Funan - Knowledge

3436:(1982),"O.W. Wolters has stressed a mutual sharing process in the evolution of Indianized statecraft in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian traders provided the initial contact with and knowledge of the Indian cultural traditions. Southeast Asian rulers followed up; thus, the Indianizing of their realm was due not to commercial pressures not to a massive influx of Indian Brahmans, but to a recognition that Indian culture provided certain opportunities for administrative and technological advancement. The initial era of trade contact was one of adaption and learning...It was a Southeast Asian initiative, not Indian; and it was a slow process of cultural synthesis, not rapid imposition of Hinduism made possible by a massive influx of Brahmans that was responsible for the Indianization of Southeast Asia....Hindu traditions was this selectively mobilized to reinforce political alliances within the fragile polity of these early states." 1157: 3384:(1982),"The legend focuses upon the marriage between the foreigner, bearing the Indian name "Kaundinya"-a great Brahman, and a local Nagi princess, daughter of the ruler of the water realm. This legend is broadly used to symbolise the union of Indian and indigenous cultures, Kaundinya representing the more sophisticated Indian culture and religion and the Navi princess symbolic of local ways and indigenous fertility cults. The marriage myth attempts to explain not only the penetration of Indian culture into Southeast Asia, but also the origin of Southeast Asian kingship. Historians have not, however, been in agreement on its interpretation." 1481: 2261: 3397:(1982), "A classical account of the process symbolized in the Kaundinya myth is provided in the historical reconstruction by the French historian Gabriel Ferrand: "The true picture must have been something like this: two or three Indian vessels sailing together arrived there. The newcomers established relations with the chiefs of the country, earning favor with them by means of presents, treatment of illnesses, and amulets...No one could use such procedures better than an Indian. He would undoubtedly pass himself off as a royal or princely extraction, and his host could not help but be favorably impressed."." 2124: 2112: 78: 1600:... they like to engrave ornaments and chisel. Many of their eating utensils are silver. Taxes are paid in gold, silver, pearls, perfumes. There are books and depositories of archives and other things." The Indianised ruler Chan-T'an was ruling in 357, followed by another Indianised ruler Chiao Chen-ju (Kaundinya) in the fifth century, who "changed all the laws to conform to the system of India." In 480, She-yeh-pa-mo, Jayavarman or "Protege of Victory" reigned until his death in 514. One of his sons, Rudravarman, killed the other, Gunavarman, for the throne, and became the last king of Funan. 1028: 1386:. It is dated Sunday, 18 February 658 CE (and thus belongs to the post-Funanese period) and states in relevant part (stanzas XVI-XVIII): "It was there that Kauṇḍinya, the foremost among brahmins, planted the spear which he had obtained from Droṇa's Son Aśvatthāman, the best of brahmins. There was a daughter of a king of serpents, called "Somā", who founded a family in this world. Having attained, through love, to a radically different element, she lived in the abode of man. She was taken as wife by the excellent Brahmin Kauṇḍinya for the sake of (accomplishing) a certain task 2148: 2136: 306: 1739: 1890: 1875: 1863: 1851: 2015: 2003: 1989: 1835: 1760: 1266: 1329:) wanted to pillage the ship and seize it, so Hùntián shot an arrow from his divine bow which pierced through Liǔyè's ship. Frightened, she gave herself up, and Hùntián took her for his wife. But unhappy to see her naked, he folded a piece of material to make a garment through which he made her pass her head. Then he governed the country and passed power on to his son, who was the founder of seven cities." Nearly the same story appeared in the Jìn shū 710: 1818:

Royal University of Fine Arts personnel) conducted Iron Age to Funan period burial excavations at neighboring Phnom Borei. Large landscape features, notable settlement mounds, and other sites exhibiting Funan material culture and settlement patterns extend from at least Phnom Chisor through Oc Eo and numerous sites in Vietnam. Vietnamese archaeologists have also conducted a fair amount of research on Funan sites in the lower Mekong region.

1311:, an unidentified location, perhaps on the Malaysian Peninsula or in the Indonesian archipelago) after dreaming that his personal genie had delivered a divine bow to him and had directed him to embark on a large merchant junk. In the morning, he proceeded to the temple, where he found a bow at the foot of the genie's tree. He then boarded a ship, which the genie caused to land in Fúnán. The queen of the country, Liǔyè ( 1394: 1204:

immigrants and taken up into the modern state of Vietnam. While no conclusive study to determine whether Funan's ethnolinguistic components were Austronesian or Austroasiatic, there is dispute among scholars. According to the majority of Vietnamese academics, for example, Mac Duong, stipulates that "Funan's core population certainly were the Austronesians, not Khmer;" the fall of Funan and the rise of

2346:. Coedès believed that the title of "mountain lord" used by the Sailendra kings may also have been used by the kings of Funan, since he also believed that the name "Funan" was a Chinese transcription related to the Khmer "phnom", which means "mountain." Other scholars have rejected this hypothesis, pointing to the lack of evidence in early Cambodian epigraphy for the use of any such titles. 1042:, who in his ground-breaking article "Le Fou-nan" of 1903 drew exclusively on Chinese historical records to set forth the sequence of documented events connecting the foundation of Funan in approximately the 1st century CE with its demise by conquest in the 6th to 7th century. Scholars critical of Pelliot's Chinese sources have expressed scepticism regarding his conclusions. 1814:

joint Cambodian (Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts; Royal University of Fine Arts) and international teams at Angkor Borei since 1994 continuing into the 2000s. The research included excavation and dating of human burials at Wat Kamnou. Numerous brick features, architectural remains, and landscape features such as mounds, canals and reservoirs have also been identified.

2041: 1613:). Fan Shiman expanded his empire's navy and improved the Funanese bureaucracy, creating a quasi-feudal pattern that left local customs and identities largely intact, particularly in the empire's further reaches. Fan Shiman and his successors also sent ambassadors to China and India to regulate sea trade. The kingdom likely accelerated the process of 3410:(1982),"Ferrand's theme of Indians travelling to Southeast Asia and providing guidance over a cultural transformation is carried to the extreme by several Indian historians who have argued that large number of South Asians not only migrated to but also colonized Funan and other early centers of civilization in Southeast Asia." 1822:

evidence suggests a 2000-year or longer period of urbanization, continuous activity, and relatively strong albeit indirect and multi-nodal connections to long-distance value chains. Nevertheless, it is quite evident that periods of intense production, consumption, activity, commercial and political centrality fluctuated.

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Funan's dependence on maritime trade is seen as a cause for the beginning of Funan's downfall. Their coastal ports allowed trade with foreign regions that funnelled goods to the north and coastal populations. However, the shift in maritime trade to Sumatra, the rise in the Srivijaya trade empire, and

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and dated 658 CE (see below). Other scholars have rejected this identification, pointing out that the word "Hùntián" has only two syllables, while the word "Kauṇḍinya" has three, and arguing that Chinese scholars would not have used a two-syllable Chinese word to transcribe a three-syllable word from

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Some have been dated with a wide spectrum of results ranging from the late centuries BCE to the Angkorian period. A significant canal system linking the site of Oc Eo has also been researched and dated. Phon Kaseka led a Royal Academy of Cambodia and Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts team (also with

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Keeping in mind that Funanese records did not survive in the modern period, much of what is known came from archaeological excavation. Excavations yielded discoveries of brick wall structures, precious metals and pot from southern Cambodia and Vietnam. Also found was a large canal system that linked

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As per O.W. Wolters, there was a mutual sharing process in the evolution of Indianized statecraft and no mass influx of Brahmans. He said that it was rather the Indianized local Southeast Asian traders who provided the initial contact with Indian cultural traditions and the local rulers followed up.

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The legend of Kaundinya is paralleled in modern Khmer folklore, where the foreign prince is known as "Preah Thaong" and the queen as "Neang Neak". In this version of the story, Preah Thaong arrives by sea to an island marked by a giant thlok tree, native to Cambodia. On the island, he finds the home

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of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants of ancient Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia. In

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group. It is possible that they are the ancestors of those indigenous people dwelling in the southern part of Vietnam today who refer themselves as "Khmer" or "Khmer Krom." The Khmer term "krom" means "below" or "lower part of" and is used to refer to territory that was later colonized by Vietnamese

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of southern Vietnam. Archeological evidence shows that extensive human settlement in the region may go as far back as the 4th century BCE. Though treated by Chinese historians as a single unified empire, according to some modern scholars Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes

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as the emporium where merchants from the Chinese and Roman empires met to trade. Dihle also believed that the location of Óc Eo best fit the details given by Ptolemy of a voyage made by a Graeco-Roman merchant named Alexander to Kattigara, situated at the easternmost end of the maritime trade route

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is to the southwest of Linyi and was originally subject to Funan… The surname of its king was that of the Cha-li clan; his given name was Zhiduo-si-na 質多斯那. His ancestors had gradually become more powerful and flourishing until the time of Zhi-duo-sina himself, who annexed Funan and possessed it."

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Unfortunately, only limited archaeological research has been conducted on Funan in southern Cambodia and Cochinchina in the last few decades, and it is precisely this region that reputedly housed the capital or capitals of Funan. However, archaeological surveys and excavations were carried out by

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Baset District, which he tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King Isanavarman is full of glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the

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have demonstrated "no true discontinuity between Oc Eo and pre-Angkorian levels", indicating ancient Mon-he region may have gone as far back as the 4th century BCE. Though regarded by Chinese authors as a single unified polity, some modern scholars suspect that Funan may have been a collection of

1821:

Many of the mounds show evidence of material culture and landscape modification (inclusive of species-genera biological regimes) ranging from the metal age through the post-Angkorian period and later as evidenced by 13th through 16th century CE Chinese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Cham ceramics. The

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The first inscription in the Khmer language is dated shortly after the fall of Funan. A concentration of later Khmer inscriptions in southern Cambodia may suggest the even earlier presence of a Khmer population. Despite absence of compelling evidence as to the ethnicity of the Funanese, modern

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and other kingdoms situated in southern China. Goods imported or modelled on those from China, like bronze axes, have been excavated in Cambodia. An Eastern Wu embassy was sent from China to Funan in 228. A brief conflict is recorded to have happened in the 270s, when Funan and its neighbour,

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Georges Coedès said: "Fu-nan occupied a key position with regard to the maritime trade routes, and was inevitably a port of call both for the navigators who went through the Straits of Malacca and for those – probably more numerous – who made the transit over one of the isthmuses of the Malay

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The historian Gabriel Ferrand believed that some Indian merchants might have immigrated to the region and established relations with the natives and that's how the myth emerged. Some Indian historians have taken this myth to extreme length and speculate that a large population of South Asians

843:, the history records of Yuan Dynasty. "Siem Kok and Lo Hu Kok, formerly the Kingdom of Funan, were located to the west of Linyi Kok (Champa Kingdom in central Vietnam). The maritime distance was from the capital of Linyi Kok to the capital of Funan Kok. They are separated by about 3,000 li." 1825:

The Funan period seems to have been the heyday and Angkor Borei may have been Funan's premiere capital for much of that period. However, many of the settlements did not necessarily spring up out of nowhere or vanish quickly. They were certainly well integrated into pre-Funan, Funan, Zhenla ,

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colonized Funan. Dutch historian J.C. van Leur stressed that it was the local rulers who recognized the benefits of associating with their relatively advanced social technologies and drew from the Indian traditions by encouraging migration of Brahmin clerks to help with the administration.

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Kang Tai's report was unflattering to Funanese civilisation, though Chinese court records show that a group of Funanese musicians visited China in 263 CE. The Chinese emperor was so impressed that he ordered the establishment of an institute for Funanese music near

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152 AD with caption ANTONINVS AVG PIVS (Antoninus Aug(ustus) Pius) and portrait of the emperor turning left. Similar gold sheet discs that imitated Roman coins minted by local Funanese also are rediscovered, included imitations of aureus of Antoninus (minted in

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in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Óc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.

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Angkorian and post-Angkorian socio-economic and political networks. The urbanization and networking processes demonstrate significant continuity, evolution and longevity before and after the typical first to sixth century CE historic classification scheme.

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and meets Neang Neak, daughter of the nāga king. He marries her with blessings from her father and returns to the human world. The nāga king drinks the sea around the island and confers the name "Kampuchea Thipdei", which is derived from the Sanskrit

3199: 1593:." Fan Shih-man died on a military expedition to Chin-lin, "Frontier of Gold". He was followed by Chin-cheng, Fan Chan, Ch'ang and then Fan Hsun, in successive assassinations. Before his death, Fan Chan sent embassies to India and China in 243. 1141:) from the Kingdom of Wu to Funan. The writings of these envoys, though no longer extant in their original condition, were excerpted and as such preserved in the later dynastic histories, and form the basis for much of what we know about Funan. 1491:

Even if the Chinese "Hùntián" is not the proper transcription of the Sanskrit "Kaundinya", the name "Kaundinya" is nevertheless an important one in the history of Funan. Chinese sources mention another person of the name "Qiáochénrú"

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It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society, including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian

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In addition to trade, Funan also benefited from a sophisticated agricultural system that included use of an elaborate system of water storage and irrigation. The Funanese population was concentrated mainly along the rivers of the

2067:, past the Mekong Delta, and along the Vietnamese coast to China. Funanese kings of the 2nd century conquered polities on the isthmus itself, and thus may have controlled the entire trade route from Malaysia to central Vietnam. 1809:); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter". 1751:

the settlements of Angkor Borei and coastal outlets; this suggests a highly organised government. Funan was a complex and sophisticated society with a high population density, advanced technology, and a complex social system.

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Peninsula. Fu-nan may even have been the terminus of voyages from the Eastern Mediterranean, if it is the case that the Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy was situated on the western coast of Indochina on the Gulf of Siam".

2074:, located near the Straits of Malacca, provided a port-of-call and entrepot for this international trade route. Archaeological evidence discovered at what may have been the commercial centre of Funan at Óc Eo includes 858:

has said that, even though identification of the language of Funan is not possible, the evidence suggests that the population was Khmer. However, several studies demonstrates that inhabitants of Funan probably spoke

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was the language at the court, and the Funanese advocated Hinduism and, after the fifth century, Buddhist religious doctrines. Records show that taxes were paid in silver, gold, pearls, and perfumed wood. Kang Tai

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Successive rulers following Hun-t'ien included Hun-p'an-huang, P'an-p'an, and then Fan Shih-man, "Great King of Funan", who "had large ships built, and sailing all over the immense sea he attacked more than ten

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The ethnic and linguistic origins of the Funanese people have consequently been subject to scholarly debate, and no firm conclusions can be drawn based on the evidence available. The Funanese may have been

4564: 3207: 1240:, a scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia. These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the Funanese. 1774:

One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian town of Banam in

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Funan was Southeast Asia's first great economy. It became prosperous through maritime trade and agriculture. The kingdom apparently minted its own silver coinage, bearing the image of the

846:

Like the very name of the kingdom, the ethno-linguistic nature of the people is the subject of much discussion among specialists. The leading hypotheses are that the Funanese were mostly

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describing the kingdom, and the most extensive descriptions a name the people of Funan gave to their polity. Some scholars argued that ancient Chinese scholars has found the records from

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may have emulated the Funanese court. The Funanese established a strong system of mercantilism and commercial monopolies that would become a pattern for empires in the region.

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Nationalism and Ethnicity in Southeast Asia: Proceedings of the Conference "Nationalism and Ethnicity in Southeast Asia" at Humboldt University, Berlin, October 1993 · Band 2

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Erklärendes Wörterbuch zum chinesischen Buddhismus. Chinesisch-Sanskrit-deutsch. Von Heinrich Hackmann. Nach seinem handschriftlichen Nachlass überrbeitet von Johannes Nobel

3168:, Paris, Gallimard, 1987, pp.535–551, pp.537, 538; Amarajiva Lochan, "India and Thailand: Early Trade Routes and Sea Ports", S.K. Maity, Upendra Thakur, A.K. Narain (eds,), 1531:). The people of Fúnán appeared to him; the whole kingdom rose up with joy, went before him, and chose him king. He changed all the laws to conform to the system of India." 1547:

He also stated that Hindu traditions was selectively mobilized by the local rulers to strengthen the political alliances among fragile polity of the states in that period.

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Chinese sources relate a local legend to document Funan's origin, that a foreigner named "Huntian (混填)" established the Kingdom of Funan around the 1st century CE in the

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may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all. Jacques proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as

4632: 835:—located in mainland Southeast Asia covering parts of present-day Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam that existed from the first to sixth century CE. The name is found in 238: 4551: 982:) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean "South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of Southeast Asia, such as 1676:

scholar Michael Vickery has stated that "on present evidence it is impossible to assert that Funan as an area and its dominant groups were anything but Khmer".

4622: 4571: 3981: 1521:): "He was originally a Brahmin from India. There a voice told him: 'you must go reign over Fúnán,' and he rejoiced in his heart. In the south, he arrived at 77: 1942:. The Funanese were reported to have extensive book collections and archives throughout their country, demonstrating a high level of scholarly achievements. 1636:(Zhenla). "The king had his capital in the city of T'e-mu. Suddenly his city was subjugated by Chenla, and he had to migrate south to the city of Nafuna" ( 2268:. Part of "Entrance of the Foreign Visitors of Emperor Yuan of Liang" (梁元帝番客入朝圖) by the painter Gu Deqian (顧德謙) of the Southern Tang dynasty (937–976 CE). 2216:

198–202), perhaps the minting techniques were brought by traders including those from the Roman Empire. It is perhaps no small coincidence that the first

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the taking of trade routes all throughout Southeast Asia by China, leads to economic instability in the south, and forces politics and economy northward.

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Stark, M. T. (2006). From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and regeneration in ancient Cambodia. After collapse: The regeneration of complex societies, 144–167.

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An Giang Province Bureau of Culture, Sport and Tourism, Office of Cultural Heritage; An Giang Province Management Commission for Oc Eo Cultural Relics,

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Pierre-Yves Manguin, "From Funan to Sriwijaya: Cultural continuities and discontinuities in the Early Historical maritime states of Southeast Asia", in

2353:(the Red Earth Kingdom) in the Malay Peninsula. The Red Earth Kingdom is thought to be a derivation nation of Funan with its own kind of Khmer culture. 3446:

Changmai, Piya; Pinhasi, Ron; Pietrusewsky, Michael; Stark, Miriam T.; Ikehara-Quebral, Rona Michi; Reich, David; Flegontov, Pavel (29 December 2022).

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city-states that sometimes were at war with one another and at other times constituted a political unity. From archaeological evidence, which includes

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during 3rd cen CE, when King Dhamadamadhara (Dharmatamadharasya) of Murunda received envoy Su-Wu who represented King Fan Chan of Funan (225–250 CE).

576: 2319:(pinyin: Zhēnlà). Chenla was a Khmer polity, and its inscriptions are in both Sanskrit and in Khmer. The last known ruler of Funan was Rudravarman ( 2713: 1770:

On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".

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Pierre-Yves Manguin, "The archaeology of Fu Nan in the Mekong River Delta: the Oc Eo culture of Viet Nam", in Nancy Tingley and Andreas Reinecke,

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Little is known about Funan's political history apart from its relations with China. The Funanese had diplomatic relations and traded with the

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ideas. The kingdom is said to have been heavily influenced by Indian culture, and to have employed Indians for state administration purposes.

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Since the publication of Pelliot's article, archaeological excavation in Vietnam and Cambodia, especially excavation of sites related to the

738: 3448:"Ancient DNA from Protohistoric Period Cambodia indicates that South Asians admixed with local populations as early as 1st–3rd centuries CE" 541: 1572:

dating result on the human bone (95% confidence interval is 78–234 calCE) indicate that this individual lived during the early period of

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Karl-Heinz Golzio, "Kauṇḍinya in Südostasien", in Martin Straube, Roland Steiner, Jayandra Soni, Michael Hahn and Mitsuyo Demoto (eds.)

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December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a Pre-Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of

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The "King of the mountain" was the monarch of Funan. There was a mountain regarded as holy. Mountain in Khmer sounds similar to Funan.

1470:) and may be translated into English as "the lord of Cambodia". In another version, it is stated that Preah Thaong fights Neang Neak. 4490:

Lương Ninh, «Nước Chi Tôn», một quőc gia cở ở miển tây sông Hậu, ("Chi Tôn", an ancient state in the western bank of the Hậu river),

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Claude Jacques, "'Funan', 'Zhenla'. The reality concealed by these Chinese views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.),

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Claude Jacques, "‘Funan’, ‘Zhenla’: The Reality Concealed by these Chinese Views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.),

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Claude Jacques, "'Funan', 'Zhenla'. The reality concealed by these Chinese views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.),

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Keneth Hall remarks that the basic details of the Chinese legend are reiterated elsewhere in Indian and Southeast Asian folklore.

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Borell, Brigitte (2014), "The Power of Images – Coin Portraits of Roman Emperors on Jewellery Pendants in Early Southeast Asia",

3189:, Honolulu, Asian Studies Association of Australia in association with University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2014, pp.36–37, 65, 67, 271. 4647: 2281: 2063:, the narrow portion of the Malay peninsula, a portage across the isthmus, and then a coast-hugging journey by ship along the 4356: 4285: 4226: 4205: 4051: 3916: 3889: 3862: 3786: 3759: 3732: 3705: 3678: 3651: 3621: 3555: 3254: 3128: 2987: 2899: 1208:

from the north in the 6th century indicate "the arrival of the Khmer to the Mekong Delta." That thesis received support from

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However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a mistranslation of the Sanskrit word

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Funan came into prominence at a time when the trade route from India to China consisted of a maritime leg from India to the

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According to British Historian Robert Nichol, When Funan kingdom collapsed under Khmer invasions, during the year 680, the

3027:, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp.371–9, pp.373, 375; Ha Van Tan, "Óc Eo: Endogenous and Exogenous Elements", 1930:

Archaeological evidence largely corresponds to Chinese records. The Chinese described the Funanese as people who lived on

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Around 245, Funan was described as having "walled villages, palaces, and dwellings. They devote themselves to agriculture

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Miriam T. Stark, "From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia", G. Schwartz, J. Nichols (eds.),

3803: 3749: 3545: 1212:. Recent archaeological research lends weight to the conclusion that Funan was a Mon-Khmer polity. In his Funan review, 3906: 565: 1089:): the first embassy arrived between 225 and 230 CE, the second in the year 243. Later sources such as the Liáng shū ( 4169: 4145: 3520: 2769: 1949:, took up residency in China in the 5th to 6th centuries, and translated several Buddhist sūtras from Sanskrit (or a 731: 631: 536: 4093:

Lương Ninh, "Óc Eo – Cảng thị quốc tế của Vương quốc Phù Nam (Óc Eo – International Trade Port of Funnan Kingdom)",

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The Sanskrit inscription (K.5) of Tháp Mười (known as "Prasat Pram Loven" in Khmer), which is now on display in the

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First record dated 84 CE in late Han period 后汉书. Chinese records dating from the 3rd century CE, beginning with the

824: 348: 4343: 2813: 636: 405: 17: 4241:"East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." 616: 476: 1927:, including such methods as carrying a red-hot iron chain and retrieving gold rings and eggs from boiling water. 1343:

in 648 CE; however, in the Book of Jin the names given to the foreign conqueror and his native wife are "Hùnhuì"

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claimed that the Funan monarchs were their ancestors. Cambodia was taken control of after a sojourn in Java by

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is one of the few extant writings that can be attributed confidently to the kingdom of Funan. The text is in

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records a local legend to document Funan's origin, that of the foundation of Funan by the foreigner Hùntián (

1058: 696: 669: 641: 3722: 3668: 3641: 1434: 724: 674: 664: 531: 285: 1009:, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the region, as opposed to 3852: 3836: 3820: 2879: 2309: 1793:). Coedès based his theory on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 1406: 916: 860: 854:, or that they constituted a multi-ethnic society. The available evidence is inconclusive on this issue. 570: 438: 4373: 4595: 1257:

sea, which is the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their heads”.

2759: 2232:; corresponding with the names Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) and arriving through the 1563: 1555: 1156: 958:

mentioned in them as the conqueror of Funan. It has also been observed that in Chinese the character

385: 313: 145: 1511:, "Candana from India"), a ruler of Funan who in the year 357 CE sent tamed elephants as tribute to 880:

in southern Vietnam, it is known that Funan must have been a powerful trading state. Excavations at

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with the Vijaya of Sarawak which in turn cause them to be related to Funan people as well as the

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artefacts. The German classical scholar Albrecht Dihle believed that Funan's main port, was the

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According to Chinese sources, Funan was eventually conquered and absorbed by its vassal polity

2285: 490: 38: 31: 2805: 2224:" recorded in Chinese history is dated 166 AD, allegedly sent by a Roman ruler named "Andun" ( 1027: 893:

Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the word

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with the Brahmin Kauṇḍinya who married a nāga (snake) princess named Somā, as set forth in a

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Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations", in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds),

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According to this source, Qiáochénrú was one of the successors of the king Tiānzhú Zhāntán (

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Georges Cœdès, "Études Cambodgiennes XXV: Deux inscriptions sanskrites du Fou-nan", pp. 2–8

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in Borneo across the South China sea, from Funan. He also posited blood relations with the

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were among the items of long-distance trade discovered by the French archaeologist

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