Julian (emperor) - Knowledge

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support Julian's public reforms actively for fear of a Christian revival. However, this apathetic attitude forced the emperor to shift central aspects of pagan worship. Julian's attempts to reinvigorate the people shifted the focus of paganism from a system of tradition to a religion with some of the same characteristics that he opposed in Christianity. For example, Julian attempted to introduce a tighter organization for the priesthood, with greater qualifications of character and service. Classical paganism simply did not accept this idea of priests as model citizens. Priests were elites with social prestige and financial power who organized festivals and helped pay for them. Yet Julian's attempt to impose moral strictness on the civic position of priesthood only made paganism more in tune with Christian morality, drawing it further from paganism's system of tradition.

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leaders did not even have the funds, much less the support, to hold religious festivals. Julian found the financial base that had supported these ventures (sacred temple funds) had been seized by his uncle Constantine to support the Christian Church. In all, Julian's short reign simply could not shift the feeling of inertia that had swept across the Empire. Christians had denounced sacrifice, stripped temples of their funds, and cut priests and magistrates off from the social prestige and financial benefits accompanying leading pagan positions in the past. Leading politicians and civic leaders had little motivation to rock the boat by reviving pagan festivals. Instead, they chose to adopt the middle ground by having ceremonies and mass entertainment that were religiously neutral.

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translator's note upon it: "This is the Alexander of whom Ammianus says (23.2), "When Julian was going to leave Antioch, he made one Alexander of Heliopolis, governor of Syria, a turbulent and severe man, saying that 'undeserving as he was, such a ruler suited the avaricious and contumellious Antiochians'." As the letter makes clear, Julian handed the city over to be looted by a man he himself regarded as unworthy, and the Christian inhabitants, who had dared to oppose his attempt to restore paganism, to be forced to attend and applaud pagan ceremonies at sword-point; and be 'urged' to cheer more loudly."

979:, the army officers were those responsible for distributing an anonymous tract expressing complaints against Constantius as well as fearing for Julian's ultimate fate. Notably absent at the time was the prefect Florentius, who was seldom far from Julian's side, though now he was kept busy organizing supplies in Vienne and away from any strife that the order could cause. Julian would later blame him for the arrival of the order from Constantius. Ammianus Marcellinus even suggested that the fear of Julian gaining more popularity than himself caused Constantius to send the order on the urging of Florentius. 49: 2566: 1868:. Julian writes, "when Zeus was setting all things in order there fell from him drops of sacred blood, and from them, as they say, arose the race of men." Further he writes, "they who had the power to create one man and one woman only, were able to create many men and women at once..." His view contrasts with the Christian belief that humanity is derived from the one pair, Adam and Eve. Elsewhere he argues against the single pair origin, indicating his disbelief, noting for example, "how very different in their bodies are the Germans and Scythians from the Libyans and Ethiopians." 1030:. Julian then divided his forces, sending one column to Raetia, one to northern Italy and the third he led down the Danube on boats. His forces claimed control of Illyricum and his general, Nevitta, secured the pass of Succi into Thrace. He was now well out of his comfort zone and on the road to civil war. (Julian would state in late November that he set off down this road "because, having been declared a public enemy, I meant to frighten him merely, and that our quarrel should result in intercourse on more friendly terms...") 1728: 1975: 744:. Constantius, after his experience with Gallus, intended his representative to be more a figurehead than an active participant in events, so he packed Julian off to Gaul with a small retinue, assuming his prefects in Gaul would keep Julian in check. At first reluctant to trade his scholarly life for war and politics, Julian eventually took every opportunity to involve himself in the affairs of Gaul. In the following years he learned how to lead and then run an army, through a series of campaigns against the 1583: 1374: 1174: 1488: 507: 574:(Julian's half-brother), as the surviving males related to Emperor Constantine. Constantius II, Constans I, and Constantine II were proclaimed joint emperors, each ruling a portion of Roman territory. Julian and Gallus were excluded from public life, were strictly guarded in their youth, and given a Christian education. They were likely saved by their youth. If Julian's later writings are to be believed, Constantius would later be tormented with guilt at the massacre of 337. 5893: 5845: 1656: 5033: 2034:: Let them go back to their churches and expound on them", the edict says. This was an attempt to remove some of the influence of the Christian schools which at that time and later used ancient Greek literature in their teachings in their effort to present the Christian religion as being superior to paganism. The edict also dealt a severe financial blow to many Christian scholars, tutors, and teachers, as it deprived them of students. 1000: 2086:

internal divisions that prevented them from creating any one 'pagan religion'. Indeed, the term pagan was simply a convenient appellation for Christians to lump together the believers of a system they opposed. In truth, there was no Roman religion, as modern observers would recognize it. Instead, paganism came from a system of observances that one historian has characterized as "no more than a spongy mass of tolerance and tradition."

992:, and this in turn led to a very swift military effort to secure or win the allegiance of others. Although the full details are unclear, there is evidence to suggest that Julian may have at least partially stimulated the insurrection. If so, he went back to business as usual in Gaul, for, from June to August of that year, Julian led a successful campaign against the Attuarian Franks. In November, Julian began openly using the title 1117:. Several high-ranking officials under Constantius, including the chamberlain Eusebius, were found guilty and executed. (Julian was conspicuously absent from the proceedings, perhaps signalling his displeasure at their necessity.) He continually sought to reduce what he saw as a burdensome and corrupt bureaucracy within the Imperial administration whether it involved civic officials, secret agents or the imperial postal service. 9003: 5388: 1189:, arriving in mid-July and staying there for nine months before launching his fateful campaign against Persia in March 363. Antioch was a city favored by splendid temples along with a famous oracle of Apollo in nearby Daphne, which may have been one reason for his choosing to reside there. It had also been used in the past as a staging place for amassing troops, a purpose which Julian intended to follow. 376:, his cousin. Julian became an orphan as a child after his father was executed in 337, and spent much of his life under Constantius's close supervision. However, the emperor allowed Julian to pursue freely an education in the Greek-speaking east, with the result that Julian became unusually cultured for an emperor of his time. In 355, Constantius II summoned Julian to court and appointed him to rule 2662:' invectives against Julian. Christians no doubt suppressed some of Julian's works as well. This Christian influence is still visible in Wright's much smaller collection of Julian's letters. She comments that some letters are suddenly cut off when the contents become hostile towards Christians and believes this to be the result of Christian censorship. Notable examples appear in the 865:), however, he crossed the Rhine in an expedition that penetrated deep into what is today Germany, and forced three local kingdoms to submit. This action showed the Alamanni that Rome was once again present and active in the area. On his way back to winter quarters in Paris he dealt with a band of Franks who had taken control of some abandoned forts along the river 2655:

that is itself likely to be genuine. Julian's religious agenda gave him even more work than the average emperor as he sought to instruct his newly styled pagan priests and dealt with discontented Christian leaders and communities. An example of him instructing his pagan priests is found in a fragment in the Vossianus MS., inserted in the Letter to Themistius.

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but Juventinus and Maximinus admitted to being Christians, and refused to moderate their stance. Chrysostom asserts that the emperor forbade anyone from having contact with the men, but that nobody obeyed his orders; so he had the two men executed in the middle of the night. Chrysostom urges his audience to visit the tomb of these martyrs.

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birth, waiting for news and writing letters to various cities in Greece justifying his actions (of which only the letter to the Athenians has survived in its entirety). Civil war was avoided only by the death on 3 November of Constantius, who, in his last will, is alleged by some sources to have recognized Julian as his rightful successor.

842:. The Romans were heavily outnumbered and during the heat of battle a group of 600 horsemen on the right wing deserted, yet, taking full advantage of the limitations of the terrain, the Romans were overwhelmingly victorious. The enemy was routed and driven into the river. King Chnodomarius was captured and later sent to Constantius in 2187:, the builders were described as "being driven against one another, as though by a furious blast of wind, and sudden heaving of the earth" driving some to seek refuge in a church where "a flame issued forth... and stopped them." This, according to Gregory, is "what all people nowadays report and believe." The 18th century writer 1134:

Mediterranean had become the economic locus of the Empire. If the cities were treated as relatively autonomous local administrative areas, it would simplify the problems of imperial administration, which as far as Julian was concerned, should be focused on the administration of the law and defense of the empire's vast frontiers.

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paganism into a religion that accepted only one form of religious experience while excluding all others—such as Christianity. In trying to compete with Christianity in this manner, Julian fundamentally changed the nature of pagan worship. That is, he made paganism a religion, whereas it once had been only a system of tradition.

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is attained by reason." In spite of Eusebius' warnings regarding the "impostures of witchcraft and magic that cheat the senses" and "the works of conjurers who are insane men led astray into the exercise of earthly and material powers", Julian was intrigued, and sought out Maximus as his new mentor. According to the historian

2636:. Wright mentions, however, that there are many problems surrounding Julian's vast collection of works, mainly the letters ascribed to Julian. The collections of letters existing today are the result of many smaller collections, which contained varying numbers of Julian's works in various combinations. For example, in 1855:. Others (Rowland Smith, in particular) have argued that Julian's philosophical perspective was nothing unusual for a "cultured" pagan of his time, and, at any rate, that Julian's paganism was not limited to philosophy alone, and that he was deeply devoted to the same gods and goddesses as other pagans of his day. 2081:

Julian's popularity among the people and the army during his brief reign suggest that he might have brought paganism back to the fore of Roman public and private life. In fact, during his lifetime, neither pagan nor Christian ideology reigned supreme, and the greatest thinkers of the day argued about

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by past Roman Emperors had seemingly only strengthened Christianity, many of Julian's actions may have been designed to harass Christians and undermine their ability to organize resistance to the re-establishment of paganism in the empire. Julian's preference for a non-Christian and non-philosophical

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On 4 February 362, Julian promulgated an edict to guarantee freedom of religion. This edict proclaimed that all the religions were equal before the law, and that the Roman Empire had to return to its original religious eclecticism, according to which the Roman state did not impose any religion on its

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Libanius says in his epitaph of the deceased emperor (18.304) that "I have mentioned representations (of Julian); many cities have set him beside the images of the gods and honour him as they do the gods. Already a blessing has been besought of him in prayer, and it was not in vain. To such an extent

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and definitively secure the eastern border. Yet the full motivation for this ambitious operation is, at best, unclear. There was no direct necessity for an invasion, as the Sassanids sent envoys in the hope of settling matters peacefully. Julian rejected this offer. Ammianus states that Julian longed

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When the curia still took no substantial action in regards to the food shortage, Julian intervened, fixing the prices for grain and importing more from Egypt. Then landholders refused to sell theirs, claiming that the harvest was so bad that they had to be compensated with fair prices. Julian accused

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Julian soon discovered that wealthy merchants were causing food problems, apparently by hoarding food and selling it at high prices. He hoped that the curia would deal with the issue for the situation was headed for a famine. When the curia did nothing, he spoke to the city's leading citizens, trying

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on the north Adriatic coast, an event that threatened to cut Julian off from the rest of his forces, while Constantius's troops marched towards him from the east. Aquileia was subsequently besieged by 23,000 men loyal to Julian. All Julian could do was sit it out in Naissus, the city of Constantine's

910:. This was Julian's first experience with civil administration, where his views were influenced by his liberal education in Greece. Properly it was a role that belonged to the praetorian prefect. However, Florentius and Julian often clashed over the administration of Gaul. Julian's first priority, as 648:

and, chanting a hymn, caused a statue of the goddess to smile and laugh, and her torches to ignite. Eusebius reportedly told Julian that he "must not marvel at any of these things, even as I marvel not, but rather believe that the thing of the highest importance is that purification of the soul which

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In A.D. 363, the Emperor Julian undertook to rebuild the temple, but after considerable preparations and much expense he was compelled to desist by flames which burst forth from the foundations. Repeated attempts have been made to account for these igneous explosions by natural causes; for instance,

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by Libanius: "That Alexander was appointed to the government at first, I confess, gave me some concern, as the principal persons among us were dissatisfied. I thought it dishonourable, injurious, and unbecoming a prince; and that repeated fines would rather weaken than improve the city...." and the

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near Maranga in Mesopotamia, Julian was wounded when the Sassanid army raided his column. In the haste of pursuing the retreating enemy, Julian chose speed rather than caution, taking only his sword and leaving his coat of mail. He received a wound from a spear that reportedly pierced the lower lobe

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against the city, given the impregnability of its defences and the fact that Shapur would soon arrive with a large force. Julian, not wanting to give up what he had gained and probably still hoping for the arrival of the column under Procopius and Sebastianus, set off east into the Persian interior,

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was the result of military insurrection eased by Constantius's sudden death. This meant that, while he could count on the wholehearted support of the Western army which had aided his rise, the Eastern army was an unknown quantity originally loyal to the Emperor he had risen against, and he had tried

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They expected a man who was both removed from them by the awesome spectacle of imperial power, and would validate their interests and desires by sharing them from his Olympian height (...) He was supposed to be interested in what interested his people, and he was supposed to be dignified. He was not

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was made voluntary rather than a compulsory tax. Additionally, arrears of land taxes were cancelled. This was a key reform reducing the power of corrupt imperial officials, as the unpaid taxes on land were often hard to calculate or higher than the value of the land itself. Forgiving back taxes both

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frontier. He sought to win over the support of the civil population, which was necessary for his operations in Gaul, and also to show his largely Germanic army the benefits of Imperial rule. Julian therefore felt it was necessary to rebuild stable and peaceful conditions in the devastated cities and

503:. Julian's mother died shortly after he was born, and he spent his childhood in Constantinople, forming a lasting attachment to the city. Julian was probably raised with Greek as his first language, and, being the nephew of Rome's first Christian emperor, he was brought up under the Christian faith. 2097:

Indeed, this development of a pagan order created the foundations of a bridge of reconciliation over which paganism and Christianity could meet. Likewise, Julian's persecution of Christians, who by pagan standards were simply part of a different cult, was quite an un-pagan attitude that transformed

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After witnessing the reign of two emperors bent on supporting the Church and stamping out paganism, it is understandable that pagans simply did not embrace Julian's idea of proclaiming their devotion to polytheism and their rejection of Christianity. Many chose to adopt a practical approach and not

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Even so, Julian's short reign did not stem the tide of Christianity. The emperor's ultimate failure can arguably be attributed to the many religious traditions and deities that paganism promulgated. Most pagans sought religious affiliations that were unique to their culture and people, and they had

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in the Romans' path. Julian had not brought adequate siege equipment, so there was nothing he could do when he found that the Persians had flooded the area behind him, forcing him to withdraw. A second council of war on 16 June 363 decided that the best course of action was to lead the army back to

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after a 73-day siege. In February 360, Constantius II ordered more than half of Julian's Gallic troops to join his eastern army, the order by-passing Julian and going directly to the military commanders. Although Julian at first attempted to expedite the order, it provoked an insurrection by troops

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The problems surrounding a collection of Julian's works are exacerbated by the fact that Julian was a motivated writer, which means it is possible that many more letters could have circulated despite his short reign. Julian himself attests to the large number of letters he had to write in a letter

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were open to all, including pagans, put this aspect of Roman citizens' lives out of the control of Imperial authority and under that of the Church. Thus Julian envisioned the institution of a Roman philanthropic system, and cared for the behaviour and the morality of the pagan priests, in the hope

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tells the story of two of Julian's soldiers at Antioch, who were overheard at a drinking party, criticizing the emperor's religious policies, and taken into custody. According to Chrysostom, the emperor had made a deliberate effort to avoid creating martyrs of those who disagreed with his reforms;

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was due to his wish to create a society in which every aspect of the life of the citizens was to be connected, through layers of intermediate levels, to the consolidated figure of the Emperor—the final provider for all the needs of his people. Within this project, there was no place for a parallel

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He restored pagan temples which had been confiscated since Constantine's time, or simply appropriated by wealthy citizens; he repealed the stipends that Constantine had awarded to Christian bishops, and removed their other privileges, including a right to be consulted on appointments and to act as

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ordered his soldiers not to enter the open gates of the city in pursuit of the defeated Persians. Resultantly, the main Persian army was still at large and approaching, while the Romans lacked a clear strategic objective. In the council of war which followed, Julian's generals persuaded him not to

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had to be approved by him directly rather than left to the judgement of the bureaucratic apparatus. Julian certainly had a clear idea of what he wanted Roman society to be, both in political as well as religious terms. The terrible and violent dislocation of the 3rd century meant that the Eastern

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Another effect of Julian's political philosophy was that the authority of the cities was expanded at the expense of the imperial bureaucracy as Julian sought to reduce direct imperial involvement in urban affairs. For example, city land owned by the imperial government was returned to the cities,

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This system of tradition had already shifted dramatically by the time Julian came to power; gone were the days of massive sacrifices honoring the gods. The communal festivals that involved sacrifice and feasting, which once united communities, now tore them apart—Christian against pagan. Civic

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compiled the different collections in 1922 and arrived at a total of 284 items. 157 of these were considered genuine, and 127 were regarded as spurious. This contrasts starkly with Wright's earlier mentioned collection, which contains only 73 items which are considered genuine, along with 10

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Julian's fellow pagans were of a divided mind about this habit of talking to his subjects on an equal footing: Ammianus Marcellinus saw in that only the foolish vanity of someone "excessively anxious for empty distinction", whose "desire for popularity often led him to converse with unworthy

5195:("A Romantic on the Throne of the Caesars"), in which Julian was satirised as "an unworldly dreamer, a man who turned nostalgia for the ancients into a way of life and whose eyes were closed to the pressing needs of the present". In fact, this was a veiled criticism of the contemporary King 1215:

were suppressing the god, he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter

1101:("first among equals"), operating under the same laws as his subjects. While in Constantinople, therefore, it was not strange to see Julian frequently active in the Senate, participating in debates and making speeches, placing himself at the level of the other members of the Senate. 1447:

in order to supply his army for a march down the Euphrates and of 50 pontoon ships to facilitate river crossings. Procopius and the Armenians would march down the Tigris to meet Julian near Ctesiphon. Julian's ultimate aim seems to have been "regime change" by replacing king

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of the East, while Constantius II himself turned his attention westward to Magnentius, whom he defeated decisively that year. In 354 Gallus, who had imposed a rule of terror over the territories under his command, was executed. Julian was summoned to Constantius' court in

2049:. The latter was an instance of tolerance of different religious views, but it may also have been an attempt by Julian to foster schisms and divisions between his Christian rivals, since disputes over what constituted orthodox Catholic teaching could become quite fierce. 5947:, New Series, Vol. 48, No. 2 (1998), pp. 595–599), argues that the kind Eusebia of Julian's panegyric is a literary creation and that she was doing the bidding of her husband in bringing Julian around to doing what Constantius had asked of him. See especially p. 597. 7004:, which is to the north, lies a cylindrically-shaped sarcophagus, in which lies the cursed and wretched body of the apostate Julian, porphyry or Roman in colour. 44 Another sarcophagus, porphyry, or Roman, in which lies the body of Jovian, who ruled after Julian." 2651:

apocryphal letters. Michael Trapp notes, however, that when comparing Bidez and Cumont's work with Wright's, Bidez and Cumont regard as many as sixteen of Wright's genuine letters as spurious. Which works can be ascribed to Julian is thus very much up to debate.

1643:) and this may have been confirmed by Julian's doctor Oribasius who, having examined the wound, said that it was from a spear used by a group of Lakhmid auxiliaries in Persian service. Later Christian historians propagated the tradition that Julian was killed by 1616:, the suturing of the damaged intestine. On the third day a major hemorrhage occurred and the emperor died during the night. Some Christian writers reported that his final words were "Thou hast conquered, Galilean.” As Julian wished, his body was buried outside 1231:

Julian's ascetic lifestyle was not popular either, since his subjects were accustomed to the idea of an all-powerful Emperor who placed himself well above them. Nor did he improve his dignity with his own participation in the ceremonial of bloody sacrifices.

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to await the spring. This turned out to be a tactical error, for he was left with insufficient forces to defend himself when a large contingent of Franks besieged the town and Julian was virtually held captive there for several months, until his general

2601:, Marcus Aurelius and Constantine, with the competition also including Alexander the Great. This was a satiric attack upon the recent Constantine, whose worth, both as a Christian and as the leader of the Roman Empire, Julian severely questions. 1678:

has he literally ascended to the gods and received a share of their power from him themselves." However, no similar action was taken by the Roman central government, which would be more and more dominated by Christians in the ensuing decades.

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general. This latter appointment made overt the fact that an emperor's authority depended on the power of the army. Julian's choice of Nevitta appears to have been aimed at maintaining the support of the Western army which had acclaimed him.

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in conjunction with Armenian forces. This was where two earlier Roman campaigns had concentrated and where the main Persian forces were soon directed. Julian's strategy lay elsewhere, however. He had had a fleet built of over 1,000 ships at

2020:, Julian required that all public teachers be approved by the Emperor; the state paid or supplemented much of their salaries. Ammianus Marcellinus explains this as intending to prevent Christian teachers from using pagan texts (such as the 415:. However, he did not attempt to besiege the capital. Julian instead moved into Persia's heartland, but he soon faced supply problems and was forced to retreat northwards while being ceaselessly harassed by Persian skirmishers. During the 561:

appears to have led a massacre of most of Julian's close relatives. Constantius II allegedly ordered the murders of many descendants from the second marriage of Constantius Chlorus and Theodora, leaving only Constantius and his brothers

2159:. The point was that the rebuilding of the temple would invalidate Jesus' prophecy about its destruction in 70, which Christians had cited as proof of Jesus' truth. But fires broke out and stopped the project. A personal friend of his, 619:

Julian's conversion from Christianity to paganism happened at around the age of 20. Looking back on his life in 362, Julian wrote that he had spent twenty years in the way of Christianity and twelve in the true way, i.e., the way of

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parallels the life of Julian with the titular character as the hereditary president of an oligarchic future United States of America who tries to restore science and combat the fundamentalist Christianity that has taken over the

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The new Emperor rejected the style of administration of his immediate predecessors. He blamed Constantine for the state of the administration and for having abandoned the traditions of the past. He made no attempt to restore the

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intervened on his behalf, and he was permitted to study in Athens (Julian expresses his gratitude to the empress in his third oration). While there, Julian became acquainted with two men who later became both bishops and saints:

1264:, a friend of the emperor, admits on first thought was a "dishonourable" appointment. Julian himself described the man as "undeserving" of the position, but appropriate "for the avaricious and rebellious people of Antioch". 1515:

over the Persians before the gates of the city, driving them back into the city. However, the Persian capital was not taken. Concerned with the risk of becoming encircled and trapped within the city's walls, master-general

1992:(an old school-mate of Julian) had been imprisoned at the start of Julian's Sassanid campaign. Basil prayed to Mercurius to help him, and the saint appeared in a vision to Basil, claiming to have speared Julian to death. 1935:

polytheism as the state religion. His laws tended to target wealthy and educated Christians, and his aim was not to destroy Christianity but to drive the religion out of "the governing classes of the empire—much as

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Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615–619. See p.

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ordering the destruction of the fleet. This proved to be a hasty decision, for they were on the wrong side of the Tigris with no clear means of retreat and the Persians had begun to harass them from a distance,

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On 11 December 361, Julian entered Constantinople as sole emperor and, despite his rejection of Christianity, his first political act was to preside over Constantius' Christian burial, escorting the body to the

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Julian was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the Empire's ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution. He purged the

6528:, book 3, chapter 12. Zosimus' text is ambiguous and refers to a smaller force of 18,000 under Procopius and a larger force of 65,000 under Julian himself; it's unclear if the second figure includes the first. 5483:"Two famous, almost identical marble statues of a bearded man wearing a tunic, a Greek mantle, and multi-tiered crown have long been considered to be portraits of Julian. Both of them are on display in Paris ( 1393:) depicting "the skyn of Julyan". There is no evidence that Julian's corpse was skinned and displayed, and it is likely that the illustrator simply confused the fate of Julian's body with that of Emperor 1475:, which guarded the canal approach from the Euphrates to Ctesiphon on the Tigris. As the army marched toward the Persian capital, the Sassanids broke the dikes which crossed the land, turning it into 2202:". However, it is believed by most historians that Julian's favor towards the Jews was more of an attempt to impede the growth of Christianity as opposed to any genuine affection towards Judaism. 794:

The following year saw a combined operation planned by Constantius to regain control of the Rhine from the Germanic peoples who had spilt across the river onto the west bank. From the south his

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He viewed the royal court of his predecessors as inefficient, corrupt and expensive. Thousands of servants, eunuchs and superfluous officials were therefore summarily dismissed. He set up the

850:, who was a participant in the battle, portrays Julian in charge of events on the battlefield and describes how the soldiers, because of this success, acclaimed Julian attempting to make him 427:, in order to save the trapped Roman forces. Julian and Jovian were the last sole emperors to rule the whole Empire for their entire reign, after which it was permanently divided between a 6698:

Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum gestarum libri XXXI, ed. and trs. J. C. Roffe, 3 vols, Loeb Classical Library 300, 315 and 331 (Cambridge, MA, 1939–50). Book 24, Chapter 6, Section number 13.

1293: 2175:; when fearful balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, continued their attacks, till the workmen, after repeated scorchings, could approach no more: and he gave up the attempt. 1228:

and forced them to sell. Various parts of Libanius' orations may suggest that both sides were justified to some extent; while Ammianus blames Julian for "a mere thirst for popularity".

1059:, where it was placed alongside that of Constantine. This act was a demonstration of his lawful right to the throne. He is also now thought to have been responsible for the building of 2191:

considered this to be unreliable, positing instead sabotage or accident. Divine intervention is a common view among Christian historians, and it was seen as proof of Jesus' divinity.

5176:. This work made use of the Roman Emperor's life in order to address contemporary English political and theological debates – specifically, to reply to the conservative arguments of 5339:. His reign not being cut short, he was successful in disestablishing Christianity and restoring a religiously eclectic societal order which survived the fall of Rome and into the 2589:(or "Beard Hater") is a light-hearted account of Julian's clash with the inhabitants of Antioch after he was mocked for his beard and generally scruffy appearance for an emperor. 2082:

the merits and rationality of each religion. Most importantly for the pagan cause, though, Rome was still a predominantly pagan empire that had not wholly accepted Christianity.

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on 6 April, the army made good progress, bypassing towns after negotiations or besieging those which chose to oppose him. At the end of April the Romans captured the fortress of

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countryside. For this reason, Julian clashed with Florentius over the latter's support of tax increases, as mentioned above, and Florentius's own corruption in the bureaucracy.

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in particular), Julian's paganism was highly eccentric and atypical because it was heavily influenced by an esoteric approach to Platonic philosophy sometimes identified as

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Rather than chase the routed enemy across the Rhine, Julian now proceeded to follow the Rhine north, the route he followed the previous year on his way back to Gaul. At

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Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery.

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In replacing Constantius's political and civil appointees, Julian drew heavily from the intellectual and professional classes, or kept reliable holdovers, such as the

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deigned to lift the siege. Relations between Julian and Marcellus seem to have been poor. Constantius accepted Julian's report of events and Marcellus was replaced as

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Athanassiadi, p. 148, doesn't supply a clear date. Bowersock, p. 103, dates it to the celebration of Sol Invictus, 25 December, shortly after the Caesars was written.

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in 1803, the other for the Musée de Cluny in 1859). Today, however, the statue in the Musée de Cluny is dated to the 2nd century and thought to represent a priest of

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Coustillas, Pierre ed. London and the Life of Literature in Late Victorian England: the Diary of George Gissing, Novelist. Brighton: Harvester Press, 1978, p. 237.

1286: 1840:) may show Christian influence. Some of these potential sources have not come down to us, and all of them influenced each other, which adds to the difficulties. 8904: 11982: 8865: 900:

At the end of 357 Julian, with the prestige of his victory over the Alamanni to give him confidence, prevented a tax increase by the Gallic praetorian prefect

1931:, Julian started a religious reformation of the empire, which was intended to restore the lost strength of the Roman state. He supported the restoration of 9082: 2640:, the largest collection of letters ascribed to Julian was found, containing 43 manuscripts. The origins of many letters in these collections are unclear. 2155:

In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Persia, in keeping with his effort to oppose Christianity, he allowed Jews to

1279: 8225: 1129:

While he ceded much of the authority of the imperial government to the cities, Julian also took more direct control himself. For example, new taxes and

1812:

As the last pagan ruler of the Roman Empire, Julian's beliefs are of great interest for historians, but they are not in complete agreement. He learned

1787:

Julian's personal religion was both pagan and philosophical; he viewed the traditional myths as allegories, in which the ancient gods were aspects of

760:

During his first campaign in 356, Julian led an army to the Rhine, where he engaged the inhabitants and recovered several towns that had fallen into

653:, when Julian left Eusebius, he told his former teacher "farewell, and devote yourself to your books. You have shown me the man I was in search of." 5849: 772:). With success under his belt he withdrew for the winter to Gaul, distributing his forces to protect various towns, and choosing the small town of 9545: 9257: 5355: 1955:

private courts. He also reversed some favors that had previously been given to Christians. For example, he reversed Constantine's declaration that

1907: 2699: 2620:. These extracts do not give an adequate idea of the work: Cyril confesses that he had not ventured to copy several of the weightiest arguments. 996:

even issuing coins with the title, sometimes with Constantius, sometimes without. He celebrated his fifth year in Gaul with a big show of games.

12022: 8160: 5560:

Not dealt with in Athanassiadi, or dated by Bowersock, but reflects a time when Julian was emperor, and he had other issues to deal with later.

1253:

or "Beard Hater". There he blames the people of Antioch for preferring that their ruler have his virtues in the face rather than in the soul.

2106:

Many of the Church fathers viewed the emperor with hostility, and told stories of his supposed wickedness after his death. A sermon by Saint

1997: 2026:, which was widely regarded as divinely inspired) that formed the core of classical education: "If they want to learn literature, they have 1595:

During the withdrawal, Julian's forces suffered several attacks from Sassanid forces. In one such engagement on 26 June 363, the indecisive

1418:. En route he was met by embassies from various small powers offering assistance, none of which he accepted. He did order the Armenian King 616:, a minor office in the Christian church, and his later writings show a detailed knowledge of the Bible, likely acquired in his early life. 2628:

Julian's works have been edited and translated several times since the Renaissance, most often separately; but many are translated in the

1358:. However, to solidify his position in the eyes of the eastern army, he needed to lead its soldiers to victory and a campaign against the 1121:

city council members were compelled to resume civic authority, often against their will, and the tribute in gold by the cities called the

7067: 1623:

In 364, Libanius stated that Julian was assassinated by a Christian who was one of his own soldiers; this charge is not corroborated by

9229: 2692: 2041:

of 362, Julian decreed the reopening of pagan temples, the restitution of confiscated temple properties, and the return from exile of "

1735:

As he had requested, Julian's body was buried in Tarsus. It lay in a tomb outside the city, across a road from that of Maximinus Daia.

8976: 8300:

Julian the emperor: containing Gregory Nazianzen's two Invectives and Libanius' Monody : with Julian's extant theosophical works.

1912: 1608:

of Pergamum, who seems to have made every attempt to treat the wound. This probably included the irrigation of the wound with a dark

608:, who lent him books from the classical tradition. At the age of 18, the exile was lifted and he dwelt briefly in Constantinople and 8134: 7598: 12032: 9586: 8289:

The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens.

1770: 831:

territory, so he felt obliged to withdraw, retracing his steps. Thus ended the coordinated operation against the Germanic peoples.

12007: 8293:

The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens

11992: 10111: 8322:, panegyric delivered in Constantinople in 362, also as a speech of thanks at his assumption of the office of consul of that year 1832:, although whether he was initiated into it remains debatable; and certain aspects of his thought (such as his reorganization of 1709:'s elaboration of what a philosophic pagan might have felt at the triumph of Christianity. It also ends the Polish Romantic play 1755: 1746:

in Constantinople, where Constantine and the rest of his family lay. His sarcophagus is listed as standing in a "stoa" there by

718: 7910:

Julian, Volume II. Orations 6–8. Letters to Themistius. To The Senate and People of Athens. To a Priest. The Caesars. Misopogon

5724: 5629: 5424:, ‘Julian Way,’ initially named after the Emperor, was later renamed King David Street after the establishment of the State of 723: 7081:

The emperor's study of Iamblichus and of theurgy are a source of criticism from his primary chronicler, Ammianus Marcellinus,

656:

Constantine II died in 340 when he attacked his brother Constans. Constans in turn fell in 350 in the war against the usurper

12047: 10905: 10773: 8733: 8718: 8652: 8519: 8409: 8080: 7471: 6820: 6716: 6489: 6273: 5680: 5097: 10938:

Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper

8866:

https://www.academia.edu/85590664/Julian_the_Apostate_The_Persian_campaign_and_the_riddle_of_battle_at_Tummar_on_June_26_363

5302:, and accounts for the transition from a Christian philosophy student in Athens to a pagan Roman Augustus of the old nature. 1765: 1370:

for revenge on the Persians and that a certain desire for combat and glory also played a role in his decision to go to war.

12052: 10967: 10118: 7621: 5069: 8856:Вус, Олег. Юлиан Апостат. Персидский поход и загадка битвы у Туммара 26 июня 363 г. // МАИАСП. 2019. Вып. 11. С. 271–299. 12042: 11957: 10741: 6277: 4366: 2658:

Additionally, Julian's hostility towards the Christian faith inspired vicious counteractions by Christian authors, as in

17: 5897: 5783:

Julian cut his beard when he was summoned by Constantius, but grew it back a few months after his rebellion in 360. See

12027: 12002: 11952: 8818: 8799: 8759: 8680: 7997: 7917: 7892: 7841: 4505: 4477: 3203: 1153: 730:

After dealing with the rebellions of Magnentius and Silvanus, Constantius felt he needed a permanent representative in

7691:

The manuscript tradition uses the name "Sallustius", but see Bowersock, p. 45 (footnote #12), and Athanassiadi, p. 20.

5076: 1511:, where Julian partially unloaded some of the fleet and had his troops ferried across the Tigris by night. The Romans 557:

In the turmoil after the death of Constantine in 337, in order to establish himself and his brothers, Julian's cousin

8851: 8837: 8785: 8752: 8635: 8621: 8582: 8556: 8504: 8486: 8433: 8391: 8364: 8022: 7972: 7816: 7633: 7501: 7432: 7226: 7104: 6269: 5740: 5116: 5050: 4912: 3557: 2010: 8106: 7990:

Julian, Orations 6–8. Letters to Themistius, To the Senate and People of Athens, To a Priest. The Caesars. Misopogon

1666:. It was erected in 362, in occasion of the visit of Julian to the city, on his way to the Sassanid Empire frontier. 1204:

to persuade them to take action. Thinking that they would do the job, he turned his attention to religious matters.

660:. This left Constantius II as the sole remaining emperor. In need of support, in 351 he made Julian's half-brother, 11987: 2167:

Julian thought to rebuild at an extravagant expense the proud Temple once at Jerusalem, and committed this task to

2053: 1046: 932:

from Gaul. His departure stimulated the writing of Julian's oration, "Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius".

2282:

Indicates his support of Constantius, while being critical. (Sometimes called "second panegyric to Constantius".)

388:

and encouraging the ravaged provinces' return to prosperity. In 360, he was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers at

11576: 10707: 10690: 10517: 10505: 9343: 5196: 4144: 2147: 1260:

On leaving Antioch he appointed Alexander of Heliopolis as governor, a violent and cruel man whom the Antiochene

1245:

that it was delivered, as Julian had done on January 3, when Libanius was speaking, and ignore the chariot races.

1083:, nor did he seek to rule as an absolute autocrat. His own philosophic notions led him to idealize the reigns of 380:. Despite his inexperience, Julian showed unexpected success in his new capacity, defeating and counterattacking 5083: 11977: 11967: 11310: 10678: 10470: 10432: 10392: 10359: 9310: 9222: 8700: 5573:, edited by J.Bidez, G.Rochefort, and C.Lacombrade, with French translations of all the principal works except 5054: 2995: 2425:

Satire describing a competition among Roman emperors as to who was the best. Strongly critical of Constantine.

1407: 1303: 1249:

He then tried to address public criticism and mocking of him by issuing a satire ostensibly on himself, called

807:(near the Rhine bend), then set off north with 25,000 soldiers; Julian with 13,000 troops would move east from 596:, about whom he later wrote warmly. After Eusebius died in 342, both Julian and Gallus were transferred to the 396: 8811:

The Emperor Julian: Paganism and Christianity with Genealogical, Chronological and Bibliographical Appendices,

8298: 5287:, describing his life and times. It is notable for, among other things, its scathing critique of Christianity. 2612:, intended to refute the Christian religion. The only parts of this work which survive are those excerpted by 11709: 10893: 10719: 10546: 10512: 10476: 10365: 9490: 8472: 5161: 1192:

His arrival on 18 July was well received by the Antiochenes, though it coincided with the celebration of the

1026:. Julian claimed that Vadomarius had been in league with Constantius, encouraging him to raid the borders of 929: 677:) in 354, and held for a year, under suspicion of treasonable intrigue, first with his brother and then with 7795: 1022:

In the spring of 361, Julian led his army into the territory of the Alamanni, where he captured their king,

11962: 11766: 11677: 11353: 10534: 9579: 7463:

Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation

5129: 5065: 5006: 4022: 3998: 782: 12037: 12017: 11686: 11526: 10615: 10294: 9760: 9199: 5616: 1948: 1759: 1747: 1743: 1056: 188: 8922: 2554:

Budé indicates the numbers used by Athanassiadi given in the Budé edition (1963 & 1964) of Julian's

1552: 372:, Julian was one of few in the imperial family to survive the purges and civil wars during the reign of 11850: 10925: 10881: 10859: 10810: 10697: 10488: 10257: 9599: 7530:

Encyclopaedia Britannica: Or, Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature, Volume 8; Volume 12

7138: 6391: 1706: 8953: 7552: 11937: 11754: 11189: 11184: 10832: 10800: 10625: 9805: 9564: 9538: 9442: 9328: 9215: 8337: 8333: 7949: 7934: 5943:(London, 1975), pp. 74–75. However, Shaun Tougher, "The Advocacy of an Empress: Julian and Eusebia" ( 5873:

Boardman, p. 44, citing Julian to the Alexandrians, Wright's letter 47, of November or December 362.

5279: 4167: 2948: 2180: 1559: 1517: 1512: 1327: 1018:, 'virtue of the Gallic army', celebrating Julian's legions from Gaul which acclaimed him as emperor. 479:, and was the first attested individual to be born in that city after its refounding. His father was 404: 8941:. A neo-pagan group seeking to revive the form of Neoplatonic Hellenism that was promoted by Julian. 7863: 2065: 1971:

provinces. The edict was seen as an act of favor toward the Jews, in order to upset the Christians.

734:. In 355, Julian was summoned to appear before the emperor in Mediolanum and on 6 November was made 11566: 11380: 10960: 10842: 10795: 10342: 9989: 8605: 6808: 4808: 3565: 2113: 2070: 1453: 644:. Eusebius related his meeting with Maximus, in which the theurgist invited him into the temple of 563: 444: 8292: 5263:

hero committed to a struggle which he knows will be in vain. It was first staged in Paris in 1948.

940: 11845: 11536: 11486: 11445: 11435: 11040: 10650: 10630: 10404: 10284: 9572: 9412: 9394: 9338: 9156: 6875: 5910: 5716: 5538:, 25.3.6 & 23) is of the view that Julian died the night of the same day that he was wounded. 5184: 5043: 4935: 4630: 4336: 3522: 3222: 3177: 2128: 1880: 1858:

Because of his Neoplatonist background, Julian accepted the creation of humanity as described in

741: 706: 597: 593: 586: 416: 199: 31: 11625: 8861: 8564:

Conflict in Ancient Greece and Rome: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia

5890:

Julian. "Letter 47: To the Alexandrians", translated by Emily Wilmer Cave Wright, v. 3, p. 149.

2134:"These impious Galileans not only feed their own poor, but ours also; welcoming them into their 827:) and Julian was delayed in order to deal with them. This left Barbatio unsupported and deep in 12012: 11889: 11395: 11365: 11275: 11064: 11059: 10920: 10899: 10805: 9595: 9482: 9285: 9053: 7378:

James O’Donnell, “The Demise of Paganism,” Traditio 35 (1979): 53, accessed 23 September 2014,

7015: 5403: 5393: 5299: 5229:(1895) in the trilogy of historical novels entitled "Christ and Antichrist" (1895–1904) by the 5177: 2757: 2629: 1788: 839: 581:, raised by his maternal grandmother, at the age of seven Julian was under the guardianship of 532: 8886: 7884: 7878: 7528: 5670: 2466:

Written as a satire on himself, while attacking the people of Antioch for their shortcomings.

944:

19th century depiction of Julian being proclaimed emperor in Paris (fancifully located in the

11870: 11645: 11551: 11516: 11496: 11315: 11290: 11270: 11245: 11199: 11158: 11153: 11026: 10854: 10849: 10825: 10820: 10736: 10573: 10561: 10332: 9957: 9474: 9364: 9323: 9177: 9133: 9126: 9122: 9089: 9017: 7461: 6977:

Downey gives the text: '...later the body was transferred to the imperial city' (xiii 13, 25)

5375: 5224: 5199:, known for his romantic dreams of restoring the supposed glories of feudal Medieval society. 5165: 3806: 3252: 2678: 2481: 2184: 1944: 1872: 1365:

An audacious plan was formulated whose goal was to lay siege on the Sassanid capital city of

1322: 1217: 1185:

After five months of dealings at the capital, Julian left Constantinople in May and moved to

1144:. His choice of consuls for the year 362 was more controversial. One was the very acceptable 582: 369: 254: 8413: 7424: 6930: 6912: 5090: 1211:

at the temple of Apollo at Delphi. After being advised that the bones of 3rd-century bishop

916:

and nominal ranking commander in Gaul, was to drive out the barbarians who had breached the

11737: 11655: 11610: 11600: 11571: 11280: 11240: 10837: 10785: 10645: 10620: 10585: 10500: 10414: 10264: 10095: 9466: 9300: 8948: 8273: 6961: 5204: 2659: 2160: 1932: 1624: 901: 851: 847: 695: 687: 605: 432: 428: 354: 287: 5484: 2561:

Wright indicates the oration numbers provided in W. C. Wright's edition of Julian's works.

2346:

Response to an ingratiating letter from Themistius, outlining Julian's political reading.

1716: 8: 11947: 11942: 11808: 11776: 11630: 11620: 11511: 11265: 11119: 11104: 11089: 11084: 11069: 11050: 11045: 11031: 10953: 10768: 10753: 10731: 10666: 10655: 10610: 10556: 10046: 9984: 9947: 9552: 9318: 9166: 9152: 8309: 7595: 7591: 5525:, 16.12.26, though this figure is now thought to be an overestimate – see David S. Potter 5417: 5350: 5336: 5295: 5234: 5169: 4154: 3512: 2974: 2613: 2362: 2199: 1876: 1711: 1435: 1317: 1145: 976: 8803: 8347: 7154:, 1963 (Southern Methodist University Press) /1997 (Oxford University Press, US), p. 8. 6988:

The tombs of the Byzantine emperors at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople

6966:

The tombs of the Byzantine emperors at the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople

1507:

By mid-May, the army had reached the vicinity of the heavily fortified Persian capital,

11771: 11704: 11476: 11450: 11425: 11420: 11405: 11300: 11079: 11035: 10815: 10758: 10702: 10684: 10673: 10635: 10605: 10483: 10201: 10105: 9855: 9824: 9817: 9532: 9514: 9406: 9400: 9252: 9187: 9108: 8773: 8686: 8614:

Julian's gods: religion and philosophy in the thought and action of Julian the Apostate

8572: 8460: 8206: 8111: 7851: 7506: 7379: 7038: 5806: 5734: 5323: 4855: 4609: 4484: 4035: 3541: 3503: 3211: 2637: 2633: 2605: 2168: 2052:

His care in the institution of a pagan hierarchy in opposition to that of the Church's

1864: 1817: 1702: 1659: 1464: 1394: 1390: 1355: 1271: 1233: 1212: 1149: 1105: 1097: 661: 637: 633: 571: 496: 480: 423:, a senior officer in the imperial guard, who was obliged to cede territory, including 264: 8726:

Julian Philosopher and Emperor and the Last Struggle of Paganism Against Christianity,

7912:. Loeb Classical Library (Book 29). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 295. 7369:

Harold Mattingly, “The Later Paganism,” The Harvard Theological Review 35 (1942): 171.

7360:

Harold Mattingly, “The Later Paganism,” The Harvard Theological Review 35 (1942): 178.

7061: 1967:. Majuma had a large Christian congregation while Gaza was still predominantly pagan. 1604:. The wound was not immediately deadly. Julian was treated by his personal physician, 440: 11865: 11835: 11556: 11541: 11430: 11375: 11214: 11144: 11139: 11016: 10780: 10726: 10567: 10465: 10440: 10289: 10151: 9887: 9872: 9750: 9718: 9333: 9290: 9112: 8988: 8970: 8898: 8881: 8857: 8847: 8833: 8814: 8795: 8781: 8748: 8737: 8729: 8714: 8696: 8676: 8648: 8631: 8617: 8578: 8552: 8515: 8500: 8482: 8443:

Bradbury, Scott (1995). "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice".

8429: 8405: 8387: 8360: 8325: 8318: 8198: 8076: 8056: 8018: 7993: 7968: 7913: 7888: 7837: 7812: 7629: 7467: 7428: 7222: 7100: 6881: 6816: 6712: 6265: 5720: 5708: 5676: 5332: 5319: 5252: 5245: 5230: 4322: 4096: 3813: 3193: 2565: 2006: 1632: 1596: 1532: 1337: 1332: 854:, an acclamation he rejected, rebuking them. He later rewarded them for their valor. 765: 691: 682: 678: 8910: 7176:

Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 22.

1108:

to deal with the corruption of the previous administration under the supervision of

711: 11972: 11694: 11521: 11325: 11232: 11204: 11179: 11109: 10991: 10910: 10887: 10790: 10763: 10748: 10714: 10640: 10600: 10590: 10315: 10242: 10212: 10075: 10030: 9897: 9506: 9295: 9195: 9063: 8984: 8452: 8304: 7749:

Athanassiadi, p. 197, written for the Saturnalia festival, which began 21 December.

7030: 5874: 5798: 5460: 3729: 1937: 1671: 1410:

with about 65,000–83,000, or 80,000–90,000 men (the traditional number accepted by

1359: 1126:

made Julian more popular and allowed him to increase collections of current taxes.

1110: 984: 957: 945: 796: 787: 536: 420: 381: 238: 121: 96: 8822: 7418: 2406:

Another attack on Cynics who he thought didn't follow the principles of Cynicism.

1430:, giving the impression that his chosen route into Persian territory was down the 1200:, so there was wailing and moaning in the streets—not a good omen for an arrival. 1050:

The Church of the Holy Apostles, where Julian brought Constantius II to be buried.

11997: 11880: 11860: 11840: 11786: 11699: 11650: 11561: 11305: 11295: 11054: 10551: 10541: 10450: 10237: 10145: 10133: 10127: 9979: 9800: 9770: 9713: 9693: 8926: 8690: 8642: 8476: 8423: 8381: 8070: 7602: 7536:

by the ignition of gases which had long been pent up in the subterraneous vaults.

7395: 6997: 5449: 5311: 5154: 2643: 2506:

Attempt to counteract the aspects that he thought were positive in Christianity.

2107: 2046: 1985: 1974: 1920: 1727: 1644: 1088: 745: 550: 492: 400: 173: 8877: 8747:, Volume 13 (Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey editors). CUP, Cambridge, 1998. 8709:

García Ruiz, María Pilar, "Julian's Self-Representation in Coins and Texts." In

8039: 7759: 1742:

says that at some "later" date his body was exhumed and reburied in or near the

1731:

Porphyry sarcophagus of emperor Julian, outside the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.

1220:, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident. 1173: 11907: 11902: 11875: 11744: 11722: 11660: 11635: 11021: 10445: 10409: 10354: 10247: 10170: 10068: 10062: 9994: 9974: 9728: 9688: 9498: 9450: 9280: 9143: 9099: 9046: 8957: 8419: 5260: 5216: 5149: 4922: 3549: 2172: 2031: 2027: 1844: 1701:

would become the Empire's state religion. The phrase introduces the 1866 poem "

1527: 1439: 1373: 1060: 1003: 912: 906: 736: 665: 558: 511: 472: 373: 331: 316: 308: 231: 149: 128: 111: 54: 7832:

Trapp, Michael (2012). Baker-Brian & Tougher, Nicholas & Shaun (ed.).

1582: 948:, then thought to have been the Imperial Palace), standing on a shield in the 11931: 11897: 11830: 11815: 11791: 11727: 11615: 11260: 10915: 10875: 10419: 10227: 10035: 8202: 7056: 6992: 6021:

D. Woods, "On the 'Standard-Bearers' at Strasbourg: Libanius, or. 18.58–66",

5369: 5298:(2002). Julian's tale was told by his closest companion, the Christian saint 5271: 4841: 4595: 3800: 3793: 3536: 3495: 2616:, who gives extracts from the three first books in his refutation of Julian, 2594: 2188: 2074: 1956: 1928: 1751: 1617: 1500: 1411: 1225: 873: 476: 463:. Julian also forbade Christians from teaching and learning classical texts. 343: 335: 184: 89: 11825: 6990:, Journal of Hellenic Studies 79 (1959) 27–51. On p. 34 he states that the 2132:

that it would mitigate the reliance of pagans on Christian charity, saying:

1674:

who reestablished Christianity's privileged position throughout the Empire.

965: 11781: 11481: 11400: 11340: 10660: 10455: 10387: 10382: 10372: 10195: 10057: 9698: 8600: 8247: 7403: 7255: 6870: 5328: 5306: 5209: 4029: 2647: 2368:

Attempt to set Cynics straight regarding their religious responsibilities.

2156: 1698: 1628: 1487: 1472: 1468: 1382: 835: 808: 625: 506: 452: 448: 347: 293: 153: 8562:

Phang, Sara E.; Spence, Iain; Kelly, Douglas; Londey, Peter, eds. (2016).

8044:

Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition

11912: 11855: 11820: 11640: 10524: 10399: 10349: 10274: 9848: 9795: 9738: 8533:, vol. XIII: the Late Empire AD 337–425, Cambridge: University Press 7312:

Jonathan Kirsch, God against the Gods (New York: Penguin Group, 2004), 9.

6262:

The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome: A Comprehensive Guide

5340: 4848: 4602: 4498: 3531: 2576:

The religious works contain involved philosophical speculations, and the

2210:

Julian wrote several works in Greek, some of which have come down to us.

2135: 1989: 1758:, believed by Jean Ebersolt to be Julian's, stands in the grounds of the 1571: 1068: 877: 858: 838:

led a confederation of Alamanni forces against Julian and Severus at the

804: 412: 351: 339: 234: 221: 169: 8210: 8186: 7785:

Athanassiadi, p. 201, dates it "towards the end of his stay in Antioch".

7383: 7276:

Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan (UK: Sutton Publishing Limited, 2003), 4.

7267:

Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan (UK: Sutton Publishing Limited, 2003), 3.

7071:. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 548. 6326: 5826:"Fel Temp Reparatio: image, audience and meaning in the mid-4th century" 1828:; Polymnia Athanassiadi has brought new attention to his relations with 1769:

4th-century cameo of an emperor, probably Julian, performing sacrifice (

1422:

to muster an army and await instructions. He crossed the Euphrates near

11749: 11370: 11134: 11094: 11074: 10580: 10495: 10460: 10425: 10337: 10252: 10012: 10005: 9952: 9932: 9877: 9842: 9835: 9780: 9745: 9608: 8464: 8226:"Focus on Israel: Jerusalem-Architecture in the British Mandate Period" 7613: 7042: 5364:

A student paper by the narrator fills out the center of the 2022 novel

5284: 5057: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4645: 3578: 2577: 2339: 2002: 1903: 1890:

The diet of Julian is said to have been predominantly vegetable-based.

1884: 1837: 1821: 1467:(Khabur) and the Euphrates arriving at the beginning of April. Passing 1459:

After feigning a march further eastward, Julian's army turned south to

1406:

On 5 March 363, despite a series of omens against the campaign, Julian

1178: 1141: 1080: 1023: 971: 843: 777: 749: 670: 657: 601: 377: 48: 9594: 8713:, Ed. D.W.P. Burgersdijk and A.J. Ross. Leiden. Brill. 2018. 204–233. 8549:

The Last Pagan: Julian the Apostate and the Death of the Ancient World

8303:, Translated by C.W. King. George Bell and Sons, London, 1888. At the 8161:"Elizabeth Finch by Julian Barnes review – the problem with ambiguity" 5810: 5786: 2005:' theurgy seems to have convinced him that it was right to outlaw the 1095:

to Constantius, Julian described the ideal ruler as being essentially

11605: 11546: 11455: 11385: 11330: 11194: 11174: 11011: 10976: 10327: 10279: 10189: 10176: 9963: 9892: 9865: 9860: 9829: 9775: 9723: 9658: 9653: 9418: 9371: 7119:

Julian, "Letter to a Priest", 292. Transl. W.C. Wright, v. 2, p. 307.

6925: 6907: 6214:

In a private letter to his Uncle Julian, in W.C. Wright, v. 3, p. 27.

5548: 5421: 5347: 5180:'s sermons, and defend the lawfulness of resistance in extreme cases. 4670: 3486: 3271: 3004: 2585: 2459: 1960: 1941: 1829: 1806: 1605: 1601: 1567: 1508: 1492: 1476: 1460: 1449: 1419: 1415: 1366: 1250: 1242: 1092: 1076: 1064: 961: 881: 640:, whom Eusebius criticized for his more mystical form of Neoplatonic 609: 456: 408: 325: 228: 8993: 8456: 7034: 5825: 5032: 4066:

Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as

1655: 1434:. For this reason it seems he sent a force of 30,000 soldiers under 1130: 999: 11491: 11460: 11415: 11390: 11348: 11285: 11255: 11149: 10595: 10377: 10269: 10222: 10182: 10164: 10084: 10019: 9999: 9969: 9942: 9937: 9922: 9912: 9882: 9790: 9785: 9733: 9708: 9703: 9668: 9633: 9628: 9623: 9618: 9424: 9388: 8997: 8969:, R. Hercher (ed.), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, 1873, 8343: 6854: 6628: 5802: 5188: 5134: 4826: 4491: 4346: 3184: 2771: 2764: 2298: 2045:" Christian bishops who had been censured or excommunicated by the 1833: 1825: 1536: 1444: 1261: 1208: 1138: 1034: 1033:

However, in June, forces loyal to Constantius captured the city of

924:

Constantius attempted to maintain some modicum of control over his

889: 885: 828: 820: 800: 650: 629: 578: 567: 500: 488: 484: 471:

Julian, whose full name was Flavius Claudius Julianus, was born at

274: 8284:, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., 1935/1985. 3 Volumes. 5892: 5844: 5577:, which is only preserved in citations in a polemic work by Cyril. 2487:

Polemic against Christians, which now only survives as fragments.

2057:

institution, such as the Church's hierarchy or Christian charity.

1635:. Fourteen years later, Libanius said that Julian was killed by a 11506: 11501: 11440: 11360: 11099: 10529: 10232: 10139: 10052: 9907: 9683: 9170: 9078: 5512:, which is well into the interior of Gaul. See John F. Drinkwater 5492: 5387: 4993: 4798: 4067: 4011: 3597: 2195: 1899: 1813: 1739: 1640: 1636: 1186: 1157: 1114: 1084: 1009: 769: 641: 424: 389: 249: 165: 60: 8932: 2593:

is a humorous tale of a contest between notable Roman emperors:

2151:

Subterranean fires defeat Julian's effort to rebuild the temple.

1697:"), supposedly expressing his recognition that, with his death, 722:

Male portrait head, possibly depicting Julian, exhibited at the

11531: 11320: 11209: 10301: 10158: 10040: 9812: 9678: 8135:"Mining the Genre Asteroid: THE DRAGON WAITING by John M. Ford" 7625: 5488: 5425: 5157:

romance of Julian's reign from a hostile Christian perspective.

4693: 3234: 2598: 2323:

An attempt to explain the actions leading up to his rebellion.

2042: 1801: 1794: 1663: 1563: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1197: 1193: 1161: 1027: 949: 812: 761: 645: 636:. It was from Eusebius that Julian learned of the teachings of 621: 613: 549:("happy renewal of times"), probably referencing Rome's 1100th 459:

were probably intended to harm Christianity rather than please

7811:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. xxvii–xxviii. 7214: 5448:. The designation "Julian I" is applied either to the emperor 1681:

Considered apocryphal is the report that his dying words were

975:, who had no desire to leave Gaul. According to the historian 585:, the semi-Arian Christian Bishop of Nicomedia, and taught by 103:

3 November 361 – 26 June 363 (proclaimed in February 360)

11250: 11006: 10945: 9902: 9673: 9663: 9643: 8916: 8792:

The Emperor Julian and His Generation, An Historical Picture,

8314:

Gratiarum actio Mamertini de consulato suo Iuliano Imperatori

7060: 6081: 2022: 1964: 1859: 1694: 1682: 1522: 989: 917: 866: 862: 816: 773: 674: 590: 385: 320: 8938: 8670: 8591:

Ridley, R.T., "Notes on Julian's Persian Expedition (363)",

8291:

Translated by C. D. Yonge. Full text at Internet Archive at

8015:

Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments

7965:

Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments

7880:

Julian. Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments

7594:(Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and 5343:. Characters in the novel refer to him as "Julian the Wise". 2138:, they attract them, as children are attracted, with cakes." 2009:

and demand the suppression of the Christian Holy Mysteries (

475:, probably in 331, into the family of the reigning emperor, 9648: 9638: 8672:

On Rome and the Gods: The Life and Works of Emperor Julian,

7581:, (The Modern Library), chapter XXIII., pp. 780–82, note 84 7332: 7330: 5509: 5495:

while the statue in the Louvre probably is a modern copy".

5305:

Julian's letters are an important part of the symbolism of

1981: 1978: 1917:

Julian the Apostate presiding at a conference of sectarians

1824:; his system bears some resemblance to the Neoplatonism of 1609: 1496: 1012:

in 361, during his war with Constantius. The reverse reads

824: 731: 483:, Constantine's younger half-brother, and his mother was a 460: 8497:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363

5842:

Julian, "Letter to the senate and people of Athens", 270.

2525:

Both personal and public letters from much of his career.

2444:

Attempt to describe the Roman religion as seen by Julian.

2171:. Alypius set vigorously to work, and was seconded by the 9207: 8956:

why he was important, and his place in world history, by

8414:

http://www.classicalpressofwales.co.uk/emperor_author.htm

7992:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 338–339. 7967:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 453–454. 6453: 6028: 5962: 2244:

Written to reassure Constantius that he was on his side.

2179:

The failure to rebuild the Temple may be ascribed to the

2069:

Julian arresting a bishop and ordering sacrifices to the

1631:

reports that the supposed assassination was commanded by

1414:

is 95,000 effectives total), and headed north toward the

694:. In the same period, Julian was also initiated into the 8641:

Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich & Stefan Rebenich, eds. (2020).

8402:

Emperor and Author: The Writings of Julian the Apostate.

7342: 7327: 7315: 7308: 7306: 7279: 6612: 6610: 5993: 5991: 5989: 2304:

Grapples with the removal of his close advisor in Gaul.

1301: 8895:, some of which are by Julian relating to Christianity. 8017:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 60–61. 6597: 6595: 6593: 2142: 928:, which explains his removal of Julian's close adviser 361:

in Christian tradition. He is sometimes referred to as

8889:. Two laws by Constantius II, while Julian was Caesar. 8794:

translated by G.V. Cox, John W. Parker, London, 1859.

8561: 7669: 7667: 6809:"Julian's Afterlife. The Reception of a Roman Emperor" 6362: 6360: 5767: 5765: 5222:

Julian's life and reign were the subject of the novel

4070:, names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1875:

was of the opinion that Julian believed himself to be

755: 8695:. Translated by M. Joseph Costelloe, S.J. TAN Books. 8349:

Monody – Funeral Oration for Julian the Apostate

7303: 7291: 6889: 6682: 6680: 6607: 6282: 6235: 6233: 6172: 6160: 6098: 6096: 6045: 6043: 6003: 5986: 5950: 5881:

would be literal, but Julian is counting inclusively.

5855: 5752: 5750: 5689: 2580:

to Constantius are formulaic and elaborate in style.

1207:

He tried to resurrect the ancient oracular spring of

7809:

Letters. Epigrams. Against the Galilaeans. Fragments

6590: 6544: 5219:

read an English translation of Julian's work in 1891

1940:

was driven back into the lower classes by a revived

1241:

supposed to leap up and show his appreciation for a

815:). However, while Julian was in transit, a group of 518:

356. The obverse shows a beardless Julian inscribed

7664: 6565:, (The Modern Library, 1932), chapter XXIV., p. 807 6357: 6333: 5762: 419:, Julian was mortally wounded. He was succeeded by 8512:The Alamanni and Rome 213–496. Caracalla to Clovis 7836:. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. p. 105. 7834:The Emperor's Shadow: Julian in his Correspondence 7533:. Little, Brown & Company. 1856. p. 744. 7099:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 27ff, 58f. 6677: 6345: 6306: 6294: 6230: 6196: 6184: 6093: 6040: 5974: 5747: 5650: 2623: 1754:after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Today a 888:, and over the Chamavi, who were expelled back to 403:. The campaign was initially successful, securing 11685: 8599:Roberts, Walter E. & DiMaio, Michael (2002), 7402:(select homilies and letters), Wendy Mayer & 7000:gives a list of tombs, ending with: "43. In this 6845:(New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1997), p. 254. 956:In the fourth year of Julian's stay in Gaul, the 11929: 9546:Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America 7883:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 7016:"Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" 6964:23, 2.5 and 25, 5.1. References from G. Downey, 6766: 6764: 5830:Revue Belge de Numismatique et de Sigillographie 5356:Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America 2060: 1908:Restoration of paganism from Julian until Valens 1893: 1670:Julian was succeeded by the short-lived Emperor 8901:, Saint Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum. 8400:Baker-Brian, Nicholas; Tougher, Shaun. (2012). 7466:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 21–22. 7455: 7453: 7451: 6945:The Fathers of the Church: Selected Prose Works 6772:The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars 6672:The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars 6646:The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars 5521:Ammianus says that there were 35,000 Alamanni, 1620:, though it was later moved to Constantinople. 1216:investigations than usual. He also shut up the 8280:, Libri XV-XXV (books 15–25). See J.C. Rolfe, 7546: 7544: 6541:, p. 210, using the higher estimate of 83,000. 5133:Modern statue of Flavius Claudius Julianus in 1438:and Sebastianus further eastward to devastate 904:and personally took charge of the province of 895: 884:in the Roman Empire, north of today's city of 834:With Barbatio safely out of the picture, King 632:, the philosopher, and then Aedesius' student 499:and head of government under the late emperor 11983:Converts to pagan religions from Christianity 10961: 9580: 9223: 8945:The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity 7459: 7406:, eds., St. Vladimir's Seminary Press (2006). 6968:, Journal of Hellenic Studies 79 (1959) p. 46 6761: 5787:"Notes on the Coinage of Julian the Apostate" 5215:The late nineteenth century English novelist 5183:In 1847, the controversial German theologian 2700: 1287: 1168: 357:in its place, caused him to be remembered as 8893:Imperial Laws and Letters Involving Religion 8778:From Constantine to Julian: A Source History 8711:Imagining Emperors in the Later Roman Empire 8692:Julian the Apostate: Roman Emperor (361–363) 8495:Dodgeon, Michael H. & Samuel N.C. Lieu, 7950:"Oration 5: Second Invective Against Julian" 7727:Athanassiadi, p. 141, "at the same time" as 7448: 7195: 6264:, pp. 249–252, 2001, Sussex Academic Press, 5823: 5713:The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium 5644:Julien le philosophe : César des Gaules 2387:A defense of Hellenism and Roman tradition. 1791:. The chief surviving sources are his works 9459:Saint Mercurius slaying Julian the Apostate 8899:A 4th century chalcedony portrait of Julian 8757: 7935:"Oration 4: First Invective Against Julian" 7541: 5641: 2263:Expresses gratitude for Eusebia's support. 1688: 1063:on a Christian site just outside Rome as a 964:, invaded Mesopotamia and took the city of 803:was to come from Milan and amass forces at 740:of the West, marrying Constantius' sister, 527: 10968: 10954: 9587: 9573: 9230: 9216: 8640: 8509: 7141:", 143. Transl. W.C. Wright, v. 3, p. 357. 6711:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009, 6327:De nouveaux portraits de l'empereur Julien 6087: 5968: 5496: 4074:1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings 2715:CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree 2707: 2693: 1988:killing Julian. According to a tradition, 1479:, slowing the progress of the Roman army. 1294: 1280: 47: 8685: 8598: 8593:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 7596:"Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple" 7184: 7182: 6025:, Vol. 50, Fasc. 4 (August 1997), p. 479. 5850:Letter to the senate and people of Athens 5707: 5606:, Volume 5 (London: Spink, 2014), p. 267. 5233:poet, novelist and literary theoretician 5117:Learn how and when to remove this message 2319:Letter to the Senate and People of Athens 2101: 1531:the safety of Roman borders, not through 872:In 358, Julian gained victories over the 491:, daughter of a high-ranking bureaucrat, 30:For other people with the same name, see 10990: 8935:. A society of pagans who admire Julian. 8905:Julian's Spin Doctor: The Persian Mutiny 8595:, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1973, pp. 317–330 8442: 8379: 8068: 7584: 7579:The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire 7502:"Julian and the dream of a Third Temple" 7420:The Social Results of Early Christianity 7348: 7336: 7321: 7297: 7285: 7248: 7208: 7055: 7013: 6806: 6563:The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire 5903: 5784: 5401:An Italian movie treatment of his life, 5386: 5378:wrote 6 poems about Julian in 1923–1935. 5193:Der Romantiker auf dem Thron der Cäsaren 5128: 2564: 2146: 2064: 1973: 1911: 1836:under High Priests, and his fundamental 1771:National Archaeological Museum, Florence 1764: 1726: 1654: 1574:above a defeated Julian, lying prostrate 1560:relief of the investiture of Ardashir II 1486: 1372: 1172: 1156:. The other, more surprising choice was 1045: 998: 939: 717: 705: 505: 8844:Julian. Kaiser, Gott und Christenhasser 8766:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XV, Facs. 3 8404:The Classical Press of Wales. Swansea. 7416: 7215:Richard T. Wallis, Jay Bregman (1992). 7152:Race: The History of an Idea in America 7094: 7049: 6475:, 22.7.1, 25.4.17 (Commented by Veyne, 5259:in which the emperor is depicted as an 1883:, "in accordance with the teachings of 1401: 1196:, a festival which marked the death of 1181:bust of an emperor, most likely Julian. 698:, which he would later try to restore. 604:. Here Julian met the Christian bishop 14: 11930: 11469: 8570: 8132: 8012: 7987: 7962: 7947: 7932: 7907: 7876: 7806: 7647:"Internet History Sourcebooks Project" 7192:, W. W. Norton, New York, 1971, p. 93. 7179: 6895: 6616: 6459: 6178: 6131:Julian, Letter to the Athenians, 282C. 6034: 5997: 5956: 5913:Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists 5675:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 166. 5668: 1067:for his wife Helena and sister-in-law 748:that had settled on both sides of the 724:National Archaeological Museum, Athens 520: 338:from 361 to 363, as well as a notable 10949: 9568: 9211: 8813:George Bell and Sons, London, 1879. 8804:The Emperor Julian and his generation 8758:Kettenhofen, Erich (2009). "Julian". 8418: 8223: 8158: 8107:"Engaged in Life and in a Pagan Past" 8104: 7831: 7550: 7499: 6601: 6550: 6366: 6339: 5771: 5695: 5244:(1924) by the composer and conductor 5022: 5005: 4989: 4987: 4985: 4975: 4973: 4971: 4969: 4967: 4965: 4963: 4941: 4934: 4932: 4918: 4911: 4909: 4907: 4905: 4903: 4893: 4891: 4889: 4883: 4881: 4879: 4877: 4875: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4867: 4854: 4847: 4840: 4822: 4804: 4802: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4755: 4723: 4721: 4719: 4713: 4711: 4709: 4692: 4676: 4669: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4629: 4615: 4613: 4608: 4601: 4594: 4584: 4582: 4580: 4578: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4558: 4556: 4554: 4548: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4530: 4511: 4504: 4502: 4497: 4495: 4490: 4483: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4468: 4462: 4432: 4430: 4428: 4422: 4420: 4418: 4416: 4414: 4412: 4410: 4404: 4380: 4365: 4360: 4342: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4321: 4319: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4299: 4297: 4249: 4247: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4201: 4199: 4197: 4191: 4189: 4187: 4185: 4183: 4166: 4150: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4133: 4127: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4028: 4021: 4019: 4010: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3949: 3943: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3883: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3865: 3817: 3812: 3799: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3738: 3736: 3727: 3697: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3671: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3596: 3594: 3589: 3587: 3576: 3574: 3563: 3561: 3547: 3545: 3530: 3528: 3521: 3509: 3507: 3501: 3499: 3494: 3492: 3485: 3403: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3303: 3270: 3250: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3226: 3221: 3219: 3210: 3201: 3199: 3192: 3190: 3176: 3120: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3096: 3094: 3092: 3044: 3003: 3001: 2994: 2972: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2875: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2770: 2763: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2724: 1275: 935: 628:in Asia Minor in 351, at first under 445:traditional Roman religious practices 8601:"Julian the Apostate (360–363 A.D.)" 8528: 8471: 8228:. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs 8069:Johnston, Brian (8 September 1989). 7622:Fairleigh Dickinson University Press 7618:A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews 7423:(2 ed.). Wm. Isbister. p. 6686: 6351: 6312: 6300: 6288: 6239: 6217: 6202: 6190: 6166: 6049: 6009: 5980: 5861: 5756: 5656: 5055:adding citations to reliable sources 5026: 2198:caused Jews to call him "Julian the 2143:Attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple 8981:The Encyclopedia of Ancient History 8574:The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 8514:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8481:. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 8184: 8072:Text and Supertext in Ibsen's Drama 7460:Jacob Neusner (15 September 2008). 6807:Rebenich, Stefan (8 January 2020), 5277:Julian was the subject of a novel, 2544:Small number of short verse works. 1777: 1750:. The church was demolished by the 1267: 756:Campaigns against Germanic kingdoms 24: 8929:at the California Literary Review. 8663: 8644:A Companion to Julian the Apostate 8266: 8187:"The Julian Poems of C. P. Cavafy" 6813:A Companion to Julian the Apostate 6539:Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425 5335:, uses the reign of Julian as its 2570:Ioulianou autokratoros ta sozomena 2297:Consolation Upon the Departure of 2240:Panegyric in Honour of Constantius 2183:. In the contemporary Orations of 1627:or other contemporary historians. 1218:chief Christian church of the city 681:; he was cleared, in part because 75: 25: 12064: 12023:People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars 8871: 8728:G.P. Putnam's Son, London, 1895. 8383:Julian: An Intellectual Biography 8372: 8037: 5470:). He is even more rarely called 2604:One of the most important of his 2073:. Depiction from the 9th century 1843:According to one theory (that of 1236:said after nearly two millennia: 701: 541: 9001: 8989:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah12217 8917:Excerpt from by Adrian Murdoch, 8846:. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 2006. 8380:Athanassiadi, Polymnia (1992) . 8340:". Both transl. C.W. King, 1888. 8240: 8217: 8178: 8152: 8126: 8098: 8089: 8062: 8050: 8031: 8006: 7981: 7956: 7941: 7926: 7901: 7870: 7825: 7800: 7796:Wikisource:Against the Galileans 7788: 7779: 7770: 7752: 7743: 7734: 7721: 7712: 7703: 7694: 7685: 7676: 7639: 7607: 7592:"Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE" 7571: 7521: 7493: 7480: 7409: 7388: 7372: 7363: 7354: 7270: 7261: 7235: 7170: 7157: 7144: 7131: 7122: 7113: 7088: 7075: 7007: 5891: 5843: 5628:Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, " 5563: 5554: 5534:Note that Ammianus Marcellinus ( 5353:novel by Robert Charles Wilson, 5202:Julian's life inspired the play 5164:, an outspoken opponent of King 5031: 2668:letter to High-Priest Theodorus. 2664:Fragment of a letter to a Priest 2502:Fragment of a Letter to a Priest 1581: 1551: 570:, and their cousins, Julian and 544: 523: 334:of the West from 355 to 360 and 78: 71: 12033:Roman emperors killed in battle 11577:Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite 9454:(4th–6th-century prose account) 8911:Rowland Smith's "Julian's Gods" 8738:Julian, philosopher and emperor 8357:Die Inschriften Kaiser Julians. 8338:Second Invective Against Julian 7760:"Julian: Caesars – translation" 7128:As above. Wright, v. 2, p. 305. 6998:Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus 6980: 6971: 6950: 6937: 6919: 6901: 6864: 6848: 6835: 6800: 6790: 6777: 6748: 6735: 6722: 6701: 6692: 6664: 6651: 6638: 6622: 6581: 6568: 6556: 6531: 6518: 6505: 6496: 6482: 6465: 6440: 6427: 6414: 6401: 6385: 6372: 6318: 6254: 6245: 6208: 6147: 6134: 6125: 6105: 6068: 6055: 6015: 5933: 5884: 5867: 5836: 5817: 5777: 5672:A Companion to the Roman Empire 5619:", Num. vijesti, broj 63., 2010 5617:Antoniani of Julian of Pannonia 5541: 5528: 5515: 5502: 5477: 5465: 5454: 5411: 5331:, while set in the time of the 5197:Frederick William IV of Prussia 5042:needs additional citations for 2624:Problems regarding authenticity 2278:The Heroic Deeds of Constantius 2163:, wrote this about the effort: 1015:VIRTUS EXERC(ITUS) GALL(ICARUM) 68: 11993:Critics of the Catholic Church 10975: 8761:Julian – Encyclopaedia Iranica 8529:Hunt, David (1998), "Julian", 8334:First Invective Against Julian 8248:"THE GRAND HOTEL OF JERUSALEM" 8133:Weimer, Paul (10 April 2014). 7500:Kavon, Eli (4 December 2017). 6225:Byzantium: The Early Centuries 5701: 5662: 5635: 5622: 5609: 5596: 5508:Most sources give the town as 5438: 5172:, got his chaplain to write a 2672: 2383:Hymn to the Mother of the Gods 2259:Panegyric in Honour of Eusebia 1387:De Casibus Virorum Illustribus 714:formerly identified as Julian. 13: 1: 11710:Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 8832:. Routledge: New York, 2002. 8745:The Cambridge Ancient History 8675:, Invictus Publishing, 2023, 8531:The Cambridge Ancient History 8105:Fitts, Dudley (31 May 1964). 5739:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 5584: 5141: 2061:Paganism's shift under Julian 1894:Restoration of state paganism 1809:, not theological treatises. 1362:offered such an opportunity. 982:The troops proclaimed Julian 930:Saturninius Secundus Salutius 515: 466: 330:; 331 – 26 June 363) was the 27:Roman emperor from 361 to 363 12048:Roman-era students in Athens 8913:, Review by Thomas Banchich. 8830:Historians of Late Antiquity 8510:Drinkwater, John F. (2007). 8159:Byers, Sam (14 April 2022). 5791:The Journal of Roman Studies 5604:Roman Coins and Their Values 5589: 5391:Guido Graziosi as Julian in 5270:(1950), by Christian author 1482: 624:. Julian began his study of 326: 7: 12053:Writers from Constantinople 12008:Julian's Persian expedition 9000:(public domain audiobooks) 8907:, Article by Adam J. Bravo. 8780:Routledge: New York, 1996. 8499:, Routledge, London, 1991. 8185:Lee, Lawrence Lynn (1967). 7218:Neoplatonism and Gnosticism 7190:The World of Late Antiquity 6815:, Brill, pp. 398–420, 6502:Libanius, Oration 12, 76–77 6118:, 3.9, commented by Veyne, 5898:Letters of Julian/Letter 47 5824:Vaneerdewegh, Nick (2017). 5785:Gilliard, Frank D. (1964). 5174:Life of Julian the Apostate 4060:Family of Julian (emperor) 2632:edition of 1913, edited by 1760:Istanbul Archaeology Museum 1748:Constantine Porphyrogenitus 1744:Church of the Holy Apostles 1612:, and a procedure known as 1588:Detail of the fallen Julian 1385:(which is a translation of 1305:Julian's Persian expedition 896:Taxation and administration 441:top-heavy state bureaucracy 395:In 363, Julian embarked on 189:Church of the Holy Apostles 10: 12069: 12043:Ancient Roman philhellenes 11958:4th-century Roman emperors 10860:Constantine XI Palaiologos 10811:Andronikos III Palaiologos 10698:Nikephoros III Botaneiates 9237: 8743:Hunt, David. "Julian". In 8359:Franz Steiner. Stuttgart. 8352:. Transl. C.W. King, 1888. 7221:. SUNY Press. p. 22. 6392:Socrates of Constantinople 5642:De Leseleuc, Anne (2013). 2676: 2122: 1897: 1782: 1707:Algernon Charles Swinburne 1683: 1169:Clash with the Antiochenes 539:alongside the inscription 443:, and attempted to revive 321: 29: 12028:Persecution of Christians 12003:4th-century Greek writers 11953:4th-century Roman consuls 11888: 11807: 11800: 11736: 11676: 11669: 11593: 11339: 11231: 11185:Metrodorus of Stratonicea 11167: 11127: 11118: 10999: 10983: 10936: 10868: 10833:Andronikos IV Palaiologos 10801:Andronikos II Palaiologos 10626:Constantine IX Monomachos 10314: 10211: 10094: 9921: 9759: 9607: 9539:Julian: A Christmas Story 9525: 9443:Coronation of Ardashir II 9434: 9381: 9356: 9309: 9273: 9266: 9245: 9192: 9175: 9163: 9149: 9131: 9119: 9105: 9087: 9075: 9070: 9060: 9051: 9043: 9038: 9011: 8571:Potter, David S. (2004). 8295:. Gutenberg etext# 28587. 8139:The Skiffy and Fanty Show 7417:Schmidt, Charles (1889). 6943:Kathleen McVey (Editor), 6743:Rome in the ancient world 5669:Potter, David S. (2009). 5012: 5003: 4979: 4977: 4959: 4939: 4916: 4897: 4895: 4887: 4885: 4863: 4861: 4852: 4845: 4838: 4836: 4820: 4818: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4773: 4767: 4761: 4753: 4749: 4747: 4745: 4743: 4741: 4739: 4737: 4735: 4733: 4731: 4729: 4725: 4717: 4715: 4690: 4674: 4663:2: Constantine's children 4655: 4653: 4651: 4627: 4606: 4599: 4588: 4586: 4562: 4560: 4552: 4550: 4534: 4532: 4509: 4488: 4481: 4466: 4464: 4456: 4454: 4452: 4450: 4448: 4446: 4444: 4436: 4434: 4426: 4424: 4408: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4390: 4388: 4386: 4376: 4363: 4358: 4356: 4340: 4328: 4326: 4291: 4285: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4277: 4271: 4269: 4267: 4261: 4255: 4239: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4203: 4195: 4193: 4168:Flavia Maximiana Theodora 4164: 4148: 4131: 4129: 4047: 4045: 4043: 4041: 4026: 4008: 4006: 4004: 3941: 3939: 3931: 3929: 3917: 3915: 3851: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3810: 3797: 3786: 3784: 3776: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3695: 3693: 3669: 3667: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3651: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3621: 3619: 3605: 3519: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3459: 3457: 3455: 3449: 3447: 3445: 3439: 3437: 3435: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3401: 3399: 3391: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3369: 3367: 3365: 3363: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3337: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3317: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3208: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3132: 3130: 3128: 3118: 3116: 3100: 3098: 3090: 3086: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3040: 3038: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3020: 3014: 3012: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2909: 2907: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2883: 2881: 2873: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2821: 2819: 2781: 2779: 2768: 2761: 2181:Galilee earthquake of 363 1998:persecution of Christians 1650: 1513:gained a tactical victory 1463:at the confluence of the 1313: 451:. His efforts to build a 313:Flavius Claudius Julianus 280: 270: 260: 248: 227: 220: 216:Flavius Claudius Julianus 215: 210: 206: 195: 179: 159: 143: 139: 135:6 November 355 – 360 127: 117: 107: 95: 88: 46: 41: 11381:Eustathius of Cappadocia 10796:Michael VIII Palaiologos 9274:Roman–Alamannic conflict 8772:Lieu, Samuel N.C. & 8606:De Imperatoribus Romanis 8539:World Journal of Surgery 8059:, "Iron Kingdom", p. 446 7794:Athanassiadi, p. 161. – 7682:Athanassiadi, pp. 62–63. 7014:Vasiliev, A. A. (1948). 6023:Mnemosyne, Fourth Series 5921:. 1921. pp. 343–565 5431: 5235:Dmitrii S. Merezhkovskii 2402:To the Uneducated Cynics 2205: 2173:governor of the province 2127:The fact that Christian 2114:Juventinus and Maximinus 1871:The Christian historian 1805:, which were written as 1789:a philosophical divinity 1542: 1041: 952:manner, in February 360. 577:Initially growing up in 163:26 June 363 (aged 31–32) 11988:Critics of Christianity 11446:Gaius Marius Victorinus 11041:Demetrius of Amphipolis 10651:Eudokia Makrembolitissa 10285:Tiberius II Constantine 9258:Restoration of paganism 8809:Rendall, Gerald Henry, 8577:. New York: Routledge. 8355:Conti, Stefano (2004). 8013:Wright, Wilmer (1923). 7988:Wright, Wilmer (1913). 7963:Wright, Wilmer (1923). 7908:Wright, Wilmer (1913). 7877:Wright, Wilmer (1923). 7807:Wright, Wilmer (1923). 7729:To The Cynic Heracleios 7651:sourcebooks.fordham.edu 7601:20 October 2005 at the 7163:Socrates Scholasticus, 7095:Tougher, Shaun (2007). 7068:Encyclopædia Britannica 5945:The Classical Quarterly 5717:Oxford University Press 5407:, was released in 1919. 5382: 5185:David Friedrich Strauss 4337:Flavia Julia Constantia 1881:transmigration of souls 1756:sarcophagus of porphyry 1722: 1499:, from the 9th century 531:. The reverse depicts 350:, and his promotion of 11065:Lastheneia of Mantinea 11060:Hestiaeus of Perinthus 10806:Michael IX Palaiologos 8630:. Seuil, Paris, 2005. 8287:Ammianus Marcellinus, 8250:. Eretz Magazine. 2007 7948:Pearse, Roger (2003). 7933:Pearse, Roger (2003). 7486:Ammianus Marcellinus, 7400:The Cult of the Saints 7241:Ammianus Marcellinus, 7139:Against the Galilaeans 7085:, 22.13.6–8 and 25.2.5 6931:Historia ecclesiastica 6913:Historia ecclesiastica 6783:Ammianus Marcellinus, 6754:Ammianus Marcellinus, 6728:Ammianus Marcellinus, 6657:Ammianus Marcellinus, 6587:Ridley, Notes, p. 318. 6574:Ammianus Marcellinus, 6511:Ammianus Marcellinus, 6471:Ammianus Marcellinus, 6446:Ammianus Marcellinus, 6433:Ammianus Marcellinus, 6396:Historia ecclesiastica 6378:Ammianus Marcellinus, 6324:Pierre Lévêque (1963) 6153:Ammianus Marcellinus. 6065:, 16.12.27ff, 38ff, 55 5915:(English translation)" 5575:Against the Galilaeans 5397: 5138: 2758:Afranius Hannibalianus 2630:Loeb Classical Library 2573: 2177: 2152: 2102:Juventinus and Maximus 2078: 1993: 1924: 1879:"in another body" via 1774: 1732: 1689: 1684:νενίκηκάς με, Γαλιλαῖε 1667: 1504: 1426:and moved eastward to 1398: 1354:to woo it through the 1247: 1182: 1057:Church of the Apostles 1051: 1019: 953: 840:Battle of Argentoratum 727: 715: 554: 363:Julian the Philosopher 312: 11978:Constantinian dynasty 11968:Late-Roman-era pagans 11871:Nicholas Wolterstorff 11646:Theodoric of Freiberg 11316:Clement of Alexandria 11246:Eudorus of Alexandria 11200:Aeschines of Neapolis 10900:Thessalonian emperors 10894:Trapezuntine emperors 10855:John VIII Palaiologos 10850:Manuel II Palaiologos 10821:John VI Kantakouzenos 10737:Andronikos I Komnenos 10574:Constantine Lekapenos 9602:and empresses regnant 9475:The Death of the Gods 9365:Against the Galileans 9018:Constantinian dynasty 8967:Epistolographi graeci 8628:L'Empire Gréco-Romain 8428:. London: Duckworth. 8386:. London: Routledge. 7740:Athanassiadi, p. 137. 7718:Athanassiadi, p. 131. 7023:Dumbarton Oaks Papers 6477:L"Empire Gréco-Romain 6140:Ammianus Marcellinus 6120:L'Empire Gréco-Romain 6074:Ammianus Marcellinus 6061:Ammianus Marcellinus 5497:Wiemer & Rebenich 5459:), or to the usurper 5390: 5255:authored the tragedy 5227:(Julian the Apostate) 5225:The Death of the Gods 5208:published in 1873 by 5166:Charles II of England 5132: 5066:"Julian" emperor 3807:VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY 2679:Constantinian dynasty 2610:Against the Galileans 2568: 2482:Against the Galileans 2185:St. Gregory Nazianzen 2165: 2150: 2068: 1977: 1915: 1873:Socrates Scholasticus 1768: 1730: 1658: 1490: 1408:departed from Antioch 1376: 1238: 1176: 1049: 1002: 943: 721: 709: 509: 397:an ambitious campaign 370:Constantine the Great 11656:Berthold of Moosburg 11601:John Scotus Eriugena 11572:David the Invincible 11281:Alexander Peloplaton 10838:John VII Palaiologos 10786:Theodore II Laskaris 10646:Constantine X Doukas 10586:Nikephoros II Phokas 9467:Emperor and Galilean 8949:Gerald Henry Rendall 8925:26 June 2008 at the 8282:Ammianus Marcellinus 8274:Ammianus Marcellinus 8224:Eylon, Lily (1999). 8075:. Penn State Press. 7709:Athanassiadi, p. 90. 7700:Athanassiadi, p. 85. 7673:Athanassiadi, p. 61. 7551:Nazianzen, Gregory. 6962:Ammianus Marcellinus 6770:Dodgeon & Lieu, 6670:Dodgeon & Lieu, 6644:Dodgeon & Lieu, 6411:, 18.195 & 16.21 6251:Athanassiadi, p. 89. 6102:Athanassiadi, p. 69. 5205:Emperor and Galilean 5051:improve this article 2660:Gregory of Nazianzus 2194:Julian's support of 2161:Ammianus Marcellinus 2157:rebuild their temple 1738:However, chronicler 1625:Ammianus Marcellinus 1402:Into enemy territory 1008:of Julian issued at 696:Eleusinian Mysteries 688:Gregory of Nazianzus 606:George of Cappadocia 495:, who had served as 288:Hellenistic religion 11963:4th-century writers 11777:Ralph Waldo Emerson 11251:Philo of Alexandria 11090:Menedemus of Pyrrha 11085:Heraclides Ponticus 11070:Timolaus of Cyzicus 11046:Euaeon of Lampsacus 10769:Theodore I Laskaris 10754:Alexios III Angelos 10732:Alexios II Komnenos 10656:Romanos IV Diogenes 10611:Romanos III Argyros 10557:Romanos I Lekapenos 9553:Worship of the Gods 9483:Giuliano l'Apostata 9462:(15th-century icon) 9167:Claudius Mamertinus 9083:Lollianus Mavortius 8954:Julian the Apostate 8828:Rohrbacher, David. 8768:. pp. 242–247. 8687:Ricciotti, Giuseppe 8425:Julian the Apostate 8310:Claudius Mamertinus 7150:Thomas F. Gossett, 7097:Julian the Apostate 6843:The Roman Emperors. 6707:Adrian Goldsworth, 6424:, 1.126 & 15.20 6382:, 22.12.8 – 22.13.3 5551:in the 5th century. 5404:Giuliano l'Apostata 5394:Giuliano l'Apostata 5351:speculative fiction 5337:point of divergence 5296:Michael Curtis Ford 5290:Julian appeared in 5257:Julian the Apostate 4155:Constantius Chlorus 4105:fabricated ancestry 3566:Constantine II 3550:Constantius II 2614:Cyril of Alexandria 2440:Hymn to King Helios 1877:Alexander the Great 1715:written in 1833 by 1712:The Undivine Comedy 1535:, but northward to 1379:The Fall of Princes 1160:, Julian's trusted 1146:Claudius Mamertinus 1079:system begun under 880:, settling them in 359:Julian the Apostate 346:. His rejection of 18:Julian the Apostate 12038:Ancient occultists 12018:Pagan restorations 11772:Emanuel Swedenborg 11705:Cristoforo Landino 11687:Florentine Academy 11477:Plutarch of Athens 11426:Eusebius of Myndus 11421:Maximus of Ephesus 11406:Theodorus of Asine 11301:Numenius of Apamea 11080:Axiothea of Phlius 11036:Erastus of Scepsis 10888:Britannic emperors 10882:Palmyrene emperors 10816:John V Palaiologos 10759:Alexios IV Angelos 10708:Constantine Doukas 10703:Alexios I Komnenos 10691:Constantine Doukas 10674:Michael VII Doukas 10636:Michael VI Bringas 10202:Romulus Augustulus 9825:Trebonianus Gallus 9818:Herennius Etruscus 9600:Byzantine emperors 9533:Column of Julianus 9515:The Dragon Waiting 9407:Constantius Gallus 9401:Julius Constantius 9311:Persian expedition 9267:Military campaigns 9253:Chalcedon tribunal 9188:Flavius Sallustius 9109:Censorius Datianus 9071:Political offices 8933:The Julian Society 8823:The Emperor Julian 8821:. Downloadable at 8802:. Downloadable at 8774:Dominic Montserrat 8736:. Downloadable at 8669:Edward Alexander, 8478:The Emperor Julian 8112:The New York Times 7507:The Jerusalem Post 7415:Quoted in : 7256:Roberts and DiMaio 6993:Book of Ceremonies 6986:Glanville Downey, 6462:, p. 515–516. 6090:, p. 240–241. 6037:, p. 501–502. 5941:The Emperor Julian 5919:www.tertullian.org 5726:978-0-19--754932-2 5709:Kaldellis, Anthony 5547:First recorded by 5398: 5324:The Dragon Waiting 5153:is a late antique 5139: 5023:In popular culture 4856:Constantius Gallus 4610:Constantius Gallus 4485:Julius Constantius 4036:THEODOSIAN DYNASTY 3801:Valentinian I 3542:Constantius Gallus 3504:Constantius Gallus 3253:Constantine I 3212:Julius Constantius 2975:Constantius I 2638:Laurentianus 58.16 2634:Wilmer Cave Wright 2574: 2169:Alypius of Antioch 2153: 2079: 1994: 1949:13th century China 1927:After gaining the 1925: 1818:Maximus of Ephesus 1802:Mother of the Gods 1775: 1733: 1703:Hymn to Proserpine 1668: 1660:Column of Julianus 1505: 1399: 1391:Giovanni Boccaccio 1377:Illustration from 1356:Chalcedon tribunal 1234:David Stone Potter 1183: 1150:Praetorian prefect 1106:Chalcedon tribunal 1098:primus inter pares 1052: 1020: 954: 936:Rebellion in Paris 728: 716: 638:Maximus of Ephesus 634:Eusebius of Myndus 572:Constantius Gallus 555: 497:praetorian prefect 481:Julius Constantius 477:Constantine I 447:at the expense of 265:Julius Constantius 237:Claudius Julianus 202:(m. 355, died 360) 11925: 11924: 11921: 11920: 11866:Peter van Inwagen 11836:Roderick Chisholm 11762: 11761: 11718: 11717: 11589: 11588: 11585: 11584: 11431:Priscus of Epirus 11233:Middle Platonists 11227: 11226: 11223: 11222: 11215:Dio of Alexandria 11140:Diocles of Cnidus 10943: 10942: 10781:John III Vatatzes 10727:Manuel I Komnenos 10466:Michael I Rangabe 10310: 10309: 10152:Petronius Maximus 9751:Severus Alexander 9719:Septimius Severus 9562: 9561: 9352: 9351: 9206: 9205: 9193:Succeeded by 9150:Succeeded by 9113:Neratius Cerealis 9106:Succeeded by 9061:Succeeded by 9013:Julian (emperor) 8939:HellenicFaith.com 8882:Project Gutenberg 8790:Neander, August, 8734:978-0-404-58262-3 8719:978-90-04-37089-0 8654:978-90-04-41456-3 8547:Murdoch, Adrian. 8521:978-0-19-929568-5 8410:978-1-905125-50-0 8326:Gregory Nazianzen 8319:Panegyrici Latini 8082:978-0-271-04064-6 8057:Christopher Clark 7473:978-0-226-57647-3 6882:Patrologia Graeca 6822:978-90-04-41631-4 6741:David S. Potter, 6717:978-0-300-13719-4 6274:978-1-902210-58-2 5896:The full text of 5848:The full text of 5698:, pp. 21–22. 5682:978-1-4051-9918-6 5333:Wars of the Roses 5320:alternate history 5268:Imperial Renegade 5253:Nikos Kazantzakis 5246:Felix Weingartner 5231:Russian Symbolist 5127: 5126: 5119: 5101: 5020: 5019: 5016: 5015: 4659: 4658: 4512:Virius Nepotianus 4323:Flavius Dalmatius 4097:Claudius Gothicus 4055: 4054: 4051: 4050: 4030:Theodosius I 3194:Flavius Dalmatius 2551: 2550: 2007:Christian liturgy 1963:, was a separate 1717:Zygmunt Krasiński 1690:Vicisti, Galilaee 1633:Basil of Caesarea 1600:of his liver and 1597:Battle of Samarra 1452:with his brother 1360:Sassanid Persians 1349:Julian's rise to 1346: 1345: 1148:, previously the 766:Colonia Agrippina 764:hands, including 679:Claudius Silvanus 417:Battle of Samarra 384:raids across the 302: 301: 244: 243: 16:(Redirected from 12060: 11938:Julian (emperor) 11805: 11804: 11683: 11682: 11674: 11673: 11522:Ammonius Hermiae 11467: 11466: 11326:Origen the Pagan 11205:Philo of Larissa 11180:Hagnon of Tarsus 11125: 11124: 11110:Crates of Athens 10997: 10996: 10988: 10987: 10970: 10963: 10956: 10947: 10946: 10791:John IV Laskaris 10764:Alexios V Doukas 10749:Isaac II Angelos 10715:John II Komnenos 10641:Isaac I Komnenos 10601:Constantine VIII 10591:John I Tzimiskes 10318:Byzantine Empire 10092: 10091: 9589: 9582: 9575: 9566: 9565: 9446:(379–383 relief) 9271: 9270: 9232: 9225: 9218: 9209: 9208: 9164:Preceded by 9120:Preceded by 9076:Preceded by 9044:Preceded by 9034: 9027: 9009: 9008: 9005: 9004: 8769: 8724:Gardner, Alice, 8706: 8658: 8616:, London, 1995. 8612:Smith, Rowland. 8609: 8588: 8567: 8551:, Stroud, 2005, 8534: 8525: 8492: 8473:Browning, Robert 8468: 8439: 8397: 8305:Internet Archive 8260: 8259: 8257: 8255: 8244: 8238: 8237: 8235: 8233: 8221: 8215: 8214: 8182: 8176: 8175: 8173: 8171: 8156: 8150: 8149: 8147: 8145: 8130: 8124: 8123: 8121: 8119: 8102: 8096: 8093: 8087: 8086: 8066: 8060: 8054: 8048: 8047: 8040:"Julian Romance" 8038:Butts, Aaron M. 8035: 8029: 8028: 8010: 8004: 8003: 7985: 7979: 7978: 7960: 7954: 7953: 7945: 7939: 7938: 7930: 7924: 7923: 7905: 7899: 7898: 7874: 7868: 7867: 7861: 7857: 7855: 7847: 7829: 7823: 7822: 7804: 7798: 7792: 7786: 7783: 7777: 7774: 7768: 7767: 7756: 7750: 7747: 7741: 7738: 7732: 7725: 7719: 7716: 7710: 7707: 7701: 7698: 7692: 7689: 7683: 7680: 7674: 7671: 7662: 7661: 7659: 7657: 7643: 7637: 7611: 7605: 7588: 7582: 7575: 7569: 7568: 7566: 7564: 7548: 7539: 7538: 7525: 7519: 7518: 7516: 7514: 7497: 7491: 7484: 7478: 7477: 7457: 7446: 7445: 7443: 7441: 7413: 7407: 7392: 7386: 7376: 7370: 7367: 7361: 7358: 7352: 7346: 7340: 7334: 7325: 7319: 7313: 7310: 7301: 7295: 7289: 7283: 7277: 7274: 7268: 7265: 7259: 7252: 7246: 7239: 7233: 7232: 7212: 7206: 7199: 7193: 7186: 7177: 7174: 7168: 7161: 7155: 7148: 7142: 7135: 7129: 7126: 7120: 7117: 7111: 7110: 7092: 7086: 7079: 7073: 7072: 7064: 7053: 7047: 7046: 7020: 7011: 7005: 6984: 6978: 6975: 6969: 6954: 6948: 6941: 6935: 6923: 6917: 6905: 6899: 6893: 6887: 6868: 6862: 6852: 6846: 6841:Grant, Michael. 6839: 6833: 6832: 6831: 6829: 6804: 6798: 6794: 6788: 6781: 6775: 6768: 6759: 6752: 6746: 6739: 6733: 6726: 6720: 6705: 6699: 6696: 6690: 6684: 6675: 6668: 6662: 6655: 6649: 6642: 6636: 6626: 6620: 6614: 6605: 6599: 6588: 6585: 6579: 6572: 6566: 6560: 6554: 6548: 6542: 6535: 6529: 6522: 6516: 6509: 6503: 6500: 6494: 6486: 6480: 6469: 6463: 6457: 6451: 6444: 6438: 6431: 6425: 6418: 6412: 6405: 6399: 6389: 6383: 6376: 6370: 6364: 6355: 6349: 6343: 6337: 6331: 6322: 6316: 6310: 6304: 6298: 6292: 6291:, p. 63–64. 6286: 6280: 6258: 6252: 6249: 6243: 6237: 6228: 6221: 6215: 6212: 6206: 6200: 6194: 6188: 6182: 6176: 6170: 6169:, p. 56–57. 6164: 6158: 6151: 6145: 6138: 6132: 6129: 6123: 6109: 6103: 6100: 6091: 6085: 6079: 6072: 6066: 6059: 6053: 6047: 6038: 6032: 6026: 6019: 6013: 6012:, p. 50–51. 6007: 6001: 5995: 5984: 5978: 5972: 5966: 5960: 5954: 5948: 5937: 5931: 5930: 5928: 5926: 5907: 5901: 5895: 5888: 5882: 5875:Ezekiel Spanheim 5871: 5865: 5864:, p. 44–45. 5859: 5853: 5847: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5821: 5815: 5814: 5781: 5775: 5769: 5760: 5754: 5745: 5744: 5738: 5730: 5705: 5699: 5693: 5687: 5686: 5666: 5660: 5654: 5648: 5647: 5639: 5633: 5626: 5620: 5613: 5607: 5600: 5578: 5567: 5561: 5558: 5552: 5545: 5539: 5532: 5526: 5519: 5513: 5506: 5500: 5481: 5475: 5469: 5467: 5461:Sabinus Julianus 5458: 5456: 5442: 5292:Gods and Legions 5248:is about Julian. 5170:The Duke of York 5168:and his brother 5122: 5115: 5111: 5108: 5102: 5100: 5059: 5035: 5027: 4667: 4666: 4078: 4077: 4057: 4056: 2722: 2721: 2709: 2702: 2695: 2686: 2685: 2462:, or Beard-Hater 2363:Cynic Heracleios 2213: 2212: 1938:Chinese Buddhism 1778:Religious issues 1693:("You have won, 1692: 1686: 1685: 1585: 1555: 1528:burning any food 1308: 1306: 1296: 1289: 1282: 1273: 1272: 1268:Persian campaign 1123:aurum coronarium 1111:magister militum 1017: 1016: 958:Sassanid emperor 946:Thermes de Cluny 797:magister peditum 788:magister equitum 548: 546: 543: 537:Constantinopolis 530: 529: 525: 522: 517: 329: 324: 323: 208: 207: 83: 81: 80: 77: 73: 70: 51: 39: 38: 21: 12068: 12067: 12063: 12062: 12061: 12059: 12058: 12057: 11928: 11927: 11926: 11917: 11884: 11881:Edward N. Zalta 11861:Alvin Plantinga 11841:Michael Dummett 11796: 11787:Bernard Bolzano 11758: 11732: 11714: 11700:Marsilio Ficino 11665: 11651:Meister Eckhart 11581: 11562:John Philoponus 11465: 11335: 11306:Ammonius Saccas 11296:Maximus of Tyre 11219: 11163: 11114: 11055:Python of Aenus 10979: 10974: 10944: 10939: 10932: 10876:Gallic emperors 10864: 10552:Constantine VII 10333:Constantine III 10320: 10317: 10306: 10215: 10207: 10146:Valentinian III 10134:Constantius III 10128:Priscus Attalus 10112:Constantine III 10098: 10090: 9980:Valerius Valens 9925: 9917: 9763: 9755: 9714:Didius Julianus 9694:Marcus Aurelius 9611: 9603: 9593: 9563: 9558: 9521: 9491:Second Thoughts 9430: 9377: 9348: 9305: 9262: 9241: 9236: 9202: 9198: 9184: 9182: 9173: 9169: 9159: 9155: 9140: 9138: 9129: 9125: 9115: 9111: 9096: 9094: 9085: 9081: 9066: 9057: 9049: 9028: 9022: 9021: 9014: 9002: 8994:Works by Julian 8927:Wayback Machine 8878:Works by Julian 8874: 8703: 8666: 8664:Further reading 8661: 8655: 8585: 8522: 8489: 8457:10.2307/1088885 8436: 8420:Bowersock, G.W. 8394: 8375: 8370: 8269: 8267:Ancient sources 8264: 8263: 8253: 8251: 8246: 8245: 8241: 8231: 8229: 8222: 8218: 8183: 8179: 8169: 8167: 8157: 8153: 8143: 8141: 8131: 8127: 8117: 8115: 8103: 8099: 8094: 8090: 8083: 8067: 8063: 8055: 8051: 8036: 8032: 8025: 8011: 8007: 8000: 7986: 7982: 7975: 7961: 7957: 7946: 7942: 7931: 7927: 7920: 7906: 7902: 7895: 7875: 7871: 7859: 7858: 7849: 7848: 7844: 7830: 7826: 7819: 7805: 7801: 7793: 7789: 7784: 7780: 7775: 7771: 7764:www.attalus.org 7758: 7757: 7753: 7748: 7744: 7739: 7735: 7726: 7722: 7717: 7713: 7708: 7704: 7699: 7695: 7690: 7686: 7681: 7677: 7672: 7665: 7655: 7653: 7645: 7644: 7640: 7612: 7608: 7603:Wayback Machine 7589: 7585: 7577:Edward Gibbon, 7576: 7572: 7562: 7560: 7559:. Public Domain 7549: 7542: 7527: 7526: 7522: 7512: 7510: 7498: 7494: 7485: 7481: 7474: 7458: 7449: 7439: 7437: 7435: 7414: 7410: 7396:John Chrysostom 7393: 7389: 7377: 7373: 7368: 7364: 7359: 7355: 7347: 7343: 7335: 7328: 7320: 7316: 7311: 7304: 7296: 7292: 7284: 7280: 7275: 7271: 7266: 7262: 7253: 7249: 7240: 7236: 7229: 7213: 7209: 7200: 7196: 7187: 7180: 7175: 7171: 7162: 7158: 7149: 7145: 7136: 7132: 7127: 7123: 7118: 7114: 7107: 7093: 7089: 7080: 7076: 7054: 7050: 7035:10.2307/1291047 7018: 7012: 7008: 6985: 6981: 6976: 6972: 6955: 6951: 6942: 6938: 6924: 6920: 6906: 6902: 6894: 6890: 6879:, pp. 333–334. 6869: 6865: 6853: 6849: 6840: 6836: 6827: 6825: 6823: 6805: 6801: 6795: 6791: 6782: 6778: 6769: 6762: 6753: 6749: 6740: 6736: 6727: 6723: 6706: 6702: 6697: 6693: 6685: 6678: 6669: 6665: 6656: 6652: 6643: 6639: 6627: 6623: 6615: 6608: 6600: 6591: 6586: 6582: 6573: 6569: 6561: 6557: 6549: 6545: 6536: 6532: 6523: 6519: 6510: 6506: 6501: 6497: 6487: 6483: 6470: 6466: 6458: 6454: 6445: 6441: 6432: 6428: 6419: 6415: 6406: 6402: 6390: 6386: 6377: 6373: 6365: 6358: 6350: 6346: 6338: 6334: 6323: 6319: 6311: 6307: 6299: 6295: 6287: 6283: 6260:Webb, Matilda. 6259: 6255: 6250: 6246: 6238: 6231: 6222: 6218: 6213: 6209: 6201: 6197: 6189: 6185: 6177: 6173: 6165: 6161: 6152: 6148: 6139: 6135: 6130: 6126: 6114:: cf. Zosimus, 6110: 6106: 6101: 6094: 6088:Drinkwater 2007 6086: 6082: 6073: 6069: 6060: 6056: 6048: 6041: 6033: 6029: 6020: 6016: 6008: 6004: 5996: 5987: 5979: 5975: 5969:Drinkwater 2007 5967: 5963: 5955: 5951: 5938: 5934: 5924: 5922: 5909: 5908: 5904: 5889: 5885: 5872: 5868: 5860: 5856: 5841: 5837: 5822: 5818: 5782: 5778: 5770: 5763: 5755: 5748: 5732: 5731: 5727: 5706: 5702: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5667: 5663: 5655: 5651: 5640: 5636: 5627: 5623: 5614: 5610: 5601: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5581: 5568: 5564: 5559: 5555: 5546: 5542: 5533: 5529: 5520: 5516: 5507: 5503: 5482: 5478: 5464: 5453: 5450:Didius Julianus 5443: 5439: 5434: 5418:British Mandate 5414: 5385: 5366:Elizabeth Finch 5312:La Modification 5144: 5123: 5112: 5106: 5103: 5060: 5058: 5048: 5036: 5025: 5001: 4951: 4930: 4834: 4816: 4688: 4661: 4625: 4354: 4317: 4162: 4109: 4034: 4033:Eastern emperor 4032: 4016: 4015:Western emperor 4014: 4001: 3805: 3804:Western emperor 3803: 3733: 3600: 3591: 3584: 3583:Western emperor 3582: 3571: 3570:Western emperor 3569: 3555: 3553: 3539: 3534: 3525: 3516: 3489: 3257: 3237: 3216: 3214: 3206: 3196: 3188:250-308-324-325 3187: 3182: 3180: 3008:Western emperor 3007: 2998: 2981: 2980:Western emperor 2979: 2775:Western emperor 2774: 2716: 2713: 2683: 2681: 2675: 2648:François Cumont 2626: 2618:Contra Julianum 2342:the Philosopher 2208: 2145: 2125: 2108:John Chrysostom 2104: 2063: 2039:Tolerance Edict 1986:Saint Mercurius 1921:Edward Armitage 1910: 1896: 1820:, a student of 1785: 1780: 1725: 1653: 1645:Saint Mercurius 1593: 1592: 1591: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1577: 1576: 1575: 1556: 1545: 1485: 1404: 1347: 1342: 1309: 1304: 1302: 1300: 1270: 1171: 1091:. In his first 1089:Marcus Aurelius 1044: 1014: 1013: 938: 907:Belgica Secunda 898: 758: 746:Germanic tribes 704: 692:Basil the Great 683:Empress Eusebia 600:of Macellum in 598:imperial estate 540: 519: 469: 401:Sasanian Empire 298: 191: 174:Sassanid Empire 164: 148: 84: 67: 65: 64: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12066: 12056: 12055: 12050: 12045: 12040: 12035: 12030: 12025: 12020: 12015: 12010: 12005: 12000: 11995: 11990: 11985: 11980: 11975: 11970: 11965: 11960: 11955: 11950: 11945: 11940: 11923: 11922: 11919: 11918: 11916: 11915: 11910: 11908:Roman Ingarden 11905: 11903:Edmund Husserl 11900: 11894: 11892: 11886: 11885: 11883: 11878: 11876:Crispin Wright 11873: 11868: 11863: 11858: 11853: 11848: 11846:W. V. O. Quine 11843: 11838: 11833: 11828: 11823: 11818: 11813: 11811: 11802: 11798: 11797: 11795: 11794: 11789: 11784: 11779: 11774: 11769: 11763: 11760: 11759: 11757: 11752: 11747: 11745:Ralph Cudworth 11742: 11740: 11734: 11733: 11731: 11730: 11725: 11723:Giordano Bruno 11719: 11716: 11715: 11713: 11712: 11707: 11702: 11697: 11691: 11689: 11680: 11671: 11667: 11666: 11664: 11663: 11661:Paul of Venice 11658: 11653: 11648: 11643: 11638: 11636:Henry of Ghent 11633: 11628: 11623: 11618: 11613: 11608: 11603: 11597: 11595: 11591: 11590: 11587: 11586: 11583: 11582: 11580: 11579: 11574: 11569: 11564: 11559: 11554: 11549: 11544: 11539: 11534: 11529: 11524: 11519: 11514: 11509: 11504: 11499: 11494: 11489: 11484: 11479: 11473: 11471: 11464: 11463: 11458: 11453: 11448: 11443: 11438: 11433: 11428: 11423: 11418: 11413: 11408: 11403: 11398: 11393: 11388: 11383: 11378: 11373: 11368: 11363: 11358: 11357: 11356: 11345: 11343: 11337: 11336: 11334: 11333: 11328: 11323: 11318: 11313: 11308: 11303: 11298: 11293: 11288: 11283: 11278: 11273: 11268: 11263: 11258: 11253: 11248: 11243: 11237: 11235: 11229: 11228: 11225: 11224: 11221: 11220: 11218: 11217: 11212: 11207: 11202: 11197: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11177: 11171: 11169: 11165: 11164: 11162: 11161: 11156: 11147: 11142: 11137: 11131: 11129: 11122: 11116: 11115: 11113: 11112: 11107: 11102: 11097: 11092: 11087: 11082: 11077: 11072: 11067: 11062: 11057: 11048: 11043: 11038: 11029: 11024: 11022:Philip of Opus 11019: 11014: 11009: 11003: 11001: 10994: 10985: 10981: 10980: 10973: 10972: 10965: 10958: 10950: 10941: 10940: 10937: 10934: 10933: 10931: 10930: 10929: 10928: 10923: 10913: 10908: 10903: 10897: 10891: 10885: 10879: 10872: 10870: 10866: 10865: 10863: 10862: 10857: 10852: 10847: 10835: 10830: 10818: 10813: 10808: 10803: 10798: 10793: 10788: 10783: 10778: 10766: 10761: 10756: 10751: 10746: 10734: 10729: 10724: 10712: 10700: 10695: 10671: 10653: 10648: 10643: 10638: 10633: 10631:Theodora (III) 10628: 10623: 10618: 10613: 10608: 10603: 10598: 10593: 10588: 10583: 10578: 10554: 10549: 10544: 10539: 10527: 10522: 10510: 10498: 10493: 10481: 10463: 10458: 10453: 10448: 10446:Constantine VI 10443: 10438: 10422: 10417: 10412: 10410:Theodosius III 10407: 10402: 10397: 10385: 10380: 10375: 10370: 10355:Constantine IV 10352: 10347: 10335: 10330: 10324: 10322: 10312: 10311: 10308: 10307: 10305: 10304: 10299: 10287: 10282: 10277: 10272: 10267: 10262: 10250: 10245: 10240: 10235: 10230: 10225: 10219: 10217: 10213:Eastern Empire 10209: 10208: 10206: 10205: 10198: 10193: 10186: 10179: 10174: 10167: 10162: 10155: 10148: 10143: 10136: 10131: 10124: 10108: 10102: 10100: 10096:Western Empire 10089: 10088: 10081: 10069:Magnus Maximus 10065: 10063:Valentinian II 10060: 10055: 10050: 10043: 10038: 10033: 10028: 10023: 10016: 10009: 10002: 9997: 9995:Constantius II 9992: 9990:Constantine II 9987: 9982: 9977: 9972: 9967: 9960: 9955: 9950: 9945: 9940: 9935: 9929: 9927: 9919: 9918: 9916: 9915: 9910: 9905: 9900: 9895: 9890: 9885: 9880: 9875: 9870: 9858: 9853: 9845: 9840: 9822: 9810: 9798: 9793: 9788: 9783: 9778: 9773: 9767: 9765: 9757: 9756: 9754: 9753: 9748: 9743: 9731: 9726: 9721: 9716: 9711: 9706: 9701: 9696: 9691: 9689:Antoninus Pius 9686: 9681: 9676: 9671: 9666: 9661: 9656: 9651: 9646: 9641: 9636: 9631: 9626: 9621: 9615: 9613: 9612:27 BC – AD 235 9605: 9604: 9592: 9591: 9584: 9577: 9569: 9560: 9559: 9557: 9556: 9549: 9542: 9535: 9529: 9527: 9523: 9522: 9520: 9519: 9511: 9503: 9495: 9487: 9479: 9471: 9463: 9455: 9451:Julian Romance 9447: 9438: 9436: 9432: 9431: 9429: 9428: 9422: 9416: 9410: 9404: 9398: 9392: 9385: 9383: 9379: 9378: 9376: 9375: 9368: 9360: 9358: 9354: 9353: 9350: 9349: 9347: 9346: 9341: 9336: 9331: 9326: 9321: 9315: 9313: 9307: 9306: 9304: 9303: 9298: 9293: 9288: 9283: 9277: 9275: 9268: 9264: 9263: 9261: 9260: 9255: 9249: 9247: 9243: 9242: 9235: 9234: 9227: 9220: 9212: 9204: 9203: 9194: 9191: 9174: 9165: 9161: 9160: 9151: 9148: 9130: 9121: 9117: 9116: 9107: 9104: 9086: 9077: 9073: 9072: 9068: 9067: 9062: 9059: 9050: 9047:Constantius II 9045: 9041: 9040: 9039:Regnal titles 9036: 9035: 9015: 9012: 9007: 9006: 8991: 8974: 8960: 8958:Andrew Selkirk 8951: 8942: 8936: 8930: 8919:The Last Pagan 8914: 8908: 8902: 8896: 8890: 8887:Laws of Julian 8884: 8873: 8872:External links 8870: 8869: 8868: 8854: 8842:Rosen, Klaus. 8840: 8826: 8819:978-1152519299 8807: 8800:978-0217347655 8788: 8770: 8755: 8741: 8722: 8707: 8701: 8683: 8681:979-8360467885 8665: 8662: 8660: 8659: 8653: 8638: 8624: 8610: 8596: 8589: 8583: 8568: 8559: 8545: 8535: 8526: 8520: 8507: 8493: 8487: 8469: 8451:(4): 331–356. 8440: 8434: 8416: 8398: 8392: 8376: 8374: 8373:Modern sources 8371: 8369: 8368: 8353: 8341: 8323: 8307: 8296: 8285: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8262: 8261: 8239: 8216: 8197:(3): 239–251. 8177: 8151: 8125: 8097: 8088: 8081: 8061: 8049: 8030: 8023: 8005: 7999:978-0674990326 7998: 7980: 7973: 7955: 7940: 7925: 7919:978-0674990326 7918: 7900: 7894:978-0674991736 7893: 7869: 7843:978-1905125500 7842: 7824: 7817: 7799: 7787: 7778: 7769: 7751: 7742: 7733: 7720: 7711: 7702: 7693: 7684: 7675: 7663: 7638: 7606: 7583: 7570: 7557:tertullian.org 7540: 7520: 7492: 7479: 7472: 7447: 7433: 7408: 7387: 7371: 7362: 7353: 7351:, p. 354. 7341: 7339:, p. 352. 7326: 7324:, p. 333. 7314: 7302: 7290: 7288:, p. 331. 7278: 7269: 7260: 7247: 7234: 7227: 7207: 7194: 7188:Brown, Peter, 7178: 7169: 7165:Church History 7156: 7143: 7130: 7121: 7112: 7105: 7087: 7074: 7062:"Julian" 7059:, ed. (1911). 7057:Chisholm, Hugh 7048: 7006: 6979: 6970: 6949: 6936: 6918: 6900: 6898:, p. 518. 6888: 6863: 6847: 6834: 6821: 6799: 6789: 6776: 6760: 6747: 6745:, pp. 287–290. 6734: 6721: 6700: 6691: 6676: 6663: 6650: 6637: 6621: 6619:, p. 517. 6606: 6604:, p. 110. 6589: 6580: 6567: 6555: 6553:, p. 108. 6543: 6530: 6517: 6504: 6495: 6481: 6464: 6452: 6439: 6426: 6413: 6400: 6384: 6371: 6356: 6344: 6332: 6317: 6305: 6293: 6281: 6253: 6244: 6229: 6216: 6207: 6195: 6183: 6181:, p. 506. 6171: 6159: 6146: 6133: 6124: 6104: 6092: 6080: 6067: 6054: 6039: 6027: 6014: 6002: 6000:, p. 501. 5985: 5973: 5971:, p. 220. 5961: 5959:, p. 499. 5949: 5932: 5902: 5883: 5866: 5854: 5835: 5816: 5803:10.2307/298659 5776: 5761: 5746: 5725: 5719:. p. 89. 5700: 5688: 5681: 5661: 5659:, p. 212. 5649: 5634: 5621: 5615:D. Margetić, " 5608: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5580: 5579: 5562: 5553: 5540: 5527: 5514: 5501: 5476: 5468: 283–285 5436: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5413: 5410: 5409: 5408: 5384: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5373: 5362: 5344: 5316: 5303: 5288: 5275: 5264: 5261:existentialist 5249: 5238: 5220: 5217:George Gissing 5213: 5200: 5181: 5158: 5150:Julian Romance 5143: 5140: 5125: 5124: 5039: 5037: 5030: 5024: 5021: 5018: 5017: 5014: 5013: 5010: 5009: 5004: 5002: 5000: 4999: 4996: 4990: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4980: 4978: 4976: 4974: 4972: 4970: 4968: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4960: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4952: 4950: 4949: 4946: 4942: 4940: 4938: 4933: 4931: 4929: 4928: 4925: 4923:Constantius II 4919: 4917: 4915: 4910: 4908: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4898: 4896: 4894: 4892: 4890: 4888: 4886: 4884: 4882: 4880: 4878: 4876: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4858: 4853: 4851: 4846: 4844: 4839: 4837: 4835: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4823: 4821: 4819: 4817: 4815: 4814: 4811: 4809:Constantine II 4805: 4803: 4801: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4772: 4770: 4768: 4766: 4764: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4746: 4744: 4742: 4740: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4714: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4691: 4689: 4687: 4686: 4683: 4677: 4675: 4673: 4657: 4656: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4648: 4643: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4623: 4620: 4616: 4614: 4612: 4607: 4605: 4600: 4598: 4592: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4545: 4543: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4523: 4521: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4503: 4501: 4496: 4494: 4489: 4487: 4482: 4480: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4467: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4431: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4423: 4421: 4419: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4401: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4377: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4369: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4355: 4353: 4352: 4349: 4343: 4341: 4339: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4315: 4312: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4294: 4292: 4290: 4288: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4272: 4270: 4268: 4266: 4264: 4262: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4198: 4196: 4194: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4180: 4178: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4170: 4165: 4163: 4161: 4160: 4157: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4110: 4108: 4107: 4102: 4099: 4093: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4062: 4061: 4053: 4052: 4049: 4048: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4038: 4027: 4025: 4020: 4018: 4009: 4007: 4005: 4003: 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3207: 3200: 3198: 3191: 3189: 3174: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3161: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3135: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3113: 3111: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3075: 3073: 3071: 3069: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3041: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3017: 3015: 3013: 3010: 3009: 3002: 3000: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2913: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2880: 2877: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 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2204: 2144: 2141: 2124: 2121: 2103: 2100: 2062: 2059: 1959:, the port of 1895: 1892: 1845:Glen Bowersock 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1724: 1721: 1652: 1649: 1587: 1580: 1579: 1578: 1557: 1550: 1549: 1548: 1547: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1495:in modern-day 1491:Julian before 1484: 1481: 1403: 1400: 1344: 1343: 1341: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1314: 1311: 1310: 1299: 1298: 1291: 1284: 1276: 1269: 1266: 1170: 1167: 1061:Santa Costanza 1043: 1040: 937: 934: 897: 894: 757: 754: 712:Musée de Cluny 710:Statue at the 703: 702:Caesar in Gaul 700: 612:. He became a 564:Constantine II 559:Constantius II 473:Constantinople 468: 465: 374:Constantius II 342:and author in 300: 299: 297: 296: 290: 284: 282: 278: 277: 272: 268: 267: 262: 258: 257: 252: 246: 245: 242: 241: 225: 224: 218: 217: 213: 212: 204: 203: 197: 193: 192: 183: 181: 177: 176: 161: 157: 156: 150:Constantinople 145: 141: 140: 137: 136: 133: 125: 124: 119: 115: 114: 112:Constantius II 109: 105: 104: 101: 93: 92: 86: 85: 52: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12065: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12036: 12034: 12031: 12029: 12026: 12024: 12021: 12019: 12016: 12014: 12013:Neoplatonists 12011: 12009: 12006: 12004: 12001: 11999: 11996: 11994: 11991: 11989: 11986: 11984: 11981: 11979: 11976: 11974: 11971: 11969: 11966: 11964: 11961: 11959: 11956: 11954: 11951: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11941: 11939: 11936: 11935: 11933: 11914: 11911: 11909: 11906: 11904: 11901: 11899: 11898:Henri Bergson 11896: 11895: 11893: 11891: 11887: 11882: 11879: 11877: 11874: 11872: 11869: 11867: 11864: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11849: 11847: 11844: 11842: 11839: 11837: 11834: 11832: 11831:Alonzo Church 11829: 11827: 11824: 11822: 11819: 11817: 11816:Gottlob Frege 11814: 11812: 11810: 11806: 11803: 11799: 11793: 11792:Aleksei Losev 11790: 11788: 11785: 11783: 11780: 11778: 11775: 11773: 11770: 11768: 11767:Thomas Taylor 11765: 11764: 11756: 11753: 11751: 11748: 11746: 11743: 11741: 11739: 11735: 11729: 11728:Blaise Pascal 11726: 11724: 11721: 11720: 11711: 11708: 11706: 11703: 11701: 11698: 11696: 11693: 11692: 11690: 11688: 11684: 11681: 11679: 11675: 11672: 11668: 11662: 11659: 11657: 11654: 11652: 11649: 11647: 11644: 11642: 11639: 11637: 11634: 11632: 11629: 11627: 11624: 11622: 11619: 11617: 11616:Peter Abelard 11614: 11612: 11609: 11607: 11604: 11602: 11599: 11598: 11596: 11592: 11578: 11575: 11573: 11570: 11568: 11565: 11563: 11560: 11558: 11555: 11553: 11550: 11548: 11545: 11543: 11540: 11538: 11535: 11533: 11530: 11528: 11527:Asclepiodotus 11525: 11523: 11520: 11518: 11515: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11503: 11500: 11498: 11495: 11493: 11490: 11488: 11485: 11483: 11480: 11478: 11475: 11474: 11472: 11468: 11462: 11459: 11457: 11454: 11452: 11449: 11447: 11444: 11442: 11439: 11437: 11434: 11432: 11429: 11427: 11424: 11422: 11419: 11417: 11414: 11412: 11409: 11407: 11404: 11402: 11399: 11397: 11394: 11392: 11389: 11387: 11384: 11382: 11379: 11377: 11374: 11372: 11369: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11355: 11352: 11351: 11350: 11347: 11346: 11344: 11342: 11341:Neoplatonists 11338: 11332: 11329: 11327: 11324: 11322: 11319: 11317: 11314: 11312: 11309: 11307: 11304: 11302: 11299: 11297: 11294: 11292: 11289: 11287: 11284: 11282: 11279: 11277: 11274: 11272: 11269: 11267: 11264: 11262: 11261:Justin Martyr 11259: 11257: 11254: 11252: 11249: 11247: 11244: 11242: 11239: 11238: 11236: 11234: 11230: 11216: 11213: 11211: 11208: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11198: 11196: 11193: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11176: 11173: 11172: 11170: 11166: 11160: 11157: 11155: 11151: 11148: 11146: 11143: 11141: 11138: 11136: 11133: 11132: 11130: 11126: 11123: 11121: 11117: 11111: 11108: 11106: 11103: 11101: 11098: 11096: 11093: 11091: 11088: 11086: 11083: 11081: 11078: 11076: 11073: 11071: 11068: 11066: 11063: 11061: 11058: 11056: 11052: 11049: 11047: 11044: 11042: 11039: 11037: 11033: 11030: 11028: 11025: 11023: 11020: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11004: 11002: 10998: 10995: 10993: 10989: 10986: 10982: 10978: 10971: 10966: 10964: 10959: 10957: 10952: 10951: 10948: 10935: 10927: 10924: 10922: 10919: 10918: 10917: 10914: 10912: 10909: 10907: 10904: 10901: 10898: 10895: 10892: 10889: 10886: 10883: 10880: 10877: 10874: 10873: 10871: 10867: 10861: 10858: 10856: 10853: 10851: 10848: 10845: 10844: 10839: 10836: 10834: 10831: 10828: 10827: 10822: 10819: 10817: 10814: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10802: 10799: 10797: 10794: 10792: 10789: 10787: 10784: 10782: 10779: 10776: 10775: 10770: 10767: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10744: 10743: 10738: 10735: 10733: 10730: 10728: 10725: 10722: 10721: 10716: 10713: 10710: 10709: 10704: 10701: 10699: 10696: 10693: 10692: 10687: 10686: 10681: 10680: 10675: 10672: 10669: 10668: 10663: 10662: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10612: 10609: 10607: 10604: 10602: 10599: 10597: 10594: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10576: 10575: 10570: 10569: 10564: 10563: 10558: 10555: 10553: 10550: 10548: 10545: 10543: 10540: 10537: 10536: 10531: 10528: 10526: 10523: 10520: 10519: 10514: 10513:Theodora (II) 10511: 10508: 10507: 10502: 10499: 10497: 10494: 10491: 10490: 10485: 10482: 10479: 10478: 10473: 10472: 10467: 10464: 10462: 10459: 10457: 10454: 10452: 10449: 10447: 10444: 10442: 10439: 10436: 10435: 10434: 10428: 10427: 10423: 10421: 10420:Constantine V 10418: 10416: 10413: 10411: 10408: 10406: 10405:Anastasius II 10403: 10401: 10398: 10395: 10394: 10389: 10386: 10384: 10381: 10379: 10376: 10374: 10371: 10368: 10367: 10362: 10361: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10348: 10345: 10344: 10339: 10336: 10334: 10331: 10329: 10326: 10325: 10323: 10319: 10313: 10303: 10300: 10297: 10296: 10291: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10281: 10278: 10276: 10273: 10271: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10260: 10259: 10254: 10251: 10249: 10246: 10244: 10241: 10239: 10236: 10234: 10231: 10229: 10228:Theodosius II 10226: 10224: 10221: 10220: 10218: 10214: 10210: 10204: 10203: 10199: 10197: 10194: 10192: 10191: 10187: 10185: 10184: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10172: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10161: 10160: 10156: 10154: 10153: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10141: 10137: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10129: 10125: 10122: 10121: 10120: 10114: 10113: 10109: 10107: 10104: 10103: 10101: 10097: 10093: 10087: 10086: 10082: 10079: 10078: 10077: 10071: 10070: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10054: 10051: 10049: 10048: 10044: 10042: 10039: 10037: 10036:Valentinian I 10034: 10032: 10029: 10027: 10024: 10022: 10021: 10017: 10015: 10014: 10010: 10008: 10007: 10003: 10001: 9998: 9996: 9993: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9965: 9961: 9959: 9958:Constantine I 9956: 9954: 9951: 9949: 9948:Constantius I 9946: 9944: 9941: 9939: 9936: 9934: 9931: 9930: 9928: 9924: 9920: 9914: 9911: 9909: 9906: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9894: 9891: 9889: 9886: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9876: 9874: 9871: 9868: 9867: 9862: 9859: 9857: 9854: 9851: 9850: 9846: 9844: 9841: 9838: 9837: 9832: 9831: 9826: 9823: 9820: 9819: 9814: 9811: 9808: 9807: 9802: 9799: 9797: 9794: 9792: 9789: 9787: 9784: 9782: 9779: 9777: 9774: 9772: 9769: 9768: 9766: 9762: 9758: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9744: 9741: 9740: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9725: 9722: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9700: 9697: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9667: 9665: 9662: 9660: 9657: 9655: 9652: 9650: 9647: 9645: 9642: 9640: 9637: 9635: 9632: 9630: 9627: 9625: 9622: 9620: 9617: 9616: 9614: 9610: 9606: 9601: 9597: 9590: 9585: 9583: 9578: 9576: 9571: 9570: 9567: 9555: 9554: 9550: 9548: 9547: 9543: 9541: 9540: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9530: 9528: 9526:Miscellaneous 9524: 9517: 9516: 9512: 9509: 9508: 9504: 9501: 9500: 9496: 9493: 9492: 9488: 9485: 9484: 9480: 9477: 9476: 9472: 9469: 9468: 9464: 9461: 9460: 9456: 9453: 9452: 9448: 9445: 9444: 9440: 9439: 9437: 9433: 9426: 9423: 9420: 9417: 9414: 9411: 9408: 9405: 9402: 9399: 9396: 9393: 9390: 9387: 9386: 9384: 9380: 9374: 9373: 9369: 9367: 9366: 9362: 9361: 9359: 9355: 9345: 9342: 9340: 9337: 9335: 9332: 9330: 9327: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9316: 9314: 9312: 9308: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9289: 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9278: 9276: 9272: 9269: 9265: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9250: 9248: 9244: 9240: 9233: 9228: 9226: 9221: 9219: 9214: 9213: 9210: 9201: 9197: 9190: 9189: 9181: 9179: 9172: 9168: 9162: 9158: 9154: 9147: 9145: 9137: 9135: 9128: 9124: 9118: 9114: 9110: 9103: 9101: 9093: 9091: 9084: 9080: 9074: 9069: 9065: 9056: 9055: 9054:Roman emperor 9048: 9042: 9037: 9032: 9025: 9020: 9019: 9010: 8999: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8986: 8982: 8978: 8975: 8972: 8968: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8946: 8943: 8940: 8937: 8934: 8931: 8928: 8924: 8921: 8920: 8915: 8912: 8909: 8906: 8903: 8900: 8897: 8894: 8891: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8879: 8876: 8875: 8867: 8863: 8859: 8855: 8853: 8852:3-608-94296-3 8849: 8845: 8841: 8839: 8838:0-415-20459-3 8835: 8831: 8827: 8824: 8820: 8816: 8812: 8808: 8805: 8801: 8797: 8793: 8789: 8787: 8786:0-203-42205-8 8783: 8779: 8775: 8771: 8767: 8763: 8762: 8756: 8754: 8753:0-521-30200-5 8750: 8746: 8742: 8739: 8735: 8731: 8727: 8723: 8720: 8716: 8712: 8708: 8704: 8698: 8694: 8693: 8688: 8684: 8682: 8678: 8674: 8673: 8668: 8667: 8656: 8650: 8646: 8645: 8639: 8637: 8636:2-02-057798-4 8633: 8629: 8626:Veyne, Paul. 8625: 8623: 8622:0-415-03487-6 8619: 8615: 8611: 8608: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8594: 8590: 8586: 8584:0-415-10057-7 8580: 8576: 8575: 8569: 8565: 8560: 8558: 8557:0-7509-4048-4 8554: 8550: 8546: 8543: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8527: 8523: 8517: 8513: 8508: 8506: 8505:0-203-42534-0 8502: 8498: 8494: 8490: 8488:0-297-77029-2 8484: 8480: 8479: 8474: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8441: 8437: 8435:0-7156-1262-X 8431: 8427: 8426: 8421: 8417: 8415: 8411: 8407: 8403: 8399: 8395: 8393:0-415-07763-X 8389: 8385: 8384: 8378: 8377: 8366: 8365:3-515-08443-6 8362: 8358: 8354: 8351: 8350: 8345: 8342: 8339: 8335: 8331: 8327: 8324: 8321: 8320: 8315: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8302: 8301: 8297: 8294: 8290: 8286: 8283: 8279: 8275: 8272: 8271: 8249: 8243: 8227: 8220: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8192: 8188: 8181: 8166: 8162: 8155: 8140: 8136: 8129: 8114: 8113: 8108: 8101: 8092: 8084: 8078: 8074: 8073: 8065: 8058: 8053: 8045: 8041: 8034: 8026: 8024:9781258198077 8020: 8016: 8009: 8001: 7995: 7991: 7984: 7976: 7974:9781258198077 7970: 7966: 7959: 7951: 7944: 7936: 7929: 7921: 7915: 7911: 7904: 7896: 7890: 7886: 7882: 7881: 7873: 7865: 7853: 7845: 7839: 7835: 7828: 7820: 7818:9781258198077 7814: 7810: 7803: 7797: 7791: 7782: 7773: 7765: 7761: 7755: 7746: 7737: 7730: 7724: 7715: 7706: 7697: 7688: 7679: 7670: 7668: 7652: 7648: 7642: 7635: 7634:0-8386-3660-8 7631: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7610: 7604: 7600: 7597: 7593: 7587: 7580: 7574: 7558: 7554: 7547: 7545: 7537: 7532: 7531: 7524: 7509: 7508: 7503: 7496: 7489: 7483: 7475: 7469: 7465: 7464: 7456: 7454: 7452: 7436: 7434:9780790531052 7430: 7426: 7422: 7421: 7412: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7391: 7385: 7381: 7375: 7366: 7357: 7350: 7349:Bradbury 1995 7345: 7338: 7337:Bradbury 1995 7333: 7331: 7323: 7322:Bradbury 1995 7318: 7309: 7307: 7299: 7298:Bradbury 1995 7294: 7287: 7286:Bradbury 1995 7282: 7273: 7264: 7257: 7251: 7244: 7238: 7230: 7228:9780791413371 7224: 7220: 7219: 7211: 7205:, 52.436A ff. 7204: 7198: 7191: 7185: 7183: 7173: 7166: 7160: 7153: 7147: 7140: 7134: 7125: 7116: 7108: 7106:9780748618873 7102: 7098: 7091: 7084: 7078: 7070: 7069: 7063: 7058: 7052: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7017: 7010: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6994: 6989: 6983: 6974: 6967: 6963: 6959: 6953: 6946: 6940: 6933: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6915: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6897: 6892: 6885: 6883: 6878: 6877: 6876:Chronographia 6872: 6867: 6860: 6856: 6851: 6844: 6838: 6824: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6803: 6793: 6786: 6780: 6773: 6767: 6765: 6757: 6751: 6744: 6738: 6731: 6725: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6709:How Rome fell 6704: 6695: 6689:, p. 75. 6688: 6683: 6681: 6673: 6667: 6661:, 24.3.10–11. 6660: 6654: 6647: 6641: 6634: 6630: 6625: 6618: 6613: 6611: 6603: 6598: 6596: 6594: 6584: 6577: 6571: 6564: 6559: 6552: 6547: 6540: 6537:Elton, Hugh, 6534: 6527: 6526:Historia Nova 6521: 6514: 6508: 6499: 6491: 6485: 6478: 6474: 6468: 6461: 6456: 6449: 6443: 6436: 6430: 6423: 6417: 6410: 6404: 6397: 6393: 6388: 6381: 6375: 6369:, p. 96. 6368: 6363: 6361: 6354:, p. 69. 6353: 6348: 6342:, p. 95. 6341: 6336: 6329: 6328: 6321: 6315:, p. 65. 6314: 6309: 6303:, p. 61. 6302: 6297: 6290: 6285: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6270:1-902210-58-1 6267: 6263: 6257: 6248: 6242:, p. 60. 6241: 6236: 6234: 6226: 6220: 6211: 6205:, p. 59. 6204: 6199: 6193:, p. 58. 6192: 6187: 6180: 6175: 6168: 6163: 6156: 6150: 6143: 6137: 6128: 6121: 6117: 6116:Historia Nova 6113: 6108: 6099: 6097: 6089: 6084: 6078:, 16.12.64–65 6077: 6071: 6064: 6058: 6052:, p. 51. 6051: 6046: 6044: 6036: 6031: 6024: 6018: 6011: 6006: 5999: 5994: 5992: 5990: 5983:, p. 49. 5982: 5977: 5970: 5965: 5958: 5953: 5946: 5942: 5939:R. Browning, 5936: 5920: 5916: 5914: 5906: 5900:at Wikisource 5899: 5894: 5887: 5880: 5876: 5870: 5863: 5858: 5852:at Wikisource 5851: 5846: 5839: 5831: 5827: 5820: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5780: 5774:, p. 22. 5773: 5768: 5766: 5759:, p. 32. 5758: 5753: 5751: 5742: 5736: 5728: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5704: 5697: 5692: 5684: 5678: 5674: 5673: 5665: 5658: 5653: 5646:. Sagittaire. 5645: 5638: 5631: 5630:Evil Emperors 5625: 5618: 5612: 5605: 5599: 5595: 5576: 5572: 5566: 5557: 5550: 5544: 5537: 5531: 5524: 5518: 5511: 5505: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5480: 5473: 5462: 5451: 5447: 5441: 5437: 5429: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5406: 5405: 5400: 5399: 5396: 5395: 5389: 5377: 5374: 5371: 5370:Julian Barnes 5367: 5363: 5359: 5357: 5352: 5349: 5345: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5308: 5304: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5286: 5282: 5281: 5276: 5273: 5272:Louis de Wohl 5269: 5265: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5226: 5221: 5218: 5214: 5211: 5207: 5206: 5201: 5198: 5194: 5191:the pamphlet 5190: 5187:published in 5186: 5182: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5156: 5152: 5151: 5146: 5145: 5136: 5131: 5121: 5118: 5110: 5099: 5096: 5092: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5078: 5075: 5071: 5068: – 5067: 5063: 5062:Find sources: 5056: 5052: 5046: 5045: 5040:This section 5038: 5034: 5029: 5028: 5011: 5008: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4991: 4984: 4982: 4962: 4957: 4955: 4954: 4947: 4944: 4943: 4937: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4920: 4914: 4902: 4900: 4866: 4860: 4857: 4850: 4843: 4842:Hannibalianus 4830: 4828: 4825: 4824: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4806: 4800: 4792: 4789: 4777: 4775: 4771: 4769: 4765: 4763: 4759: 4758: 4751: 4727: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4699: 4698: 4695: 4684: 4682: 4681:Constantine I 4679: 4678: 4672: 4668: 4665: 4664: 4650: 4647: 4632: 4621: 4618: 4617: 4611: 4604: 4597: 4596:Hannibalianus 4593: 4591: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4522: 4520: 4518: 4516: 4515: 4507: 4500: 4493: 4486: 4479: 4461: 4458: 4442: 4440: 4439: 4400: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4374: 4372: 4371: 4368: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4338: 4331:Hannibalianus 4324: 4313: 4311: 4310:Constantine I 4308: 4307: 4296: 4293: 4289: 4287: 4275: 4273: 4265: 4263: 4259: 4257: 4253: 4252: 4237: 4205: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4175: 4173: 4172: 4169: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4152: 4146: 4138: 4136: 4114: 4112: 4106: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4094: 4079: 4076: 4075: 4071: 4069: 4064: 4063: 4059: 4058: 4040: 4037: 4031: 4024: 4013: 4000: 3948: 3946: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3820: 3815: 3808: 3802: 3795: 3794:Marina Severa 3774: 3742: 3740: 3732: 3731: 3726: 3723: 3700: 3653: 3631: 3629: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3581: 3580: 3568: 3567: 3559: 3552: 3551: 3543: 3538: 3537:Hannibalianus 3533: 3524: 3515: 3514: 3505: 3497: 3496:Hannibalianus 3488: 3484: 3481: 3473: 3471: 3463: 3461: 3453: 3451: 3443: 3441: 3433: 3431: 3429: 3421: 3419: 3417: 3409: 3407: 3406: 3389: 3373: 3371: 3347: 3345: 3335: 3327: 3325: 3315: 3307: 3305: 3302: 3285: 3283: 3276: 3273: 3256: 3254: 3236: 3224: 3213: 3205: 3195: 3186: 3179: 3175: 3172: 3164: 3162: 3154: 3152: 3136: 3134: 3126: 3124: 3123: 3088: 3048: 3046: 3043: 3036: 3034: 3018: 3016: 3011: 3006: 2997: 2978: 2976: 2950: 2914: 2911: 2879: 2878: 2871: 2839: 2784: 2778: 2773: 2766: 2759: 2723: 2720: 2719: 2710: 2705: 2703: 2698: 2696: 2691: 2690: 2688: 2687: 2684: 2680: 2670: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2656: 2652: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2621: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2600: 2596: 2595:Julius Caesar 2592: 2588: 2587: 2581: 2579: 2571: 2567: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2552: 2546: 2543: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2532: 2531: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2516: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2505: 2503: 2500: 2497: 2494: 2493: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2483: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2472: 2468: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2454: 2451: 2450: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436:December 362 2435: 2432: 2431: 2427: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2417:December 362 2416: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2397: 2394: 2393: 2389: 2386: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2374: 2370: 2367: 2365: 2364: 2359: 2356: 2353: 2352: 2348: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2325: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2311: 2310: 2306: 2303: 2301: 2300: 2295: 2292: 2289: 2288: 2284: 2281: 2279: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2269: 2265: 2262: 2260: 2257: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2246: 2243: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2214: 2211: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2192: 2190: 2189:Edward Gibbon 2186: 2182: 2176: 2174: 2170: 2164: 2162: 2158: 2149: 2140: 2139: 2137: 2130: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2109: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2076: 2075:Paris Gregory 2072: 2067: 2058: 2055: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2024: 2019: 2014: 2012: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1952: 1950: 1946: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1930: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1869: 1867: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1803: 1797: 1796: 1790: 1772: 1767: 1763: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1736: 1729: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1713: 1708: 1705:", which was 1704: 1700: 1696: 1691: 1679: 1675: 1673: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1619: 1615: 1614:gastrorrhaphy 1611: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1584: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1554: 1540: 1538: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1510: 1502: 1501:Paris Gregory 1498: 1494: 1489: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1371: 1368: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1352: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1315: 1312: 1307: 1297: 1292: 1290: 1285: 1283: 1278: 1277: 1274: 1265: 1263: 1258: 1254: 1252: 1246: 1244: 1237: 1235: 1229: 1227: 1226:price gouging 1221: 1219: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1188: 1180: 1175: 1166: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1140: 1135: 1132: 1127: 1124: 1118: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1100: 1099: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1048: 1039: 1036: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1011: 1007: 1006: 1001: 997: 995: 991: 987: 986: 980: 978: 974: 973: 967: 963: 959: 951: 947: 942: 933: 931: 927: 922: 919: 915: 914: 909: 908: 903: 893: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 874:Salian Franks 870: 868: 864: 860: 855: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 832: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 799: 798: 792: 790: 789: 784: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 753: 751: 747: 743: 739: 738: 733: 725: 720: 713: 708: 699: 697: 693: 689: 684: 680: 676: 672: 667: 663: 659: 654: 652: 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 617: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 592: 588: 584: 580: 575: 573: 569: 565: 560: 552: 538: 534: 513: 508: 504: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 464: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 436: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 393: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 366: 364: 360: 356: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 336:Roman emperor 333: 328: 318: 314: 310: 306: 295: 291: 289: 286: 285: 283: 279: 276: 273: 269: 266: 263: 259: 256: 255:Constantinian 253: 251: 247: 240: 236: 233: 230: 226: 223: 219: 214: 209: 205: 201: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 175: 171: 167: 162: 158: 155: 151: 146: 142: 138: 134: 132: 131: 126: 123: 120: 116: 113: 110: 106: 102: 100: 99: 94: 91: 90:Roman emperor 87: 62: 58: 57: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 11851:David Kaplan 11801:Contemporary 11782:Josiah Royce 11567:Olympiodorus 11482:Asclepigenia 11410: 11401:Chrysanthius 10843:Andronikos V 10841: 10824: 10772: 10740: 10718: 10706: 10689: 10683: 10677: 10665: 10659: 10572: 10566: 10560: 10533: 10516: 10504: 10487: 10475: 10469: 10456:Nikephoros I 10431: 10430: 10424: 10391: 10388:Justinian II 10383:Tiberius III 10373:Justinian II 10364: 10358: 10341: 10293: 10265:Anastasius I 10256: 10200: 10196:Julius Nepos 10188: 10181: 10169: 10157: 10150: 10138: 10126: 10117: 10116: 10110: 10083: 10074: 10073: 10067: 10058:Theodosius I 10045: 10025: 10018: 10011: 10004: 9975:Maximinus II 9962: 9864: 9847: 9834: 9828: 9816: 9804: 9737: 9699:Lucius Verus 9551: 9544: 9537: 9518:(1983 novel) 9513: 9510:(1981 novel) 9505: 9502:(1964 novel) 9497: 9494:(1957 novel) 9489: 9481: 9478:(1895 novel) 9473: 9465: 9457: 9449: 9441: 9370: 9363: 9344:Peace treaty 9324:Maiozamalcha 9286:Durocortorum 9246:Major events 9238: 9185: 9178:Roman consul 9176: 9141: 9134:Roman consul 9132: 9097: 9090:Roman consul 9088: 9052: 9030: 9023: 9016: 8980: 8966: 8962: 8918: 8843: 8829: 8810: 8791: 8777: 8765: 8760: 8744: 8725: 8710: 8691: 8671: 8643: 8627: 8613: 8604: 8592: 8573: 8563: 8548: 8541: 8538: 8530: 8511: 8496: 8477: 8448: 8444: 8424: 8401: 8382: 8356: 8348: 8329: 8317: 8313: 8299: 8288: 8281: 8277: 8252:. Retrieved 8242: 8230:. Retrieved 8219: 8194: 8190: 8180: 8168:. Retrieved 8165:The Guardian 8164: 8154: 8142:. Retrieved 8138: 8128: 8116:. Retrieved 8110: 8100: 8091: 8071: 8064: 8052: 8043: 8033: 8014: 8008: 7989: 7983: 7964: 7958: 7943: 7928: 7909: 7903: 7879: 7872: 7833: 7827: 7808: 7802: 7790: 7781: 7772: 7763: 7754: 7745: 7736: 7728: 7723: 7714: 7705: 7696: 7687: 7678: 7654:. Retrieved 7650: 7641: 7617: 7609: 7586: 7578: 7573: 7561:. Retrieved 7556: 7553:"Orations 5" 7534: 7529: 7523: 7511:. Retrieved 7505: 7495: 7487: 7482: 7462: 7438:. Retrieved 7419: 7411: 7404:Bronwen Neil 7399: 7390: 7374: 7365: 7356: 7344: 7317: 7293: 7281: 7272: 7263: 7250: 7242: 7237: 7217: 7210: 7202: 7197: 7189: 7172: 7164: 7159: 7151: 7146: 7133: 7124: 7115: 7096: 7090: 7082: 7077: 7066: 7051: 7026: 7022: 7009: 7001: 6991: 6987: 6982: 6973: 6965: 6957: 6952: 6947:(1994) p. 31 6944: 6939: 6929: 6921: 6911: 6903: 6891: 6880: 6874: 6871:John Malalas 6866: 6858: 6850: 6842: 6837: 6826:, retrieved 6812: 6802: 6792: 6784: 6779: 6771: 6755: 6750: 6742: 6737: 6729: 6724: 6708: 6703: 6694: 6671: 6666: 6658: 6653: 6645: 6640: 6632: 6624: 6583: 6575: 6570: 6562: 6558: 6546: 6538: 6533: 6525: 6520: 6512: 6507: 6498: 6484: 6476: 6472: 6467: 6455: 6447: 6442: 6434: 6429: 6421: 6416: 6408: 6403: 6395: 6387: 6379: 6374: 6347: 6335: 6325: 6320: 6308: 6296: 6284: 6278:google books 6261: 6256: 6247: 6224: 6223:J. Norwich, 6219: 6210: 6198: 6186: 6174: 6162: 6154: 6149: 6141: 6136: 6127: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6083: 6075: 6070: 6062: 6057: 6030: 6022: 6017: 6005: 5976: 5964: 5952: 5944: 5940: 5935: 5923:. Retrieved 5918: 5912: 5905: 5886: 5878: 5869: 5857: 5838: 5829: 5819: 5794: 5790: 5779: 5712: 5703: 5691: 5671: 5664: 5652: 5643: 5637: 5624: 5611: 5603: 5602:David Sear, 5598: 5574: 5570: 5565: 5556: 5543: 5535: 5530: 5522: 5517: 5504: 5499:, p. 35 5485:one acquired 5479: 5471: 5445: 5440: 5415: 5412:Street named 5402: 5392: 5365: 5354: 5329:John M. 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