2229:, Michael Meltzer, May 31, 2012. See Chapter 7, Return to Mars. Quote: "One of the most reliable ways to reduce the risk of forward contamination during visits to extraterrestrial bodies is to make those visits only with robotic spacecraft. Sending a person to Mars would be, for some observers, more exciting. But in the view of much of the space science community, robotic missions are the way to accomplish the maximum amount of scientific inquiry since valuable fuel and shipboard power do not have to be expended in transporting and operating the equipment to keep a human crew alive and healthy. And very important to planetary protection goals, robotic craft can be thoroughly sterilized, while humans cannot. Such a difference can be critical in protecting sensitive targets, such as the special regions of Mars, from forward contamination." "Perhaps a change in the public's perspective as to just what today's robotic missions really are would be helpful in deciding what types of missions are important to implement. In the opinion of Terence Johnson, who has played a major role in many of NASA's robotic missions, including serving as the project scientist for the Galileo mission and the planned Europa Orbiter mission, the term "robotic exploration" misses the point. NASA is actually conducting human exploration on these projects. The mission crews that sit in the control panel at JPL, "as well as everyone else who can log on to the Internet" can observe in near real-time what is going on. The spacecraft instruments, in other words, are becoming more like collective sense organs for humankind. Thus, according to Johnson, when NASA conducts its so-called robotic missions, people all around the world are really "all standing on the bridge of Starship Enterprise". The question must thus be asked, when, if ever, is it necessary for the good of humankind to send people rather than increasingly sophisticated robots to explore other worlds."
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Detecting
Possible Biohazards in Martian Samples Returned to Earth was published in October 2002 . In 2003, three architectural design teams independently examined the scope, approach, cost, and technology required for the SRF, using the Draft Test Protocol for requirements. The approaches varied from allrobotic handling of samples to more traditional glove box implementations. The studies indicated that the principles and techniques required are generally mature. Biosafety laboratories, the NASA Lunar Sample Facility, pharmaceutical laboratories, and electronic fabrication cleanrooms perform most of the required individual functions. However, there are some areas needing early development, such as ensuring sample preservation and bio-safety together, representing new challenges that were addressed by techniques like dual-walled containers (and gloves) with positive pressure clean inert gas in between the walls. This, as well as some further development in ultra-clean sample manipulation, safe and pure transport of samples, and sample sterilization techniques, are planned in the technology program.
1722:"In another investigation, spores of Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032 and another spore-forming bacteria, Bacillus subtilis 168, were dried on pieces of spacecraft-quality aluminum and subjected for 1.5 years to the vacuum of space, cosmic and extraterrestrial solar radiation and temperature fluctuations on EuTEF. These samples also were subjected to a simulated Martian atmosphere using EuTEF. Most of the organisms exposed to solar UV radiation in space and in the Mars spectrum were killed, but when UV rays were filtered out and samples were kept in the dark, about 50 percent or more of those subjected to other space- and Mars-like conditions survived. That makes it likely that spores could survive a trip on a spacecraft to Mars if they are sheltered against solar radiation, perhaps in a tiny pocket of the spacecraft surface or underneath a layer of other spores."
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598:. These randomly incorporate segments of the host genome and can transfer them to other evolutionarily distant hosts, and do that without killing the new host. In this way many archaea and bacteria can swap DNA with each other. This raises the possibility that Martian life, if it has a common origin with Earth life in the distant past, could swap DNA with Earth microorganisms in the same way. In one experiment reported in 2010, researchers left GTAs (DNA conferring antibiotic resistance) and marine bacteria overnight in natural conditions and found that by the next day up to 47% of the bacteria had incorporated the genetic material from the GTAs. Another reason for the 0.05 μm limit is because of the discovery of
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2241:"Martian biological contamination may occur if astronauts breathe contaminated dust or if they contact material that is introduced into their habitat. If an astronaut becomes contaminated or infected, it is conceivable that he or she could transmit Martian biological entities or even disease to fellow astronauts, or introduce such entities into the biosphere upon returning to Earth. A contaminated vehicle or item of equipment returned to Earth could also be a source of contamination."
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terrestrial 1000 g cm-2) the doses of ionizing radiation at the surface of Mars reach values about 100 times higher than those on the Earth. However, since a great variety of microbes tolerate this type of radiation at similar or even greater doses than those found on Mars, ionizing radiation cannot be considered a limiting factor for microbial life on Mars and thus here we will limit our study to solar UV shielding and VIS radiation pentration.
82:. Non-biological forms of contamination have also been considered, including contamination of sensitive deposits (such as lunar polar ice deposits) of scientific interest. In the case of back contamination, multicellular life is thought unlikely but has not been ruled out. In the case of forward contamination, contamination by multicellular life (e.g. lichens) is unlikely to occur for robotic missions, but it becomes a consideration in
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303:. The researchers concluded that "the surface of Mars is lethal to vegetative cells and renders much of the surface and near-surface regions uninhabitable." This research demonstrates that the present-day surface is more uninhabitable than previously thought, and reinforces the notion to inspect at least a few meters into the ground to ensure the levels of radiation would be relatively low.
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certain special deposits of salts or clays on Mars would have the capability to preserve organics for billions of years. So, they argue, there is a high risk that a Mars sample-return at our current stage of understanding would return samples that are no more conclusive about the origins of life on Mars or present day life than the
Martian meteorite samples we already have.
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refinement and maturation of SRF-associated technologies for safely containing and handling samples to avoid contamination and to further develop and refine biohazard-test protocols. Many of the capabilities and technologies will either be entirely new or will be required to meet the unusual challenges of integration into an overall (end-to-end) Mars sample return program.
579:). While existing BSL-4 facilities deal primarily with fairly well-known organisms, a BSL-4 facility focused on extraterrestrial samples must pre-plan the systems carefully while being mindful that there will be unforeseen issues during sample evaluation and curation that will require independent thinking and solutions.
545:. At the time, it was thought that there was a low probability of life on the Moon, so the requirements were not very stringent. The precautions taken then were inadequate by current standards, however. The regulations used then have been rescinded, and new regulations and approaches for a sample-return would be needed.
105:, the aim of the mission is to return extraterrestrial samples to Earth, and sterilization of the samples would make them of much less interest. So, back contamination would be prevented mainly by containment, and breaking the chain of contact between the planet of origin and Earth. It would also require
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Instead they advocate sending more sensitive instruments on Mars surface rovers. These could examine many different rocks and soil types, and search for biosignatures on the surface and so examine a wide range of materials which could not all be returned to Earth with current technology at reasonable
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Margaret Race has examined in detail the legal process of approval for a MSR. She found that under the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) (which did not exist in the Apollo era) a formal environment impact statement is likely to be required, and public hearings during which all the issues would
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A sample-return mission would be designed to break the chain of contact between Mars and the exterior of the sample container, for instance, by sealing the returned container inside another larger container in the vacuum of space before it returns to Earth. In order to eliminate the risk of parachute
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of liquid saltwater, rather than from the moon's icy surface. Data from the geyser flythroughs also indicate the presence of organic chemicals in the plumes. Heat scans of
Enceladus's surface also indicate higher temperatures around the fissures where the geysers originate, with temperatures reaching
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could out compete native life or consume it, if there is life on the planet. However, the experience on earth shows that species moved from one continent to another may be able to out compete the native life adapted to that continent. Additionally, evolutionary processes on Earth might have developed
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There are multiple consequences for both forward- and back-contamination. If a planet becomes contaminated with Earth life, it might then be difficult to tell whether any lifeforms discovered originated there or came from Earth. Furthermore, the organic chemicals produced by the introduced life would
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Finally there are other harmful radiation sources reaching Mars: ionizing and neutron radiation caused by galactic cosmic radiation and solar particle events. Due to the lack of a magnetic field and the low shielding of the
Martian atmosphere (the Martian overhead airmass is 16 g cm-2 instead of the
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Then apart from those domestic legal hurdles, there are numerous international regulations and treaties to be negotiated in the case of a Mars sample-return, especially those relating to environmental protection and health. She concluded that the public of necessity has a significant role to play in
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The facility's systems must be able to contain unknown biohazards, as the sizes of any putative
Martian microorganisms are unknown. In consideration of this, additional requirements were proposed. Ideally it should filter particles of 0.01 μm or larger, and release of a particle 0.05 μm or
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which cannot be removed while preserving the life of the human. Containment seems the only option, but effective containment to the same standard as a robotic rover appears difficult to achieve with present-day technology. In particular, adequate containment in the event of a hard landing is a major
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of living or ancient native life. The same applies to other more complex biosignatures. Life on other planets could have a common origin with Earth life, since in the early Solar System there was much exchange of material between the planets which could have transferred life as well. If so, it might
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Their reasoning is that life on Mars is likely to be hard to find. Any present day life is likely to be sparse and occur in only a few niche habitats. Past life is likely to be degraded by cosmic radiation over geological time periods if exposed in the top few meters of the Mars surface. Also, only
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Human explorers may be potential carriers back to Earth of microorganisms acquired on Mars, if such microorganisms exist. Another issue is the contamination of the water supply by Earth microorganisms shed by humans in their stools, skin and breath, which could have a direct effect on the long-term
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to preserve the scientific value of the samples. A challenge is that, while it is relatively easy to simply contain the samples once returned to Earth, researchers would also want to remove parts of the sample and perform analyses. During all these handling procedures, the samples would need to be
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on
September 9, 1963. Prior to NMI-4-4-1 the same sterilization requirements were required on all outgoing spacecraft regardless of their target. Difficulties in the sterilization of Ranger probes sent to the Moon are the primary reasons for NASA's change to a target-by-target basis in assessing
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Although numerous studies point to resistance to some of Mars conditions, they do so separately, and none has considered the full range of
Martian surface conditions, including temperature, pressure, atmospheric composition, radiation, humidity, oxidizing regolith, and others, all at the same time
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in
December 2012 appear to show an ice plume spouting from Europa's surface, which would immensely strengthen the case for a liquid subsurface ocean. As was the case for Enceladus, vapour geysers would allow for easy sampling of the liquid layer. Unfortunately, there appears to be little evidence
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is normally kept at a higher pressure than the external environment to keep contaminants out, while a biohazard laboratory is kept at a lower pressure to keep the biohazards in. This would require to compartmentalize the specialized rooms in order to combine these in a single building. Solutions
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The laws on quarantine will also need to be clarified as the regulations for the Apollo program were rescinded. In the Apollo era, NASA delayed announcement of its quarantine regulations until the day Apollo was launched, so bypassing the requirement for public debate - something that would be
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It has been estimated that the planning, design, site selection, environmental reviews, approvals, construction, commissioning, and pre-testing of a proposed safe room facility (SRF) will occur 7 to 10 years before actual operations begin. In addition, 5 to 6 years will likely be required for
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The NASA Planetary
Protection Officer commissioned the development of a draft test protocol that would represent one "necessary and sufficient" approach to evaluate the safety of the samples while safeguarding the purity of the samples from terrestrial contamination. A Draft Test Protocol for
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Finally, our results indicate that liquid water could form on the surface during the spring where snow has been deposited on saline soils . These results have important implications for the understanding of the habitability of Mars because liquid water is essential for life as we know it, and
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They came to the conclusion that telerobotic approaches could permit direct study of the samples on the Mars surface via telepresence from Mars orbit, permitting rapid exploration and use of human cognition to take advantage of chance discoveries and feedback from the results obtained so far.
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Another consideration is the difficulty of keeping the sample completely free from Earth life contamination during the return journey and during handling procedures on Earth. This might make it hard to show conclusively that any biosignatures detected does not result from contamination of the
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to return samples collected by the Perseverance Rover to Earth. The European Space Foundation report cites many advantages of a Mars sample-return. In particular, it would permit extensive analyses on Earth, without the size and weight constraints for instruments sent to Mars on rovers. These
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During this process, she found, the full range of worst accident scenarios, impact, and project alternatives would be played out in the public arena. Other agencies such as the Environment Protection Agency, Occupational Health and Safety Administration, etc., may also get involved in the
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It is also probable that the presidential directive NSC-25 will apply which requires a review of large scale alleged effects on the environment and is carried out subsequent to the other domestic reviews and through a long process, leads eventually to presidential approval of the launch.
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During the “Exploration Telerobotics Symposium" in 2012 experts on telerobotics from industry, NASA and academics met to discuss telerobotics, and its applications to space exploration. Amongst other issues, particular attention was given to Mars missions and a Mars sample-return.
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Several exobiologists have suggested that a Mars sample-return is not necessary at this stage, and that it is better to focus more on in situ studies on the surface first. Although it is not their main motivation, this approach of course also eliminates back contamination risks.
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has been suggested as a testbed for new technology to protect sites in the Solar System, and astronauts, from forward and back contamination. Currently, the Moon has no contamination restrictions because it is considered to be "not of interest" for prebiotic chemistry and
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missions incited public concern about the possibility of microbes on the Moon, creating fears about a plague being brought to Earth when the astronauts returned. NASA received thousands of letters from Americans concerned with the potential for back contamination.
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Andrew D. Aubrey, John H. Chalmers, Jeffrey L. Bada, Frank J. Grunthaner, Xenia Amashukeli, Peter Willis, Alison M. Skelley, Richard A. Mathies, Richard C. Quinn, Aaron P. Zent, Pascale Ehrenfreund, Ron Amundson, Daniel P. Glavin, Oliver Botta, Laurence Barron,
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Return of the sample to orbit has the advantage that it permits analysis of the sample without delay, to detect volatiles that may be lost during a voyage home. This was the conclusion of a meeting of researchers at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 2012.
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are of particular concern for interplanetary contamination because of the impossibility to sterilize a human to the same level as a robotic spacecraft. Therefore, the chance of forwarding contamination is higher than for a robotic mission. Humans are typically
299:, act in synergy with irradiated perchlorates to cause a 10.8-fold increase in cell death when compared to cells exposed to UV radiation after 60 seconds of exposure. It was also found that abraded silicates (quartz and basalt) lead to the formation of toxic
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resulting from the inadvertent contamination of Earth with putative martian microbes are still considered to be low. But since the risk cannot be demonstrated to be zero, due care and caution must be exercised in handling any martian materials returned to
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Levin is working on updated versions of the Labeled release instrument flown on Viking. For instance versions that rely on detecting chirality. This is of special interest because it can enable detection of life even if it is not based on standard life
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They found that telepresence exploration of Mars has many advantages. The astronauts have near real-time control of the robots, and can respond immediately to discoveries. It also prevents contamination both ways and has mobility benefits as well.
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A sample-return to Earth would then be considered at a later stage, once we have a reasonably thorough understanding of conditions on Mars, and possibly have already detected life there, either current or past life, through biosignatures and other
478:. Humans in close orbit around the target planet could control equipment on the surface in real time via telepresence, so bringing many of the benefits of a surface mission, without its associated increased forward and back contamination risks.
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analyses could also be carried out without the communication delays for experiments carried out by Martian rovers. It would also make it possible to repeat experiments in multiple laboratories with different instruments to confirm key results.
280:. These, similarly to the lichens, use the humidity of the atmosphere. If the mixture of salts is right, the organisms may obtain liquid water at times of high atmospheric humidity, with salts capturing enough to be capable of supporting life.
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The majority of the species isolated are not well understood or characterized and cannot be cultured in labs, and are known only from DNA fragments obtained with swabs. On a contaminated planet, it might be difficult to distinguish the
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Christopher E. Carr, Holli Rowedder, Clarissa S. Lui, Ilya Zlatkovsky, Chris W. Papalias, Jarie Bolander, Jason W. Myers, James Bustillo, Jonathan M. Rothberg, Maria T. Zuber, and Gary Ruvkun. Astrobiology. June 2013, 13(6) 560-569.
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A Sample Return Facility will require combining technologies used for constructing maximum containment laboratories (e.g. Biosafety Level 4 labs) with cleanroom technologies which will be needed to protect the Mars samples from Earth
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To receive, analyze and curate extraterrestrial soil samples, NASA has proposed to build a biohazard containment facility, tentatively known as the Mars Sample Return Receiving Facility (MSRRF). This future facility must be rated
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No-one has yet proved that there is deep groundwater on Mars, but it is plausible as there is certainly surface ice and atmospheric water vapour, so we wouldn't want to contaminate it and make it unusable by the introduction of
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MEPAG Special Regions-Science Analysis Group; Beaty, D.; Buxbaum, K.; Meyer, M.; Barlow, N.; Boynton, W.; Clark, B.; Deming, J.; Doran, P. T.; et al. (2006). "Findings of the Mars Special Regions Science Analysis Group".
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Some of these exobiologists advocate more in situ studies followed by a sample-return in the near future. Others go as far as to advocate in situ study instead of a sample-return at the present state of understanding of Mars.
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Precisely because Mars is an environment of great potential biological interest, it is possible that on Mars there are pathogens, organisms which, if transported to the terrestrial environment, might do enormous biological
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sent to sensitive areas of the Solar System. Missions are classified depending on whether their destinations are of interest for the search for life, and whether there is any chance that Earth life could reproduce there.
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of extraterrestrial life from the DNA of life brought to the planet by the exploring. Most species of microorganisms on Earth are not yet well understood or DNA sequenced. This particularly applies to the unculturable
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appears hostile to life as we know it. No extraterrestrial life has ever been discovered. But if extraterrestrial life exists, it may be vulnerable to interplanetary contamination by foreign microorganisms. Some
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failure, the capsule could fall at terminal velocity and the impact would be cushioned by the capsule's thermal protection system. The sample container would be designed to withstand the force of the impact.
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Space Exploration Via Telepresence: The Case for Synergy Between Science and Human Exploration, Findings and Observations from: "Exploration Telerobotics Symposium". May 2-3, 2012. NASA Goddard Space Flight
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There is ample evidence to suggest that Mars once offered habitable conditions for microbial life. It is therefore possible that microbial life may have existed on Mars, although no evidence has been found.
246:) from Earth were transported on Mars spacecraft. Some may be protected within Martian rovers and landers on the shallow surface of the planet. In that sense, Mars may have already been contaminated.
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may be able to survive space travel to another planet, and foreign life could possibly be introduced by spacecraft from Earth. If possible, some believe this poses scientific and ethical concerns.
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the plumes escaping from Enceladus. Measured data indicates that these geysers are made primarily of salt rich particles with an 'ocean-like' composition, which is thought to originate from a
2924:, M. Coleman, A. Farrington, A. Yen, R. Mathies, R. Amudson, R. Quinn, A. Zen, S. Ride, L. Barron, O. Botta, B. Clark, D. Glavin, B. Hofmann, J.L. Josse, P. Rettberg, F. Robert, M. Sephton.
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biological pathways different from extraterrestrial organisms, and so may be able to out-compete it. The same is also possible the other way around for contamination introduced to Earth's
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Michalski, Joseph R.; Cuadros, Javier; Niles, Paul B.; Parnell, John; Deanne Rogers, A.; Wright, Shawn P. (2013). "Groundwater activity on Mars and implications for a deep biosphere".
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There can be no life on the surface of Mars because it is bathed in radiation and it's completely frozen. However, life in the subsurface would be protected from that. - Prof. Parnell.
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NASA Marshall Space Flight Center is leading a research effort to develop a Miniaturized Variable Pressure Scanning Electron Microscope (MVP-SEM) for future lunar and Martian missions.
187:, and so are difficult to study. This can be either because they depend on the presence of other microorganisms, are slow growing, or depend on other conditions not yet understood. In
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Back contamination would be prevented by containment or quarantine. However, there have been no sample-returns thought to have any possibility of a back contamination risk since the
630:, maintains that the risk of back contamination is negligible. He supports this using an argument based on the possibility of transfer of life from Earth to Mars on meteorites.
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The facility would be expected to take 7 to 10 years from design to completion, and an additional two years is recommended for the staff to become accustomed to the facilities.
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494:. The possibility of new human pathogens, or environmental disruption due to back contamination, is considered to be of extremely low probability but cannot yet be ruled out.
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In addition to science research concerns, there are also attempts to raise ethical and moral concerns regarding intentional or unintentional interplanetary transport of life.
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NASA and ESA views are similar. The findings were that with present-day technology, Martian samples can be safely returned to Earth provided the right precautions are taken.
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need no precautions at all. Others such as the Moon require documentation but nothing more, while destinations such as Mars require sterilization of the rovers sent there.
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Several teams, including Jonathan Rothberg, and J. Craig Venter, are separately developing solutions for sequencing alien DNA directly on the Martian surface itself.
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Bak, Ebbe N.; Larsen, Michael G.; Moeller, Ralf; Nissen, Silas B.; Jensen, Lasse R.; Nørnberg, Per; Jensen, Svend J. K.; Finster, Kai (September 12, 2017).
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NASA has already had experience with returning samples thought to represent a low back contamination risk when samples were returned for the first time by
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Earth and Space 2014 - Proceedings of the 14th Biennial ASCE Conference on Engineering, Science, Construction, and Operations in Challenging Environments
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70:. It also covers infection of humans and human habitats in space and on other celestial bodies by extraterrestrial organisms, if such organisms exist.
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2904:, Benton C. Clark, Max Coleman, Beda A. Hofmann, Jean-Luc Josset, Petra Rettberg, Sally Ride, François Robert, Mark A. Sephton, and Albert Yen.
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require a subsurface layer of liquid water in order to accurately reproduce the linear fracturing of the surface. Indeed, observations by the
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Since the Moon is now generally considered to be free from life, the most likely source of contamination would be from Mars during either a
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Biological contamination studies of lunar landing sites: implications for futureplanetary protection and life detectionon the Moon and Mars
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Kaeberlein, T; Lewis, K; Epstein, SS (2002). "Isolating "uncultivable" microorganisms in pure culture in a simulated natural environment".
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One of the most reliable ways to reduce the risk of forward and back contamination during visits to extraterrestrial bodies is to use only
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2721:. Assessment of Planetary Protection Requirements for Mars Sample Return Missions (Report). National Research Council. 2009. p. 59.
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Planning for the Analytic Environment to Conduct Life Detection Experiments on Samples Returned from Mars: Observations and Issues (2012)
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and in combination. Laboratory simulations show that whenever multiple lethal factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly.
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Perhaps Martian samples can be safely returned to Earth. But I would want to be very sure before considering a returned-sample mission.
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There is general consensus that extant microbial life on Mars would probably exist (if at all) in the subsurface and at low abundance.
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suggested include a triple walled containment facility, and one of the suggestions include extensive robotic handling of the samples.
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Jeffrey L. Bada, Andrew D. Aubrey, Frank J. Grunthaner, Michael Hecht, Richard Quinn, Richard Mathies, Aaron Zent, John H. Chalmers
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Mars Sample Return Receiving Facility - A Draft Test Protocol for Detecting Possible Biohazards in Martian Samples Returned to Earth
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3021:"Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon – The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun"
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The Urey Mars Organic and Oxidant Detector instrument for detection of biosignatures has been descoped, but was due to be flown on
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and grow in the absence of any liquid water, simply by using the humidity from the atmosphere. They are also highly tolerant of
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show the best evidence for current habitats, mainly due to the possibility of their hosting liquid water and organic compounds.
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of how Europa's magnetic field interacts with Jupiter's field strengthens the case for a liquid, rather than solid, layer; an
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Locations within the Solar System where life might exist today include the oceans of liquid water beneath the icy surface of
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1761:"The adaptation potential of extremophiles to Martian surface conditions and its implication for the habitability of Mars"
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Summons, Roger E.; Amend, Jan P.; Bish, David; Buick, Roger; Cody, George D.; Des Marais, David J.; Dromart, Gilles;
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effect). Even dormant spores lost viability within minutes. In addition, two other compounds of the Martian surface,
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conducted on March 30, 2001 by the class members of STS497 I, "Space Colonization"; Instructor: Dr. Chris Churchill
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CLEANROOM ROBOTICS – APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY FOR A SAMPLE RECEIVING FACILITY 2005 update on the Draft Test Protocol
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D. S. Bass, D. W. Beaty, C. C. Allen, A. C. Allwood, L. E. Borg, K. E. Buxbaum1, J. A. Hurowitz and M. D. Schulte.
2329:, D.P. Glavin, J.P. Dworkin, M. Lupisella, G. Kminek and J.D. Rummel, International Journal of Astrobiology (2004)
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Sullivan, Walter (June 15, 1969). "Science; Guarding Against Moon Bugs" (Newspaper). New York: The New York Times.
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1423:"Preservation of Martian Organic and Environmental Records: Final Report of the Mars Biosignature Working Group"
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590:(GTAs) which are virus-like particles that are produced by some microorganisms that package random segments of
2012:"Silicates Eroded under Simulated Martian Conditions Effectively Kill Bacteria - A Challenge for Life on Mars"
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in 2018. It is designed with much higher levels of sensitivity for biosignatures than any previous instruments
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Based on Findings from: "Exploration Telerobotics Symposium". May 2–3, 2012 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
326:−93 °C (−135 °F), which is 115 °C (207 °F) warmer than the surrounding surface regions.
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European Science Foundation - Mars Sample Return backward contamination - Strategic advice and requirements
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195:. Introduced Earth life could contaminate resources of value for future human missions, such as water.
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LOW-LATENCY TELEROBOTICS FROM MARS ORBIT: THE CASE FOR SYNERGY BETWEEN SCIENCE AND HUMAN EXPLORATION
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Miniature Variable Pressure Scanning Electron Microscope for in-situ imaging & chemical analysis
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Aerospace Conference, 2012 IEEE, vol., no., pp.1,10, 3–10 March 2012 doi: 10.1109/AERO.2012.6187064
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Lauren D. McDaniel, Elizabeth Young, Jennifer Delaney, Fabian Ruhnau, Kim B. Ritchie, John H. Paul
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2264:"The End of the World, The Future of the Earth: Bioplurality and the Politics of Human Extinction"
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Mars soil is likely toxic to cells — does this mean humans won't be able to grow vegetables there?
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COSPAR Workshop on Planetary Protection for Outer Planet Satellites and Small Solar System Bodies
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was first to publicise back contamination issues that might follow from a Mars sample-return. In
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Europa has much indirect evidence for its sub-surface ocean. Models of how Europa is affected by
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2777:
Seeking signs of life on mars: in situ investigations as prerequisites to sample return missions
2174:
911:
395:. The Apollo regulations have been rescinded and new regulations have yet to be developed. See
354:
that geysering is a frequent event on Europa due to the lack of water in the space near Europa.
4515:
4349:
4296:
4190:
4013:
3858:
3216:
865:
825:
566:
Working inside a BSL-4 laboratory with air hoses providing positive air pressure to their suits
350:
2718:
2461:
2238:
50:
is the transfer of life and other forms of contamination from Earth to another celestial body.
4563:
4543:
3919:
3731:
3193:
3154:
2859:
2485:
Planetary Protection, Legal Ambiguity, and the Decision Making Process for Mars Sample Return
2398:- see 2. From remote exploration to returning samples. (for more details of the document see
1651:
1582:
750:
Similar methods could be used to directly explore other biologically sensitive moons such as
498:
491:
283:
Research published in July 2017 shows that when irradiated with a simulated Martian UV flux,
102:
101:. Forward contamination is prevented primarily by sterilizing the spacecraft. In the case of
83:
59:
2664:
A Draft Test Protocol for Detecting Possible Biohazards in Martian Samples Returned to Earth
2663:
950:
COSPAR power point type presentation, gives good overview of the detailed category decisions
4568:
4284:
4081:
3983:
3848:
3810:
3560:
3364:
3258:
1976:
1919:
1825:
1779:
1662:
1618:
1541:
1437:
1381:
1320:
1196:
1139:
1043:
1000:
853:
363:
339:
98:
2906:
The Urey Instrument: An Advanced In Situ Organic and Oxidant Detector for Mars Exploration
2381:
European Science Foundation - Mars Sample Return backward contamination - strategic advice
1088:
8:
4425:
4205:
4076:
3998:
3596:
3542:
3490:
3453:
3443:
3149:
2788:
2748:
2681:
2316:
Mars and the Moon (C. A. Conley & J. D. Rummel Acta Astronautica 63 1025–1030 (2008))
1567:
1418:
819:
587:
312:
1980:
1923:
1829:
1783:
1666:
1622:
1545:
1441:
1385:
1324:
1200:
1143:
1047:
1004:
4128:
4123:
4101:
4086:
3978:
3766:
3746:
3696:
3659:
3649:
3500:
3337:
2345:
2038:
2011:
1992:
1940:
1907:
1846:
1813:
1471:
1399:
1341:
1308:
1160:
1127:
1067:
790:
599:
586:
The reason for this extremely small size limit of 0.01 μm is for consideration of
475:
90:
2738:
Task Group on Issues in Sample Return. National Academies Press, Washington, DC (1997)
2623:
1965:"Shielding biomolecules from effects of radiation by Mars analogue minerals and soils"
4361:
4262:
4057:
3865:
3830:
3791:
3741:
3632:
3616:
3359:
3322:
3300:
3285:
3268:
3186:
2441:
2418:
2391:
2283:
2204:
2062:
2043:
1996:
1945:
1881:
1851:
1678:
1634:
1463:
1403:
1346:
1292:
1165:
1059:
1016:
907:
407:
322:
296:
277:
2736:
Mars Sample Return: Issues and Recommendations (Planetary Protection Office Summary)
1697:"Space Station Research Shows That Hardy Little Space Travelers Could Colonize Mars"
1071:
4510:
4445:
4274:
4252:
4096:
4064:
4052:
4028:
3654:
3601:
3591:
3550:
3480:
3475:
3204:
3112:
2997:
2864:
2627:
2605:
2600:
2330:
2275:
2263:
2033:
2023:
1984:
1935:
1927:
1875:
Whenever multiple biocidal factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly
1841:
1833:
1670:
1626:
1549:
1475:
1453:
1445:
1389:
1336:
1328:
1229:
1208:
1204:
1155:
1147:
1126:
Rummel, J.D.; Race, M.S.; Horneck, and the Princeton Workshop, G. (November 2012).
1051:
1008:
416:
385:
376:
NASA made these policies official with the issuing of Management Manual NMI-4-4-1,
198:
79:
2953:
Space Exploration Enabled by Telepresence: Combining Science and Human Exploration
2735:
2279:
1128:"Ethical Considerations for Planetary Protection in Space Exploration: A Workshop"
4339:
4180:
3751:
3611:
3527:
3515:
3495:
3391:
3181:
3161:
3084:
2979:
2959:
2670:
2521:
2491:
2435:
2387:
2363:
1307:
Fischer, Erik; Martínez, Germán M.; Elliott, Harvey M.; Rennó, Nilton O. (2014).
1252:
956:
639:
be aired openly. This process is likely to take up to several years to complete.
572:
458:
astronauts could also yield useful ground truth for planetary protection models.
258:
4481:
2812:
793:
may have survived for a while on the Moon after the April 2019 crash landing of
4317:
4257:
4242:
4195:
4091:
4037:
3897:
3555:
3532:
3505:
3423:
3413:
3315:
3310:
3176:
3127:
2462:
Assessment of Planetary Protection Requirements for Mars Sample Return Missions
1931:
1271:
455:
412:
392:
75:
27:
2334:
1988:
1630:
1394:
1233:
109:
procedures for the materials and for anyone who comes into contact with them.
4537:
4460:
4344:
4301:
4247:
4235:
4220:
4210:
4133:
4047:
4023:
4018:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3798:
3386:
3327:
3290:
3242:
3025:
2346:
Almost Being There: Why the Future of Space Exploration Is Not What You Think
2287:
2028:
1812:
Fairén, Alberto G.; Parro, Victor; Schulze-Makuch, Dirk; Whyte, Lyle (2018).
1125:
751:
346:
335:
221:
130:
3042:
2631:
2175:
Hubble Space Telescope Sees Evidence of Water Vapor Venting off Jupiter Moon
1246:
Planetary Ecosynthesis on Mars: Restoration Ecology and Environmental Ethics
1055:
742:
4486:
4420:
4152:
4138:
3993:
3803:
3771:
3761:
3664:
3510:
3408:
3354:
3263:
3122:
2921:
2901:
2791:
D. A. Paige, Dept. of Earth and Space Sciences, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095
2776:
2227:
When Biospheres Collide - a history of NASA'S Planetary Protection Programs
2047:
1949:
1855:
1682:
1674:
1638:
1515:"Mars: 'Strongest evidence' planet may have supported life, scientists say"
1493:
1467:
1350:
1169:
1063:
1020:
859:
831:
813:
800:
755:
627:
262:
233:
163:
158:
138:
123:
118:
16:
Biological contamination of a planetary body by a space probe or spacecraft
2868:
2609:
2201:
When Biospheres Collide: A History of NASA's Planetary Protection Programs
1837:
1449:
1151:
1012:
4465:
4008:
4003:
3840:
3825:
3701:
3676:
3305:
3225:
3132:
3117:
1332:
786:
451:
288:
284:
150:
31:
4147:
2883:
A Chiral Labeled Release Instrument for In Situ Detection of Extant Life
2848:
Researchers Design a DNA Sequencing Microchip for Detecting Life on Mars
1873:. Astrobiology Magazine. Archived from the original on August 20, 2011.
1458:
1309:"Experimental evidence for the formation of liquid saline water on Mars"
4415:
4230:
4200:
4185:
3973:
3961:
3721:
3583:
3209:
2591:
987:
Moissl, Christine; Bruckner, James C.; Venkateswaran, Kasthuri (2008).
847:
505:
292:
254:
243:
188:
106:
35:
466:
349:
deep within Europa would explain these results. Observations from the
4157:
3946:
3875:
3820:
3815:
3681:
3522:
3428:
3171:
2356:
1609:
Debus, A. (2005). "Estimation and assessment of Mars contamination".
1553:
1370:"Water and Brines on Mars: Current Evidence and Implications for MSL"
795:
759:
691:
611:
606:
542:
433:
276:
Other studies have suggested the potential for life to survive using
217:
203:
134:
67:
1908:"Perchlorates on Mars enhance the bacteriocidal effects of UV light"
415:
to a hundred trillion microorganisms in ten thousand species in the
4450:
4435:
3966:
3951:
3853:
3691:
3139:
2860:
Radiation Resistance of Sequencing Chips for in situ Life Detection
916:
850: – Hypothesis on the interstellar spreading of primordial life
633:
1814:"Is Searching for Martian Life a Priority for the Mars Community?"
4430:
4279:
4116:
4106:
3914:
3726:
3438:
3433:
2151:
What Makes Us Think There is an Ocean Beneath Europa's Icy Crust?
884:
714:
266:
184:
146:
2993:"A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon"
989:"Archaeal diversity analysis of spacecraft assembly clean rooms"
4440:
4366:
2761:
transcription of a tele-conference interview with ROBERT ZUBRIN
2187:
Signs of Europa Plumes Remain Elusive in Search of Cassini Data
250:
212:
142:
94:
1811:
885:
S.T. Shipley; P.T. Metzger & J.E. Lane (27 October 2014).
785:
In August 2019, scientists reported that a capsule containing
655:
the development of the policies governing Mars sample-return.
4111:
3870:
2825:
Mars Sample Return Mission? Naaah… Just Beam Back Martian DNA
1089:"Queens University Belfast scientist helps NASA Mars project"
970:"If there Are Microbes on Mars, We Might Have Put Them There"
856: – Prevention of interplanetary biological contamination
396:
269:
and other more specialized chemicals to protect their cells.
63:
2889:. Concepts and Approaches for Mars Exploration. Houston, TX.
2399:
1963:
Ertem, G.; Ertem, M. C.; McKay, C. P.; Hazen, R. M. (2017).
1531:
862: – Pollution around Earth by defunct artificial objects
762:, once the human presence in the vicinity becomes possible.
4455:
1701:
1306:
986:
834: – Organisms capable of living in extreme environments
536:
446:
2558:
2556:
2112:"Cassini samples the icy spray of Enceladus' water plumes"
1494:"Scientists find evidence Mars subsurface could hold life"
1083:
1081:
149:, but it may also have liquid water below the surface and
2779:
Independent Contribution to the Mars Decadal Survey Panel
2126:"Cassini Tastes Organic Material at Saturn's Geyser Moon"
1568:"RADIATIVE HABITABLE ZONES IN MARTIAN POLAR ENVIRONMENTS"
621:
591:
179:
171:
167:
2624:
High Frequency of Horizontal Gene Transfer in the Oceans
1288:"Science - Special Collection - Curiosity Rover on Mars"
940:
European Space Policy Institute (ESPI), 15–17 April 2009
461:
2789:
Mars Exploration Strategies: Forget About Sample Return
2553:
2494:
Adv. Space Res. vol 18 no 1/2 pp (1/2)345-(1/2)350 1996
2414:
The Cosmic Connection - an Extraterrestrial Perspective
1078:
906:
2811:
Gaskin, J.A.; Jerman, G.; Gregory, D.; Sampson, A.R.,
2636:
2374:
2305:. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 114–5.
2009:
1033:
3274:
Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal
2943:, Concepts and Approaches for Mars Exploration (2012)
1416:
931:
605:
The BSL-4 containment facility must also double as a
41:
There are two types of interplanetary contamination:
3200:
Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments
2747:
Robert Zubrin "Contamination From Mars: No Threat",
2719:"7: Sample-Receiving Facility and Program Oversight"
2222:
2220:
1962:
1356:
halophilic terrestrial bacteria can thrive in brines
887:"Lunar Cold Trap Contamination by Landing Vehicles"
816: – Science concerned with life in the universe
2713:
2711:
2303:Every Living Thing: The Politics of Life in Common
1410:
1238:
1185:"Planetary protection—A microbial ethics approach"
2217:
1725:
1222:The need of an ethics of planetary sustainability
658:
4535:
4328:List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction
2754:
2695:"2010 Mars Sample Return Orbiter decadal survey"
2626:Science 1 October 2010: Vol. 330 no. 6000 p. 50
2596:"Virus-like particles speed bacterial evolution"
2405:
2163:Water plumes spark a race to Jupiter moon Europa
1905:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1759:de Vera, J.-P.; Kohler, Ulrich (26 April 2012).
1114:Should Mars be treated like a wildlife preserve?
912:"Tesla in space could carry bacteria from Earth"
721:
634:Legal process of approval for Mars sample-return
62:organisms and other forms of contamination into
2936:
2934:
2880:Anbar, A. D.; Levin, G. V. (June 12–14, 2012).
2708:
2165:, Lisa Grossman, New Scientist 31 December 2013
1108:
1106:
583:larger is unacceptable under any circumstance.
378:NASA Unmanned Spacecraft Decontamination Policy
4226:List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events
2801:Future Mars Missions: Can Humans Trump Robots?
2771:
2769:
822: – Interplanetary introduction of species
770:
3231:Existential risk from artificial intelligence
3072:
3058:
1894:
1758:
1367:
454:. Analysis of the contamination left by the
2931:
2729:
2531:
2529:
1752:
1279:
1258:
1103:
900:
843:List of microorganisms tested in outer space
481:
213:Evidence for possible habitats outside Earth
3279:Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal
2766:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2502:
2500:
2078:
2076:
1267:"On Mars, an Ancient Lake and Perhaps Life"
89:Current space missions are governed by the
3382:Climate change and civilizational collapse
3065:
3051:
2879:
2464:(Report). National Research Council. 2009.
2433:
470:Telerobotics exploration on Mars and Earth
242:It is thought that many bacterial spores (
2920:J.L. Bada, P. Ehrenfreund F. Grunthaner,
2584:
2568:
2526:
2357:First Exploration Telereobotics Symposium
2037:
2027:
1939:
1845:
1768:EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts
1457:
1393:
1340:
1159:
4385:Centre for the Study of Existential Risk
4323:Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction
2990:
2497:
2250:
2073:
1734:"Lichen survives harsh Mars environment"
1492:Didymus, JohnThomas (January 21, 2013).
765:
741:
610:protected from Earthly contamination. A
561:
537:Suggested precautions for sample-returns
465:
397:Suggested precautions for sample-returns
3018:
2926:Urey: Mars Organic and Oxidant Detector
2479:
2477:
2300:
2261:
2198:
2114:. European Space Agency. June 22, 2011.
1868:
1862:
1731:
1491:
1485:
1285:
1182:
866:Terraforming § Other possibilities
497:NASA and ESA are actively developing a
357:
4536:
2741:
2590:
2060:
1956:
1368:Martínez, G. M.; Renno, N. O. (2013).
622:Dissenting views on back contamination
381:the likelihood forward contamination.
368:Forward contamination is prevented by
38:, either deliberate or unintentional.
3046:
2782:
2563:Mars Sample Return Receiving Facility
2128:. NASA. 26 March 2008. Archived from
2085:. Mike Wall. Space.com. July 6, 2017
1969:International Journal of Astrobiology
1645:
1608:
1602:
1264:
1226:International Journal of Astrobiology
1183:Cockell, Charles S. (November 2005).
557:
462:Non-contaminating exploration methods
287:become even more lethal to bacteria (
3402:Tipping points in the climate system
2474:
2063:"Why Life on Mars May Be Impossible"
967:
789:(a resilient microbial animal) in a
402:
3397:Extinction risk from climate change
3296:New World Order (conspiracy theory)
2837:Genome Hunters Go After Martian DNA
2268:Journal for the History of Rhetoric
1265:Chang, Kenneth (December 9, 2013).
548:
13:
4357:List of fictional doomsday devices
2991:Oberhaus, Daniel (5 August 2019).
2542:. 23 February 2010. Archived from
2301:Johnson, Jenell (April 28, 2023).
2083:Mars Soil May Be Toxic to Microbes
1906:Wadsworth, J; Cockell, CS (2017).
838:Glossary of invasion biology terms
692:Instruments under development for
141:(its surface has oceans of liquid
14:
4580:
3377:Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis
2928:Space Sci Rev (2008) 135: 269–279
2581:. 2012. Accessed: 19 August 2018.
2440:. Random House Publishing Group.
2199:Meltzer, Michael (May 31, 2012).
1869:Q. Choi, Charles (May 17, 2010).
4493:
4492:
4480:
3638:Decline in amphibian populations
3019:Resnick, Brian (6 August 2019).
2850:Science Tech Daily, July 9, 2013
2537:"Mars Sample Return Discussions"
2177:, Paragraph 4; December 12, 2013
2061:Kluger, Jeffrey (July 6, 2017).
1732:Baldwin, Emily (26 April 2012).
1709:from the original on 2023-06-20.
746:Telerobotics exploration of Mars
647:unlikely to be tolerated today.
602:as small as 0.2 μm across.
191:, 99% of microorganisms are not
3989:Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
3486:Land surface effects on climate
3459:Human impact on the environment
3090:Future of an expanding universe
3012:
2984:
2965:
2946:
2914:
2893:
2873:
2853:
2841:
2829:
2818:
2805:
2794:
2687:
2675:
2657:
2616:
2454:
2427:
2368:
2350:
2339:
2320:
2309:
2294:
2255:
2244:
2232:
2192:
2180:
2168:
2156:
2144:
2118:
2104:
2088:
2054:
2003:
1805:
1736:. Skymania News. Archived from
1713:
1689:
1560:
1525:
1507:
1361:
1300:
1215:
1176:
1119:
440:
157:confuse sensitive searches for
2262:Johnson, Jenell (2020-01-02).
1209:10.1016/j.spacepol.2005.08.003
1027:
980:
968:Turk, Victoria (20 May 2014).
961:
943:
878:
659:Alternatives to sample-returns
1:
3935:Interpretations of Revelation
3737:Cosmological phase transition
3643:Decline in insect populations
3095:Ultimate fate of the universe
2579:Lunar and Planetary Institute
2280:10.1080/26878003.2020.1694378
1116:New Scientist, February 2009.
872:
722:Study and analyses from orbit
347:electrically conductive fluid
4390:Future of Humanity Institute
3787:Potentially hazardous object
3687:Interplanetary contamination
1871:"Mars Contamination Dust-Up"
1720:NASA Press Release, May 2014
1313:Geophysical Research Letters
1286:Various (December 9, 2013).
828: – Philosophical debate
424:human colonization of Mars.
306:
20:Interplanetary contamination
7:
4270:Nemesis (hypothetical star)
3419:Global terrestrial stilling
806:
427:
112:
10:
4585:
3782:Asteroid impact prediction
3757:Heat death of the universe
3167:Mutual assured destruction
2911:. Volume 8, Number 3, 2008
1932:10.1038/s41598-017-04910-3
1776:European Geosciences Union
1611:Advances in Space Research
778:
499:Mars Sample Return Program
488:Mars sample-return mission
384:Some destinations such as
361:
231:
4474:
4408:
4400:Nuclear Threat Initiative
4377:
4333:List of apocalyptic films
4310:
4176:2011 end times prediction
4168:
3908:Prophecy of Seventy Weeks
3903:Abomination of desolation
3839:
3777:Asteroid impact avoidance
3714:
3625:
3607:List of extinction events
3582:
3575:
3541:
3449:Environmental degradation
3345:
3336:
3251:
3236:Technological singularity
3105:
3080:
3074:Global catastrophic risks
2335:10.1017/S1473550404001958
2016:Frontiers in Microbiology
1989:10.1017/S1473550416000331
1886:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1631:10.1016/j.asr.2005.04.084
1498:Digital Journal – Science
1395:10.1007/s11214-012-9956-3
1255:NASA Ames Research Center
1234:10.1017/S1473550417000490
643:decision-making process.
525:(1980) Carl Sagan wrote:
482:Back contamination issues
329:
4549:Biological contamination
4395:Future of Life Institute
4297:Resurrection of the dead
4290:Post-tribulation rapture
3672:Colony collapse disorder
2468:environmental disruption
2029:10.3389/fmicb.2017.01709
626:Robert Zubrin, from the
596:horizontal gene transfer
370:sterilizing space probes
24:biological contamination
3221:Artificial intelligence
2632:10.1126/science.1192243
2466:| Quote: "The risks of
1419:Eigenbrode, Jennifer L.
1056:10.1126/science.1070633
908:Purdue University Staff
781:Tardigrades on the Moon
301:reactive oxygen species
227:
84:crewed missions to Mars
58:is the introduction of
4350:List of disaster films
4191:Apocalyptic literature
3291:Malthusian catastrophe
3217:Synthetic intelligence
1675:10.1089/ast.2006.6.677
1590:Cite journal requires
1421:; et al. (2011).
826:Ethics of terraforming
747:
567:
531:
519:
492:crewed mission to Mars
471:
351:Hubble Space Telescope
103:sample-return missions
3732:Coronal mass ejection
3194:Electromagnetic pulse
3155:Kinetic energy weapon
2869:10.1089/ast.2012.0923
2751:July/Aug. 2000, P.4–5
2610:10.1038/news.2010.507
1838:10.1089/ast.2017.1772
1450:10.1089/ast.2010.0506
1374:Space Science Reviews
1244:Christopher P. McKay
1152:10.1089/ast.2012.0891
1013:10.1038/ismej.2007.98
766:Forward contamination
745:
565:
527:
514:
469:
232:Further information:
74:The main focus is on
47:Forward contamination
4554:Biological invasions
4134:War of Gog and Magog
3811:Near-Earth supernova
3561:Human overpopulation
3365:Mass mortality event
3259:Anthropogenic hazard
2749:The Planetary Report
2239:Safe on Mars page 37
1333:10.1002/2014GL060302
910:(27 February 2018).
854:Planetary protection
588:gene transfer agents
490:or as a result of a
364:Planetary protection
358:Planetary protection
99:planetary protection
4206:Blood moon prophecy
3999:Number of the Beast
3597:Holocene extinction
3543:Earth Overshoot Day
3491:Ocean acidification
3454:Habitat destruction
3444:Ecological collapse
3150:Kinetic bombardment
3085:Future of the Earth
2434:Carl Sagan (2011).
2189:; December 17, 2014
1981:2017IJAsB..16..280E
1924:2017NatSR...7.4662W
1830:2018AsBio..18..101F
1784:2012EGUGA..14.2113D
1667:2006AsBio...6..677M
1623:2005AdSpR..35.1648D
1546:2013NatGe...6..133M
1521:. January 20, 2013.
1442:2011AsBio..11..157S
1386:2013SSRv..175...29M
1325:2014GeoRL..41.4456F
1228:. 10 January 2018.
1201:2005SpPol..21..287C
1144:2012AsBio..12.1017R
1048:2002Sci...296.1127K
1005:2008ISMEJ...2..115M
820:Directed panspermia
799:, a failed Israeli
78:and on potentially
4521:Doomsday scenarios
4087:Beast of the Earth
3979:Book of Revelation
3767:Virtual black hole
3747:False vacuum decay
3697:Pollinator decline
3660:Biological warfare
3650:Biotechnology risk
3501:Resource depletion
2978:2013-02-17 at the
2958:2013-02-17 at the
2669:2006-02-22 at the
2520:2016-06-02 at the
2490:2010-06-19 at the
2386:2016-06-02 at the
2362:2015-07-05 at the
2203:. pp. 46–51.
2153:, Paragraphs 4 - 7
1251:2020-04-01 at the
955:2013-10-19 at the
791:cryptobiotic state
748:
600:ultramicrobacteria
568:
558:Receiving facility
476:robotic spacecraft
472:
278:deliquescing salts
91:Outer Space Treaty
55:Back contamination
4531:
4530:
4362:Zombie apocalypse
4263:Postmillennialism
4058:Great Tribulation
3831:Stellar collision
3792:Near-Earth object
3742:Geomagnetic storm
3710:
3709:
3633:Biodiversity loss
3617:Genetic pollution
3571:
3570:
3360:Biodiversity loss
3323:Societal collapse
3301:Nuclear holocaust
3286:Economic collapse
3269:Doomsday argument
3187:Antimatter weapon
2835:Biomedicine News
2447:978-0-307-80098-5
2396:978-2-918428-67-1
2210:978-0-16-085327-2
1534:Nature Geoscience
1319:(13): 4456–4462.
1224:. Andreas Losch.
1138:(11): 1017–1023.
1112:Rachel Courtland
512:(1973) he wrote:
510:Cosmic Connection
408:Crewed spacecraft
403:Crewed spacecraft
297:hydrogen peroxide
4576:
4496:
4495:
4487:World portal
4485:
4484:
4446:Financial crisis
4275:Nibiru cataclysm
4253:Premillennialism
4097:Dhul-Suwayqatayn
4065:Son of perdition
4053:Olivet Discourse
4029:Whore of Babylon
3655:Biological agent
3602:Human extinction
3592:Extinction event
3580:
3579:
3551:Overexploitation
3481:Land consumption
3476:Land degradation
3343:
3342:
3205:Micro black hole
3113:Chemical warfare
3067:
3060:
3053:
3044:
3043:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3033:
3016:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3005:
2988:
2982:
2969:
2963:
2950:
2944:
2938:
2929:
2918:
2912:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2877:
2871:
2857:
2851:
2845:
2839:
2833:
2827:
2822:
2816:
2809:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2786:
2780:
2773:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2745:
2739:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2715:
2706:
2705:
2699:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2673:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2649:(Report). 2002.
2648:
2640:
2634:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2588:
2582:
2572:
2566:
2560:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2541:
2533:
2524:
2512:
2495:
2481:
2472:
2465:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2431:
2425:
2409:
2403:
2378:
2372:
2366:
2354:
2348:
2343:
2337:
2324:
2318:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2236:
2230:
2224:
2215:
2214:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2166:
2160:
2154:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2108:
2102:
2092:
2086:
2080:
2071:
2070:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2041:
2031:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1943:
1903:
1892:
1891:
1885:
1877:
1866:
1860:
1859:
1849:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1792:
1786:. Archived from
1765:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1729:
1723:
1717:
1711:
1710:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1593:
1588:
1586:
1578:
1572:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1554:10.1038/ngeo1706
1529:
1523:
1522:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1461:
1427:
1414:
1408:
1407:
1397:
1365:
1359:
1358:
1344:
1304:
1298:
1297:
1283:
1277:
1276:
1262:
1256:
1242:
1236:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1163:
1123:
1117:
1110:
1101:
1100:
1098:micro-organisms.
1085:
1076:
1075:
1042:(5570): 1127–9.
1031:
1025:
1024:
993:The ISME Journal
984:
978:
977:
965:
959:
947:
941:
935:
929:
928:
926:
924:
904:
898:
897:
891:
882:
549:Chain of contact
417:human microbiome
323:subsurface ocean
319:directly sampled
253:from the arctic
199:Invasive species
189:typical habitats
80:invasive species
60:extraterrestrial
4584:
4583:
4579:
4578:
4577:
4575:
4574:
4573:
4559:Cosmic doomsday
4534:
4533:
4532:
4527:
4506:Future problems
4479:
4470:
4404:
4373:
4340:Climate fiction
4306:
4181:2012 phenomenon
4164:
4070:Sheep and Goats
3957:2 Thessalonians
3835:
3752:Gamma-ray burst
3706:
3621:
3612:Genetic erosion
3567:
3537:
3528:Water pollution
3496:Ozone depletion
3392:Desertification
3332:
3247:
3182:Doomsday device
3162:Nuclear warfare
3101:
3076:
3071:
3041:
3031:
3029:
3017:
3013:
3003:
3001:
2989:
2985:
2980:Wayback Machine
2970:
2966:
2960:Wayback Machine
2951:
2947:
2939:
2932:
2919:
2915:
2902:Diana L. Blaney
2898:
2894:
2886:
2878:
2874:
2858:
2854:
2846:
2842:
2834:
2830:
2823:
2819:
2810:
2806:
2799:
2795:
2787:
2783:
2774:
2767:
2759:
2755:
2746:
2742:
2734:
2730:
2717:
2716:
2709:
2697:
2693:
2692:
2688:
2680:
2676:
2671:Wayback Machine
2662:
2658:
2646:
2642:
2641:
2637:
2621:
2617:
2589:
2585:
2573:
2569:
2561:
2554:
2546:
2539:
2535:
2534:
2527:
2522:Wayback Machine
2513:
2498:
2492:Wayback Machine
2482:
2475:
2460:
2459:
2455:
2448:
2432:
2428:
2410:
2406:
2388:Wayback Machine
2379:
2375:
2369:
2364:Wayback Machine
2355:
2351:
2344:
2340:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2310:
2299:
2295:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2245:
2237:
2233:
2225:
2218:
2211:
2197:
2193:
2185:
2181:
2173:
2169:
2161:
2157:
2149:
2145:
2135:
2133:
2132:on 20 July 2021
2124:
2123:
2119:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2099:The World Today
2097:. David Coady.
2093:
2089:
2081:
2074:
2059:
2055:
2008:
2004:
1961:
1957:
1904:
1895:
1879:
1878:
1867:
1863:
1810:
1806:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1763:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1741:
1730:
1726:
1718:
1714:
1695:
1694:
1690:
1650:
1646:
1607:
1603:
1591:
1589:
1580:
1579:
1570:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1530:
1526:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1490:
1486:
1425:
1415:
1411:
1366:
1362:
1305:
1301:
1284:
1280:
1263:
1259:
1253:Wayback Machine
1243:
1239:
1220:
1216:
1181:
1177:
1124:
1120:
1111:
1104:
1095:. 23 May 2014.
1087:
1086:
1079:
1032:
1028:
985:
981:
966:
962:
957:Wayback Machine
948:
944:
936:
932:
922:
920:
905:
901:
889:
883:
879:
875:
870:
809:
783:
777:
768:
724:
698:
661:
636:
624:
573:biohazard level
560:
551:
539:
484:
464:
452:origins of life
443:
430:
405:
393:Apollo missions
366:
360:
332:
309:
259:photosynthesize
236:
230:
215:
115:
97:guidelines for
17:
12:
11:
5:
4582:
4572:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4529:
4528:
4526:
4525:
4524:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4501:Apocalypticism
4490:
4475:
4472:
4471:
4469:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4412:
4410:
4406:
4405:
4403:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4381:
4379:
4375:
4374:
4372:
4371:
4370:
4369:
4359:
4354:
4353:
4352:
4345:Disaster films
4342:
4337:
4336:
4335:
4330:
4320:
4318:Alien invasion
4314:
4312:
4308:
4307:
4305:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4293:
4292:
4287:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4260:
4258:Amillennialism
4255:
4245:
4243:Millenarianism
4240:
4239:
4238:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4196:Apocalypticism
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4165:
4163:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4150:
4145:
4144:
4143:
4142:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4121:
4120:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4092:Dhu al-Qarnayn
4089:
4084:
4074:
4073:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4061:
4060:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4038:Great Apostasy
4035:
4034:
4033:
4032:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3976:
3971:
3970:
3969:
3964:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3938:
3937:
3927:
3917:
3912:
3911:
3910:
3905:
3895:
3885:
3883:Last Judgement
3880:
3879:
3878:
3873:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3856:
3845:
3843:
3841:Eschatological
3837:
3836:
3834:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3807:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3795:
3794:
3784:
3779:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3718:
3716:
3712:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3668:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3647:
3646:
3645:
3640:
3629:
3627:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3588:
3586:
3577:
3573:
3572:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3565:
3564:
3563:
3556:Overpopulation
3553:
3547:
3545:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3535:
3533:Water scarcity
3530:
3525:
3520:
3519:
3518:
3508:
3506:Sea level rise
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3472:
3471:
3469:on marine life
3466:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3424:Global warming
3421:
3416:
3414:Global dimming
3411:
3406:
3405:
3404:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3372:Cascade effect
3369:
3368:
3367:
3357:
3351:
3349:
3347:Climate change
3340:
3334:
3333:
3331:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3319:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3276:
3266:
3261:
3255:
3253:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3207:
3197:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3177:Doomsday Clock
3174:
3169:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3128:Cyberterrorism
3125:
3115:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3099:
3098:
3097:
3087:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3070:
3069:
3062:
3055:
3047:
3040:
3039:
3011:
2983:
2964:
2945:
2930:
2913:
2892:
2872:
2852:
2840:
2828:
2817:
2804:
2793:
2781:
2765:
2753:
2740:
2728:
2707:
2686:
2674:
2656:
2652:contamination.
2635:
2615:
2594:(2010-09-30).
2583:
2567:
2552:
2549:on 2013-02-16.
2525:
2496:
2473:
2453:
2446:
2426:
2404:
2373:
2367:
2349:
2338:
2319:
2308:
2293:
2254:
2243:
2231:
2216:
2209:
2191:
2179:
2167:
2155:
2143:
2117:
2103:
2087:
2072:
2067:Time - Science
2053:
2002:
1975:(3): 280–285.
1955:
1893:
1861:
1824:(2): 101–107.
1804:
1751:
1740:on 28 May 2012
1724:
1712:
1688:
1661:(5): 677–732.
1644:
1617:(9): 1648–53.
1601:
1592:|journal=
1559:
1524:
1506:
1484:
1409:
1380:(1–4): 29–51.
1360:
1299:
1278:
1272:New York Times
1257:
1237:
1214:
1195:(4): 287–292.
1175:
1118:
1102:
1077:
1026:
999:(1): 115–119.
979:
960:
942:
930:
899:
876:
874:
871:
869:
868:
863:
857:
851:
845:
840:
835:
829:
823:
817:
810:
808:
805:
779:Main article:
776:
769:
767:
764:
723:
720:
719:
718:
711:
707:
703:
702:
697:
690:
660:
657:
635:
632:
623:
620:
559:
556:
550:
547:
538:
535:
483:
480:
463:
460:
456:Apollo program
442:
439:
429:
426:
404:
401:
362:Main article:
359:
356:
331:
328:
308:
305:
229:
226:
214:
211:
114:
111:
76:microbial life
72:
71:
51:
28:planetary body
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4581:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4539:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4516:Risk analysis
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4498:
4491:
4489:
4488:
4483:
4477:
4476:
4473:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4461:Social crisis
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4413:
4411:
4407:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4378:Organizations
4376:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4325:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4309:
4303:
4302:World to come
4300:
4298:
4295:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4282:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4250:
4249:
4248:Millennialism
4246:
4244:
4241:
4237:
4236:Messianic Age
4234:
4233:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4221:Gog and Magog
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4211:Earth Changes
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4167:
4159:
4156:
4155:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4125:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4079:
4078:
4075:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4059:
4056:
4055:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4048:New Jerusalem
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4024:War in Heaven
4022:
4020:
4019:Two witnesses
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3986:
3985:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3936:
3933:
3932:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3922:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3900:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3890:
3889:
3888:Second Coming
3886:
3884:
3881:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3868:
3867:
3864:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3850:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3842:
3838:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3774:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3713:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3651:
3648:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3635:
3634:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3624:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3585:
3581:
3578:
3574:
3562:
3559:
3558:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3540:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3517:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3387:Deforestation
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3352:
3350:
3348:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3335:
3329:
3328:World War III
3326:
3324:
3321:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3250:
3244:
3243:Transhumanism
3241:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3218:
3215:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3202:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3164:
3163:
3160:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3106:Technological
3104:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3079:
3075:
3068:
3063:
3061:
3056:
3054:
3049:
3048:
3045:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3015:
3000:
2999:
2994:
2987:
2981:
2977:
2974:
2968:
2961:
2957:
2954:
2949:
2942:
2937:
2935:
2927:
2923:
2917:
2910:
2907:
2903:
2896:
2885:
2884:
2876:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2849:
2844:
2838:
2832:
2826:
2821:
2814:
2808:
2802:
2797:
2790:
2785:
2778:
2772:
2770:
2762:
2757:
2750:
2744:
2737:
2732:
2725:
2720:
2714:
2712:
2704:
2696:
2690:
2683:
2678:
2672:
2668:
2665:
2660:
2653:
2645:
2639:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2619:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2587:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2564:
2559:
2557:
2545:
2538:
2532:
2530:
2523:
2519:
2516:
2511:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2480:
2478:
2469:
2463:
2457:
2449:
2443:
2439:
2438:
2430:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2415:
2408:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2382:
2377:
2371:
2365:
2361:
2358:
2353:
2347:
2342:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2323:
2317:
2312:
2304:
2297:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2258:
2247:
2240:
2235:
2228:
2223:
2221:
2212:
2206:
2202:
2195:
2188:
2183:
2176:
2171:
2164:
2159:
2152:
2147:
2131:
2127:
2121:
2113:
2107:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2084:
2079:
2077:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2006:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1889:
1883:
1876:
1872:
1865:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1793:on 4 May 2012
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1762:
1755:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1721:
1716:
1708:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1597:
1584:
1577:
1569:
1563:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1520:
1516:
1510:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1488:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1436:(2): 157–81.
1435:
1431:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1303:
1295:
1294:
1289:
1282:
1274:
1273:
1268:
1261:
1254:
1250:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1122:
1115:
1109:
1107:
1099:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1082:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
983:
975:
971:
964:
958:
954:
951:
946:
939:
934:
919:
918:
913:
909:
903:
895:
888:
881:
877:
867:
864:
861:
858:
855:
852:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
833:
832:Extremophiles
830:
827:
824:
821:
818:
815:
812:
811:
804:
802:
798:
797:
792:
788:
782:
774:
763:
761:
757:
753:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
716:
712:
708:
705:
704:
700:
699:
695:
689:
687:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
631:
629:
619:
616:
613:
608:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
584:
580:
578:
574:
564:
555:
546:
544:
534:
530:
526:
524:
518:
513:
511:
507:
503:
500:
495:
493:
489:
479:
477:
468:
459:
457:
453:
448:
438:
435:
425:
421:
418:
414:
409:
400:
398:
394:
389:
387:
382:
379:
374:
371:
365:
355:
352:
348:
344:
342:
337:
336:tidal heating
327:
324:
320:
317:
315:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
281:
279:
274:
270:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
247:
245:
240:
235:
225:
223:
219:
210:
207:
205:
200:
196:
194:
190:
186:
181:
175:
173:
169:
165:
164:nucleic acids
160:
159:biosignatures
154:
152:
151:ice volcanoes
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
127:
125:
124:extremophiles
120:
110:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
87:
85:
81:
77:
69:
65:
61:
57:
56:
52:
49:
48:
44:
43:
42:
39:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
4564:Space debris
4544:Astrobiology
4478:
4421:Cyberwarfare
4139:Third Temple
3994:Lake of fire
3804:Rogue planet
3772:Impact event
3762:Proton decay
3715:Astronomical
3686:
3665:Bioterrorism
3511:Supervolcano
3409:Flood basalt
3355:Anoxic event
3264:Collapsology
3252:Sociological
3123:Cyberwarfare
3030:. Retrieved
3024:
3014:
3002:. Retrieved
2996:
2986:
2967:
2948:
2916:
2909:Astrobiology
2908:
2895:
2882:
2875:
2855:
2843:
2831:
2820:
2807:
2796:
2784:
2756:
2743:
2731:
2722:
2701:
2689:
2677:
2659:
2650:
2638:
2618:
2599:
2586:
2578:
2570:
2544:the original
2456:
2436:
2429:
2413:
2407:
2390:July, 2012,
2376:
2370:
2352:
2341:
2322:
2311:
2302:
2296:
2274:(1): 30–53.
2271:
2267:
2257:
2246:
2234:
2200:
2194:
2182:
2170:
2158:
2146:
2134:. Retrieved
2130:the original
2120:
2106:
2101:. 7 Jul 2017
2098:
2090:
2066:
2056:
2019:
2015:
2005:
1972:
1968:
1958:
1915:
1911:
1874:
1864:
1821:
1818:Astrobiology
1817:
1807:
1795:. Retrieved
1788:the original
1771:
1767:
1754:
1742:. Retrieved
1738:the original
1727:
1715:
1700:
1691:
1658:
1655:Astrobiology
1654:
1647:
1614:
1610:
1604:
1583:cite journal
1574:
1562:
1540:(2): 133–8.
1537:
1533:
1527:
1518:
1509:
1501:
1497:
1487:
1479:
1459:1721.1/66519
1433:
1430:Astrobiology
1429:
1412:
1377:
1373:
1363:
1354:
1316:
1312:
1302:
1291:
1281:
1270:
1260:
1240:
1225:
1217:
1192:
1189:Space Policy
1188:
1178:
1135:
1132:Astrobiology
1131:
1121:
1096:
1092:
1039:
1035:
1029:
996:
992:
982:
973:
963:
945:
933:
921:. Retrieved
915:
902:
893:
880:
860:Space debris
814:Astrobiology
801:lunar lander
794:
784:
772:
749:
737:
733:
729:
725:
693:
685:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
628:Mars Society
625:
617:
604:
585:
581:
576:
569:
552:
540:
532:
528:
522:
520:
515:
509:
504:
496:
485:
473:
444:
441:As a testbed
431:
422:
406:
390:
383:
377:
375:
367:
340:
333:
313:
310:
285:perchlorates
282:
275:
271:
263:UV radiation
257:are able to
248:
241:
237:
234:Life on Mars
216:
208:
197:
176:
162:be based on
155:
128:
119:Solar System
117:Most of the
116:
88:
73:
54:
53:
46:
45:
40:
19:
18:
4569:Spaceflight
4497:Categories
4466:Survivalism
4153:Zoroastrian
4009:Seven seals
4004:Seven bowls
3930:Historicism
3826:Solar flare
3702:Overfishing
3677:Defaunation
3464:coral reefs
3226:AI takeover
3145:Nanoweapons
3133:Cybergeddon
3118:Cyberattack
2592:Maxmen, Amy
2483:M. S. Race
2411:Carl Sagan,
1918:(1): 4662.
974:Motherboard
923:28 February
787:tardigrades
594:capable of
420:challenge.
293:iron oxides
289:bactericide
32:space probe
4538:Categories
4426:Depression
4416:Ransomware
4231:Messianism
4201:Armageddon
4186:Apocalypse
3974:Antichrist
3962:Man of sin
3859:Three Ages
3722:Big Crunch
3584:Extinction
3576:Biological
3338:Ecological
3210:Strangelet
2423:0521783038
873:References
848:Panspermia
710:chemistry.
688:analyses.
506:Carl Sagan
343:spacecraft
316:spacecraft
255:permafrost
244:endospores
193:culturable
107:quarantine
36:spacecraft
22:refers to
4311:Fictional
4158:Saoshyant
4043:New Earth
4014:The Beast
3947:Preterism
3920:Christian
3876:Kali Yuga
3821:Micronova
3816:Hypernova
3682:Dysgenics
3523:Verneshot
3429:Hypercane
3172:Dead Hand
2922:D. Blaney
2288:2687-8003
1997:125294279
1404:255073809
796:Beresheet
773:Beresheet
771:The 2019
760:Enceladus
676:samples.
612:cleanroom
607:cleanroom
543:Apollo 11
521:Later in
434:Apollo 11
307:Enceladus
218:Enceladus
204:biosphere
135:Enceladus
68:biosphere
4451:Pandemic
4436:Epidemic
4431:Droughts
4285:Prewrath
4216:End time
4082:Al-Qa'im
3967:Katechon
3952:2 Esdras
3942:Idealism
3925:Futurism
3854:Maitreya
3849:Buddhist
3692:Pandemic
3140:Gray goo
3032:6 August
3004:6 August
2976:Archived
2956:Archived
2667:Archived
2565:. (PDF).
2518:Archived
2488:Archived
2400:abstract
2384:Archived
2360:Archived
2136:26 April
2048:28955310
2022:: 1709.
1950:28684729
1882:cite web
1856:29359967
1797:27 April
1778:: 2113.
1744:27 April
1707:Archived
1683:17067257
1639:16175730
1519:BBC News
1468:21417945
1351:25821267
1249:Archived
1170:23095097
1093:BBC News
1072:28437864
1064:12004133
1021:18180750
953:Archived
917:phys.org
807:See also
775:incident
696:analyses
428:The Moon
265:, using
249:Certain
113:Overview
93:and the
4511:Hazards
4409:General
4280:Rapture
4129:Messiah
4117:Sufyani
4107:Israfil
4077:Islamic
3915:Messiah
3893:1 Enoch
3727:Big Rip
3439:Ecocide
3434:Ice age
2471:Earth."
2417:(1973)
2039:5601068
1977:Bibcode
1941:5500590
1920:Bibcode
1912:Sci Rep
1847:5820680
1826:Bibcode
1780:Bibcode
1663:Bibcode
1619:Bibcode
1542:Bibcode
1476:9963677
1438:Bibcode
1382:Bibcode
1342:4373172
1321:Bibcode
1293:Science
1197:Bibcode
1161:3698687
1140:Bibcode
1044:Bibcode
1036:Science
1001:Bibcode
976:. Vice.
715:ExoMars
694:in situ
686:in situ
517:damage.
386:Mercury
341:Galileo
314:Cassini
267:melanin
251:lichens
185:archaea
147:methane
4441:Famine
4367:Zombie
4169:Others
4124:Jewish
4102:Dajjal
3984:Events
3898:Daniel
3799:winter
3626:Others
3516:winter
3316:winter
3311:famine
3306:cobalt
2973:Center
2601:Nature
2444:
2437:Cosmos
2421:
2394:
2286:
2207:
2046:
2036:
1995:
1948:
1938:
1854:
1844:
1681:
1637:
1474:
1466:
1402:
1349:
1339:
1168:
1158:
1070:
1062:
1019:
752:Europa
680:cost.
523:Cosmos
330:Europa
222:Europa
143:ethane
137:, and
131:Europa
95:COSPAR
4456:Riots
4148:Norse
4112:Mahdi
3871:Kalki
3866:Hindu
3196:(EMP)
2998:Wired
2887:(PDF)
2698:(PDF)
2647:(PDF)
2547:(PDF)
2540:(PDF)
1993:S2CID
1791:(PDF)
1764:(PDF)
1571:(PDF)
1472:S2CID
1426:(PDF)
1400:S2CID
1068:S2CID
890:(PDF)
758:, or
756:Titan
577:BSL-4
166:too (
139:Titan
64:Earth
30:by a
26:of a
3034:2019
3006:2019
2442:ISBN
2419:ISBN
2392:ISBN
2284:ISSN
2205:ISBN
2138:2016
2044:PMID
1946:PMID
1888:link
1852:PMID
1799:2012
1746:2012
1702:NASA
1679:PMID
1635:PMID
1596:help
1464:PMID
1347:PMID
1166:PMID
1060:PMID
1017:PMID
925:2018
447:Moon
445:The
432:The
413:host
311:The
295:and
228:Mars
220:and
3026:Vox
2865:doi
2628:doi
2606:doi
2331:doi
2276:doi
2034:PMC
2024:doi
1985:doi
1936:PMC
1928:doi
1842:PMC
1834:doi
1671:doi
1627:doi
1550:doi
1454:hdl
1446:doi
1390:doi
1378:175
1337:PMC
1329:doi
1230:doi
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