:
2590:
2549:
2471:Electric resistance (ERW)
2461:
2403:
2365:
2263:Modern Welding Technology
2115:10.1007/978-1-84996-062-5
2107:Laser Material Processing
1832:
1824:
1488:StefanāBoltzmann constant
1351:
1038:
753:
368:
332:finite elemental modeling
186:
1821:=fluid velocity vector.
336:finite difference method
299:
136:x-rays are not generated
204:lasers) and gas lasers.
2723:List of laser articles
2088:Cary and Helzer, p 209
1877:Cary and Helzer, p 210
1859:Laser metal deposition
1815:
1788:
1692:
1527:
1480:
1342:
1322:
1293:
1221:
1078:
1029:
901:
744:
480:
453:
353:volume of fluid method
281:
170:computer aided designs
42:
2665:Tools and terminology
2276:Weman, Klas (2003).
1954:www.sciencedirect.com
1816:
1789:
1693:
1528:
1481:
1343:
1323:
1294:
1222:
1079:
1030:
902:
745:
481:
479:{\displaystyle a_{o}}
454:
364:Validating of results
149:gas metal arc welding
143:A derivative of LBW,
114:electron beam welding
74:electron-beam welding
40:
2898:Population inversion
1798:
1711:
1539:
1502:
1360:
1332:
1305:
1232:
1089:
1049:
919:
766:
498:
463:
386:
145:laser-hybrid welding
2949:Laser beam profiler
2868:Active laser medium
2808:Free-electron laser
2728:List of laser types
2501:Friction stir (FSW)
2476:Electron-beam (EBW)
2211:(20): 10115ā10121.
1466:
445:
312:Laser beam delivery
250:laser) as a medium.
78:heat-affected zones
3033:Laser applications
2598:Heat-affected zone
2526:Oxyacetylene (OAW)
1904:10.1007/BF02654217
1811:
1784:
1688:
1683:
1523:
1476:
1452:
1338:
1318:
1289:
1217:
1074:
1025:
897:
740:
492:Fresnel reflection
476:
449:
431:
194:solid-state lasers
160:Automation and CAM
46:Laser beam welding
43:
3015:
3014:
2969:Optical amplifier
2818:Solid-state laser
2678:
2677:
2621:
2620:
2481:Electroslag (ESW)
2428:Flux-cored (FCAW)
2124:978-1-84996-061-8
1809:
1761:
1748:
1630:
1576:
1391:
1341:{\displaystyle v}
1316:
1269:
1253:
1209:
1193:
1168:
1152:
1133:
1117:
1106:
1066:
1020:
895:
839:
787:
737:
622:
132:robotic machinery
38:
27:Welding technique
16:(Redirected from
3045:
3005:
3004:
2979:Optical isolator
2944:Injection seeder
2924:Beam homogenizer
2903:Ultrashort pulse
2893:Lasing threshold
2705:
2698:
2691:
2682:
2681:
2511:Laser beam (LBW)
2418:Electrogas (EGW)
2390:
2383:
2376:
2367:
2366:
2352:
2345:
2338:
2329:
2328:
2249:
2248:
2236:
2221:
2220:
2200:
2183:
2182:
2142:
2129:
2128:
2102:
2089:
2086:
2080:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2038:
2029:
2028:
2017:10.1063/1.324261
2011:(9): 3895ā3900.
2000:
1991:
1988:
1982:
1979:
1973:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1936:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1887:
1878:
1875:
1820:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1810:
1802:
1793:
1791:
1790:
1785:
1762:
1754:
1749:
1747:
1739:
1731:
1726:
1725:
1697:
1695:
1694:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1677:
1639:
1631:
1628:
1605:
1585:
1577:
1574:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1485:
1483:
1482:
1477:
1465:
1460:
1448:
1447:
1423:
1422:
1392:
1390:
1382:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1347:
1345:
1344:
1339:
1327:
1325:
1324:
1319:
1317:
1309:
1298:
1296:
1295:
1290:
1270:
1262:
1254:
1252:
1244:
1236:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1210:
1202:
1194:
1186:
1169:
1161:
1153:
1145:
1134:
1126:
1118:
1116:
1108:
1107:
1099:
1093:
1083:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1067:
1059:
1034:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1019:
1018:
1017:
998:
997:
996:
977:
975:
974:
947:
946:
931:
930:
906:
904:
903:
898:
896:
894:
893:
892:
880:
879:
866:
865:
864:
845:
840:
838:
837:
836:
814:
813:
812:
793:
788:
786:
778:
770:
749:
747:
746:
741:
739:
738:
736:
729:
728:
695:
694:
693:
682:
675:
674:
641:
640:
639:
628:
623:
621:
620:
619:
618:
583:
582:
581:
544:
529:
528:
510:
509:
485:
483:
482:
477:
475:
474:
458:
456:
455:
450:
444:
439:
430:
425:
424:
39:
21:
3053:
3052:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3028:Laser machining
3018:
3017:
3016:
3011:
2993:
2907:
2888:Laser linewidth
2878:Continuous wave
2854:
2747:Types of lasers
2742:
2714:
2709:
2679:
2674:
2617:
2608:Residual stress
2586:
2545:
2463:Other processes
2457:
2453:Submerged (SAW)
2399:
2394:
2361:
2356:
2309:
2258:
2253:
2252:
2241:Welding Journal
2237:
2224:
2201:
2186:
2143:
2132:
2125:
2103:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2066:
2062:
2039:
2032:
2001:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1958:
1956:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1934:
1932:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1888:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1855:
1843:
1835:
1827:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1753:
1740:
1732:
1730:
1721:
1717:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1682:
1681:
1673:
1635:
1627:
1625:
1616:
1615:
1601:
1581:
1573:
1571:
1558:
1557:
1540:
1537:
1536:
1503:
1500:
1499:
1496:Kronecker delta
1461:
1456:
1443:
1439:
1418:
1414:
1383:
1375:
1373:
1367:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1261:
1245:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1201:
1185:
1160:
1144:
1125:
1109:
1098:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1086:
1058:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1010:
1006:
999:
989:
985:
978:
976:
967:
963:
942:
938:
926:
922:
920:
917:
916:
914:
910:
885:
881:
872:
868:
867:
857:
853:
846:
844:
829:
825:
815:
805:
801:
794:
792:
779:
771:
769:
767:
764:
763:
756:
724:
720:
689:
685:
684:
683:
670:
666:
635:
631:
630:
629:
627:
614:
610:
591:
584:
577:
573:
545:
543:
542:
524:
520:
505:
501:
499:
496:
495:
470:
466:
464:
461:
460:
440:
435:
426:
420:
416:
387:
384:
383:
371:
327:
314:
302:
290:
284:
260:
249:
189:
162:
157:
102:stainless steel
70:
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3051:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3009:
2998:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2986:
2984:Output coupler
2981:
2976:
2974:Optical cavity
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2934:Gain-switching
2931:
2926:
2921:
2915:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2883:Laser ablation
2880:
2875:
2870:
2864:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2781:Carbon dioxide
2773:
2772:
2771:
2769:Liquid-crystal
2766:
2756:
2754:Chemical laser
2750:
2748:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2738:Laser acronyms
2735:
2730:
2725:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2708:
2707:
2700:
2693:
2685:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2626:
2623:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2603:Photokeratitis
2600:
2594:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2521:Magnetic pulse
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2467:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2456:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2409:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2393:
2392:
2385:
2378:
2370:
2363:
2362:
2355:
2354:
2347:
2340:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2308:
2307:External links
2305:
2304:
2303:
2289:
2274:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2222:
2184:
2130:
2123:
2090:
2081:
2060:
2049:(2): 289ā296.
2030:
1992:
1983:
1974:
1965:
1941:
1917:
1898:(2): 319ā329.
1879:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1842:
1839:
1834:
1831:
1826:
1823:
1808:
1805:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1760:
1757:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1738:
1735:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1389:
1386:
1381:
1378:
1370:
1366:
1353:
1350:
1337:
1315:
1312:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1268:
1265:
1260:
1257:
1251:
1248:
1243:
1240:
1216:
1213:
1208:
1205:
1200:
1197:
1192:
1189:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1167:
1164:
1159:
1156:
1151:
1148:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1132:
1129:
1124:
1121:
1115:
1112:
1105:
1102:
1097:
1073:
1070:
1065:
1062:
1057:
1054:
1040:
1037:
1024:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1002:
995:
992:
988:
984:
981:
973:
970:
966:
962:
959:
956:
953:
950:
945:
941:
937:
934:
929:
925:
912:
908:
891:
888:
884:
878:
875:
871:
863:
860:
856:
852:
849:
843:
835:
832:
828:
824:
821:
818:
811:
808:
804:
800:
797:
791:
785:
782:
777:
774:
755:
752:
735:
732:
727:
723:
719:
716:
713:
710:
707:
704:
701:
698:
692:
688:
681:
678:
673:
669:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
644:
638:
634:
626:
617:
613:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
594:
590:
587:
580:
576:
572:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
554:
551:
548:
541:
538:
535:
532:
527:
523:
519:
516:
513:
508:
504:
473:
469:
448:
443:
438:
434:
429:
423:
419:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
400:
397:
394:
391:
375:radiant energy
370:
367:
366:
365:
362:
359:
356:
349:
346:
326:
323:
317:the help of a
313:
310:
301:
298:
288:
283:
280:
259:
256:
255:
254:
251:
247:
244:carbon dioxide
232:
213:aluminum oxide
205:
188:
185:
161:
158:
156:
153:
141:
140:
137:
134:
128:
69:
66:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3050:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3008:
3000:
2999:
2996:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2939:Gaussian beam
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2919:Beam expander
2917:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2860:Laser physics
2857:
2851:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2778:
2777:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2749:
2745:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2720:
2717:
2713:
2706:
2701:
2699:
2694:
2692:
2687:
2686:
2683:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2624:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2591:Related terms
2589:
2583:
2582:Shielding gas
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2506:Friction stud
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2464:
2460:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2386:
2384:
2379:
2377:
2372:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2353:
2348:
2346:
2341:
2339:
2334:
2333:
2330:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2302:
2301:0-13-148965-8
2298:
2294:
2290:
2287:
2286:0-8493-1773-8
2283:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2271:0-13-113029-3
2268:
2264:
2260:
2259:
2246:
2242:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2135:
2126:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2085:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2064:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2037:
2035:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
1999:
1997:
1987:
1978:
1969:
1955:
1951:
1945:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1886:
1884:
1874:
1870:
1860:
1857:
1856:
1850:
1847:
1838:
1830:
1822:
1806:
1803:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1766:
1763:
1758:
1755:
1750:
1744:
1736:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1706:
1701:
1698:
1678:
1674:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1622:
1619:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1568:
1565:
1559:
1554:
1548:
1542:
1534:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1497:
1491:
1489:
1473:
1470:
1462:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1440:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1408:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1379:
1368:
1364:
1349:
1335:
1313:
1310:
1299:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1274:
1271:
1266:
1263:
1255:
1249:
1241:
1227:
1214:
1206:
1203:
1198:
1195:
1190:
1187:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1165:
1162:
1157:
1154:
1149:
1146:
1138:
1135:
1130:
1127:
1119:
1113:
1103:
1100:
1084:
1071:
1068:
1063:
1060:
1055:
1052:
1044:
1036:
1014:
1011:
1007:
1003:
1000:
993:
990:
986:
982:
979:
971:
968:
964:
954:
951:
948:
943:
939:
935:
932:
927:
923:
889:
886:
882:
876:
873:
869:
861:
858:
854:
847:
833:
830:
826:
819:
816:
809:
806:
802:
795:
789:
783:
780:
775:
772:
760:
751:
733:
730:
725:
721:
717:
714:
711:
708:
705:
702:
699:
696:
690:
686:
679:
676:
671:
667:
663:
660:
657:
654:
651:
648:
645:
642:
636:
632:
624:
615:
607:
604:
601:
598:
595:
592:
588:
585:
578:
570:
567:
564:
561:
558:
555:
549:
546:
539:
536:
533:
530:
525:
521:
517:
514:
511:
506:
502:
493:
487:
471:
467:
441:
436:
432:
427:
421:
417:
413:
407:
404:
401:
395:
389:
379:
376:
363:
360:
357:
354:
350:
347:
344:
343:
342:
339:
337:
333:
322:
320:
319:laser scanner
309:
307:
297:
295:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
252:
245:
241:
237:
233:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
203:
199:
195:
191:
190:
184:
182:
178:
173:
171:
167:
152:
150:
146:
138:
135:
133:
129:
126:
125:
124:
121:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
94:carbon steels
90:
86:
84:
79:
75:
65:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
19:
18:Laser welding
2959:Mode locking
2912:Laser optics
2572:Power supply
2562:Filler metal
2516:Laser-hybrid
2510:
2443:Plasma (PAW)
2359:Metalworking
2292:
2277:
2262:
2256:Bibliography
2244:
2240:
2208:
2204:
2157:(13): 1570.
2154:
2150:
2106:
2084:
2076:
2072:
2063:
2046:
2042:
2008:
2004:
1986:
1977:
1968:
1957:. Retrieved
1953:
1944:
1933:. Retrieved
1929:
1920:
1895:
1891:
1873:
1848:
1844:
1836:
1828:
1702:
1699:
1535:
1492:
1355:
1300:
1228:
1085:
1045:
1042:
761:
757:
488:
380:
372:
340:
328:
315:
306:fiber lasers
303:
285:
261:
196:(especially
175:In 2016 the
174:
163:
142:
122:
91:
87:
71:
49:
45:
44:
2989:Q-switching
2850:X-ray laser
2843:Ti-sapphire
2813:Laser diode
2791:Heliumāneon
2635:Fabrication
2613:Weldability
2405:Arc welding
1972:Weman, p 98
270:containing
258:Solid state
198:ruby lasers
98:HSLA steels
83:focal point
3022:Categories
2655:Metallurgy
2536:Ultrasonic
2531:Spot (RSW)
2486:Exothermic
1959:2022-05-31
1935:2022-05-31
1865:References
268:flash tube
264:micrometer
118:gas lasers
62:automation
2954:M squared
2776:Gas laser
2759:Dye laser
2650:Machining
2645:Jewellery
2557:Electrode
2550:Equipment
2179:250782960
2171:0022-3727
2025:0021-8979
1912:135498572
1807:→
1779:▽
1764:▽
1759:→
1742:∂
1734:∂
1715:ρ
1705:Fourier's
1656:≤
1650:≤
1647:τ
1613:τ
1596:≤
1590:≤
1515:∗
1512:δ
1450:−
1434:ϵ
1431:σ
1412:−
1394:−
1385:∂
1377:∂
1314:→
1275:▽
1272:∗
1267:→
1247:∂
1239:∂
1212:Δ
1207:→
1199:β
1191:→
1183:▽
1171:▽
1166:ρ
1158:−
1150:→
1139:▽
1136:∗
1131:→
1111:∂
1104:→
1096:∂
1064:→
1056:∗
1053:▽
983:−
961:Δ
933:≊
851:Δ
842:≈
823:Δ
799:Δ
734:θ
731:
712:θ
709:
703:ϵ
687:ϵ
680:θ
677:
658:θ
655:
649:ϵ
643:−
633:ϵ
608:θ
605:
599:ϵ
571:θ
568:
562:ϵ
559:−
537:−
526:θ
518:−
507:θ
503:α
414:−
408:
334:(FEM) or
231:(Nd:YAG).
227:aluminum
221:neodymium
217:neodymium
168:based on
155:Equipment
68:Operation
3007:Category
2801:Nitrogen
2660:Smithing
2496:Friction
2073:Machines
1853:See also
1629:if
1575:if
373:Not all
292:25
240:nitrogen
209:chromium
110:titanium
106:aluminum
3038:Welding
2786:Excimer
2670:Welding
2640:Forming
2630:Casting
2397:Welding
2247:: 15ā2.
1930:Element
276:krypton
225:yttrium
54:welding
52:) is a
2828:Nd:YAG
2823:Er:YAG
2764:Bubble
2712:Lasers
2567:Helmet
2299:
2284:
2269:
2177:
2169:
2121:
2075:2016,
2023:
1910:
1833:Step 6
1825:Step 5
1352:Step 4
1301:where
1039:Step 3
754:Step 2
369:Step 1
355:(VOF).
242:, and
236:helium
229:garnet
202:Nd:YAG
187:Lasers
177:RepRap
108:, and
2833:Raman
2577:Robot
2541:Upset
2491:Forge
2423:Flash
2205:Optik
2175:S2CID
1908:S2CID
300:Fiber
272:xenon
72:Like
58:laser
2838:Ruby
2297:ISBN
2282:ISBN
2267:ISBN
2167:ISSN
2119:ISBN
2021:ISSN
936:0.54
200:and
2796:Ion
2213:doi
2209:127
2159:doi
2111:doi
2051:doi
2013:doi
1900:doi
722:cos
706:cos
668:cos
652:cos
602:cos
565:cos
540:0.5
405:exp
304:In
282:Gas
274:or
246:(CO
223:in
215:),
211:in
50:LBW
3024::
2245:78
2243:.
2225:^
2207:.
2187:^
2173:.
2165:.
2155:35
2153:.
2149:.
2133:^
2117:.
2109:.
2093:^
2071:.
2047:40
2045:.
2033:^
2019:.
2009:48
2007:.
1995:^
1952:.
1928:.
1906:.
1894:.
1882:^
913:LV
909:LV
296:.
294:kW
287:CO
238:,
104:,
100:,
96:,
2704:e
2697:t
2690:v
2389:e
2382:t
2375:v
2351:e
2344:t
2337:v
2288:.
2273:.
2219:.
2215::
2181:.
2161::
2127:.
2113::
2077:4
2057:.
2053::
2027:.
2015::
1962:.
1938:.
1914:.
1902::
1896:9
1804:v
1782:T
1776:k
1773:=
1770:)
1767:T
1756:v
1751:+
1745:t
1737:T
1728:(
1723:p
1719:C
1679:v
1675:/
1671:)
1668:1
1665:+
1662:n
1659:(
1653:t
1644:+
1641:v
1637:/
1633:n
1623:,
1620:0
1610:+
1607:v
1603:/
1599:n
1593:t
1587:v
1583:/
1579:n
1569:,
1566:1
1560:{
1555:=
1552:)
1549:n
1546:(
1543:f
1521:e
1518:q
1509:=
1506:q
1474:0
1471:=
1468:)
1463:2
1458:o
1454:T
1445:4
1441:T
1437:(
1428:+
1425:)
1420:o
1416:T
1409:T
1406:(
1403:h
1400:+
1397:q
1388:n
1380:T
1369:n
1365:k
1336:v
1311:v
1287:0
1284:=
1281:F
1278:)
1264:v
1259:(
1256:+
1250:t
1242:F
1215:T
1204:g
1196:+
1188:v
1180:v
1177:+
1174:P
1163:1
1155:=
1147:v
1142:)
1128:v
1123:(
1120:+
1114:t
1101:v
1072:0
1069:=
1061:v
1023:)
1015:V
1012:L
1008:T
1004:T
1001:R
994:V
991:L
987:T
980:T
972:V
969:L
965:H
958:(
955:p
952:x
949:e
944:o
940:P
928:r
924:P
890:V
887:L
883:V
877:V
874:L
870:T
862:V
859:L
855:H
848:d
834:V
831:L
827:V
820:T
817:d
810:V
807:L
803:H
796:d
790:=
784:T
781:d
776:P
773:d
726:2
718:2
715:+
700:2
697:+
691:2
672:2
664:2
661:+
646:2
637:2
625:+
616:2
612:)
596:+
593:1
589:+
586:1
579:2
575:)
556:1
553:(
550:+
547:1
534:1
531:=
522:R
515:1
512:=
472:o
468:a
447:)
442:2
437:o
433:a
428:/
422:2
418:r
411:(
402:=
399:)
396:r
393:(
390:f
289:2
248:2
48:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.