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the entire Party. Brezhnev acknowledged that antisemitism existed within the
Eastern Bloc and saw that many different ethnic groups existed whose "requirements" were not being met. For decades, people of different ethnic, or religious backgrounds were assimilated into Soviet society and denied the ability or resources to get the education or practice their religion as they had previously done. Brezhnev made it official Soviet Policy to provide these ethnic groups with these "requirements" and cited a fear of the "emergence of inter-ethnic tensions" as the reason. The announcement of the policy was followed with a generic, but significant Party message;
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203:). While this may seem as an isolated incident, the aftermath of the Six-Day War affected almost every Jew within the Soviet Union. Jews who had been subject to assimilation under previous regimes were now confronted with a new sense in vigour and revival in their Jewish faith and heritage. On February 23, 1979, a six-page article was distributed throughout the cities of Moscow and Leningrad, which criticized Brezhnev and seven other individuals for being "Zionist". The article contained traces of deep-rooted antisemitism in which the anonymous author, a member of the
404:, a skilled senior diplomat who had served in Washington for decades. Kissinger enjoyed a special status in these negotiations since he alone controlled the communications between Jackson and the Soviet Union. In effect, Kissinger was the only one of the three parties involved who knew what all sides were saying in secret, informal sessions, while he also conducted a long-standing "back channel" dialogue with Soviet authorities via Dobrynin. Kissinger's influence only grew as Nixon was increasingly consumed by the Watergate political scandal.
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Christians, Ukrainian
Catholics or Ukrainian Orthodox; as well as nationals of Vietnam, Laos, or Cambodia; and Jews, Christians, Baha’is and other religious minorities from Iran. The Lautenberg measure allowed refugee status to people from historically persecuted groups without requiring them to show that they had been singled out. Under the Lautenberg Amendment, 350,000 to 400,000 Jews from the former Soviet Union who had not presented any form of evidence of persecution gained entry to the United States by October 2002 according to the
443:, played a major role in gaining sponsorship for the amendment. Harry Stone served as campaign chairman to the late U.S. Representative Charles Vanik, a connection that gained significance when Vanik asked Stone and his brother Irving, then American Greetings president, to encourage congressman Wilbur Mills to schedule a floor vote on the Jackson-Vanik Amendment requiring the Soviet Union to allow Jewish emigration to the U.S. in order to qualify for "most favored nation status" for its exports. Senator
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419:'s appointment, Jackson had to decide whether or not to concur with an agreement that was not perfect or hold out longer and possibly sink the entire trade bill. Given the choice of having the bill with the Jackson amendment or doing away with both the bill and the Jackson amendment together, Kissinger was apparently willing to let the two die. So to compromise, Jackson had agreed to grant, at least temporarily, trade concessions, including extensions of credit, to the Soviet Union.
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taking place within their borders, and the statement responded to the inquiries of countries such as
Australia and Belgium. While the Party seemed to be taking a hard stance against antisemitism, the fact remained that antisemitic propaganda had long been present in the Soviet Union, making it extremely difficult to solve the problems right away. Furthermore, Jewish organizations in Washington D.C. were calling attention to the problems of Soviet Jewry to American leaders.
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722:. He thought it swept the Soviet's human rights record under the rug in the name of improved superpower relations. ... One message he would consistently convey to these foreigners (the press) was that human rights must never be considered a humanitarian issue alone. For him, it was also a matter of international security. As he succinctly put it: "A country that does not respect the rights of its own people will not respect the rights of its neighbors."
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157:, or special invitation from a relative living abroad, for their application to be even considered by the Soviet authorities. In addition, in order to emigrate, one needed written permission from all immediate family members. The rules were often stretched in order to prevent Jews from leaving, and ability for appeal was rarely permitted. Substantial fees were also required to be paid, both to emigrate and as "reimbursement".
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country shall not participate in any program of the
Government of the United States which extends credits or credit guarantees or investment guarantees, directly or indirectly, and the President of the United States shall not conclude any commercial agreement with any such country, during the period beginning with the date on which the President determines that such country -
455:"The role that Harry Stone played in making the Jackson-Vanik bill a reality will go down as one of the most meaningful contributions that a Clevelander has ever made," says Vic Gelb, an honorary for life director of the Cleveland Jewish News. "It made a world of difference in the history of events and enabled the exodus of Jews from the former Soviet Union."
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Congress on
October 4, 1972. Jackson's efforts, rooted in his own domestic political agenda and ideological distrust of and antipathy toward the Soviet Union, complicated the Nixon White House's pursuit of detente, which it had worked on since 1969. However, three-quarters of the Senate co-sponsored the amendment, neutralizing opposition from President Nixon.
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Agreement. On
January 13, Kissinger met with Soviet officials and subsequently issued a statement "that the 1972 Trade Agreement cannot be brought into force at this time and the President will therefore not take the steps required for this purpose by the Trade Agreement. The President does not plan at this time to exercise the waiver authority."
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national characteristics. But to the same extent, we consider impermissible their artificial exaggeration. It is the sacred duty of the party to educate the working people in the spirit of Soviet patriotism and socialist internationalism, of a proud feeling of belonging to a single great Soviet motherland.
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Jackson attached his amendment to legislation the Nixon administration badly wanted. In the House of
Representatives, Vanik lined up House leaders as primary sponsors of the amendment. During this period, Jackson also expanded his base of support, adding other ethnic, economic, and ideological groups
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Antisemitism, however, remained widespread both within and outside the
Communist Party; antisemitic media continued to be published with the assent of the government, while antisemitic propaganda (believed variously to be the work of far-right groups or the Soviet government) spread throughout cities
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On
November 16, 2012 the U.S. House of Representatives passed a bill that would repeal the Jackson–Vanik amendment for Russia and Moldova. After approval by the Senate, the law repealing the effects of the Jackson–Vanik amendment on Russia and Moldova was signed by President Barack Obama on December
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At first, Jackson organized the political movement to link trade and emigration in US relations with the Soviet Union in concert with Jewish activists, but he soon took matters into his own hands. Jackson drafted what would become the
Jackson–Vanik amendment in mid-1972 and introduced it to the 92nd
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While to most, the issue of antisemitism seemed to be dropped very casually and almost accidentally, it was very much calculated and planned, as was everything else the Party did. At this time the Soviet Union was feeling pressure from around the world to solve many human rights violations that were
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On February 22, 1981, in a speech, which lasted over 5 hours, Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev denounced antisemitism in the Soviet Union. While Lenin and Stalin had much of the same in various statements and speeches, this was the first time that a high-ranking Soviet official had done so in front of
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I am a Jew. I want to live in the Jewish state. That is my right, just as it is the rights of a Ukrainian to live in the Ukraine, the right of a Russian to live in Russia, the right of a Georgian to live in Georgia. I want to live in Israel. That is my dream, that is the goal not only of my life but
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President Ford signed the 1972 Trade Agreement on January 3, 1975, with the Jackson amendment. On January 10, the Soviet government sent a letter that apparently indicated the Soviets' refusal to comply with the need to provide assurances on emigration or to make technical changes in the 1972 Trade
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Subcommittee on Trade, introduced in the House of Representatives the legislation drafted with Jackson. The amendment would deny normal trade relations to certain countries with non-market economies that restricted freedom of emigration. The amendment was intended to allow primarily Jewish refugees
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said in an interview that the idea belonged to Jackson, who believed that the right to emigrate was the most powerful among the human rights in certain respects: "if people could vote with their feet, governments would have to acknowledge that and governments would have to make for their citizens a
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To assure the continued dedication of the United States to fundamental human rights, and notwithstanding any other provision of law, on or after January 3, 1975, products from any nonmarket economy country shall not be eligible to receive nondiscriminatory treatment (normal trade relations), such
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The difficulty faced by Senator Jackson in the three-way negotiation process that took place from August 1974 through January 1975, demonstrated some of the institutional constraints on congressional involvement in foreign policy making. The Jackson–Vanik amendment is a case study of how domestic
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head tax made emigration very difficult. This Soviet edict levied an additional exit tax on educated emigrants, which appeared to have the effect of singling out Jews, who anonymously had the highest state paid education costs and wealth, most heavily. The education tax, imposed after the 1972
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Eventually, Jackson accepted less than perfect terms. Jackson was anxious to achieve a legislative victory after years of battle and apparently decided it best not to ask too many more questions nor press too hard for less ambiguous pledges lest he be left with nothing to show for his efforts.
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met to discuss the finalization of the "Jackson–Vanik amendment" which had been in limbo in the United States Congress for nearly a year. After the meeting, Jackson told reporters that a "historic understanding in the area of human rights" had been met and while he did not "comment on what the
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characterized the amendment as "idealistic meddling" in the amendment's attempts to use free Jews using trade and credit as levers against the Soviet Union. American Greetings was the largest employer in Mills's Arkansas district. Fulbright, apparently saw the same light as Mills, as American
238:
The CPSU has fought and will always fight resolutely against such phenomena which are alien to the nature of socialism as chauvinism or nationalism, against any nationalistic aberrations such as, let us say, anti-Semitism or Zionism. We are against tendencies aimed at artificial erosion of
149:, were also fervent antisemites. Jewish emigration to Israel and the United States, which had been allowed in limited amounts under the rule of Khrushchev, once more became heavily restricted, primarily due to concerns that Jews were a security liability or treasonous. Would-be emigrants, or
806:
first received conditional normal trade relations in 1992. In 1997 it was found fully compliant with the Jackson-Vanik provisions, but its status remained subject to annual review. On May 18, 2000, Public Law 106-200 authorized the President to extend unconditional normal trade relations to
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suggested the Lautenberg Amendment, Public Law 101–167, enacted on November 21, 1989, took effect in 1990 which provided refugee status in the United States for nationals from the Soviet Union and later the former Soviet Union, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia or Lithuania who are Jews, Evangelical
411:
Jackson pursued negotiations with the administration and the Soviet Union on the terms of the amendment. The outline of an agreement was perceivable, but by summer the talks seemed to bog down as Watergate sapped the Executive Branch's political energy. Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974.
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of detente to expanded trade, it made a number of attempts to thwart Jackson. The administration tried to keep the amendment out of the committee version of the bill during the House Ways and Means Committee's markup sessions. When it became clear that this was impossible, delay was the
663:. Lazin (2005) states that scholars differ on how effective the amendment was in helping Soviet Jews. Some argue that it helped bring the plight of Soviet Jews to the world's attention, while others believe it hindered emigration and decreased America's diplomatic bargaining power.
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also of the lives of hundreds of generation that preceded me, of my ancestors who were expelled from their land. I want my children to study in the Hebrew language. I want to read Jewish papers, I want to attend a Jewish theatre. What is wrong with that? What is my crime ...?
853:
On November 16, 2012 the U.S. House of Representatives passed a bill that would repeal the Jackson–Vanik amendment for Russia and Moldova. After approval by the Senate, the law repealing the effects of the Jackson–Vanik amendment on Russia and Moldova was signed together with
395:
began, and the Jackson amendment was introduced in the Senate. Having lost the legislative battle in the House of Representatives, the administration and Soviet authorities turned to negotiations with Jackson. Trilateral talks began in spring 1974 involving Congress, the
388:. Israel prevailed in the Yom Kippur War, and on December 11 the House of Representatives voted by an overwhelming 319-80 vote to include the entire Jackson–Vanik amendment in the trade bill, which passed 272–140. With that, Congress recessed until January 1974.
791:'s Jewish community reportedly requested the US to cancel Jackson Vanik amendment for Kazakhstan. In an article titled "A Relic of the Cold War", journalist Robert Guttman refers to the Amendment as an "outdated and rather meaningless piece of legislation". The
480:. Permanent normal trade relations can have been extended to such country only if the president determined that it complies with the freedom of emigration requirements. However, the president had authority to grant an annual waiver, which was granted to the
407:
In March 1974, Kissinger returned from Moscow with news that the Soviets were willing to cooperate with the members of Congress. Jackson, however, would complicate matters by making public the demands that had been accommodated in quiet diplomatic dialogue.
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in October 1973 further complicated Congressional views of the Soviet Union. Soviet involvement in the conflict may have stoked distrust of the USSR by some members of Congress, but there were other members who feared that pressure on the
364:, human rights organizations and liberal intellectuals were the most significant additions to organized labor and Jewish activists. While building support, Jackson resisted compromise with the administration and the Soviet Union.
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politics shapes American Foreign policy making. It exemplifies the fact that one cannot understand U.S. foreign policy if one does not understand the domestic politics in Congress and the White House that shape policy decisions.
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into law, with the adopted amendment, on January 3, 1975. Over time, a number of countries were granted conditional normal trade relations subject to annual review, and a number of countries were liberated from the amendment.
324:'s reluctance to broach the subject disappointed US Jewish activists. The Soviets announced the abolishing of the tax just before the introduction of the amendment in Congress, arguably in an attempt to halt its enactment.
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life that would keep them there." While there was some opposition, the American Jewish establishment on the whole and Soviet Jewry activists (particularly the Washington Committee for Soviet Jewry and the
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saw Jackson's amendment as an attempt to undermine plans to smoothly carve up the geopolitical pie between the superpowers. It was. Jackson believed that the Soviets had to be confronted, not
850:, to repeal the Jackson-Vanik provisions in the United States. Putin wished for Greenberg to support through Greenberg's AIG greater development of the nascent Russian home-mortgage market.
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argues that the application of Jackson-Vanik on Kazakhstan puts U.S. companies at a competitive disadvantage. The Chamber urges the U.S. Congress to graduate Kazakhstan from Jackson-Vanik.
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first received conditional normal trade relations in 1992. In 1997 it was found to be fully compliant with the Jackson-Vanik provisions, but its status remained subject to annual review.
70:(formally titled the Russia and Moldova Jackson–Vanik Repeal and Sergei Magnitsky Rule of Law Accountability Act of 2012) that repealed the application of the Jackson–Vanik amendment to
886:, a waiver was granted to China as a routine matter. After the crackdown, the waiver became a more contentious issue. As part of the 2001 WTO entry agreement for China, China received
204:
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Actions of nonmarket economy countries making them ineligible for normal trade relations, programs of credits, credit guarantees, or investment guarantees, or commercial agreements
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Russians have done there been a complete turnaround here on the basic points". The amendment set out to reward the Soviet Union for letting some Soviet Jews leave the country.
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in 1967, the antisemitic conditions started causing desire to emigrate to Israel for many Soviet Jews. A Jewish Ukrainian radio engineer, Boris Kochubievsky, sought to move to
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and other non-market economies of the Soviet bloc. The timing and provisions of the amendment reflected the presidential ambitions and distrust of the Soviet Union of Senator
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Exit USSR visa of the type 2. For those who received permission to leave the USSR permanently and lost Soviet citizenship. Not all were able to receive this kind of exit visa
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543:(3) imposes more than a nominal tax, levy, fine, fee, or other charge on any citizen as a consequence of the desire of such citizen to emigrate to the country of his choice,
167:, in which 12 refuseniks unsuccessfully attempted to hijack a plane and flee west, crackdowns on Jews and the refusenik movement followed. Informal centres for studying the
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On March 8, 2006, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a bill permanently exempting Ukraine from trade restrictions imposed under the 1974 Jackson–Vanik amendment.
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1967:[The fate of participants in the Pentecostal emigration movement in the Far East in the 1970s-1980s.]. In S.M. Dudarionok; M.A. Tuliglovich (eds.).
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against Jews was widespread in the Soviet Union under Brezhnev, with many sectors of the government being off-limits. Following the failure of the
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Jackson–Vanik also led to great changes within the Soviet Union. Other ethnic groups subsequently demanded the right to emigrate, and the ruling
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Vladivostok – the point of return: past and present of Russian emigration. Proceedings of the Second International Scientific Conference
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1981:(Digest of articles) (in Russian). Khabarovsk: Дальневосточный юридический институт Министерства внутренних дел Российской Федерации.
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for downplaying concerns for human rights. Nixon's handling of the issue of Soviet Jewish emigration and US National Security Advisor
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1102:"A struggle to preserve ethnic identity: the suppression of Jewish culture by the Soviet Union's emigration policy between 1945-1985"
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1690:"Thank You Senator Lautenberg: The Lautenberg Amendment opened the door for more religious minorities to find a new life in America"
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and ending on the date on which the President determines that such country is no longer in violation of paragraph (1), (2), or (3).
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The core provision of the amendment was codified as 19 U.S.C. 2432(a), Sec. 402 "Freedom of Emigration in East-West Trade" of the
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Within the week he was called in to the KGB bureau and without questioning, was taken to a mental institution in his hometown of
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1041:""You Give us Little Hawks, Give us Little Hawks!": Why Identifying Jews Became the Most Important Problem in the Post-War USSR"
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303:, expectations of freer emigration to buttress Jewish settlers to Israel were raised, but they were soon shattered as the 1972
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Once the Nixon administration began to appreciate the threat Jackson presented its policy of detente, and in particular the
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was exempt from the amendment, but from 1982 to 1987 its unconditional MFN status was suspended due to its actions against
1970:Владивосток – точка возвращения: прошлое и настоящее русской эмиграции. Материалы Второй международной научной конференции
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pursued an economic agenda for Russia to begin normalized trade relations with the West which included Russia joining the
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and the repeal of the Jackson–Vanik amendment. Putin tried to use his relationships with both the Italian Prime Minister
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842:, who was the head of the European Union's Council in 2003, to gain Russia's membership in the European Union, and also
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Jochnick, Christopher B.; Zinner, Josh (1991). "Linking Trade Policy to Free Emigration: The Jackson–Vanik Amendment".
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2002:[History and eschatological motives of the religious emigration of late Protestants from the USSR 1987–2017.]
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McMahon, Michael S. (1980). "The Jackson–Vanik Amendment to the Trade Act of 1974: An Assessment after Five Years".
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and the Soviet Union. The prominent individuals involved were Jackson, Kissinger, and Soviet Ambassador to the U.S.
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A major stride was made in the United States in regards to helping the Soviet Jews on 18 October 1974, when Senator
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to advance the goals of the Jackson–Vanik amendment complicated the emergency supply of US military weapons to
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2101:"Jewish Influence in American Foreign Policy: American Jewry, Israel and the Issue of Soviet Jewry, 1968–1989"
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1455:"Collection: Washington Committee for Soviet Jewry Records | the Center for Jewish History ArchivesSpace"
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780:. They were liberated from the amendment upon the US recognition of their independence on September 6, 1991.
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in December 2001 the PRC was covered by the provisions of Jackson-Vanik. Before China's crackdown on the
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status to certain countries with non-market economies that restricted emigration, which is considered a
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The Struggle for Soviet Jewry in American Politics: Israel versus the American Jewish Establishment
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655:. The number of exit visas declined after the passing of the amendment. However, in the late 1980s
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or on the visas or other documents required for emigration, for any purpose or cause whatsoever; or
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Greetings opened one of its largest printing plants in Fulbright's and Mills's state of Arkansas.
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Willem A. Veenhoven and Winifred Crum Ewing (Editors). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 1975. Hague.
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1999:Історія та есхатологічні мотиви релігійної еміграції пізніх протестантів із СРСР 1987–2017 рр.
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1965:Судьбы участников эмиграционного движения пятидесятников на дальнем востоке в 1970-1980-х гг.
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Provision in American law affecting American trade with countries that restrict emigration
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1371:"Mikhail Savitsky Summer Theatre From the cycle Death Camp Number Tattooed on My Heart"
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Subchapter IV—Trade Relations With Countries Not Receiving Nondiscriminatory Treatment
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had to face the fact that there was widespread dissatisfaction with its governance.
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2029:[Boris Perchatkin - how he helped believers from the USSR get to the USA].
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In April 2011, American University in Moscow professor Eduard Lozansky and former
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In August 1974, when the national deadlock was broken by Nixon's resignation and
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Cinema and power: Soviet Cinema, 1965-1985: Documents, evidence, and reflections
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Water's edge : domestic politics and the making of American foreign policy
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Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: A World Survey. Vol. 1.
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2015:
1515:"Mark Talisman, Champion Of Key Law In Fight For Soviet Jewry, Is Dead At 78"
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1741:"Jewish Community Asks USA to Cancel Jackson-vanik Amendment for Kazakhstan"
1415:"Declassified KGB Study Illuminates Early Years of Soviet Jewish Emigration"
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1000:"Obama Signs Russia, Moldova Trade Bill And Magnitsky Sanctions Into Law"
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as supporters. Labor, ethnic groups originally from Eastern European and
356:, is regarded as having played an instrumental role in securing passage.
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Since 1975 more than 500,000 refugees, large numbers of whom were Jews,
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Harry Stone, vice president and his brother, Irving Stone, president of
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1919:, Mamonov Roman. Voice of Russia. April 20, 2011. Accessed June 7, 2011
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316:, emboldened those who criticized the Nixon administration's policy of
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Antisemitism in the Soviet Union once again peaked during the rule of
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Korey, William (1988). "The Jackson–Vanik Amendment in Perspective".
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was also exempt; however, in 1991–1992, due to violent events in the
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guard and Jewish prisoner grinning between a pile of Russian corpses.
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2701:
2026:Борис Перчаткин — о том, как помогал верующим из СССР попасть в США
1477:. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. Rowman and Littlefield. p. 51.
597:
589:
585:
340:) supported the amendment over Nixon's and Kissinger's objections.
2052:
Brumley, Robert H. (1990). "Jackson–Vanik: Hard Facts, Bad Law?".
117:
2961:
1694:
815:
765:
605:
593:
573:
569:
485:
317:
75:
27:
intended to affect U.S. trade relations with countries with non-
3607:
3409:
3330:
2173:
769:
760:
628:
612:
385:
372:
administration's next option, along with the threat of a veto.
183:
71:
1716:"New Agents to Handle Refugees Could Help Jews from FSU, Iran"
1490:"Mark Talisman, advocate for Jewish causes, dies at 77 (obit)"
2666:
Defending Elections from Threats by Establishing Redlines Act
1375:
533:(1) denies its citizens the right or opportunity to emigrate;
172:
1917:"Two US citizens sue President over Jackson-Vanik amendment"
963:
961:
3612:
1822:
1417:, Sana Krasikov, December 12, 2007 (retrieved May 31, 2015)
601:
489:
196:
98:
1126:. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 69–82.
276:, which had restricted the president's ability to provide
1621:
958:
674:
from the former Soviet Union, have been resettled in the
3532:
1996:
Gura, V.O. (2018). Andruschenko Viktor Petrovich (ed.).
1347:"Many in Soviet Concerned Over a Surge of Anti-Semitism"
1068:
Anti-Jewish discrimination since the end of World War II
651:
At first the Jackson–Vanik amendment did little to help
78:, instead punishing individuals violating human rights.
2671:
Defending American Security from Kremlin Aggression Act
1146:
2783:
United States military and prostitution in South Korea
2661:
Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act
1890:
Living U.S.-China Relations: From Cold War to Cold War
1836:
1834:
1832:
1786:"US Chamber of Commerce Primer on PNTR for Kazakhstan"
2461:
Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.
1633:
1124:
Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
272:
debated and added the Jackson-Vanik Amendment to the
2550:
Donald Trump's disclosures of classified information
2516:
Links between Trump associates and Russian officials
776:
were subject to the amendment because they had been
556:
The countries subject to the amendment included the
1829:
1609:
890:and the Jackson-Vanik amendment no longer applied.
752:handled issues involving the Lautenberg Amendment.
661:
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
81:The amendment is named after its major co-sponsors
902:official Antony Salvia filed a federal lawsuit in
501:
348:and other religious minorities to escape from the
2838:United States and the Russian invasion of Ukraine
2267:Permanent Mission of Russia to the United Nations
1800:
1798:
1243:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 305.
1206:Korey, William (1984). Robert O. Freedman (ed.).
1195:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 103.
1177:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 103.
201:Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
125:Antisemitism in the Soviet Union § Under Brezhnev
74:and gave normal US trade relations to Russia and
3794:
2507:Russian interference in United States elections
1650:
1648:
1606:. Government Printing Office, 2001. pp. 250–259.
1442:"Richard Perle: The Making of a Neoconservative"
1344:
858:by President Barack Obama on December 14, 2012.
186:. In a letter to Brezhnev, Kochubievsky stated:
139:. "Anti-Zionist" propaganda, including the film
21:Jackson–Vanik amendment to the Trade Act of 1974
1806:"Statement by the Press Secretary on H.R. 6156"
1603:Overview and Compilation of U.S. Trade Statutes
391:On January 21, 1974, the second session of the
118:Antisemitism in the Soviet Union under Brezhnev
3715:Organization for Jewish Colonization in Russia
2064:
1795:
1472:
726:
3518:
2895:
2587:Viktor Bout–Brittney Griner prisoner exchange
2383:Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism
2156:
1708:
1645:
991:
869:
3431:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee
1931:, UPI. April 21, 2011. Accessed June 7, 2011
1869:THE ACTION UKRAINE REPORT - AUR - Number 671
1210:. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 31.
761:Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania
678:. An estimated one million Soviet Jews have
3823:United States foreign relations legislation
3400:Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public
2054:Boston University International Law Journal
1962:
1627:
1109:Boston University International Law Journal
975:. Reuters. 17 December 2012. Archived from
778:forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union
659:agreed to comply with the protocols of the
291:After the Soviet Union allowed a number of
247:in the Soviet Union during the late 1970s.
3725:National Coalition Supporting Soviet Jewry
3525:
3511:
3441:National Coalition Supporting Soviet Jewry
2902:
2888:
2793:Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C.
2247:Consulate-General of Russia, San Francisco
2235:Consulate-General of Russia, New York City
2220:Ambassadors of the United States to Russia
2205:Ambassadors of Russia to the United States
2163:
2149:
1481:
3395:Communist Party of the Russian Federation
2022:
1639:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1559:
1557:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1425:
1423:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1319:"Soviet Jews See Growth in Anti-Semitism"
1238:
1190:
1172:
1028:(in Russian). Mainland. pp. 120–121.
925:Aliyah from the Soviet Union in the 1970s
343:In 1973 Rep. Charles Vanik, chair of the
2676:Russian–Venezuelan Threat Mitigation Act
2597:Russian spies in the Russo-Ukrainian War
2398:U.S.–Russia Joint Commission on POW/MIAs
1846:"Walker's World: Putin, votes and money"
1684:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1175:When They Come For Us, We'll All Be Gone
945:Jewish emigration from Communist Romania
642:
295:to emigrate in the years after the 1967
135:, following Israeli victory in the 1967
3818:United States federal trade legislation
2344:Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons
2279:Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs
2115:
2051:
1929:"Jackson-Vanik law challenged in court"
1884:
1780:
1778:
1660:"Congress extends Lautenberg amendment"
1654:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1507:
1241:When They Come For Us We'll All Be Gone
1193:When They Come For Us We'll All Be Gone
1038:
893:
735:’s speeches in the US Congress in 1989
430:
3828:Foreign relations of the United States
3795:
2743:Russian Empire–United States relations
1880:
1878:
1876:
1840:
1678:
1569:
1554:
1537:
1487:
1420:
1391:
1121:
997:
846:, who was the chairman and CEO of the
3506:
2883:
2722:Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty
2656:Russian undesirable organizations law
2572:Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal
2456:Strait of Juan de Fuca laser incident
2144:
2118:Columbia Journal of Transnational Law
2098:
2077:
2010:(in Ukrainian) (135). Kyiv: 171–175.
1943:
1580:
1563:
1548:
1461:
1429:
1402:
1316:
1205:
1023:
998:Solash, Richard (December 14, 2012).
755:
3833:Soviet Union–United States relations
3813:Jews and Judaism in the Soviet Union
3534:Jews and Judaism in the Soviet Union
2748:Soviet Union–United States relations
2230:Consulate-General of Russia, Houston
2215:Embassy of the United States, Moscow
1995:
1948:. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
1775:
1615:
1586:
1408:
1099:
308:Moscow summit of superpower leaders
43:. The amendment is contained in the
3390:Communist Party of the Soviet Union
3045:Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair
2651:Ukraine Freedom Support Act of 2014
2200:Embassy of Russia, Washington, D.C.
1963:Ostrovskaya, O.P. (23 June 2017).
1873:
718:was another vociferous opponent of
338:National Conference on Soviet Jewry
165:Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair
13:
3096:Commonwealth of Independent States
2788:Russian Mission School in New York
2413:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action
2045:
2023:Semyonova, Victoria (2020-01-03).
1345:Craig R. Whitney (June 26, 1979),
848:American International Group (AIG)
506:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
449:Senate Foreign Relations Committee
35:) that restrict freedom of Jewish
14:
3864:
3730:Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry
3550:The Holocaust in the Soviet Union
3436:Union of Councils for Soviet Jews
2758:Anti-American sentiment in Russia
2602:2022–2023 Pentagon document leaks
2466:Kidnapping of Mormon missionaries
2446:Kola Peninsula submarine incident
2129:
1289:Brezhnev and Soviet Anti-Semitism
1286:
1265:Brezhnev and Soviet Anti-Semitism
1262:
1223:Brezhnev and Soviet Anti-Semitism
1220:
1208:Brezhnev and Soviet Anti-Semitism
3352:
3329:
2972:Emigration from the Eastern Bloc
2952:Antisemitism in the Soviet Union
2866:
2865:
2833:Territorial claims in the Arctic
2828:Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition
2476:Russian Guantanamo Bay detainees
2441:Kildin Island submarine incident
2182:
2172:
1306:. February 23, 1981. p. 38.
920:Antisemitism in the Soviet Union
888:permanent normal trade relations
744:. Beginning in 2002, a special "
536:(2) imposes more than a nominal
175:and Jewish culture were closed.
123:This section is an excerpt from
62:On December 14, 2012, President
47:which passed both houses of the
3843:1974 in international relations
3075:Dissolution of the Soviet Union
2823:Space Flight Europe-America 500
2778:Anglo-American School of Moscow
2393:The U.S. Russia Investment Fund
1922:
1910:
1862:
1763:
1733:
1447:
1435:
1363:
1338:
1310:
1295:
1214:
1199:
1039:Mlechin, Leonid (7 July 2019).
1004:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
750:Department of Homeland Security
638:
205:Russian Liberation Organization
51:unanimously, and was signed by
3848:Russia–United States relations
3781:The Black Book of Soviet Jewry
3663:Joseph Stalin and antisemitism
3065:Freedom Sunday for Soviet Jews
2496:European Deterrence Initiative
2210:Russian ambassador's residence
2179:Russia–United States relations
1166:
1140:
1115:
1093:
1060:
1032:
1017:
31:(originally, countries of the
1:
3838:Israel–Soviet Union relations
3618:Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee
2924:
2803:International Launch Services
2773:Congress of Russian Americans
2717:Megatons to Megawatts Program
1488:Barnes, Bart (16 July 2019).
1317:Klose, Kevin (15 July 1979).
1147:The Refusenik Project staff.
952:
798:
783:
458:
439:based in Vanick's home town,
112:
3699:Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking
3595:Jewish Communist Youth Union
2813:U.S.–Russia Business Council
2388:Gore-Chernomyrdin Commission
2067:Harvard Human Rights Journal
969:"Obama Signs Magnitsky Bill"
910:arguing the law is illegal.
199:(for more information, see:
7:
3641:Night of the Murdered Poets
2423:International Space Station
2339:U.S.–Russia peace proposals
1791:. U.S. Chamber of Commerce.
913:
727:Lautenberg Amendment (1990)
393:93rd United States Congress
268:From 1972 to January 1975,
263:
10:
3869:
3656:Anti-cosmopolitan campaign
3240:Menachem Mendel Schneerson
2982:Anti-cosmopolitan campaign
2768:Center on Global Interests
2501:Operation Atlantic Resolve
1937:
884:Tiananmen protests of 1989
870:People's Republic of China
861:
810:
611:Of Soviet Bloc countries,
566:People's Republic of China
551:
482:People's Republic of China
467:
178:Immediately following the
122:
3758:
3707:
3689:1970s Soviet Union aliyah
3671:
3626:
3581:
3571:Jewish history in the JAO
3555:Jewish autonomy in Crimea
3540:
3474:
3449:
3418:
3382:
3375:
3344:
3321:
3314:
3253:
3202:
3160:
3103:
3090:
3083:
3037:
2990:
2939:
2932:
2921:
2863:
2735:
2694:
2631:Russian foreign agent law
2618:
2471:Pristina airport incident
2451:Norwegian rocket incident
2431:
2403:Moscow–Washington hotline
2327:Obama–Medvedev Commission
2287:
2192:
2092:10.1080/13501678808577593
1770:"A Relic of the Cold War"
1720:Jewish Telegraphic Agency
1665:Jewish Telegraphic Agency
1523:Jewish Telegraphic Agency
825:
742:Jewish Telegraphic Agency
484:in the late 1970s and to
216:National Security Advisor
25:United States federal law
3853:Sanctions against Russia
3560:Jewish Autonomous Oblast
2915:1990s post-Soviet aliyah
2818:Stanford US–Russia Forum
2681:Task Force KleptoCapture
2592:Black Sea drone incident
2351:2017 St. Petersburg raid
2240:John Henry Hammond House
2025:
1998:
1969:
1964:
1894:Rowman & Littlefield
880:World Trade Organization
793:U.S. Chamber of Commerce
692:Former Soviet dissident
103:House of Representatives
3750:Jackson–Vanik amendment
3055:Jackson–Vanik amendment
2798:Russian Cultural Center
2626:Jackson–Vanik amendment
2371:Arctic Ocean Conference
2099:Lazin, Fred A. (2011).
1473:Lazin, Fred A. (2005).
1239:Beckerman, Gal (2010).
1191:Beckerman, Gal (2010).
1173:Beckerman, Gal (2010).
1122:Dunner, Joseph (1975).
696:wrote in his 2004 book
23:is a 1974 provision in
3759:Media and publications
3708:International activism
3684:Anti-Zionist Committee
3589:Jewish Communist Party
3482:Russian Jews in Israel
2808:U.S. Russia Foundation
2582:Russian bounty program
2297:Operation Provide Hope
2008:Гілея: науковий вісник
1024:Fomin, Valery (1996).
724:
699:The Case for Democracy
668:evangelical Christians
648:
549:
241:
193:
49:United States Congress
3808:Immigration to Israel
3720:Soviet Jewry movement
3651:Rootless cosmopolitan
3426:Jewish Defense League
3405:Moscow Helsinki Group
2753:NATO–Russia relations
2686:Executive Order 14071
2577:Arrest of Trevor Reed
2376:Ilulissat Declaration
2080:Soviet Jewish Affairs
1944:Stern, Paula (1979).
1153:The Refusenik Project
1149:"Historical Overview"
900:Reagan administration
704:
646:
522:
472:The amendment denied
236:
188:
3636:1931 Menshevik Trial
2356:2018 Helsinki summit
2312:2005 Slovakia Summit
2307:2001 Slovenia Summit
2105:The Lawyer Quarterly
908:Obama administration
894:U.S. legal challenge
876:accession of the PRC
680:immigrated to Israel
627:, the MFN status of
445:J. William Fulbright
431:Business involvement
382:Nixon Administration
345:House Ways and Means
280:(MFN) status to the
161:Institutional racism
3679:Soviet anti-Zionism
3628:Soviet antisemitism
2408:Shuttle–Mir program
979:on December 4, 2015
935:Refugees as weapons
930:Migration diplomacy
474:most favored nation
278:most favored nation
153:, often required a
142:Secret and Explicit
3286:Benjamin Netanyahu
2712:Mutual detargeting
2361:2021 Geneva summit
2302:1998 Moscow Summit
1444:, a PBS transcript
1351:The New York Times
1100:Garbuzov, Leonid.
756:Post-soviet states
649:
562:post-Soviet states
492:in later decades.
437:American Greetings
331:Jackson's staffer
257:extermination camp
255:, depicted a Nazi
251:'s 1979 painting,
3790:
3789:
3735:Cleveland Council
3500:
3499:
3470:
3469:
3371:
3370:
3367:
3366:
3359:Nicolae Ceaușescu
3336:Władysław Gomułka
3220:George H. W. Bush
3198:
3197:
3127:Mikhail Gorbachev
3070:Operation Solomon
3033:
3032:
2877:
2876:
2641:Dima Yakovlev Law
2567:Battle of Khasham
1988:978-5-9753-0229-8
1903:978-1-5381-8725-8
1886:Lampton, David M.
1823:National Archives
840:Silvio Berlusconi
657:Mikhail Gorbachev
653:free Soviet Jewry
625:former Yugoslavia
538:tax on emigration
497:Trade Act of 1974
352:. Vanik's aide,
305:Soviet emigration
274:Trade Act of 1974
45:Trade Act of 1974
3860:
3527:
3520:
3513:
3504:
3503:
3487:Yisrael BaAliyah
3380:
3379:
3357:
3356:
3334:
3333:
3319:
3318:
3301:Nehemiah Levanon
3230:Henry M. Jackson
3185:Eduard Kuznetsov
3101:
3100:
3088:
3087:
3060:Helsinki Accords
2937:
2936:
2926:
2904:
2897:
2890:
2881:
2880:
2869:
2868:
2486:Illegals Program
2334:Syrian civil war
2193:Diplomatic posts
2187:
2186:
2177:
2176:
2165:
2158:
2151:
2142:
2141:
2125:
2112:
2095:
2074:
2061:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2019:
2005:
1992:
1980:
1959:
1932:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1882:
1871:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1856:
1838:
1827:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1802:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1782:
1773:
1772:, Robert Guttman
1767:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1747:. Archived from
1737:
1731:
1730:
1728:
1727:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1702:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1672:
1652:
1643:
1637:
1631:
1628:Ostrovskaya 2017
1625:
1619:
1613:
1607:
1599:
1584:
1578:
1567:
1561:
1552:
1546:
1535:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1470:
1459:
1458:
1451:
1445:
1439:
1433:
1427:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1314:
1308:
1307:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1287:Korey, William.
1284:
1269:
1268:
1263:Korey, William.
1260:
1245:
1244:
1236:
1227:
1226:
1221:Korey, William.
1218:
1212:
1211:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1188:
1179:
1178:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1106:
1097:
1091:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1021:
1015:
1014:
1012:
1010:
995:
989:
988:
986:
984:
973:The Moscow Times
965:
904:Washington, D.C.
737:Frank Lautenberg
733:Boris Perchatkin
507:
503:
402:Anatoly Dobrynin
398:Executive Branch
354:Mark E. Talisman
249:Mikhail Savitsky
225:and Congressman
212:Henry M. Jackson
95:Charles A. Vanik
83:Henry M. Jackson
29:market economies
3868:
3867:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3859:
3858:
3857:
3793:
3792:
3791:
3786:
3767:Am Yisrael Chai
3754:
3703:
3667:
3622:
3577:
3536:
3531:
3501:
3496:
3466:
3445:
3414:
3363:
3351:
3340:
3328:
3310:
3249:
3194:
3175:Natan Sharansky
3156:
3147:Adolf Shayevich
3137:David Dragunsky
3117:Leonid Brezhnev
3094:
3079:
3029:
2986:
2928:
2917:
2908:
2878:
2873:
2859:
2848:Second Cold War
2731:
2690:
2646:Guantanamo List
2614:
2555:Havana syndrome
2481:RM Broadcasting
2427:
2418:Exercise RIMPAC
2283:
2257:Lothrop Mansion
2252:Elmcroft Estate
2188:
2181:
2171:
2169:
2132:
2048:
2046:Further reading
2036:
2034:
2027:
2003:
2000:
1989:
1978:
1971:
1966:
1956:
1940:
1935:
1927:
1923:
1915:
1911:
1904:
1883:
1874:
1867:
1863:
1854:
1852:
1839:
1830:
1817:
1815:
1804:
1803:
1796:
1788:
1784:
1783:
1776:
1768:
1764:
1754:
1752:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1725:
1723:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1700:
1698:
1686:Epshteyn, Boris
1683:
1679:
1670:
1668:
1653:
1646:
1638:
1634:
1626:
1622:
1614:
1610:
1600:
1587:
1579:
1570:
1562:
1555:
1547:
1538:
1528:
1526:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1496:
1494:Washington Post
1486:
1482:
1471:
1462:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1440:
1436:
1428:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1401:
1392:
1382:
1380:
1379:. 31 March 1979
1369:
1368:
1364:
1355:
1353:
1343:
1339:
1329:
1327:
1324:Washington Post
1315:
1311:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1285:
1272:
1261:
1248:
1237:
1230:
1219:
1215:
1204:
1200:
1189:
1182:
1171:
1167:
1157:
1155:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1120:
1116:
1104:
1098:
1094:
1066:Joseph Dunner.
1065:
1061:
1051:
1049:
1037:
1033:
1022:
1018:
1008:
1006:
996:
992:
982:
980:
967:
966:
959:
955:
916:
896:
872:
864:
828:
813:
801:
786:
763:
758:
729:
716:Andrei Sakharov
694:Natan Sharansky
687:Communist Party
641:
635:was suspended.
560:(and later the
554:
505:
470:
461:
447:, chair of the
441:Cleveland, Ohio
433:
322:Henry Kissinger
314:Leonid Brezhnev
266:
261:
260:
219:Henry Kissinger
169:Hebrew language
133:Leonid Brezhnev
128:
120:
115:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3866:
3856:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3784:
3777:
3770:
3762:
3760:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3752:
3747:
3745:Freedom Sunday
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3711:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3675:
3673:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3632:
3630:
3624:
3623:
3621:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3585:
3583:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3575:
3574:
3573:
3568:
3557:
3552:
3546:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3530:
3529:
3522:
3515:
3507:
3498:
3497:
3495:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3478:
3476:
3472:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3464:
3459:
3453:
3451:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3422:
3420:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3386:
3384:
3377:
3373:
3372:
3369:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3361:
3348:
3346:
3342:
3341:
3339:
3338:
3325:
3323:
3316:
3312:
3311:
3309:
3308:
3306:Yehuda Lapidot
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3281:Yitzhak Shamir
3278:
3276:Menachem Begin
3273:
3268:
3263:
3257:
3255:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3193:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3180:Yuli Edelstein
3177:
3172:
3166:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3154:
3152:Emomali Rahmon
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3132:Mikhail Suslov
3129:
3124:
3119:
3113:
3111:
3105:Pro-government
3098:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3041:
3039:
3035:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2996:
2994:
2988:
2987:
2985:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2943:
2941:
2934:
2930:
2929:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2907:
2906:
2899:
2892:
2884:
2875:
2874:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2850:
2845:
2843:New Great Game
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2563:
2562:
2552:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2521:Steele dossier
2518:
2505:
2504:
2503:
2493:
2491:Stephen Holmes
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2437:
2435:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2368:
2366:Arctic Council
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2347:
2346:
2341:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2293:
2291:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2196:
2194:
2190:
2189:
2168:
2167:
2160:
2153:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2131:
2130:External links
2128:
2127:
2126:
2113:
2096:
2075:
2062:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2020:
1993:
1987:
1960:
1955:978-0313205200
1954:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1933:
1921:
1909:
1902:
1892:. Lanham, MD:
1872:
1861:
1844:(2003-07-31).
1842:Walker, Martin
1828:
1811:whitehouse.gov
1794:
1774:
1762:
1751:on 3 July 2013
1732:
1707:
1688:(2013-06-06).
1677:
1658:(2013-03-22).
1644:
1640:Semyonova 2020
1632:
1620:
1618:, p. 173.
1608:
1585:
1568:
1553:
1536:
1525:. 15 July 2019
1506:
1480:
1460:
1446:
1434:
1419:
1407:
1390:
1362:
1337:
1309:
1294:
1270:
1246:
1228:
1213:
1198:
1180:
1165:
1139:
1132:
1114:
1092:
1059:
1031:
1016:
990:
956:
954:
951:
950:
949:
948:
947:
937:
932:
927:
922:
915:
912:
895:
892:
871:
868:
863:
860:
856:Magnitsky bill
844:Hank Greenberg
836:European Union
832:Vladimir Putin
827:
824:
812:
809:
800:
797:
785:
782:
762:
759:
757:
754:
728:
725:
682:in that time.
640:
637:
578:Czechoslovakia
553:
550:
545:
544:
541:
534:
469:
466:
460:
457:
432:
429:
377:Yom Kippur War
265:
262:
253:Summer Theatre
147:Mikhail Suslov
129:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3865:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3798:
3783:
3782:
3778:
3776:
3775:
3771:
3769:
3768:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3757:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3706:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3670:
3664:
3661:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3646:Doctors' plot
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3629:
3625:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3584:
3582:Organizations
3580:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3528:
3523:
3521:
3516:
3514:
3509:
3508:
3505:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3473:
3463:
3462:Jewish Agency
3460:
3458:
3455:
3454:
3452:
3448:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3423:
3421:
3419:United States
3417:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3381:
3378:
3376:Organisations
3374:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3326:
3324:
3320:
3317:
3313:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3291:Simcha Dinitz
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3266:Yitzhak Rabin
3264:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3235:Charles Vanik
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3225:George Shultz
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3215:Ronald Reagan
3213:
3211:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3203:United States
3201:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3142:Yakov Fishman
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3122:Yuri Andropov
3120:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3086:
3082:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3036:
3026:
3025:Georgian Jews
3023:
3021:
3020:Bukharan Jews
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3005:Mountain Jews
3003:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2992:Jewish groups
2989:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2977:Slánský trial
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2957:Joseph Stalin
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2947:The Holocaust
2945:
2944:
2942:
2938:
2935:
2931:
2920:
2916:
2913:movement and
2912:
2905:
2900:
2898:
2893:
2891:
2886:
2885:
2882:
2872:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2734:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2693:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2636:Magnitsky Act
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2335:
2332:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2322:Russian reset
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2262:Pioneer Point
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2166:
2161:
2159:
2154:
2152:
2147:
2146:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2124:(3): 525–556.
2123:
2119:
2114:
2111:(1): 157–169.
2110:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2073:(1): 128–151.
2072:
2068:
2063:
2060:(2): 363–372.
2059:
2055:
2050:
2049:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1994:
1990:
1984:
1976:
1972:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1941:
1930:
1925:
1918:
1913:
1905:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1870:
1865:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1824:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1801:
1799:
1787:
1781:
1779:
1771:
1766:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1736:
1721:
1717:
1711:
1697:
1696:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1649:
1641:
1636:
1630:, p. 69.
1629:
1624:
1617:
1612:
1605:
1604:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1565:
1560:
1558:
1550:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1510:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1476:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1456:
1450:
1443:
1438:
1431:
1426:
1424:
1416:
1411:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1378:
1377:
1372:
1366:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1326:
1325:
1320:
1313:
1305:
1298:
1291:. p. 30.
1290:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1267:. p. 29.
1266:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1242:
1235:
1233:
1225:. p. 31.
1224:
1217:
1209:
1202:
1194:
1187:
1185:
1176:
1169:
1154:
1150:
1143:
1135:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1110:
1103:
1096:
1090:; pages 69-82
1089:
1088:90-247-1780-9
1085:
1081:
1080:90-247-1779-5
1077:
1073:
1069:
1063:
1048:
1047:
1046:Novaya Gazeta
1042:
1035:
1027:
1020:
1009:September 19,
1005:
1001:
994:
978:
974:
970:
964:
962:
957:
946:
943:
942:
941:
938:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
921:
918:
917:
911:
909:
905:
901:
891:
889:
885:
881:
877:
867:
859:
857:
851:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
823:
819:
817:
808:
805:
796:
794:
790:
781:
779:
775:
771:
767:
753:
751:
747:
746:Refugee Corps
743:
738:
734:
723:
721:
717:
713:
709:
703:
702:(p. 3):
701:
700:
695:
690:
688:
683:
681:
677:
676:United States
673:
669:
664:
662:
658:
654:
645:
636:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
609:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
548:
542:
539:
535:
532:
531:
530:
527:
521:
519:
515:
511:
504:
498:
493:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
465:
456:
453:
450:
446:
442:
438:
428:
424:
420:
418:
413:
409:
405:
403:
399:
394:
389:
387:
383:
378:
373:
370:
365:
363:
362:Baltic States
357:
355:
351:
346:
341:
339:
334:
333:Richard Perle
329:
325:
323:
319:
315:
311:
310:Richard Nixon
306:
302:
298:
294:
289:
287:
286:Henry Jackson
283:
279:
275:
271:
258:
254:
250:
245:
240:
235:
231:
228:
227:Charles Vanik
224:
220:
217:
213:
208:
206:
202:
198:
192:
187:
185:
181:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
156:
152:
148:
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3296:Avraham Burg
3271:Shimon Peres
3210:Jimmy Carter
3092:Soviet Union
3054:
3050:1970s aliyah
2927:1970 – 2000)
2854:Not One Inch
2852:
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2526:Maria Butina
2121:
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2030:
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1821:– via
1816:. Retrieved
1814:. 2012-12-14
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1749:the original
1744:
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1724:. Retrieved
1722:. 2012-12-12
1719:
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1693:
1680:
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1663:
1656:Kampeas, Ron
1635:
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1566:, Chapter 4.
1551:, Chapter 3.
1527:. Retrieved
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1432:, Chapter 2.
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41:human rights
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3803:1974 in law
3603:Yevsektsiya
3566:Birobidzhan
3245:Meir Kahane
3190:Iosif Begun
3109:antisemitic
2967:Six-Day War
2619:Legislation
2272:Killenworth
2225:Spaso House
1745:www.cjp.org
1519:Jewish Week
1383:23 February
1330:23 February
1158:23 February
1052:23 February
983:26 December
617:Solidarność
478:human right
350:Soviet bloc
301:Middle East
293:Soviet Jews
180:Six-Day War
137:Six-Day War
66:signed the
56:Gerald Ford
33:Soviet Bloc
3797:Categories
3345:Pro-Jewish
3322:Pro-Soviet
3261:Golda Meir
3000:Ashkenazim
2933:Background
2560:Zersetzung
2317:5+2 format
2037:2023-09-25
1855:2018-12-03
1818:2012-12-18
1755:2 February
1726:2018-12-03
1701:2018-12-03
1671:2018-12-03
1581:Stern 1979
1564:Stern 1979
1549:Stern 1979
1430:Stern 1979
1403:Stern 1979
1356:14 October
1133:9024717809
1111:: 168–169.
953:References
874:Until the
822:14, 2012.
804:Kyrgyzstan
799:Kyrgyzstan
789:Kazakhstan
784:Kazakhstan
633:Montenegro
621:Yugoslavia
512:, 88
459:Conclusion
221:, Senator
151:refuseniks
113:Background
87:Washington
39:and other
37:emigration
3694:Refusenik
3492:Channel 9
3475:Aftermath
3170:Ida Nudel
3015:Krymchaks
2911:Refusenik
2763:Bush legs
2727:New START
2707:START III
2433:Incidents
2289:Diplomacy
2016:2076-1554
1616:Gura 2018
940:Refusenik
830:In 2003,
774:Lithuania
748:" in the
708:Kissinger
672:Catholics
107:Democrats
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2871:Category
2702:START II
2695:Treaties
2610:incident
1888:(2024).
1302:"none".
914:See also
712:appeased
598:Cambodia
590:Mongolia
586:Bulgaria
297:June War
288:(D-WA).
270:Congress
264:Timeline
3672:Zionism
3542:History
2962:Zionism
2736:Related
2031:usa.one
1938:Sources
1695:US News
1529:21 July
1499:21 July
878:to the
862:Ukraine
816:Moldova
811:Moldova
766:Estonia
720:détente
606:Vietnam
594:Albania
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570:Romania
564:), the
552:Effects
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468:Content
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318:detente
299:in the
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3591:(EKP)
3562:(JAO)
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3038:Events
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3457:Nativ
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514:Stat.
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2543:2024
2538:2020
2533:2018
2511:2016
2012:ISSN
1983:ISBN
1950:ISBN
1898:ISBN
1757:2022
1531:2019
1501:2019
1385:2022
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