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country, though the use of force was not authorised to carry out that specific measure. Therefore, force could only be used to remove foreign soldiers and mercenaries if it was justified under the reasoning that such action would be necessary to prevent civil war. ONUC Headquarters implemented the resolution by adopting
Operational Directive No. 10, which stated that UN troops "should at the earliest opportunity attempt either to interpose themselves between the parties to stop or limit the clash. In doing so, they continue to have the right to defend themselves by force if necessary". ONUC was not authorised to impose a political solution by force or directly intervene in internal Congolese affairs.
44:
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that an ONUC soldier shot a priest that was accompanying them when he swam to shore and pleaded for a ceasefire. According to Browne, Ethiopians troops at the railway stationed were angered by the death of their two comrades at the bridge, and a lieutenant brought the mercenaries out of their confinement and prepared to execute them with a firing squad. Colonel Alemu arrived and, after accosting the lieutenant, sent the mercenaries back into the station. A Katangese aircraft flew around Kabalo before bombing an outlying village, setting it ablaze. That evening the Baluba and
Katangese gendarmes clashed with each other approximately 10 kilometres south of the town.
757:. He finished by saying, "If the UN units in Katanga do not stop provoking incidents in a country that only desires to work in peace the Katangese government will be obliged to contemplate other measures, whose consequences will be the entire responsibility of certain elements in the United Nations who are pursuing a personal policy in the former Belgian Congo." Tshombe also put further pressure on ONUC contingents in Katanga by encouraging public demonstrations against them and ordering local businesses not to serve ONUC personnel. The failure of the UN to convince the Katangese to peaceably dispel mercenaries from its forces led ONUC to commission
133:
699:
the armoured train at Kitule, 35 kilometers north of Kabalo. Though seven Baluba reportedly died and three were wounded, they inflicted some casualties among the gendarmes and prevented the train from reaching its objective. The
Ethiopians then dispatched a patrol to investigate the engagement at the river, which was ambushed by Katangese gendarmes. Three Ethiopians—an officer and two soldiers—were gravely wounded, while a fourth became separated from the patrol. Despite the gendarmerie's failures, the Katangese government declared that its forces had secured Kabalo.
173:
120:
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authority and were completely surprised by the takeover in Manono. Tshombe and his government accused ONUC of collaborating with the
Stanleyville regime and declared that they would no longer respect the neutral zone. By late January groups of Baluba were launching attacks on railways. UN officials appealed for them to stop, but the Baluba leaders stated that they aimed to do everything within their power to weaken the Katangese government and disrupt the Katangese Gendarmerie's offensive potential.
729:
personnel before being flown to
Albertville. ONUC interrogated the captured mercenaries. Browne testified that he had only signed up for policing duties and had been "sold up the river" by the Belgian officers in the Katangese Gendarmerie. All admitted participating in the capture of Manono, and the information they provided revealed to ONUC the extent to which Katanga had been recruiting mercenaries in southern Africa; recruiting stations were present in both
741:
further conflicts. Having been defeated, the
Katangese began conducting punitive attacks on Luba villages. Opposed only by poorly armed bands of Baluba, the conflict resulted in the commission of numerous atrocities by both belligerents. Puren attributed the defeat of the attack on Kabalo to the alleged leak of the battle plan to ONUC and Browne's decision to surrender his force instead of resisting the Ethiopians until reinforcements arrived.
610:
153:
51:
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572:(known by its French acronym, ONUC). Lumumba demanded that ONUC troops be used to forcibly put down the Katangese secession, but the Security Council resolved that "the United Nations Force in the Congo will not be a party to or in any way intervene in or be used to influence the outcome of any internal conflict." Frustrated, Lumumba appealed to
737:. The capture of the mercenaries was given a great deal of public attention and affirmed that British nationals had been working in Katanga's employ. In response the United Kingdom government declared that any British national engaged in a military capacity in the Congo outside of service with ONUC would have their passport invalidated.
523:. Katanga contained the vast majority of the Congo's valuable mineral resources and had attracted significant mining activity under Belgian rule. Many Katangese thought that they were entitled to the revenue generated through the lucrative industry, and feared that under the new central government led by Prime Minister
707:
made another attempt to dock and was brought under fire from Baluba militia. The
Ethiopian troops also fired on the ferry, and sank it when one of their mortar shells landed down the funnel and blew it up. A Katangese boat retrieved the survivors further down the river. One of the mercenaries claimed
698:
attempted to dock at Kabalo but was taken under fire by Baluba partisans positioned on the opposite side of the river. The gendarmes aboard returned fire with machine guns and mortars, killing at least one Muluba and wounding another before withdrawing behind a bend in the river. Baluba also attacked
693:
On 7 April 1961, the
Katangese DC-4 carrying Browne and his mercenaries launched from Kongolo and landed at the Kabalo airstrip at about 10:30 unopposed. The mercenaries disembarked and the plane took off. They then ran to secure the railway station, but found that 200 Ethiopian soldiers had taken up
740:
Due to the action of the ONUC garrison, Kabalo remained the only major town in northern
Katanga not controlled by the Katangese Gendarmerie at the conclusion of their offensive. Though ONUC was able to retain control of the locale, it lacked the ability to patrol the surrounding area to intervene in
702:
On the morning of 8 April the
Ethiopians sent out a patrol to search for their missing soldier. The gendarmes launched another ambush at a bridge eight miles outside of Kabalo, killing two. The Ethiopians managed to wound and capture three gendarmes. The missing soldier was later brought back to the
482:
peacekeeping contingent garrisoning Kabalo, acting under the authority of their mandate to prevent civil war in the country, resisted the initial attack and arrested 30 mercenaries in Katanga's employ. Armed Baluba repelled a Katangese ferry carrying troops as well as an armoured train. The next day
629:
in northern Katanga. Accompanying BALUBAKAT leaders declared the establishing of a new "Province of Lualaba" that extended throughout the region. Since October 1960, northern Katanga was ostensibly a "neutral zone" under the control of ONUC contingents, but in reality they were too weak to exercise
633:
On 11 February 1961, the Katangese government announced that it would begin an offensive to eliminate the Baluba opposition in northern Katanga. Approximately 5,000 troops were earmarked for the operation, which focused on a northward offensive from Lubudi. At the same time, they were to recapture
684:
Kabalo was garrisoned by two companies of an Ethiopian battalion serving with ONUC, totaling 400 troops. It was led by Colonel Alemu. According to Katangese mercenary Jerry Puren, ONUC had been warned in advance of the attack when a Belgian officer handed a copy of the Katangese battle plan to UN
663:
The Katangese operation to take Kabalo was organised by Colonel Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur and was chiefly intended to secure the railway. Captain William Richard Browne was to lead a group of 30 mercenaries of the Compagnie Internationale, a Katangese mercenary unit mostly composed of Brits and South
654:
and was connected to the railway from Albertville. The Katangese government disregarded the UN Security Council resolution of 21 February and carried forward with its plans to suppress rebellious Baluba in the northern sections of the province. On 30 March the Katangese Gendarmerie seized Manono.
728:
Luba casualties from the battle were unknown. Five UN soldiers were killed and four wounded. The ONUC troops arrested 30 white mercenaries, while three Katangese gendarmes were wounded and an unknown number killed. The wounded gendarmes—two of which were of European descent—were treated by ONUC
694:
position around the location and trained their guns on them. The mercenaries surrendered to them. They were arrested and imprisoned in the railway station. The next plane circled the airstrip but did not land and ultimately none of the additional aircraft attempted to do so. At about 13:10, the
600:
permitting ONUC to use military force as a last resort to prevent civil war. As the Congo was already more-or-less in a state of civil war, the resolution gave ONUC significant latitude to act. It also called for the immediate departure of all foreign military personnel and mercenaries from the
711:
The ONUC garrison played no further role in the fighting after 8 April. The Katangese made numerous attempts to enter Kabalo during the following days, but were bogged down by heavy resistance from Baluba militia. A number of Baluba villages east of the town were reportedly torched by CONAKAT
720:. On 11 April a gendarmerie helicopter landed near the town and fired on local fishermen, wounding one. Fighting between the Baluba and gendarmes reportedly resulted in the deaths of five of the latter. That day Katangese troops withdrew from the area to focus their operations further south.
752:
The battle heightened tensions between the UN and the Katangese government. Tshombe penned a letter of protest to Hammarskjöld, accusing the Ethiopians of acting contrary to ONUC's mandate. He also maintained that Katangese gendarmes had only fired upon the ONUC contingent because they wore
680:
transporting more gendarmes and Compagnie Internationale men. According to two gendarmes later captured by the Baluba, the ferry carried 150 African gendarmes, four white gendarmes, and 11 crewmen. The entire attack force consisted of over 1,000 men. On 27 March the armoured train departed
483:
the ferry returned but was sunk by UN forces. Fighting continued over the next few days between the Baluba and Katangese until the latter withdrew. The battle led to a deterioration of relations between the Katangese government and the United Nations Operation in the Congo.
549:" and appealed for Belgian assistance. Immediately following the declaration of secession, the Katangese government worked to quickly establish its own armed force. Belgian officers and Katangese rank-and-file of the Force Publique formed the nucleus of the new
744:
The ONUC garrison's resistance to the attack at Kabalo and the arrest of the mercenaries marked peacekeepers' first use of the powers granted to them under the UN Security Council resolution of 21 February. In response to a parliamentary inquiry, the
518:
against their white officers. The rebellions caused widespread instability and led to the flight of much of the Congo's European population, which was of vital importance to the economy. On July 9 the mutinies spread to the southern province of
1830:
1900:
576:
nations for military assistance, resulting in a conflict with Kasa-Vubu and ultimately his removal from power in September and eventual murder in January 1961. In response to Lumumba's removal, his political allies gathered in
1823:
655:
After the town's fall the BALUBAKAT designated Kabalo the "provisional capital" of the Province of Lualaba. About 3,500 Baluba from the surrounding area fled to Kabalo, where they were granted ONUC's protection.
1893:
1886:
1879:
1872:
1865:
1858:
592:
The announcement of Lumumba's death created a sense of urgency among the international community and motivated members of the UN Security Council to strengthen ONUC's powers. On 21 February 1961 the
1816:
681:
Albertville, collected about 350 gendarmes, and proceeded in the direction of Nyunzu, towards Kabalo. Katangese troops advancing from Kongolo burnt Luba villages as they advanced.
478:
in central Africa. The Katangese forces attacked the town as part of a larger offensive meant to restore their authority in northern Katanga which was challenged by the Baluba. A
1499:
Report to the Secretary-General from his Acting Special Representative in the Congo concerning the interrogation of 30 mercenaries apprehended in Kabalo on 7 April 1961 (S/4790)
2063:
2126:
2003:
2112:
2105:
1907:
1561:
1743:
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of the United Kingdom wrote that it was the position of the British government that ONUC's action at Kabalo was authorised under the Security Council resolution.
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of northern Katanga. Some prominent BALUBAKAT politicians allied themselves with the Stanleyville government. On 7 January 1961 troops from Stanleyville occupied
43:
2336:
389:
1775:
2010:
1722:
1631:
253:
1736:
676:, carrying Katangese gendarmes with Belgian officers and members of the Compagnie Internationale under Captain R. Wauthier would arrive, as would an
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complied, passing several resolutions calling for the withdrawal of Belgian troops and establishing a large multinational peacekeeping mission, the
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618:
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1985:
597:
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On 11 July Belgian metropolitan units were landed across the Congo, without the Congolese government's consent, to disarm the mutinous troops.
1851:
1844:
1837:
1529:
1271:
Tanner, Henry (9 April 1961). "Katanga Troops Disarmed By U.N.: Group Advancing in North Is Halted to Avert Threat of 'Civil War' in Congo".
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1750:
635:
626:
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and South Africa. Following questioning, the mercenaries were transferred to LĂ©opoldville before being deported from the Congo to
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564:(UN), requesting that international troops be dispatched to the Congo to replace the Belgian forces and reestablish order. The
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1715:
569:
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307:
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1229:"U.N. Seizes 32 Whites Fighting for Tshombe: Mercenaries Captured Reported to Be 30 South Africans and Two Belgians".
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1466:
1423:
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officials in LĂ©opoldville. One injured BALUBAKAT partisan retreated to Kabalo and reported of fighting in the north.
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672:, followed by three more planes carrying gendarmes and additional mercenaries. At the same time, a ferry, the
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peacekeepers to reinforce the garrison. They also transferred the captive mercenaries to
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2158:
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1458:
Katanga 1960–63: Mercenaries, Spies and the African Nation that Waged War on the World
1603:
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1483:
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1978:
1946:
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334:
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91:
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514:, unhappy with their lack of advancement relative to civilian politicians, began
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militias from 7 April to 11 April 1961 against mercenaries and the
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partisans. On 10 April ONUC flew in an additional Ethiopian company and 400
2144:
2091:
2017:
1971:
1538:
1507:
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32:
1371:
The Katangese Gendarmes and War in Central Africa: Fighting Their Way Home
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1939:
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144:
1415:
Peace Operations and Intrastate Conflict: The Sword Or the Olive Branch?
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545:, President of Katanga Province, declared the independence of the "
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1037:
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1502:, New York City: United Nations Security Council, 14 April 1961
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it would be redistributed among the Congo's poorer provinces.
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to the north. Kabalo served as a port for steamers along the
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The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961
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on 30 June 1960. On 5 July, disgruntled soldiers of the
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1233:. United Press International. 10 April 1961. p. 5.
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638:, secure the area south of it, and launch attacks on
1418:(illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group.
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807:
621:(BALUBAKAT) a political party which represented the
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Armed Baluba fought against the Katangese secession.
1392:
United Nations Peacekeeping in the Congo: 1960–1964
1170:
553:, bolstered by the recruitment of local militias.
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604:
1475:
1333:United Nations Peacekeeping, 1946-1967: Africa
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1193:
1523:
1388:
1043:
996:
474:, a secessionist state rebelling against the
247:
1537:
1389:Lefever, Ernest W.; Joshua, Wynfred (1966).
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1312:
972:
885:
873:
837:
801:
789:
777:
617:The secession of Katanga was opposed by the
1461:(illustrated ed.). The History Press.
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1530:
1516:
703:ONUC contingent by Baluba. Meanwhile, the
619:Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga
254:
240:
1411:
1300:
945:
63:Kabalo (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
1698:Armée Populaire de Libération ("Simbas")
1336:. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press.
608:
529:
1824:White Legion (Compagnie Internationale)
1476:Puren, Jerry; Pottinger, Brian (1986).
1439:To Katanga And Back - A UN Case History
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2393:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
1716:United Nations Operation in the Congo
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1454:
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570:United Nations Operation in the Congo
480:United Nations Operation in the Congo
427:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
235:
1368:Kennes, Erik; Larmer, Miles (2016).
2425:Belgian general strike of 1960–1961
1355:. London: Oxford University Press.
13:
581:in the eastern Congo and declared
14:
2475:
2464:1961 in the Republic of the Congo
1395:. Vol. 3. Washington, D.C.:
1817:6th Commando Battalion (Belgium)
1810:4th Commando Battalion (Belgium)
1803:2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium)
1666:Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC)
1083:, Chapter 12: Sold Up The River.
261:
171:
151:
131:
118:
49:
42:
1264:
1222:
2400:Torture and killing of Lumumba
432:Torture and killing of Lumumba
180:William Richard Browne (
50:
1:
1412:Mockaitis, Thomas R. (1999).
1322:
585:to the central government in
486:
1374:. Indiana University Press.
764:
723:
664:Africans, in landing at the
605:Conflict in northern Katanga
7:
1455:Othen, Christopher (2015).
1351:Hoskyns, Catherine (1965).
460:United Nations peacekeeping
10:
2480:
1217:Puren & Pottinger 1986
1194:Puren & Pottinger 1986
658:
495:
16:Battle of the Congo Crisis
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2407:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
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1995:
1963:
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1917:
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1330:Higgins, Rosalyn (1980).
1044:Lefever & Joshua 1966
997:Lefever & Joshua 1966
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437:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
271:
207:
192:
164:
110:
70:
38:
30:
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2432:Decolonisation of Africa
2085:Hubert Fauntleroy Julian
1758:Ghana, Nigeria and Egypt
1313:Kennes & Larmer 2016
973:Kennes & Larmer 2016
927:, pp. 329, 334–335.
886:Kennes & Larmer 2016
874:Kennes & Larmer 2016
838:Kennes & Larmer 2016
802:Kennes & Larmer 2016
790:Kennes & Larmer 2016
778:Kennes & Larmer 2016
506:became independent from
220:Unknown gendarmes killed
200:Unknown number of Baluba
2183:Force Publique mutinies
2152:William "Rip" Robertson
1908:Cuban Exile Naval Force
1562:Egide Bocheley-Davidson
276:Force Publique mutinies
224:30 mercenaries captured
217:Unknown Luba casualties
215:4 ONUC soldiers wounded
2298:Port Francqui incident
1442:. London: Hutchinson.
614:
556:Lumumba and President
538:
361:Port Francqui incident
213:5 ONUC soldiers killed
165:Commanders and leaders
90:and surrounding area,
2375:Stanleyville mutinies
2004:Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur
1901:211th Makasi Squadron
1684:Katangese Gendarmerie
1434:O'Brien, Conor Cruise
1397:Brookings Institution
1231:The Los Angeles Times
612:
551:Katangese Gendarmerie
533:
504:Republic of the Congo
476:Republic of the Congo
208:Casualties and losses
2356:Violettes Imperiales
1979:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
1933:Conor Cruise O'Brien
1831:5 Mechanised Brigade
1618:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
999:, pp. P-6, P-7.
405:Violettes Imperiales
2032:Frédéric Vandewalle
1479:Mercenary Commander
1011:, pp. 302–303.
759:Operation Rum Punch
594:UN Security Council
566:UN Security Council
516:a nationwide mutiny
492:Katangese secession
222:3 gendarmes wounded
2385:Other major events
2218:Congo-Stanleyville
1691:South Kasai forces
1273:The New York Times
705:Constant de Burlet
696:Constant de Burlet
674:Constant de Burlet
615:
539:
421:Other major events
301:Congo-Stanleyville
226:1 armed ferry sunk
2454:Conflicts in 1961
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2440:
2173:Main operations /
2168:
2167:
1796:White mercenaries
1658:government forces
1576:Christophe Gbenye
1547:Political leaders
1196:, pp. 29–30.
888:, pp. 45–46.
840:, pp. 47–48.
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280:Secession crisis
230:
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106:
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102:ONUC/Luba victory
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2250:Battle of Kabalo
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2189:Secession crisis
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2099:Siegfried MĂĽller
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1597:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
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1583:Dag Hammarskjöld
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646:to the east and
560:appealed to the
558:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
547:State of Katanga
472:State of Katanga
452:Battle of Kabalo
325:Battle of Kabalo
266:
256:
249:
242:
233:
232:
184:
176:
175:
157:
155:
154:
137:
135:
134:
123:
122:
92:State of Katanga
72:
71:
53:
52:
46:
26:Battle of Kabalo
23:
22:
2479:
2478:
2474:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2437:
2430:
2423:
2412:
2405:
2398:
2391:
2380:
2373:
2362:
2353:
2344:
2335:
2326:
2321:Simba rebellion
2319:
2314:Kwilu rebellion
2312:
2307:Kanyarwanda War
2305:
2296:
2289:
2280:
2271:
2262:
2255:
2248:
2241:
2232:
2227:UN intervention
2225:
2216:
2207:
2200:
2193:
2188:
2181:
2174:
2164:
2157:
2150:
2143:
2132:
2125:
2120:Roger Trinquier
2118:
2111:
2104:
2097:
2090:
2083:
2076:
2069:
2064:Charles Gardien
2062:
2055:
2048:
2037:
2030:
2023:
2016:
2009:
2002:
1991:
1984:
1977:
1970:
1959:
1952:
1945:
1938:
1931:
1913:
1906:
1899:
1892:
1885:
1878:
1871:
1864:
1857:
1850:
1843:
1836:
1829:
1822:
1815:
1808:
1801:
1794:
1788:mercenary units
1787:
1781:
1774:
1763:
1756:
1749:
1742:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1714:
1703:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1671:
1664:
1657:
1651:
1644:
1637:
1630:
1623:
1616:
1611:Patrice Lumumba
1609:
1602:
1595:
1588:
1581:
1574:
1567:
1560:
1553:
1542:
1536:
1506:
1490:
1469:
1426:
1382:
1344:
1325:
1320:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1280:
1269:
1265:
1257:
1238:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1215:
1200:
1192:
1188:
1180:
1171:
1163:
1154:
1146:
1137:
1129:
1120:
1112:
1108:
1100:
1087:
1079:
1050:
1046:, p. P-16.
1042:
1027:
1019:
1015:
1007:
1003:
995:
991:
983:
979:
971:
967:
959:
952:
944:
931:
923:
919:
911:
907:
899:
892:
884:
880:
872:
868:
860:
856:
848:
844:
836:
832:
824:
820:
812:
808:
800:
796:
788:
784:
776:
772:
767:
747:Lord Privy Seal
726:
718:Kamina Air Base
691:
666:Kabalo airstrip
661:
607:
525:Patrice Lumumba
500:
494:
489:
448:
447:
446:
441:
378:Simba rebellion
373:Kwilu rebellion
368:Kanyarwanda War
308:UN intervention
267:
262:
260:
225:
223:
221:
216:
214:
199:
198:400 ONUC troops
187:
170:
152:
150:
143:
132:
130:
117:
94:
78:7–11 April 1961
66:
65:
64:
61:
60:
59:
58:
54:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2477:
2467:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2435:
2428:
2420:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2403:
2396:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2378:
2371:
2370:
2369:
2360:
2351:
2342:
2333:
2317:
2310:
2303:
2302:
2301:
2294:
2291:Kindu atrocity
2287:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2260:
2253:
2246:
2239:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2198:
2186:
2178:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2155:
2148:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2130:
2127:Hugh van Oppen
2123:
2116:
2109:
2102:
2095:
2088:
2081:
2074:
2067:
2060:
2057:Roger Faulques
2053:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2028:
2021:
2014:
2007:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1992:
1990:
1989:
1982:
1975:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1950:
1943:
1936:
1928:
1926:
1925:United Nations
1919:
1915:
1914:
1912:
1911:
1904:
1897:
1890:
1883:
1876:
1869:
1862:
1855:
1848:
1841:
1834:
1827:
1820:
1813:
1806:
1799:
1791:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1780:
1779:
1771:
1769:
1768:Other entities
1765:
1764:
1762:
1761:
1754:
1747:
1740:
1733:
1726:
1719:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1694:
1687:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1661:
1659:
1653:
1652:
1650:
1649:
1642:
1635:
1628:
1621:
1614:
1607:
1600:
1593:
1590:Albert Kalonji
1586:
1579:
1572:
1569:Gaston Eyskens
1565:
1558:
1555:Cyrille Adoula
1550:
1548:
1544:
1543:
1535:
1534:
1527:
1520:
1512:
1505:
1504:
1494:
1488:
1473:
1467:
1452:
1430:
1424:
1409:
1386:
1380:
1365:
1348:
1342:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1305:
1301:Mockaitis 1999
1293:
1291:, p. 392.
1278:
1263:
1261:, p. 418.
1236:
1221:
1198:
1186:
1169:
1167:, p. 417.
1152:
1150:, p. 419.
1135:
1133:, p. 150.
1118:
1116:, p. 355.
1106:
1104:, p. 393.
1085:
1048:
1025:
1023:, p. 303.
1013:
1001:
989:
987:, p. 302.
977:
965:
963:, p. 402.
950:
946:Mockaitis 1999
929:
917:
915:, p. 328.
905:
903:, p. 289.
890:
878:
866:
864:, p. 114.
854:
852:, p. 384.
842:
830:
818:
806:
794:
782:
769:
768:
766:
763:
725:
722:
690:
687:
678:armoured train
660:
657:
606:
603:
583:a rival regime
562:United Nations
512:Force Publique
496:Main article:
493:
490:
488:
485:
454:was fought at
443:
442:
440:
439:
434:
429:
418:
417:
416:
415:
408:
401:
394:
387:
375:
370:
365:
364:
363:
358:
356:Kindu atrocity
353:
346:
345:
344:
332:
327:
322:
317:
305:
304:
303:
298:
297:
296:
286:
278:
272:
269:
268:
259:
258:
251:
244:
236:
228:
227:
218:
210:
209:
205:
204:
201:
195:
194:
190:
189:
178:
167:
166:
162:
161:
148:
142:
141:
113:
112:
108:
107:
104:
103:
100:
96:
95:
86:
84:
80:
79:
76:
68:
67:
62:
56:
55:
48:
47:
41:
40:
39:
36:
35:
28:
27:
21:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2476:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2433:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2394:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2376:
2372:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2315:
2311:
2308:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2292:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2247:
2244:
2243:Niemba ambush
2240:
2237:
2236:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2224:
2219:
2215:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2196:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2184:
2180:
2179:
2177:
2171:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2149:
2146:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2117:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2096:
2093:
2089:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2072:
2068:
2065:
2061:
2058:
2054:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2033:
2029:
2026:
2025:Jean Schramme
2022:
2019:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1955:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1860:
1856:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1784:
1777:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1759:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1745:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1731:
1727:
1724:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1712:
1710:
1708:UN contingent
1706:
1699:
1695:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1667:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1654:
1647:
1646:MoĂŻse Tshombe
1643:
1640:
1636:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1625:Pierre Mulele
1622:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1608:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1591:
1587:
1584:
1580:
1577:
1573:
1570:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1556:
1552:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1540:
1533:
1528:
1526:
1521:
1519:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1489:9780947020217
1485:
1481:
1480:
1474:
1470:
1468:9780750965804
1464:
1460:
1459:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1425:9780275961732
1421:
1417:
1416:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1381:9780253021502
1377:
1373:
1372:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1343:9780192183217
1339:
1335:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1315:, p. 49.
1314:
1309:
1303:, p. 26.
1302:
1297:
1290:
1285:
1283:
1274:
1267:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1232:
1225:
1219:, p. 30.
1218:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1195:
1190:
1183:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1166:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1132:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1115:
1110:
1103:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1082:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1022:
1017:
1010:
1005:
998:
993:
986:
981:
975:, p. 48.
974:
969:
962:
957:
955:
948:, p. 25.
947:
942:
940:
938:
936:
934:
926:
921:
914:
909:
902:
897:
895:
887:
882:
876:, p. 46.
875:
870:
863:
858:
851:
846:
839:
834:
828:, p. 99.
827:
822:
816:, p. 97.
815:
810:
804:, p. 40.
803:
798:
792:, p. 31.
791:
786:
780:, p. 44.
779:
774:
770:
762:
760:
756:
750:
748:
742:
738:
736:
732:
721:
719:
715:
709:
706:
700:
697:
686:
682:
679:
675:
671:
667:
656:
653:
652:Lualaba River
649:
645:
641:
637:
631:
628:
624:
620:
611:
602:
599:
595:
590:
588:
584:
580:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
554:
552:
548:
544:
543:MoĂŻse Tshombe
536:
535:MoĂŻse Tshombe
532:
528:
526:
522:
517:
513:
509:
505:
499:
484:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
424:
423:
422:
414:
413:
409:
407:
406:
402:
400:
399:
395:
393:
392:
388:
386:
385:
381:
380:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
351:
347:
343:
340:
339:
338:
337:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
320:Niemba ambush
318:
316:
315:
311:
310:
309:
306:
302:
299:
295:
292:
291:
290:
287:
285:
282:
281:
279:
277:
274:
273:
270:
265:
257:
252:
250:
245:
243:
238:
237:
234:
219:
212:
211:
206:
203:1,000+ troops
202:
197:
196:
191:
185:
179:
174:
169:
168:
163:
160:
149:
146:
140:
129:
128:
127:
126:
121:
115:
114:
109:
101:
98:
97:
93:
89:
85:
82:
81:
77:
74:
73:
69:
45:
37:
34:
29:
24:
19:
2459:Congo Crisis
2364:
2355:
2346:
2337:
2329:Dragon Rouge
2328:
2282:
2273:Camp Massart
2264:
2249:
2234:
2145:Larry Devlin
2092:Jack Malloch
2071:Hans Germani
2018:Marc Goosens
1986:Norbert Moke
1972:Louis Bobozo
1676:Rebel forces
1604:Théo Lefèvre
1539:Congo Crisis
1498:
1478:
1457:
1438:
1414:
1391:
1370:
1352:
1332:
1308:
1296:
1289:Hoskyns 1965
1275:. p. 8.
1272:
1266:
1259:Higgins 1980
1230:
1224:
1189:
1184:, p. 6.
1165:Higgins 1980
1148:Higgins 1980
1131:O'Brien 1962
1114:Hoskyns 1965
1109:
1102:Hoskyns 1965
1021:Hoskyns 1965
1016:
1009:Hoskyns 1965
1004:
992:
985:Hoskyns 1965
980:
968:
961:Hoskyns 1965
925:Hoskyns 1965
920:
913:Hoskyns 1965
908:
901:Hoskyns 1965
881:
869:
862:Hoskyns 1965
857:
850:Hoskyns 1965
845:
833:
826:Hoskyns 1965
821:
814:Hoskyns 1965
809:
797:
785:
773:
751:
743:
739:
727:
710:
704:
701:
695:
692:
683:
673:
670:Douglas DC-4
662:
634:the town of
632:
616:
598:a resolution
591:
587:LĂ©opoldville
579:Stanleyville
574:Eastern Bloc
555:
540:
501:
498:Congo Crisis
451:
449:
420:
419:
411:
404:
397:
390:
384:Dragon Rouge
383:
349:
342:Camp Massart
335:
324:
313:
264:Congo Crisis
116:
111:Belligerents
33:Congo Crisis
31:Part of the
18:
2347:White Giant
2338:Dragon Noir
2202:South Kasai
2159:Che Guevara
2113:Jerry Puren
2106:John Peters
1954:Pat Quinlan
1940:K.A.S. Raja
1894:15 Commando
1887:14 Commando
1880:13 Commando
1873:12 Commando
1866:11 Commando
1541:(1960–1965)
1182:S/4790 1961
761:in August.
735:Brazzaville
644:Albertville
623:Luba people
468:gendarmerie
462:forces and
398:White Giant
391:Dragon Noir
289:South Kasai
188:R. Wauthier
2448:Categories
2257:Jadotville
2078:Mike Hoare
2050:Bob Denard
1918:Commanders
1859:9 Commando
1852:6 Commando
1845:5 Commando
1838:4 Commando
1482:. Galago.
1323:References
1081:Othen 2015
487:Background
330:Jadotville
2283:Grandslam
2235:Rum Punch
2042:Mercenary
1964:Congolese
1786:Belgian /
1656:Congolese
1448:460615937
1405:631685344
765:Citations
724:Aftermath
350:Grandslam
314:Rum Punch
2209:Invasion
1751:Ethiopia
1436:(1962).
731:Rhodesia
294:Invasion
193:Strength
139:Ethiopia
83:Location
2417:Related
2195:Katanga
2175:battles
1996:Belgian
1730:Ireland
1639:U Thant
714:Malayan
659:Prelude
648:Kongolo
596:passed
537:in 1962
521:Katanga
508:Belgium
470:of the
284:Katanga
159:Katanga
147:militia
2265:UNOKAT
1737:Sweden
1723:Canada
1486:
1465:
1446:
1422:
1403:
1378:
1361:414961
1359:
1340:
689:Battle
640:Kabalo
636:Manono
627:Manono
464:Baluba
456:Kabalo
336:UNOKAT
156:
136:
99:Result
88:Kabalo
57:Kabalo
2365:South
2137:Other
1744:India
755:khaki
642:from
412:South
177:Alemu
1484:ISBN
1463:ISBN
1444:OCLC
1420:ISBN
1401:OCLC
1376:ISBN
1357:OCLC
1338:ISBN
668:via
502:The
450:The
145:Luba
125:ONUC
75:Date
1776:CIA
589:.
458:by
183:POW
2450::
1399:.
1281:^
1239:^
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