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concretely established, with 60–70,000 killed by ANC operations to suppress the Kwilu
Rebellion alone. In the next few years, small outbursts of violence continued around the Kwilu region, although without the planning and coordination of the rebellion itself. In 1968, president Mobutu lured Mulele out of exile with the promise of amnesty. However, when Mulele returned expecting safety, he was publicly tortured and executed. After the provincial government was restored on 18 January 1966, the Kwilu province was merged with the Kwango District and Mai-Ndombe District to create Bandundu Province, as part of a national effort to reduce political and ethnic tensions. The wider Congo crisis during which the Kwilu rebellion occurred is considered a significant event in Congo's recent history. It is viewed as a representation of Western influence and power in Africa. Of the numerous struggles faced by Congo in the years after its independence, the Kwilu rebellion was particularly impactful, as political conflict penetrated deeply in the villages and rural areas for the first time. The Kwilu rebellion coincided with a wide escalation of the Cold War amid the Gulf of Tonkin incident, and many believe that a "full-scale American military intervention could have occurred" as in Vietnam if the rebellion was not swiftly defeated. And in August 2024, four missionary priests martyred on 28th November 1964, were beatified by Pope Francis.
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606:, many of his forces were not. Largely tribal farmers and workers, they were often difficult to control. Many of the people that Mulele recruited were not only very militant in favoring civil disobedience, but also radical in their attitude toward Belgian colonial authority and the Congolese government. The rebels also used witchcraft extensively to demoralize their opponents. The rebels are reported to have used machetes, poisoned arrows, homemade bombs, and guns as weapons. However, they were limited as to the effectiveness of their weapons. They lacked weaponry, and that which they possessed was often in disrepair.
199:
667:
Christian mission, killing three pastors. From this point onwards, religious, government, and industrial agencies were key targets for rebels. On 5 February, the chief of staff of the ANC was ambushed and killed. In the first weeks of the rebellion, hundreds of police and government workers were killed by Kwilu rebels, often in public executions. As violence increased and attacks became more frequent, it sparked similar uprisings throughout the country, triggering the Simba rebellion. The rebels began to expand their territory and rapidly advance northwards, capturing Port-Émpain,
137:
152:
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165:
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post-independence development leading to a significant differential in access to material rewards. Those who were able to move into the former
Belgian-occupied roles in society, and those unable to achieve such opportunities for status mobility received a vastly different quality of life. The political instability within the country acted as a catalyst to turn discontent into revolt. Many of the would-be revolutionaries were young men, who felt disenfranchised and unsupported by
245:
184:
56:
617:. He taught them basic politics and military tactics, alongside the help of deserters from the Congolese army. The training included physical preparation, guerilla tactics, espionage, alongside ideological indoctrination. Prior to the start of the rebellion in 1964, a number of rebels were sent to various villages within the Kwilu district to indoctrinate, intimidate, and coerce villagers into supporting the cause.
545:’s government. The attitude of many in the Congo during this period has been described as 'fighting against foreign imperialists and their Congolese lackeys'. By late 1963, the value of the Congolese franc had plummeted, schools were overcrowded, and unemployment was high in the Kwilu region. Many Congolese people viewed themselves as worse off than they were prior to independence in 1960.
594:. This helped to inform the rebellion's ideology, with the majority of fighters claiming Maoist inspiration. The majority of rebels recruited were of the Mbunda or Pende ethnic groups, many of which had been targets of government oppression. These two ethnic groups comprised over half of the province's population, and played a major role in the victory over the
684:
retrieve fleeing missionaries. Rescue operations continued throughout the middle of 1964, and resulted in the successful recovery of over 100 missionaries. In some cases, the revolt was aided by villagers, who resented the presence of
Congolese troops. Certain cities in the Kwilu region were evacuated, with the help of UN forces.
552:"Before Independence, we dreamed that it would bring us masses of marvelous things. All of that was to descend upon us from the sky ... Deliverance and salvation ... But here it is more than two years that we have been waiting, and nothing has come ... On the contrary, our life is more difficult, we are more poor than before."
717:
Competing ethnic tensions were seen by many as a return to tribalism. By the beginning of 1965, the majority of captured areas were retaken, and the rebellion was starting to be put down. During this time, hunger and disease began to spread throughout the province, and remaining support for the rebellion began to wane.
707:
After the rebellion's early successes, the
Congolese government called for international aid in dealing with Mulele and his troops. Squads of foreign mercenaries, and 350 Belgian paratroopers were flown into the Congo. These trained forces began to quickly retake areas captured by the rebels. Foreign
687:
During the early months of the rebellion, attacks were generally planned and systematic. The people, villages, and institutions attacked were determined by the
Mulelist value system. Government, administrative, and wealthy individuals were targeted first. However, as the rebellion continued it became
716:
After a number of successes for the rebels, issues began to arise when trying to sustain control over captured territory. Corruption, administrative inefficiency, and ethnic favoritism turned out to be liabilities for the rebel leaders as much as they had been for previous provincial administrators.
703:
assembled a small force of peacekeepers and dispatched them to the Kwilu region to retrieve fleeing missionaries. Acting with the support of
Congolese forces, ONUC forces engaged rebels in Kwilu on multiple occasions before landing helicopters to evacuate missionaries and Western aid workers. Rescue
728:
After the defeat of the Kwilu rebellion, rebel remnants continued to be active in certain parts of the country. These had little impact on the government, however, and were confined to rural areas. The rebellion had significant casualties. Those killed in ANC "pacification" operations have not been
688:
more destructive, and less subject to the ideals, influence, and standards of
Mulelism, as well as its leaders. Murder, pillaging, and attacking women became more prevalent as time passed. This became particularly apparent after Europeans were evacuated from Kwilu, and the Congolese army arrived.
648:
The people of the villages must fight against the government, soldiers, and police, to overthrow the government and establish a new regime in which all must work in order to eat; in which foreigners cannot come to take the wealth of the country; and in which one cannot steal the wealth of another
601:
Mulele employed tactics reminiscent of
Chinese revolutions, and made his fighters adhere to a strict moral code, emphasising respect for civilians and self-discipline. The rebellion was backed by China, however, there is no evidence of physical support such as weapons, personnel, or ammunition.
683:
As they advanced, the rebels committed numerous massacres in the captured territory in order to remove political opposition and terrorise the population. A number of
Western missionaries were forced to retreat and flee the country. A small force of peacekeepers was sent to the Kwilu region to
666:
was thrown into the home of a professor, and two policemen were killed. Rebels attacked the
Portuguese palm oil refinery of Lutshima-Madail, and burned five of the company trucks, believed to have been used to transport soldiers of the National Congolese Army. On 23 January, rebels attacked a
625:
The political and ideological doctrine of Pierre Mulele acted as a backbone of the rebellion, and was followed by many of his troops. It offered a doctrine as to the problems facing the Congo, and an idyllic vision of what was to be done about them. The main tenets of the doctrine include:
679:
between July and August. As they advanced, the rebels began to gain a psychological edge over the ANC troops. This was largely due to the claims of magic possessed by Mulele and the rebels; that they were invulnerable, and that bullets would turn to water upon impact with rebel soldiers.
540:
Referred to as the ‘Second Independence’, the rebellion has been viewed as a revolutionary attempt to correct the injustices felt by many in the Congo after the first independence of 1960. Following independence in 1960, a period of social stratification occurred. This refers to the swift
712:
policy in order to isolate Kwilu rebels. They razed villages and destroyed harvests, often committing massacres of civilians. Notably, in Kikwit over 3,000 civilians were killed in a day, during an event nicknamed 'the National Butchery of Kikwit' by Colonel Joseph Monzimba.
533:’s government. When Lumumba was assassinated in early 1961, Mulele became a prominent and vocal advocate for his government and beliefs. In 1962, Mulele joined a group of fellow rebels and ex-politicians named the National Committee of Liberation. Headed by
513:. Based around the struggle for independence, the rebellion was encouraged by economic, social, and cultural grievances. Supported by communist China, rebels used mainly guerrilla warfare against government forces. The rebellion was concurrent with the
1724:
1794:
695:(ONUC), a peacekeeping operation, was in the process of withdrawing when the Kwilu rebellion started and had only 5,500 personnel, most whom were deployed in the eastern part of the country and stranded by the subsequent
517:
occurring in other areas of the Congo during this time. While the rebellion was suppressed in the early months of 1965, it had lasting political impacts, leading to the dissolution of Kwilu as an official province.
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operations continued throughout March and April and resulted in the successful recovery of over 100 missionaries. Apart from these actions ONUC played no other role in suppressing the rebellion.
1247:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965). "The Second Independence": A Case Study of the Kwilu Rebellion in the Congo. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 8(1), 78–109.
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there. Straggling Western missionaries from Kwilu retreated through the bush to their respective embassies, which in turn requested UN assistance. In late January 1964 ONUC Chief of Staff
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The rebellion began in August 1963, though its initial actions were limited in scope. The conflict escalated on 16 January 1964, as rebels rose up in the cities of Idiofa and Gungu in
1710:
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Remarks made in 1962 by persons attending a meeting of the Savoir-Vivre movement in the village of Laba near Idiofa in the Kwilu reflect the discontent of many in Kwilu at the time.
1957:
2020:
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2357:
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The people are divided into two classes: (1) the rich, the capitalists, who profit from the work of others. (2) Workers and peasants: the poor, or the "popular masses".
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This social discontent, alongside political infighting and hostility towards President Joseph Kasavubu, resulted in the struggle for power and resulting Congo crisis.
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Lanotte, O. "Chronology of the Democratic Republic of Congo/Zaire (1960–1997)". Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network. Paris Institute of Political Studies.
2006:
1999:
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Martens, Ludo. The people's uprising in the Congo (Kinshasa) 1964–1968: The way of Patrice Lumumba and Pierre Mulele. Labour Party of Belgium. ASIN B0007B9CMY
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Weigert S.L. (1996) Congo/Zaire: The Kwilu Rebellion, 1963–68. In: Traditional Religion and Guerrilla Warfare in Modern Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, London
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Siddiqui, A. (1992). FAILED INSURRECTIONS AND ETHNIC CLEAVAGES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ZAIRE AND SRI LANKA. Peace Research, 24(1), 37–56. Retrieved from
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1223:(1966). Political Protest in the Congo—The Parti Solidaire Africain During the Independence Struggle. Oxford University Press, 11(1), pp. 94–95.
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Traugott, M. (1979). The Economic Origins of the Kwilu Rebellion. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 21(3), 459–479. Retrieved from
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The two classes are in a constant struggle. Either a struggle to diminish suffering, or a struggle to reform and reorganize the country.
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The government of the Congo is poor, protecting their own and keeping wealth to themselves, treating the common people as 'slaves'.
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1268:
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Pierre Mulele fled into exile after the defeat of the rebellion, and would remain there for a number of years until his death.
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Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2014). Statecraft and Nation Building in Africa: A Post-colonial Study. Dar es Salaam: New Africa Press.
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Wagoner, Fred E. (2003). Dragon Rouge: The Rescue of Hostages in the Congo. Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific.
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1992:
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1209:
Gendebien, Paul-Henry (1967). L'Intervention Des Nations Unies Au Congo. 1960–1964. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
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in 1960. However, they only held 12 seats in the provincial government, which lead to significant discontent.
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https://www.nytimes.com/1964/01/17/archives/insurgents-terrorize-kwilu-province-in-congo.html
529:, rebel leader of the Kwilu rebellion, had previously served as minister of education within
431:
124:
89:
586:
Prior to leading the Kwilu rebellion, Pierre Mulele had undergone military training in the
537:, a former Deputy Premier, the group's aim was to "free the Congo of foreign oppression".
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Large civilian casualties, including 200 foreigners and at minimum 60,000–70,000 Congolese
8:
2175:
2150:
2127:
383:
364:
347:
1476:
1380:
1307:
1199:
489:(1963–1965) was a civil uprising which took place in the West of what is the modern-day
2052:
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Welch, C. (1980). Anatomy of Rebellion (1st ed.). Albany: State University of New York.
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New York Times. (1964). Insurgents Terrorize Kwilu Province in Congo. Retrieved from
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2013:
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61:
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1971:
1950:
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1462:
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709:
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510:
390:
136:
85:
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1918:
1518:
1385:
Mulele et la révolution populaire au Kwilu (République démocratique du Congo)
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170:
1345:
Cold War in the Congo: The Confrontation of Cuban Military Forces, 1960–1967
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1985:
1911:
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509:, a faction of rebel Maoists staged a revolt against the government in the
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43:
1327:
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Province. A series of incidents began to occur, carried out by rebels. A
323:
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All men, no matter what their status and work, were once village people.
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Le mouvement Savoir-Vivr Experience de developpement communautaire rural
1943:
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1301:
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55:
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494:
47:
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Understanding Civil War: Evidence and Analysis, Volume 1. Africa.
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2383:
20th-century mass murder in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Warrior Chiefs: Perspectives on Senior Canadian Military Leaders
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614:
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Mulele began in 1963 by recruiting young men in the regions of
266:
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591:
204:
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The laws of a country are to protect the well-being of all.
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All the wealth in the country is controlled by foreigners.
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1028:
1016:
1109:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965).
1013:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965).
1004:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965).
977:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965).
941:
929:
493:. The rebellion took place in the wider context of the
995:
Fox, R., De Craemer, W., & Ribeaucourt, J. (1965).
557:
Jacques Meert, "Une semaine dans les villages Laba",
917:
2358:Civil wars in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2378:Massacres in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
723:
2363:1963 in the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)
2339:
1227:Horn, Bernd; Harris, Stephen John, eds. (2001).
1273:
1070:
1417:
282:
2373:1965 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2368:1964 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
1431:
1312:"Les rébellions populaires au Congo en 1964"
1184:. Oxford; New York City: Osprey Publishing.
1181:Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002
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708:mercenaries alongside ANC troops enacted a
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1410:
1226:
1058:
1046:
1034:
1022:
289:
275:
54:
1379:
1341:
1306:
947:
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1592:Armée Populaire de Libération ("Simbas")
1198:Collier, P., & Sambanis, N. (2005).
573:
1718:White Legion (Compagnie Internationale)
1163:Collier, P., & Sambanis, N. (2005).
1136:Collier, P., & Sambanis, N. (2005).
962:
578:Mulele (third from the right) with the
14:
2340:
1348:. Abingdon; New York City: Routledge.
1177:
923:
505:, a follower of ousted prime minister
2287:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
1610:United Nations Operation in the Congo
1405:
693:United Nations Operation in the Congo
462:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
270:
1296:http://www.jstor.org/stable/23607636
896:Fox, de Craemer, Ribeaucourt (1965).
2319:Belgian general strike of 1960–1961
1277:The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98
914:Fox, de Craemer, Ribeaucourt (1965)
905:Fox, de Craemer, Ribeaucourt (1965)
64:(red) and Kwilu rebellions (yellow)
24:
1373:
1302:http://www.jstor.org/stable/178542
1280:(illustrated ed.). Springer.
25:
2414:
1233:(illustrated ed.). Dundurn.
1202:The World Bank: Washington, DC. (
1711:6th Commando Battalion (Belgium)
1704:4th Commando Battalion (Belgium)
1697:2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium)
1560:Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC)
491:Democratic Republic of the Congo
296:
243:
231:
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125:Democratic Republic of the Congo
118:
90:Democratic Republic of the Congo
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845:
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827:
602:While Mulele was strict in his
2294:Torture and killing of Lumumba
818:
809:
800:
791:
782:
773:
764:
755:
746:
724:Aftermath and political impact
467:Torture and killing of Lumumba
13:
1:
734:
521:
1127:Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2014).
815:Gendebien, Paul-Henry (1967)
739:
7:
1316:Cahiers d'Études africaines
620:
10:
2419:
1342:Villafana, Frank (2017) .
1274:O'Ballance, Edgar (1999).
1170:
869:Verhaegen, Benoît (1967).
60:Approximate extent of the
2310:
2301:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
2278:
2066:
2030:
1935:
1889:
1857:
1818:
1811:
1679:
1661:
1601:
1569:
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1440:
833:Verhaegen, Benoît (1967).
570:Kwilu forces and ideology
472:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
306:
260:
255:
213:
108:
68:
53:
41:
36:
2326:Decolonisation of Africa
1979:Hubert Fauntleroy Julian
1652:Ghana, Nigeria and Egypt
851:Verhaegen, Benoît (1967)
654:Rebel activity 1963–1965
596:Parti Solidaire Africain
76:August 1963 – early 1965
2077:Force Publique mutinies
2046:William "Rip" Robertson
1802:Cuban Exile Naval Force
1456:Egide Bocheley-Davidson
311:Force Publique mutinies
27:Civil uprising in Congo
2403:Insurgencies in Africa
2388:Massacres in the 1960s
2192:Port Francqui incident
1387:. Paris: L'Harmattan.
1178:Abbott, Peter (2014).
1059:Horn & Harris 2001
1047:Horn & Harris 2001
1035:Horn & Harris 2001
1023:Horn & Harris 2001
806:Gérard-Libois, (1966).
583:
564:
396:Port Francqui incident
214:Commanders and leaders
2269:Stanleyville mutinies
1898:Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur
1795:211th Makasi Squadron
1578:Katangese Gendarmerie
1328:10.3406/cea.1967.3100
1118:Martens, Ludo. 1979.
752:O. Lanotte(1960–1997)
577:
550:
256:Casualties and losses
2393:Rebellions in Africa
2348:Communist rebellions
2250:Violettes Imperiales
1873:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
1827:Conor Cruise O'Brien
1725:5 Mechanised Brigade
1512:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
770:Abbott, Peter (2014)
440:Violettes Imperiales
100:Rebellion suppressed
2398:Cold War rebellions
1926:Frédéric Vandewalle
1049:, pp. 313–315.
797:Martens, Ludo. 1973
761:Martens, Ludo. 1973
2279:Other major events
2112:Congo-Stanleyville
1585:South Kasai forces
1154:A. Siddiqui, 1992)
959:Welch, C. (1980).
584:
580:Lumumba Government
456:Other major events
336:Congo-Stanleyville
2335:
2334:
2067:Main operations /
2062:
2061:
1690:White mercenaries
1552:government forces
1470:Christophe Gbenye
1441:Political leaders
1381:Verhaegen, Benoît
1355:978-1-4128-4766-7
1308:Verhaegen, Benoît
1262:978-9987-16-039-6
1221:Gérard-Libois, J.
1215:978-3-11-113787-2
1191:978-1-78200-076-1
878:Welch, C. (1980).
842:A. Siddiqui, 1992
788:A. Siddiqui, 1992
535:Christophe Gbenye
480:
479:
315:Secession crisis
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16:(Redirected from
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2144:Battle of Kabalo
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2105:
2098:
2091:
2084:
2083:Secession crisis
2079:
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2016:
2009:
2002:
1995:
1993:Siegfried Müller
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1907:
1905:Jules Crèvecoeur
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1526:Gaston Soumialot
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1491:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
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1477:Dag Hammarskjöld
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1091:Lanotte, O. 1966
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768:
762:
759:
753:
750:
701:Jacques Dextraze
664:Molotov cocktail
562:
360:Battle of Kabalo
301:
291:
284:
277:
268:
267:
248:
247:
246:
236:
235:
234:
227:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
225:
224:
223:
203:
201:
200:
187:
186:
185:
169:
167:
166:
156:
154:
153:
146:
140:
139:
123:
122:
121:
70:
69:
58:
34:
33:
21:
2418:
2417:
2413:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2338:
2337:
2336:
2331:
2324:
2317:
2306:
2299:
2292:
2285:
2274:
2267:
2256:
2247:
2238:
2229:
2220:
2215:Simba rebellion
2213:
2208:Kwilu rebellion
2206:
2201:Kanyarwanda War
2199:
2190:
2183:
2174:
2165:
2156:
2149:
2142:
2135:
2126:
2121:UN intervention
2119:
2110:
2101:
2094:
2087:
2082:
2075:
2068:
2058:
2051:
2044:
2037:
2026:
2019:
2014:Roger Trinquier
2012:
2005:
1998:
1991:
1984:
1977:
1970:
1963:
1958:Charles Gardien
1956:
1949:
1942:
1931:
1924:
1917:
1910:
1903:
1896:
1885:
1878:
1871:
1864:
1853:
1846:
1839:
1832:
1825:
1807:
1800:
1793:
1786:
1779:
1772:
1765:
1758:
1751:
1744:
1737:
1730:
1723:
1716:
1709:
1702:
1695:
1688:
1682:mercenary units
1681:
1675:
1668:
1657:
1650:
1643:
1636:
1629:
1622:
1615:
1608:
1597:
1590:
1583:
1576:
1565:
1558:
1551:
1545:
1538:
1531:
1524:
1517:
1510:
1505:Patrice Lumumba
1503:
1496:
1489:
1482:
1475:
1468:
1461:
1454:
1447:
1436:
1430:
1395:
1376:
1374:Further reading
1371:
1356:
1332:
1330:
1322:(26): 345–359.
1288:
1241:
1192:
1173:
1168:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1082:Wagoner, (2003)
1081:
1077:
1071:O'Ballance 1999
1069:
1065:
1057:
1053:
1045:
1041:
1033:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1003:
999:
994:
990:
985:
981:
976:
972:
967:
963:
958:
954:
946:
942:
934:
930:
922:
918:
913:
909:
904:
900:
895:
891:
886:
882:
877:
873:
868:
864:
859:
855:
850:
846:
841:
837:
832:
828:
824:Traugott (1979)
823:
819:
814:
810:
805:
801:
796:
792:
787:
783:
778:
774:
769:
765:
760:
756:
751:
747:
742:
737:
726:
697:Simba rebellion
656:
623:
572:
563:
556:
531:Patrice Lumumba
524:
515:Simba rebellion
511:Kwilu District
507:Patrice Lumumba
487:Kwilu rebellion
483:
482:
481:
476:
413:Simba rebellion
408:Kwilu rebellion
403:Kanyarwanda War
343:UN intervention
302:
297:
295:
244:
242:
232:
230:
229:
221:
219:
209:
198:
196:
183:
181:
175:
164:
162:
151:
149:
144:
134:
119:
117:
92:
59:
37:Kwilu rebellion
28:
23:
22:
18:Kwilu Rebellion
15:
12:
11:
5:
2416:
2406:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2322:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2297:
2290:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2272:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2254:
2245:
2236:
2227:
2211:
2204:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2188:
2185:Kindu atrocity
2181:
2172:
2171:
2170:
2154:
2147:
2140:
2133:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2092:
2080:
2072:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2049:
2042:
2034:
2032:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2024:
2021:Hugh van Oppen
2017:
2010:
2003:
1996:
1989:
1982:
1975:
1968:
1961:
1954:
1951:Roger Faulques
1947:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1929:
1922:
1915:
1908:
1901:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1876:
1869:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1844:
1837:
1830:
1822:
1820:
1819:United Nations
1813:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1805:
1798:
1791:
1784:
1777:
1770:
1763:
1756:
1749:
1742:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1714:
1707:
1700:
1693:
1685:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1665:
1663:
1662:Other entities
1659:
1658:
1656:
1655:
1648:
1641:
1634:
1627:
1620:
1613:
1605:
1603:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1595:
1588:
1581:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1563:
1555:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1536:
1529:
1522:
1515:
1508:
1501:
1494:
1487:
1484:Albert Kalonji
1480:
1473:
1466:
1463:Gaston Eyskens
1459:
1452:
1449:Cyrille Adoula
1444:
1442:
1438:
1437:
1429:
1428:
1421:
1414:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1393:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1354:
1339:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1271:
1265:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1239:
1224:
1218:
1207:
1196:
1190:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1156:
1147:
1145:Welch, A. 1980
1138:
1129:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1100:Welch, C. 1980
1093:
1084:
1075:
1063:
1061:, p. 316.
1051:
1039:
1037:, p. 312.
1027:
1025:, p. 310.
1015:
1006:
997:
988:
986:Welch, A. 1980
979:
970:
961:
952:
940:
928:
916:
907:
898:
889:
880:
871:
862:
860:Weigert (1996)
853:
844:
835:
826:
817:
808:
799:
790:
781:
772:
763:
754:
744:
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
725:
722:
710:scorched earth
655:
652:
651:
650:
646:
643:
640:
637:
634:
631:
622:
619:
571:
568:
554:
523:
520:
478:
477:
475:
474:
469:
464:
453:
452:
451:
450:
443:
436:
429:
422:
410:
405:
400:
399:
398:
393:
391:Kindu atrocity
388:
381:
380:
379:
367:
362:
357:
352:
340:
339:
338:
333:
332:
331:
321:
313:
307:
304:
303:
294:
293:
286:
279:
271:
263:
262:
258:
257:
253:
252:
240:
216:
215:
211:
210:
208:
207:
194:
189:
178:
176:
174:
173:
160:
147:
132:
127:
114:
111:
110:
106:
105:
102:
101:
98:
94:
93:
86:Kwilu Province
84:
82:
78:
77:
74:
66:
65:
51:
50:
39:
38:
32:
31:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2415:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2309:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2277:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2246:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2152:
2148:
2145:
2141:
2138:
2137:Niemba ambush
2134:
2131:
2130:
2125:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2065:
2054:
2050:
2047:
2043:
2040:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2022:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1945:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1919:Jean Schramme
1916:
1913:
1909:
1906:
1902:
1899:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1849:
1845:
1842:
1838:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1799:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1785:
1782:
1778:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1747:
1743:
1740:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1726:
1722:
1719:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1698:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1678:
1671:
1667:
1666:
1664:
1660:
1653:
1649:
1646:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1632:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1606:
1604:
1602:UN contingent
1600:
1593:
1589:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1575:
1574:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1548:
1541:
1540:Moïse Tshombe
1537:
1534:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1519:Pierre Mulele
1516:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1502:
1499:
1495:
1492:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1478:
1474:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1427:
1422:
1420:
1415:
1413:
1408:
1407:
1404:
1396:
1394:9782296026629
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1357:
1351:
1347:
1346:
1340:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1287:9780230286481
1283:
1279:
1278:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1242:
1240:9781550023510
1236:
1232:
1231:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1160:
1151:
1142:
1133:
1124:
1115:
1106:
1097:
1088:
1079:
1073:, p. 75.
1072:
1067:
1060:
1055:
1048:
1043:
1036:
1031:
1024:
1019:
1010:
1001:
992:
983:
974:
968:Lanotte, 1966
965:
956:
950:, p. 69.
949:
944:
938:, p. 72.
937:
932:
926:, p. 15.
925:
924:Abbott (2014)
920:
911:
902:
893:
884:
875:
866:
857:
848:
839:
830:
821:
812:
803:
794:
785:
779:NYTimes, 1964
776:
767:
758:
749:
745:
732:
730:
721:
718:
714:
711:
705:
702:
698:
694:
689:
685:
681:
678:
674:
670:
665:
661:
647:
644:
641:
638:
635:
632:
629:
628:
627:
618:
616:
612:
607:
605:
599:
597:
593:
589:
581:
576:
567:
560:
553:
549:
546:
544:
543:Moïse Tshombe
538:
536:
532:
528:
527:Pierre Mulele
519:
516:
512:
508:
504:
503:Pierre Mulele
500:
496:
492:
488:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
459:
458:
457:
449:
448:
444:
442:
441:
437:
435:
434:
430:
428:
427:
423:
421:
420:
416:
415:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
386:
382:
378:
375:
374:
373:
372:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
355:Niemba ambush
353:
351:
350:
346:
345:
344:
341:
337:
334:
330:
327:
326:
325:
322:
320:
317:
316:
314:
312:
309:
308:
305:
300:
292:
287:
285:
280:
278:
273:
272:
269:
259:
254:
251:
250:Pierre Mulele
241:
239:
238:Moïse Tshombe
228:
218:
217:
212:
206:
195:
193:
192:Supported by:
190:
180:
179:
177:
172:
171:United States
161:
159:
148:
143:
138:
133:
131:
130:Supported by:
128:
126:
116:
115:
113:
112:
107:
99:
96:
95:
91:
87:
83:
80:
79:
75:
72:
71:
67:
63:
57:
52:
49:
45:
40:
35:
30:
19:
2353:Congo Crisis
2258:
2249:
2240:
2231:
2223:Dragon Rouge
2222:
2207:
2176:
2167:Camp Massart
2158:
2128:
2039:Larry Devlin
1986:Jack Malloch
1965:Hans Germani
1912:Marc Goosens
1880:Norbert Moke
1866:Louis Bobozo
1570:Rebel forces
1498:Théo Lefèvre
1433:Congo Crisis
1384:
1344:
1331:. Retrieved
1319:
1315:
1276:
1229:
1180:
1159:
1150:
1141:
1132:
1123:
1114:
1105:
1096:
1087:
1078:
1066:
1054:
1042:
1030:
1018:
1009:
1000:
991:
982:
973:
964:
955:
943:
931:
919:
910:
901:
892:
887:Weigert 1996
883:
874:
865:
856:
847:
838:
829:
820:
811:
802:
793:
784:
775:
766:
757:
748:
731:
727:
719:
715:
706:
690:
686:
682:
669:Stanleyville
657:
624:
608:
600:
588:Eastern Bloc
585:
565:
558:
551:
547:
539:
525:
499:Congo Crisis
486:
484:
455:
454:
446:
439:
432:
425:
419:Dragon Rouge
418:
407:
384:
377:Camp Massart
370:
348:
299:Congo Crisis
191:
188:Kwilu rebels
129:
109:Belligerents
44:Congo Crisis
42:Part of the
29:
2241:White Giant
2232:Dragon Noir
2096:South Kasai
2053:Che Guevara
2007:Jerry Puren
2000:John Peters
1848:Pat Quinlan
1834:K.A.S. Raja
1788:15 Commando
1781:14 Commando
1774:13 Commando
1767:12 Commando
1760:11 Commando
1435:(1960–1965)
433:White Giant
426:Dragon Noir
324:South Kasai
2342:Categories
2151:Jadotville
1972:Mike Hoare
1944:Bob Denard
1812:Commanders
1753:9 Commando
1746:6 Commando
1739:5 Commando
1732:4 Commando
1333:5 November
735:References
522:Background
365:Jadotville
2177:Grandslam
2129:Rum Punch
1936:Mercenary
1858:Congolese
1680:Belgian /
1550:Congolese
740:Citations
501:. Led by
385:Grandslam
349:Rum Punch
2103:Invasion
1645:Ethiopia
1383:(2006).
1310:(1967).
621:Mulelism
604:ideology
555:—
497:and the
495:Cold War
329:Invasion
81:Location
48:Cold War
46:and the
2311:Related
2089:Katanga
2069:battles
1890:Belgian
1624:Ireland
1533:U Thant
1204:Archive
1171:Sources
649:person.
319:Katanga
158:Belgium
2159:UNOKAT
1631:Sweden
1617:Canada
1391:
1352:
1284:
1260:
1237:
1213:
1188:
677:Lisala
673:Paulis
615:Idiofa
582:, 1960
561:(1962)
371:UNOKAT
202:
168:
155:
145:(1964)
97:Result
2259:South
2031:Other
1638:India
660:Kwilu
611:Gungu
592:China
447:South
205:China
62:Simba
1389:ISBN
1350:ISBN
1335:2020
1282:ISBN
1258:ISBN
1235:ISBN
1211:ISBN
1186:ISBN
691:The
675:and
613:and
590:and
485:The
142:ONUC
73:Date
1670:CIA
1324:doi
2344::
1318:.
1314:.
671:,
88:,
1425:e
1418:t
1411:v
1397:.
1358:.
1337:.
1326::
1320:7
1290:.
1264:.
1243:.
1217:.
1206:)
1194:.
290:e
283:t
276:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
