Immune system - Knowledge

1245: 1190:) that are responsible for the T cell's activation. Helper T cells have a weaker association with the MHC:antigen complex than observed for killer T cells, meaning many receptors (around 200–300) on the helper T cell must be bound by an MHC:antigen to activate the helper cell, while killer T cells can be activated by engagement of a single MHC:antigen molecule. Helper T cell activation also requires longer duration of engagement with an antigen-presenting cell. The activation of a resting helper T cell causes it to release cytokines that influence the activity of many cell types. Cytokine signals produced by helper T cells enhance the microbicidal function of macrophages and the activity of killer T cells. In addition, helper T cell activation causes an upregulation of molecules expressed on the T cell's surface, such as CD40 ligand (also called 2173: 996: 1349: 2028: 2912: 33: 2315: 1168: 1340:

recognize pathogens by small protein-based infection signals, called antigens, that bind to directly to T-cell surface receptors. B-cells use the protein, immunoglobulin, to recognize pathogens by their antigens. This is "adaptive" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges. Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.

1843: 604: 12884: 1604: 12908: 12896: 7437: 523:, which recognize components that are conserved among broad groups of microorganisms, or when damaged, injured or stressed cells send out alarm signals, many of which are recognized by the same receptors as those that recognize pathogens. Innate immune defenses are non-specific, meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way. This system does not confer long-lasting 1072:(such as penicillin) attached to carrier molecule. Each lineage of B cell expresses a different antibody, so the complete set of B cell antigen receptors represent all the antibodies that the body can manufacture. When B or T cells encounter their related antigens they multiply and many "clones" of the cells are produced that target the same antigen. This is called 1550:. During this time of a slowly evolving adaptive immune response, there is a peak in undifferentiated or less differentiated cells, like naïve and central memory T cells. In addition to these effects, the milieu of hormones produced at this time (leptin, pituitary growth hormone, and prolactin) supports the interactions between APCs and T-cells, a shift of the 831:(NK cells) are lymphocytes and a component of the innate immune system that does not directly attack invading microbes. Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self". This term describes cells with low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I ( 2400:. Computational methods have been developed to predict the immunogenicity of peptides and proteins, which are particularly useful in designing therapeutic antibodies, assessing likely virulence of mutations in viral coat particles, and validation of proposed peptide-based drug treatments. Early techniques relied mainly on the observation that 1205:(γδ T cells) possess an alternative T-cell receptor (TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ (αβ) T cells and share the characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and NK cells. The conditions that produce responses from γδ T cells are not fully understood. Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs, such as 1011:. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by "memory cells". Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it. 2345:

Some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers. Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface, thus avoiding detection by killer T cells. Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response; for example by secreting the cytokine

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Both B cells and T cells carry receptor molecules that recognize specific targets. T cells recognize a "non-self" target, such as a pathogen, only after antigens (small fragments of the pathogen) have been processed and presented in combination with a "self" receptor called a major histocompatibility

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is an important feature of cellular innate immunity performed by cells called phagocytes that engulf pathogens or particles. Phagocytes generally patrol the body searching for pathogens, but can be called to specific locations by cytokines. Once a pathogen has been engulfed by a phagocyte, it becomes

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The success of any pathogen depends on its ability to elude host immune responses. Therefore, pathogens evolved several methods that allow them to successfully infect a host, while evading detection or destruction by the immune system. Bacteria often overcome physical barriers by secreting enzymes

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are presented on MHC class I molecules in a similar way to viral antigens. This allows killer T cells to recognize the tumor cell as abnormal. NK cells also kill tumorous cells in a similar way, especially if the tumor cells have fewer MHC class I molecules on their surface than normal; this is a

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against that particular pathogen without causing disease associated with that organism. This deliberate induction of an immune response is successful because it exploits the natural specificity of the immune system, as well as its inducibility. With infectious disease remaining one of the leading

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In addition to the negative consequences of sleep deprivation, sleep and the intertwined circadian system have been shown to have strong regulatory effects on immunological functions affecting both innate and adaptive immunity. First, during the early slow-wave-sleep stage, a sudden drop in blood

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regulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses and help determine which immune responses the body makes to a particular pathogen. These cells have no cytotoxic activity and do not kill infected cells or clear pathogens directly. They instead control the immune response by directing other

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When B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring become long-lived memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. T-cells

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uses a similar strategy, constantly switching one type of surface protein for another, allowing it to stay one step ahead of the antibody response. Masking antigens with host molecules is another common strategy for avoiding detection by the immune system. In HIV, the envelope that covers the

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Physical exercise has a positive effect on the immune system and depending on the frequency and intensity, the pathogenic effects of diseases caused by bacteria and viruses are moderated. Immediately after intense exercise there is a transient immunodepression, where the number of circulating

835:)—a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells. Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors, which essentially put the brakes on NK cells. 2374:

and thereby assists spread of cancer cells. Anti-tumor M1 macrophages are recruited in early phases to tumor development but are progressively differentiated to M2 with pro-tumor effect, an immunosuppressor switch. The hypoxia reduces the cytokine production for the anti-tumor response and

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bout protected its survivors from future infections. Although he explained the immunity in terms of "excess moisture" being expelled from the blood—therefore preventing a second occurrence of the disease—this theory explained many observations about smallpox known during this time.

1159:. T cell killing of host cells is particularly important in preventing the replication of viruses. T cell activation is tightly controlled and generally requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by "helper" T cells (see below). 1715:(Tregs), are also important. The plasticity of immune cells and the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory signals are crucial aspects of efficient tissue repair. Immune components and pathways are involved in regeneration as well, for example in 915:

are multiprotein complexes (consisting of an NLR, the adaptor protein ASC, and the effector molecule pro-caspase-1) that form in response to cytosolic PAMPs and DAMPs, whose function is to generate active forms of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18.

250:, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an 1122:

are a sub-group of T cells that kill cells that are infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional. As with B cells, each type of T cell recognizes a different antigen. Killer T cells are activated when their

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and cytotoxic factors may also be released. These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote the healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens. The pattern-recognition receptors called

718:, but this role was extended in phagocytes to include engulfment of pathogens as a defense mechanism. Phagocytosis probably represents the oldest form of host defense, as phagocytes have been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals. 1924:

when cross-linked by antigen. Type II hypersensitivity occurs when antibodies bind to antigens on the individual's own cells, marking them for destruction. This is also called antibody-dependent (or cytotoxic) hypersensitivity, and is mediated by

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that are not found on normal cells. To the immune system, these antigens appear foreign, and their presence causes immune cells to attack the transformed tumor cells. The antigens expressed by tumors have several sources; some are derived from

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During wake periods, differentiated effector cells, such as cytotoxic natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes, peak to elicit an effective response against any intruding pathogens. Anti-inflammatory molecules, such as cortisol and

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Many species, however, use mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity. Immune systems appear even in the structurally simplest forms of life, with bacteria using a unique defense mechanism, called the

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is an immune response that damages the body's own tissues. It is divided into four classes (Type I – IV) based on the mechanisms involved and the time course of the hypersensitive reaction. Type I hypersensitivity is an immediate or

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activation of complement molecules, which are also proteases. After complement proteins initially bind to the microbe, they activate their protease activity, which in turn activates other complement proteases, and so on. This produces a

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that counteract the action of the drugs, particularly if the drugs are administered repeatedly, or in larger doses. This limits the effectiveness of drugs based on larger peptides and proteins (which are typically larger than 6000

1506:, can be affected through the disturbance of natural light and dark cycles through instances of sleep deprivation. These disruptions can lead to an increase in chronic conditions such as heart disease, chronic pain, and asthma. 849:

Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection. The symptoms of inflammation are redness, swelling, heat, and pain, which are caused by increased blood flow into tissue. Inflammation is produced by

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that nurture tumor development or promote stem-cell-like plasticity. In addition, a combination of hypoxia in the tumor and a cytokine produced by macrophages induces tumor cells to decrease production of a protein that blocks

3489:"Antibacterial properties of the sperm-binding proteins and peptides of human epididymis 2 (HE2) family; salt sensitivity, structural dependence and their interaction with outer and cytoplasmic membranes of Escherichia coli" 2667:

Unlike animals, plants lack phagocytic cells, but many plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant. Individual plant cells respond to molecules associated with pathogens known as

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does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies—it only borrows them. This passive immunity is usually short-term, lasting from a few days up to several months. In medicine, protective passive immunity can also be

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Dendritic cells are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the external environment; therefore, they are located mainly in the skin, nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. They are named for their resemblance to

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Newborn infants have no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother. During pregnancy, a particular type of antibody, called

1578:, also peak during awake active times. Inflammation would cause serious cognitive and physical impairments if it were to occur during wake times, and inflammation may occur during sleep times due to the presence of 1063:

is necessary for its thymus development and activity. In contrast, the B cell antigen-specific receptor is an antibody molecule on the B cell surface and recognizes native (unprocessed) antigen without any need for

1937:(aggregations of antigens, complement proteins, and IgG and IgM antibodies) deposited in various tissues trigger Type III hypersensitivity reactions. Type IV hypersensitivity (also known as cell-mediated or 663:). These cells identify and eliminate pathogens, either by attacking larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing microorganisms. The other cells involved in the innate response include 387:

are examples of mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection. Organisms cannot be completely sealed from their environments, so systems act to protect body openings such as the

6330:"The roles of prolactin, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-I, and thyroid hormones in lymphocyte development and function: insights from genetic models of hormone and hormone receptor deficiency" 2018:

and cytotoxic factors may also be released. These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens.

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to produce receptor diversity and can also develop a memory phenotype. On the other hand, the various subsets are also part of the innate immune system, as restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as

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Microorganisms or toxins that successfully enter an organism encounter the cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system. The innate response is usually triggered when microbes are identified by

1007:, where each pathogen is "remembered" by a signature antigen. The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific "non-self" antigens during a process called 1595:

lymphocytes decreases and antibody production declines. This may give rise to a window of opportunity for infection and reactivation of latent virus infections, but the evidence is inconclusive.

4291: 12281: 3281: 8543:"A malignant flame. Understanding chronic inflammation, which contributes to heart disease, Alzheimer's and a variety of other ailments, may be a key to unlocking the mysteries of cancer" 2764:, they may insert a hollow tube into the host cell, providing a direct route for proteins to move from the pathogen to the host. These proteins are often used to shut down host defenses. 1570:

cell proliferation, and naïve T cell migration to lymph nodes. This is also thought to support the formation of long-lasting immune memory through the initiation of Th1 immune responses.

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Minari AL, Thomatieli-Santos RV (January 2022). "From skeletal muscle damage and regeneration to the hypertrophy induced by exercise: what is the role of different macrophage subsets?".

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and non-self, and attacks part of the body. Under normal circumstances, many T cells and antibodies react with "self" peptides. One of the functions of specialized cells (located in the

147:, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens more efficiently. Adaptive (or acquired) immunity creates an 1498:

may have a diminished effect and may result in lower antibody production, and a lower immune response, than would be noted in a well-rested individual. Additionally, proteins such as

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The time-course of an immune response begins with the initial pathogen encounter, (or initial vaccination) and leads to the formation and maintenance of active immunological memory.

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and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection. Macrophages are versatile cells that reside within tissues and produce an array of chemicals including enzymes,

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Beutler B, Jiang Z, Georgel P, Crozat K, Croker B, Rutschmann S, Du X, Hoebe K (2006). "Genetic analysis of host resistance: Toll-like receptor signaling and immunity at large".

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Cutolo M, Sulli A, Capellino S, Villaggio B, Montagna P, Seriolo B, Straub RH (2004). "Sex hormones influence on the immune system: basic and clinical aspects in autoimmunity".

1264:. The B cell then displays these antigenic peptides on its surface MHC class II molecules. This combination of MHC and antigen attracts a matching helper T cell, which releases 6957:

Simpson RJ, Campbell JP, Gleeson M, Krüger K, Nieman DC, Pyne DB, Turner JE, Walsh NP (2020). "Can exercise affect immune function to increase susceptibility to infection?".

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Barrangou R, Fremaux C, Deveau H, Richards M, Boyaval P, Moineau S, Romero DA, Horvath P (March 2007). "CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes".

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occur when one or more of the components of the immune system are inactive. The ability of the immune system to respond to pathogens is diminished in both the young and the

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also contains antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant and protect against bacterial infections until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies. This is

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are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found in all animals and plants, and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity. The

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Cells in the innate immune system have pattern recognition receptors, which detect infection or cell damage, inside. Three major classes of these "cytosolic" receptors are

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Paradoxically, macrophages can promote tumor growth when tumor cells send out cytokines that attract macrophages, which then generate cytokines and growth factors such as

3012:; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a joint Nobel Prize in 1908, along with the founder of cellular immunology, 1296:. Antibodies can also neutralize challenges directly, by binding to bacterial toxins or by interfering with the receptors that viruses and bacteria use to infect cells. 2778:

inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the

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sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that they have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block virus replication through a form of

1135:. The T cell then travels throughout the body in search of cells where the MHC I receptors bear this antigen. When an activated T cell contacts such cells, it releases 7634: 2897:

is formed from the outermost membrane of the host cell; such "self-cloaked" viruses make it difficult for the immune system to identify them as "non-self" structures.

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have identified a cancer cell (the large, spiky mass). Upon fusing with the cancer cell, the macrophages (smaller white cells) inject toxins that kill the tumor cell.

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and activation of other host defense programs that are necessary for both innate or adaptive immune responses. Ten toll-like receptors have been described in humans.

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occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. In humans, immunodeficiency can be the result of a

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components. Since many antigens derived from acellular vaccines do not strongly induce the adaptive response, most bacterial vaccines are provided with additional

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noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. In the 18th century,

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identifies pathogens when antibodies on its surface bind to a specific foreign antigen. This antigen/antibody complex is taken up by the B cell and processed by

7769: 2423:. A publicly accessible database has been established for the cataloguing of epitopes from pathogens known to be recognizable by B cells. The emerging field of 1182:

Helper T cells express T cell receptors that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules. The MHC:antigen complex is also recognized by the helper cell's

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serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, changing the conditions in their environment, such as

2287:, while others are the organism's own proteins that occur at low levels in normal cells but reach high levels in tumor cells. One example is an enzyme called 1356:

The immune system is involved in many aspects of physiological regulation in the body. The immune system interacts intimately with other systems, such as the

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that attacks the surfaces of foreign cells. It contains over 20 different proteins and is named for its ability to "complement" the killing of pathogens by

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Taylor AL, Watson CJ, Bradley JA (October 2005). "Immunosuppressive agents in solid organ transplantation: Mechanisms of action and therapeutic efficacy".

7644: 5689: 4974: 752:, as both have many spine-like projections. Dendritic cells serve as a link between the bodily tissues and the innate and adaptive immune systems, as they 2094:. Their use is tightly controlled. Lower doses of anti-inflammatory drugs are often used in conjunction with cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs such as 940:. In humans, this response is activated by complement binding to antibodies that have attached to these microbes or the binding of complement proteins to 10712: 2333:

The main response of the immune system to tumors is to destroy the abnormal cells using killer T cells, sometimes with the assistance of helper T cells.

647:(white blood cells) act like independent, single-celled organisms and are the second arm of the innate immune system. The innate leukocytes include the 11456: 1941:) usually takes between two and three days to develop. Type IV reactions are involved in many autoimmune and infectious diseases, but may also involve 5865:

Wick G, Hu Y, Schwarz S, Kroemer G (October 1993). "Immunoendocrine communication via the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in autoimmune diseases".

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to protect themselves from the cells and proteins of the immune system. Such biofilms are present in many successful infections, such as the chronic

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are leukocytes that have granules in their cytoplasm. In this category are neutrophils, mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils. Mast cells reside in

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Guevara-Patiño JA, Turk MJ, Wolchok JD, Houghton AN (2003). "Immunity to cancer through immune recognition of altered self: studies with melanoma".

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Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the body in pursuit of invading pathogens. Neutrophils are normally found in the

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Platnich JM, Muruve DA (February 2019). "NOD-like receptors and inflammasomes: A review of their canonical and non-canonical signaling pathways".

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An antibody is made up of two heavy chains and two light chains. The unique variable region allows an antibody to recognize its matching antigen.

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binds to this specific antigen in a complex with the MHC Class I receptor of another cell. Recognition of this MHC:antigen complex is aided by a

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that are essential for entry into its host target cell are constantly changing. These frequent changes in antigens may explain the failures of

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molecules. These two mechanisms of antigen presentation reflect the different roles of the two types of T cell. A third, minor subtype are the

12662: 4538: 1308:, so human babies have high levels of antibodies even at birth, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother. Breast milk or 973:(coat) the surface of a pathogen, marking it for destruction. This deposition of complement can also kill cells directly by disrupting their 8019:

Castelli C, Rivoltini L, Andreola G, Carrabba M, Renkvist N, Parmiani G (March 2000). "T-cell recognition of melanoma-associated antigens".

2396:). In some cases, the drug itself is not immunogenic, but may be co-administered with an immunogenic compound, as is sometimes the case for 2201:

causes of death in the human population, vaccination represents the most effective manipulation of the immune system mankind has developed.

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or surgical removal results in severe immunodeficiency and a high susceptibility to infection. Immunodeficiencies can also be inherited or '

1213:, γδ T cells straddle the border between innate and adaptive immunity. On one hand, γδ T cells are a component of adaptive immunity as they 12667: 5900:

Kroemer G, Brezinschek HP, Faessler R, Schauenstein K, Wick G (June 1988). "Physiology and pathology of an immunoendocrine feedback loop".

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experimented with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom. In the 10th century, Persian physician

6908:"Debunking the Myth of Exercise-Induced Immune Suppression: Redefining the Impact of Exercise on Immunological Health Across the Lifespan" 5828:

Sauls RS, McCausland C, Taylor BN. Histology, T-Cell Lymphocyte. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2023. Accessed November 15, 2023.

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Brouns SJ, Jore MM, Lundgren M, Westra ER, Slijkhuis RJ, Snijders AP, Dickman MJ, Makarova KS, Koonin EV, van der Oost J (August 2008).

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results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include

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Guermonprez P, Valladeau J, Zitvogel L, Théry C, Amigorena S (2002). "Antigen presentation and T cell stimulation by dendritic cells".

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The mechanisms used to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated. The simplest approach is to rapidly change non-essential

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An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called

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molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (originally named for being

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Frumento G, Piazza T, Di Carlo E, Ferrini S (September 2006). "Targeting tumor-related immunosuppression for cancer immunotherapy".

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leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of

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memory is acquired following infection by activation of B and T cells. Active immunity can also be generated artificially, through

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against a pathogen. The innate immune system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms, and the only one in plants.

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molecules are components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. Conversely,

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reaction, often associated with allergy. Symptoms can range from mild discomfort to death. Type I hypersensitivity is mediated by

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Althwaiqeb SA, Bordoni B. Histology, B Cell Lymphocyte. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2023. Accessed November 15, 2023.

1784:. Diets lacking sufficient protein are associated with impaired cell-mediated immunity, complement activity, phagocyte function, 1643:") is similar to that seen during bacterial infections, after exercise the cell population returns to normal by around 24 hours. 1051:

that recognize intact antigens that are not bound to MHC receptors. The double-positive T cells are exposed to a wide variety of

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and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, representing 50% to 60% of total circulating leukocytes. During the acute phase of

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Failures of host defense occur and fall into three broad categories: immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, and hypersensitivities.

1040: 932:. Complement is the major humoral component of the innate immune response. Many species have complement systems, including non- 548: 10158: 4554: 952:

triggers a rapid killing response. The speed of the response is a result of signal amplification that occurs after sequential

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common phenomenon with tumors. Sometimes antibodies are generated against tumor cells allowing for their destruction by the

547:, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils, and epithelial cells, to identify two classes of molecules: 6075:

Wilcox SM, Arora H, Munro L, Xin J, Fenninger F, Johnson LA, Pfeifer CG, Choi KB, Hou J, Hoodless PA, Jefferies WA (2017).

4915: 556: 9222:"Evolution of RNA- and DNA-guided antivirus defense systems in prokaryotes and eukaryotes: common ancestry vs convergence" 4459:

Spits H, Cupedo T (2012). "Innate lymphoid cells: emerging insights in development, lineage relationships, and function".

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by complement. Many pathogens secrete compounds that diminish or misdirect the host's immune response. Some bacteria form

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to be able to stimulate or "boost" the immune system generally lack meaningful explanation and evidence of effectiveness.

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inhibit the immune response by killing dividing cells such as activated T cells. This killing is indiscriminate and other

1673:. These cells differentiate into two types: proliferative macrophages, which are responsible for increasing the number of 505:

or available iron. As a result, the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness is reduced.

10665: 6800:"Physical exercise as a tool to help the immune system against COVID-19: an integrative review of the current literature" 2684:

is a type of defensive response used by plants that renders the entire plant resistant to a particular infectious agent.

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progressively macrophages acquire pro-tumor M2 functions driven by the tumor microenvironment, including IL-4 and IL-10.

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Although cellular studies indicate that vitamin D has receptors and probable functions in the immune system, there is no

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provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use

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Kanduc D (September 2019). "From hepatitis C virus immunoproteomics to rheumatology via cross-reactivity in one table".

1534:. These signals induce a pro-inflammatory state through the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1, 12259: 10698: 6285:

Fimmel S, Zouboulis CC (2005). "Influence of physiological androgen levels on wound healing and immune status in men".

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Sproul TW, Cheng PC, Dykstra ML, Pierce SK (2000). "A role for MHC class II antigen processing in B cell development".

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Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self

12407: 11442: 11401: 10651: 10588: 10418: 10391: 7783: 6176:"Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) concentrations in cervical mucus of women with normal menstrual cycle" 5118: 1971:

Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection, but it can appear without known cause.

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and the presence of melatonin during sleep times could actively counteract free radical production during this time.

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Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers. The waxy

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Wira CR, Crane-Godreau M, Grant K (2004). Ogra PL, Mestecky J, Lamm ME, Strober W, McGhee JR, Bienenstock J (eds.).

6442:. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by the National Institutes of Health. National Academies Press. 4416:

Kariyawasam HH, Robinson DS (April 2006). "The eosinophil: the cell and its weapons, the cytokines, its locations".

2735:(VLRs) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of 12552: 11044: 8425:

Syn NL, Teng MW, Mok TS, Soo RA (December 2017). "De-novo and acquired resistance to immune checkpoint targeting".

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characterized by the disturbed development of functional T cells and B cells caused by numerous genetic mutations.

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Kobayashi H (2005). "Airway biofilms: implications for pathogenesis and therapy of respiratory tract infections".

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Bryant PA, Trinder J, Curtis N (June 2004). "Sick and tired: Does sleep have a vital role in the immune system?".

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Martin P, Leibovich SJ (November 2005). "Inflammatory cells during wound repair: the good, the bad and the ugly".

2630:. Prokaryotes also possess other defense mechanisms. Offensive elements of the immune systems are also present in 1487:) sleep. Thus the immune response to infection may result in changes to the sleep cycle, including an increase in 1244: 559:(DAMPs), which are associated with components of host's cells that are released during cell damage or cell death. 11274: 10605: 7309:

Joos L, Tamm M (2005). "Breakdown of pulmonary host defense in the immunocompromised host: cancer chemotherapy".

4246: 2844:. Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include 2603: 9793: 5728: 5013: 2992:

Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments in the study of

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and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known reference to immunity was during the

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The immune response can be manipulated to suppress unwanted responses resulting from autoimmunity, allergy, and

1459:, and infections ... could not be linked reliably with calcium or vitamin D intake and were often conflicting." 11409: 11039: 8786:

Söllner J, Mayer B (2006). "Machine learning approaches for prediction of linear B-cell epitopes on proteins".

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Moriyama A, Shimoya K, Ogata I, Kimura T, Nakamura T, Wada H, Ohashi K, Azuma C, Saji F, Murata Y (July 1999).

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Langermans JA, Hazenbos WL, van Furth R (September 1994). "Antimicrobial functions of mononuclear phagocytes".

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da Silveira MP, da Silva Fagundes KK, Bizuti MR, Starck É, Rossi RC, de Resende E, Silva DT (February 2021).

2942: 1809: 1654:) decreases during intense exercise but returns to normal after 4 to 6 hours. Although up to 2% of the cells 1003:

The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as

822: 737:, and cytokines. They can also act as scavengers that rid the body of worn-out cells and other debris and as 520: 246:. If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of protection, the 4494:

Gabrielli S, Ortolani C, Del Zotto G, Luchetti F, Canonico B, Buccella F, Artico M, Papa S, Zamai L (2016).

11477: 11339: 5355:

McHeyzer-Williams LJ, Malherbe LP, McHeyzer-Williams MG (2006). "Helper T cell-regulated B cell immunity".

2732: 2681: 2637: 2542: 1887: 1483:

produced in response to infection, appear to also play a role in the regulation of non-rapid eye movement (

1219: 608: 536: 211: 37: 7262:"Educational paper: The expanding clinical and immunological spectrum of severe combined immunodeficiency" 5267:

Radoja S, Frey AB, Vukmanovic S (2006). "T-cell receptor signaling events triggering granule exocytosis".

2874:

and/or sugars) on the surface of the pathogen, while keeping essential epitopes concealed. This is called

12704: 6077:"The role of the innate immune response regulatory gene ABCF1 in mammalian embryogenesis and development" 3673: 3452:

Fair WR, Couch J, Wehner N (February 1976). "Prostatic antibacterial factor. Identity and significance".

2700: 2366: 8322:"Molecular mechanisms of HLA class I antigen abnormalities following viral infection and transformation" 5229:

Harty JT, Tvinnereim AR, White DW (2000). "CD8+ T cell effector mechanisms in resistance to infection".

12874: 12294: 12178: 10868: 10629: 6530:

Krueger JM, Majde JA (May 2003). "Humoral links between sleep and the immune system: research issues".

4184: 2816: 1875: 1322: 806: 199: 5570: 1691:

The immune system, particularly the innate component, plays a decisive role in tissue repair after an

1480: 1194:), which provide extra stimulatory signals typically required to activate antibody-producing B cells. 12138: 11220: 8598:

Cervantes-Villagrana RD, Albores-García D, Cervantes-Villagrana AR, García-Acevez SJ (18 June 2020).

7829: 3009: 2761: 2109: 1546:. These cytokines then stimulate immune functions such as immune cell activation, proliferation, and 10690: 7522:

Farhy LS, McCall AL (July 2015). "Glucagon - the new 'insulin' in the pathophysiology of diabetes".

5410:"Human CD8+ T cells do not require the polarization of lipid rafts for activation and proliferation" 3538:"The role of gastric acid in preventing foodborne disease and how bacteria overcome acid conditions" 2419:

techniques using databases of existing known epitopes, usually on well-studied virus proteins, as a

2045:, and to stimulate protective responses against pathogens that largely elude the immune system (see 12146: 11367: 11139: 10619: 8597: 3067: 3051: 2962: 2836: 2757: 1883: 1817: 790:

are related to neutrophils. They secrete chemical mediators that are involved in defending against

207: 3064:– when the immune system uses immunological memory upon encountering a slightly different pathogen 1628: 11206: 11188: 11171: 11048: 10806: 6410: 2938: 2673: 2388: 2217: 1440: 1068:. Such antigens may be large molecules found on the surfaces of pathogens, but can also be small 1024: 738: 576: 311: 301: 191: 9591:

Cianciotto NP (December 2005). "Type II secretion: a protein secretion system for all seasons".

5097:

Holtmeier W, Kabelitz D (2005). "gammadelta T cells link innate and adaptive immune responses".

3025: 2112:

and their organs are affected, which causes toxic side effects. Immunosuppressive drugs such as

12928: 12072: 11977: 11829: 11070: 10788: 10724: 10205: 9626:

Winstanley C, Hart CA (February 2001). "Type III secretion systems and pathogenicity islands".

9273:"Origins and evolutionary relationships between the innate and adaptive arms of immune systems" 5669: 3761:

Kumar H, Kawai T, Akira S (February 2011). "Pathogen recognition by the innate immune system".

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is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from

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millions of copies of the antibody that recognizes this antigen. These antibodies circulate in

1094: 1036: 990: 672: 432: 421: 307: 297: 247: 132: 105: 97: 12316: 10139: 9956: 9869:

Taylor JE, Rudenko G (November 2006). "Switching trypanosome coats: what's in the wardrobe?".

8600:"Tumor-induced Neurogenesis and Immune Evasion as Targets of Innovative Anti-Cancer Therapies" 6136:, Chapter: Endocrine regulation of the mucosal immune system in the female reproductive tract. 4930: 4828:

Rus H, Cudrici C, Niculescu F (2005). "The role of the complement system in innate immunity".

3387: 12468: 12290: 11879: 11017: 10873: 10851: 10517: 8581: 7446: 7205:

Miller JF (July 2002). "The discovery of thymus function and of thymus-derived lymphocytes".

5043: 4382: 4085:

Ryter A (1985). "Relationship between ultrastructure and specific functions of macrophages".

3878: 3021: 2961:. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the 2906: 2852: 2775: 2468:

do not generate lymphocytes or an antibody-based humoral response. Immune systems evolved in

2387:

Some drugs can cause a neutralizing immune response, meaning that the immune system produces

1636: 1452: 1210: 1019:

The cells of the adaptive immune system are special types of leukocytes, called lymphocytes.

966: 648: 563: 230:

with layered defenses of increasing specificity. Physical barriers prevent pathogens such as

12378: 12345: 9753:

Housden NG, Harrison S, Roberts SE, Beckingham JA, Graille M, Stura E, Gore MG (June 2003).

9365: 8957:"Origin and evolution of the adaptive immune system: genetic events and selective pressures" 8880:

Flower DR, Doytchinova IA (2002). "Immunoinformatics and the prediction of immunogenicity".

5408:

Kovacs B, Maus MV, Riley JL, Derimanov GS, Koretzky GA, June CH, Finkel TH (November 2002).

5304:

Abbas AK, Murphy KM, Sher A (October 1996). "Functional diversity of helper T lymphocytes".

3345:

Agerberth B, Gudmundsson GH (2006). "Host antimicrobial defence peptides in human disease".

2362:

may develop against tumor antigens, so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells.

12368: 12108: 12054: 11844: 11245: 11034: 10967: 10878: 10802: 9823: 9503: 9448: 9403: 9127: 9062: 8557: 8226: 6539: 6088: 5944: 5421: 5313: 3688: 3628: 2970: 2945:(also known as Rhazes) wrote the first recorded theory of acquired immunity, noting that a 2640:

are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with pathogens.

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leave the blood circulation and migrate to the muscles where they differentiate and become

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molecules, while helper T cells and regulatory T cells only recognize antigens coupled to

8: 11857: 11626: 11289: 11094: 11029: 11012: 10846: 10764: 7565: 3072: 2875: 2565: 2117: 1855: 1495: 1456: 1400: 1392: 1214: 1048: 925: 711: 680: 592: 571: 431:

Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete

242:

provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all

12289: 10455:

Rajalingam R (2012). "Overview of the Killer Cell Immunoglobulin-Like Receptor System".

10175: 9827: 9507: 9452: 9407: 9177:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

9131: 9066: 8561: 8230: 8182: 8155: 7449:. Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 12 June 2017. 6543: 6092: 5948: 5654: 5425: 5317: 3692: 3632: 965:. The cascade results in the production of peptides that attract immune cells, increase 12049: 11920: 11682: 11673: 11659: 10914: 10253: 10228: 10117: 10092: 9930: 9905: 9846: 9811: 9785: 9735: 9573: 9472: 9338: 9313: 9248: 9221: 9197: 9172: 9148: 9115: 9096: 8981: 8956: 8932: 8857: 8830: 8811: 8722: 8697: 8673: 8648: 8624: 8599: 8488: 8351: 8299: 8247: 8214: 8195: 8044: 7997: 7961: 7936: 7873: 7779: 7774: 7603: 7547: 7504: 7418: 7286: 7261: 7230: 7138: 7113: 7053: 7028: 7009: 6934: 6907: 6888: 6824: 6799: 6749: 6724: 6697: 6672: 6648: 6623: 6563: 6551: 6512: 6469: 6310: 6233: 6111: 6076: 6012: 5987: 5968: 5720: 5623: 5337: 5005: 4853: 4807: 4607: 4522: 4495: 4441: 4343: 4318: 4238: 4034: 4007: 3983: 3958: 3934: 3909: 3890: 3835: 3786: 3712: 3654: 3513: 3488: 3246: 3198: 3173: 3137: 3112: 3056: 2978: 2888: 2858: 1942: 1854:

Overactive immune responses form the other end of immune dysfunction, particularly the

1781: 1704: 1502:, which have been shown to be closely intertwined with both T-cell differentiation and 1448: 1334: 1202: 1108: 1065: 722: 567: 524: 159: 57: 45: 9687: 9662: 9030: 9005: 8569: 8438: 8382: 8122: 8074: 7743: 7492: 7393:

Miller JF (1993). "Self-nonself discrimination and tolerance in T and B lymphocytes".

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Trakhtenberg EF, Goldberg JL (October 2011). "Immunology. Neuroimmune communication".

5758: 5444: 5409: 4941: 4276: 3959:"Toll-like receptors in immunity and inflammatory diseases: Past, present, and future" 12694: 12248: 12238: 11769: 11566: 11324: 11257: 10962: 10728: 10657: 10647: 10584: 10558: 10548: 10529: 10505: 10495: 10478: 10468: 10441: 10424: 10414: 10387: 10369: 10354: 10337: 10327: 10298: 10279: 10184: 10122: 10049: 9987: 9935: 9921: 9886: 9851: 9777: 9727: 9723: 9692: 9643: 9608: 9565: 9544:"Anti-immunology: evasion of the host immune system by bacterial and viral pathogens" 9521: 9464: 9421: 9343: 9294: 9253: 9202: 9153: 9088: 9035: 8986: 8936: 8924: 8889: 8862: 8803: 8768: 8763: 8746: 8727: 8698:"Immunogenicity of protein therapeutics: The key causes, consequences and challenges" 8678: 8629: 8573: 8523: 8480: 8476: 8442: 8396: 8386: 8343: 8291: 8252: 8187: 8136: 8126: 8088: 8078: 8048: 8036: 8001: 7966: 7917: 7865: 7747: 7712: 7677: 7673: 7539: 7496: 7410: 7375: 7326: 7291: 7222: 7218: 7187: 7143: 7129: 7058: 7013: 7001: 6966: 6939: 6880: 6829: 6754: 6702: 6653: 6604: 6555: 6504: 6461: 6451: 6392: 6351: 6302: 6267: 6225: 6197: 6163: 6116: 6057: 6017: 5960: 5917: 5913: 5882: 5811: 5806: 5781: 5762: 5712: 5658: 5615: 5541: 5500: 5496: 5449: 5378: 5368: 5329: 5286: 5282: 5246: 5242: 5180: 5159: 5124: 5114: 5047: 4997: 4955: 4945: 4894: 4845: 4799: 4764: 4726: 4712:"Chemokines and chemokine receptors: their manifold roles in homeostasis and disease" 4689: 4645: 4641: 4599: 4527: 4476: 4445: 4433: 4386: 4348: 4280: 4230: 4176: 4137: 4133: 4102: 4098: 4072: 4039: 3988: 3939: 3882: 3827: 3778: 3704: 3646: 3597: 3559: 3518: 3469: 3465: 3434: 3430: 3399: 3386:

Moreau JM, Girgis DO, Hume EB, Dajcs JJ, Austin MS, O'Callaghan RJ (September 2001).

3368: 3358: 3327: 3291: 3238: 3203: 3142: 3005: 2779: 2704: 2689: 2649: 2429: 2339: 2233: 2205: 2197: 2071: 1765: 1712: 1468: 1416: 1289: 962: 767: 734: 707: 691: 588: 405: 140: 89: 9789: 9739: 9577: 8815: 8369:

Hayakawa Y, Smyth MJ (2006). "Innate immune recognition and suppression of tumors".

8303: 8215:"Cancer Regression in Patients After Transfer of Genetically Engineered Lymphocytes" 8199: 7877: 7551: 7508: 7422: 7234: 6876: 6567: 6516: 6473: 6237: 5972: 5724: 5009: 4857: 4811: 4242: 3894: 3839: 3790: 3716: 3250: 3029: 12647: 12215: 11722: 11705: 11586: 11536: 11531: 11414: 11357: 11334: 11294: 11163: 11082: 11022: 10994: 10989: 10957: 10944: 10934: 10460: 10406: 10322: 10317: 10248: 10240: 10171: 10112: 10104: 10041: 10014: 9925: 9917: 9878: 9841: 9831: 9769: 9719: 9682: 9678: 9674: 9635: 9600: 9555: 9511: 9476: 9456: 9411: 9333: 9325: 9284: 9243: 9233: 9192: 9184: 9143: 9135: 9100: 9078: 9070: 9025: 9021: 9017: 8976: 8968: 8916: 8852: 8842: 8795: 8758: 8717: 8709: 8668: 8660: 8619: 8611: 8565: 8515: 8492: 8472: 8434: 8378: 8355: 8333: 8283: 8242: 8234: 8177: 8167: 8118: 8070: 8028: 7993: 7956: 7948: 7907: 7855: 7819: 7739: 7704: 7669: 7531: 7488: 7402: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7318: 7281: 7273: 7214: 7177: 7133: 7125: 7048: 7040: 6993: 6929: 6919: 6892: 6872: 6819: 6811: 6744: 6736: 6692: 6684: 6643: 6635: 6594: 6547: 6496: 6443: 6382: 6341: 6314: 6294: 6257: 6217: 6187: 6155: 6106: 6096: 6047: 6007: 5999: 5952: 5909: 5874: 5801: 5793: 5754: 5704: 5650: 5627: 5607: 5531: 5492: 5439: 5429: 5360: 5341: 5321: 5278: 5238: 5151: 5106: 5039: 4989: 4937: 4884: 4837: 4791: 4756: 4679: 4637: 4611: 4589: 4517: 4507: 4468: 4425: 4378: 4338: 4330: 4272: 4222: 4168: 4129: 4094: 4029: 4019: 3978: 3970: 3929: 3921: 3874: 3817: 3770: 3696: 3658: 3636: 3589: 3577: 3549: 3508: 3500: 3461: 3426: 3350: 3317: 3230: 3193: 3185: 3132: 3124: 3013: 2993: 2930: 2685: 2657: 2627: 2434: 2416: 2359: 2065: 1930: 1926: 1913: 1904: 1899: 1805: 1785: 1761: 1753: 1748: 1692: 1658:

most migrate from the blood to the tissues, mainly the intestines and lungs, where

1620: 1608: 1583: 1527: 1503: 1396: 1388: 1369: 1357: 1301: 1285: 1239: 1100: 1073: 1032: 879: 620: 448: 171: 144: 101: 81: 10624: 6986:

American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology

6639: 5797: 3388:"Phospholipase A(2) in rabbit tears: a host defense against Staphylococcus aureus" 2918:(1854–1915) was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1908 for his contributions to immunology. 2688:

mechanisms are particularly important in this systemic response as they can block

2672:

or PAMPs. When a part of a plant becomes infected, the plant produces a localized

12900: 12580: 12443: 12297: 12223: 12171: 12123: 12044: 11641: 11469: 11419: 11379: 11319: 11314: 11279: 11131: 10977: 10641: 10464: 10379: 10146: 8920: 7826: 7708: 7535: 7044: 6413:. Office of Dietary Supplements, US National Institutes of Health. 17 August 2021 6101: 4296: 4294: 4008:"Pattern recognition receptors and the innate immune response to viral infection" 3974: 3774: 3017: 2841: 2712: 2590: 2501: 2291:

that, when expressed at high levels, transforms certain skin cells (for example,

2264: 2129: 2083: 1488: 1124: 818: 814: 771: 360: 175: 96:

provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The

10410: 9906:"Plunder and stowaways: incorporation of cellular proteins by enveloped viruses" 5359:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 311. pp. 59–83. 4319:"Elucidation of monocyte/macrophage dynamics and function by intravital imaging" 3554: 3537: 3349:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 306. pp. 67–90. 2460:

It is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first

2379:

covers the medical ways to stimulate the immune system to attack cancer tumors.

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antibody concentrations, and cytokine production. Additionally, the loss of the

1677:

and restorative macrophages, which are involved their maturing to muscle cells.

12912: 12888: 12353: 12100: 11990: 11834: 11812: 11785: 11631: 11486: 11004: 10949: 10890: 10810: 10783: 10525: 9816:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Alder MN, Rogozin IB, Iyer LM, Glazko GV, Cooper MD, Pancer Z (December 2005).

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4684: 4667: 4226: 3822: 3805: 3736: 3728: 3726: 2981:. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the 2879: 2708: 2424: 2272: 2221: 2079: 2075: 1934: 1816:

have a reduced ability to destroy pathogens, is an example of an inherited, or

1535: 1519: 1424: 1399:

of both adaptive and innate immune responses. Some autoimmune diseases such as

1361: 1119: 949: 899: 660: 616: 574:, which give them a curved shape. Toll-like receptors were first discovered in 167: 77: 32: 10679: 10661: 10562: 10401:

Krishnaswamy G, Ajitawi O, Chi DS (2006). "The human mast cell: an overview".

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Miller SB (August 2006). "Prostaglandins in health and disease: an overview".

4334: 3925: 3593: 3189: 2707:. Many of the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (for example, 1994:

that attract certain white blood cells (leukocytes). Common cytokines include

1760:, with immune responses beginning to decline at around 50 years of age due to 1720: 1222:. For example, large numbers of human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to 1167: 12922: 12334: 12243: 12083: 11938: 11867: 11621: 11556: 11389: 11262: 11240: 10972: 10861: 10509: 10045: 9492:"Diversity and function of adaptive immune receptors in a jawless vertebrate" 7441: 7182: 7165: 6924: 6262: 6245: 6192: 6175: 2954: 2846: 2804: 2768: 2607: 2393: 2334: 2326: 2322: 2300: 2133: 2087: 2035: 2015: 1983: 1773: 1624: 1619:

of all types. This is caused by the frictional force of blood flowing on the

1575: 1476: 1365: 1269: 1206: 1175: 1144: 1104: 974: 907: 859: 810: 706:. The pathogen is killed by the activity of digestive enzymes or following a 703: 425: 400:. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other 372: 331: 120: 10351:

Pharmacology in Rehabilitation (Contemporary Perspectives in Rehabilitation)

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Doherty M, Robertson MJ (December 2004). "Some early Trends in Immunology".

9978:

Retief FP, Cilliers L (January 1998). "The epidemic of Athens, 430–426 BC".

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Hankiewicz J, Swierczek E (December 1974). "Lysozyme in human body fluids".

3354: 1419:. Other hormones appear to regulate the immune system as well, most notably 1288:, bind to pathogens expressing the antigen and mark them for destruction by 995: 774:

and regulate the inflammatory response. They are most often associated with

12562: 12228: 11551: 11499: 11434: 11329: 10939: 10924: 10919: 10856: 10754: 10482: 10428: 10126: 10053: 9939: 9890: 9855: 9781: 9731: 9647: 9612: 9569: 9525: 9468: 9425: 9347: 9298: 9289: 9272: 9257: 9206: 9188: 9157: 9092: 8990: 8928: 8893: 8866: 8847: 8807: 8731: 8713: 8682: 8633: 8577: 8527: 8484: 8446: 8400: 8347: 8295: 8256: 8191: 8140: 8092: 8040: 8005: 7921: 7912: 7895: 7869: 7765: 7751: 7716: 7681: 7543: 7500: 7330: 7295: 7226: 7147: 7062: 7005: 6970: 6943: 6884: 6833: 6758: 6706: 6657: 6608: 6559: 6508: 6465: 6396: 6355: 6346: 6329: 6306: 6271: 6229: 6201: 6167: 6120: 6061: 6021: 5964: 5815: 5766: 5716: 5619: 5545: 5536: 5519: 5453: 5434: 5382: 5290: 5250: 5163: 5128: 5051: 5001: 4898: 4849: 4803: 4768: 4730: 4693: 4649: 4603: 4563:, Chapter: Overview of the killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor system. 4531: 4512: 4480: 4437: 4390: 4352: 4284: 4234: 4180: 4172: 4043: 3992: 3943: 3886: 3831: 3782: 3708: 3650: 3563: 3522: 3403: 3372: 3331: 3242: 3207: 3146: 3001: 2982: 2915: 2771: 2653: 2555: 2497: 2479: 2469: 2465: 2420: 2314: 2276: 2268: 2189: 2147: 2105: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2061: 1987: 1871: 1867: 1859: 1837: 1777: 1640: 1412: 1281: 1273: 1136: 1052: 941: 937: 912: 871: 844: 726: 686: 539:

to recognize molecular structures that are produced by pathogens. They are

495: 488: 195: 163: 128: 10574:. Computing Centre, Slovak Academy of Sciences: Academic Electronic Press. 10018: 9991: 9755:"Immunoglobulin-binding domains: Protein L from Peptostreptococcus magnus" 9696: 9039: 8772: 8172: 7970: 7952: 7414: 7379: 7191: 5921: 5886: 5878: 5708: 5662: 5504: 5483:

Grewal IS, Flavell RA (1998). "CD40 and CD154 in cell-mediated immunity".

5354: 5333: 4959: 4429: 4141: 4106: 3601: 3438: 2953:

These and other observations of acquired immunity were later exploited by

2027: 729:, neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called 12609: 12557: 12453: 12391: 12307: 12156: 12005: 11985: 11800: 11795: 11735: 11384: 11180: 8745:

Welling GW, Weijer WJ, van der Zee R, Welling-Wester S (September 1985).

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10.1002/(SICI)1097-4652(200003)182:3<323::AID-JCP2>3.0.CO;2-#

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and survival, that commonly mutate into cancer inducing molecules called

2304: 2280: 2238:

Another important role of the immune system is to identify and eliminate

2185: 2167: 2155: 2137: 2113: 1995: 1991: 1909: 1870:

produced throughout the body and to eliminate those cells that recognize

1632: 1515: 1257: 1128: 1028: 953: 883: 875: 867: 779: 763: 456: 376: 152: 9980:

South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde

9460: 9416: 9391: 7035:. Innate immune pathways in wound healing/Peromyscus as a model system. 6797: 4711: 3641: 3616: 3487:

Yenugu S, Hamil KG, Birse CE, Ruben SM, French FS, Hall SH (June 2003).

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Venturi S, Venturi M (September 2009). "Iodine, thymus, and immunity".

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and phagocytic cells are also used by most forms of invertebrate life.

2611: 2493: 2461: 2438: 2412: 2404: 2401: 2397: 2371: 2355: 2351: 2318: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2151: 2064:

when excessive tissue damage occurs, and to prevent rejection after an

2007: 2003: 1982:, which are released by injured or infected cells. Eicosanoids include 1975: 1954: 1842: 1731:) could be less immunocompetent than organisms that cannot regenerate. 1700: 1696: 1674: 1670: 1647: 1616: 1265: 1227: 1152: 895: 891: 858:, which are released by injured or infected cells. Eicosanoids include 851: 791: 787: 730: 656: 652: 644: 632: 624: 460: 401: 238:

from entering the organism. If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the

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Van de Perre P (July 2003). "Transfer of antibody via mother's milk".

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Zen K, Parkos CA (October 2003). "Leukocyte-epithelial interactions".

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are only online.) A popular science explanation of the immune system.

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into the phagolysosome. Phagocytosis evolved as a means of acquiring

695: 668: 552: 498: 393: 227: 124: 11561: 10272:

Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walters P (2002).

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Liszewski MK, Farries TC, Lublin DM, Rooney IA, Atkinson JP (1996).

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Thompson MR, Kaminski JJ, Kurt-Jones EA, Fitzgerald KA (June 2011).

4005: 3234: 3128: 2911: 2664:, and are thought to play a role in the immune response to viruses. 1471:

is detrimental to immune function. Complex feedback loops involving

1023:

and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes and are derived from

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prevent T cells from responding to signals correctly by inhibiting

2078:

are the most powerful of these drugs and can have many undesirable

1979: 1950: 1793: 1666: 1659: 1551: 1511: 1455:

report stated that "outcomes related to ... immune functioning and

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to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant.

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that are responsible for communication between white blood cells;

1635:

in the blood increases and remains raised for up to six hours and

1403:

strike women preferentially, and their onset often coincides with

886:

that are responsible for communication between white blood cells;

603: 12788: 12783: 12778: 12768: 12753: 12738: 12733: 12723: 12233: 12151: 12128: 12032: 12022: 12017: 11955: 11891: 11596: 11546: 11521: 11115: 10929: 10778: 10749: 10643:

Immune: A Journey into the Mysterious System that Keeps You Alive

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Morgan RA, Dudley ME, Wunderlich JR, et al. (October 2006).

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Death and DALY estimates for 2002 by cause for WHO Member States.

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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

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Clinica Chimica Acta; International Journal of Clinical Chemistry

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and activates the B cell. As the activated B cell then begins to

1261: 1186:

co-receptor, which recruits molecules inside the T cell (such as

999:

Overview of the processes involved in the primary immune response

970: 945: 775: 540: 484: 281: 127:

and remain in their modern descendants. These mechanisms include

10188: 9752: 7114:"Immunosenescence: emerging challenges for an ageing population" 1858:. Here, the immune system fails to properly distinguish between 1776:, and drug use are common causes of poor immune function, while 12861: 12856: 12851: 12846: 12841: 12831: 12826: 12821: 12816: 12811: 12544: 12535: 12428: 12188: 12183: 12118: 12113: 12059: 11995: 11943: 11862: 11752: 11740: 11695: 11654: 11649: 11591: 11516: 11374: 11362: 11306: 11229: 11198: 11087: 11075: 10820: 10771: 10405:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 315. pp. 13–34. 9371:. Stanford University Department of Microbiology and Immunology 8153: 7730:

Masri MA (July 2003). "The mosaic of immunosuppressive drugs".

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Recognition of extracellular or endosomal PAMPs is mediated by

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Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Retrieved on 8 January 2007.

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drugs are often used to control the effects of inflammation.

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erators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific

235: 123:

infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient

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Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases

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in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of

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produced by microbes, and highly restricted Vδ1+ T cells in

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from a pathogen to stimulate the immune system and develop

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serves as a chemical defense against ingested pathogens.

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systems. The immune system also plays a crucial role in

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cascade that amplifies the initial signal by controlled

27:

Biological system protecting an organism against disease

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Peake JM, Neubauer O, Walsh NP, Simpson RJ (May 2017).

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amino acids; however, more recent developments rely on

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Revue d'histoire des sciences et de leurs applications

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and bone marrow) is to present young lymphocytes with

494:

Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts,

218:

covers the study of all aspects of the immune system.

111:

Nearly all organisms have some kind of immune system.

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National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

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The immune system is affected by sleep and rest, and

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that have anti-viral effects, such as shutting down

1639:

are present. Although the increase in neutrophils ("

1615:

During exercise there is an increase in circulating

1447:

increases the risk for immune diseases or vitamin D

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Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D

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Activation of macrophage or B cell by T helper cell

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Retrieved on 1 January 2007. 7362:10.1128/MMBR.60.4.722-742.1996 6432:Institute of Medicine (2011). 5270:Critical Reviews in Immunology 4500:Journal of Immunology Research 3297: 2456:Evolution of the immune system 2445:Evolution and other mechanisms 2161: 1179:cells to perform these tasks. 1031:. B cells are involved in the 182:, acquired conditions such as 13: 1: 12716:Killer-cell IG-like receptors 10275:Molecular Biology of the Cell 8439:10.1016/s1470-2045(17)30607-1 8383:10.1016/S0065-230X(06)95008-8 8123:10.1016/S0065-230X(03)90005-4 8075:10.1016/S0065-2776(06)92005-7 7744:10.1016/S0161-5890(03)00075-0 7493:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30173-8 6865:Journal of Applied Physiology 6677:Current Pharmaceutical Design 6640:10.1080/15402002.2015.1126596 5798:10.1128/CMR.13.4.602-614.2000 5786:Clinical Microbiology Reviews 5759:10.1016/S0264-410X(03)00336-0 4942:10.1016/S0065-2776(08)60868-8 4277:10.1016/S0955-0674(03)00103-0 4215:Current Pharmaceutical Design 3178:Current Opinion in Immunology 3078: 2973:, for which he was awarded a 2840:infections characteristic of 2733:Variable lymphocyte receptors 2638:Pattern recognition receptors 2299:. A third possible source of 2263:, which causes cancer of the 1939:delayed type hypersensitivity 1810:Chronic granulomatous disease 1599:Changes at the cellular level 1220:pattern recognition receptors 1037:cell-mediated immune response 823:recombination activating gene 821:(TCR) because of the lack of 635:, and many small disc-shaped 595:, and cytosolic DNA sensors. 537:pattern recognition receptors 521:pattern recognition receptors 10630:Resources in other libraries 10465:10.1007/978-1-61779-842-9_23 10227:Yewdell J (4 October 2003). 10193:history of humoral immunity. 9006:"Biology of DNA restriction" 8921:10.1097/BOR.0000000000000606 8764:10.1016/0014-5793(85)80374-4 8604:Signal Transduct Target Ther 7709:10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.12.052 7536:10.1097/mco.0000000000000192 7045:10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.08.008 6250:Molecular Human Reproduction 6180:Molecular Human Reproduction 6102:10.1371/journal.pone.0175918 5914:10.1016/0167-5699(88)91289-3 4323:Journal of Leukocyte Biology 4134:10.1016/0022-1759(94)90021-3 4099:10.1016/0147-9571(85)90039-6 3975:10.1016/j.intimp.2018.03.002 3775:10.3109/08830185.2010.529976 3615:Medzhitov R (October 2007). 3466:10.1016/0090-4295(76)90305-8 3431:10.1016/0009-8981(74)90398-2 3083: 2682:Systemic acquired resistance 2144:alternative health providers 1974:Inflammation is produced by 1888:systemic lupus erythematosus 1818:congenital, immunodeficiency 1434: 936:like plants, fish, and some 805:cells that are derived from 690:trapped in an intracellular 609:scanning electron microscope 471:, when they become slightly 424:serves to trap and entangle 212:systemic lupus erythematosus 192:immunosuppressive medication 108:to perform their functions. 38:scanning electron microscope 7: 12804:Leukocyte IG-like receptors 10583:. San Francisco: Elsevier. 10545:How the immune system works 10436:Murphy K, Weaver C (2016). 10229:"He put the Id in Idiotype" 9220:Koonin EV (February 2017). 8371:Advances in Cancer Research 8111:Advances in Cancer Research 7260:Burg M, Gennery AR (2011). 6725:"Sleep and immune function" 6036:"Neuroimmune communication" 5643:Annual Review of Immunology 5485:Annual Review of Immunology 5231:Annual Review of Immunology 5032:Annual Review of Immunology 4678:(4): 789–98, quiz 799–800. 4461:Annual Review of Immunology 4371:Annual Review of Immunology 3867:Annual Review of Immunology 3555:10.4315/0362-028X-66.7.1292 3035: 2814:). Other bacteria, such as 2472:as shown in the cladogram. 2367:tumor-necrosis factor alpha 2204:Many vaccines are based on 1986:that produce fever and the 1735:Disorders of human immunity 1566:1, an increase in overall T 1379: 924:The complement system is a 572:leucine rich repeats (LRRs) 10: 12945: 12295:immunoglobulin superfamily 10869:Polyclonal B cell response 9640:10.1099/0022-1317-50-2-116 9561:10.1016/j.cell.2006.01.034 8520:10.2174/187153006778250019 7164:Chandra RK (August 1997). 6998:10.1152/ajpregu.00038.2021 6959:Exercise Immunology Review 6816:10.1007/s10238-020-00650-3 6689:10.2174/138161208786549281 6600:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.08.005 6489:Nature Reviews. Immunology 6222:10.1191/0961203304lu1094oa 6160:10.1016/j.clim.2004.05.011 6004:10.1016/j.cell.2016.04.041 5518:Girardi M (January 2006). 4685:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.08.009 4227:10.2174/138161206777947551 3823:10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.040 3672:Matzinger P (April 2002). 3223:Nature Reviews. Immunology 3117:Nature Reviews. Immunology 2904: 2817:Mycobacterium tuberculosis 2556:Jawed fishes and tetrapods 2448: 2231: 2176:Polio vaccination in Egypt 2165: 2127: 1964: 1897: 1835: 1746: 1684: 1646:The number of circulating 1332: 1237: 1092: 988: 842: 807:common lymphoid progenitor 512: 483:to kill pathogens. In the 44:(yellow/right), engulfing 12802: 12714: 12693: 12640: 12608: 12573: 12543: 12534: 12505: 12485: 12461: 12452: 12436: 12427: 12420: 12400: 12377: 12344: 12315: 12304: 12214: 12137: 12099: 11976: 11919: 11878: 11843: 11784: 11721: 11681: 11672: 11640: 11612: 11485: 11476: 11400: 11348: 11340:Waldeyer's tonsillar ring 11305: 11228: 11219: 11197: 11179: 11170: 11103: 11061: 11003: 10904: 10834: 10742: 10735: 10625:Resources in your library 10411:10.1385/1-59259-967-2:013 10314:Plant Innate Immunity 2.0 10245:10.1038/sj.embor.embor951 10091:Plotkin SA (April 2005). 9883:10.1016/j.tig.2006.08.003 9605:10.1016/j.tim.2005.09.005 9392:"The plant immune system" 9330:10.1007/s11262-005-6914-0 9239:10.1186/s13062-017-0177-2 8647:Yang Y (September 2015). 8616:10.1038/s41392-020-0205-z 8288:10.1007/s00281-004-0193-z 7830:World Health Organization 7323:10.1513/pats.200508-097JS 7278:10.1007/s00431-011-1452-3 6741:10.1007/s00424-011-1044-0 6628:Behavioral Sleep Medicine 6299:10.1080/13685530500233847 6046:(2): 127. February 2017. 5612:10.3109/08830180009088502 5156:10.1016/j.nut.2009.06.002 4796:10.1016/j.abb.2019.02.008 4761:10.1016/j.tcb.2005.09.002 4335:10.1189/jlb.4RI0115-006RR 3926:10.1016/j.str.2011.02.004 3594:10.3109/07853899009147239 3190:10.1016/j.coi.2013.09.003 3010:antigen-antibody reaction 2762:type III secretion system 2760:. Alternatively, using a 2751:Manipulation by pathogens 2552: 2529: 2522: 2490: 2483: 2383:Predicting immunogenicity 2110:constantly dividing cells 1988:dilation of blood vessels 1721:axolotl limb regeneration 649:"professional" phagocytes 408:. The flushing action of 269: 264: 84:and objects such as wood 11368:High endothelial venules 10145:10 December 2006 at the 10046:10.1016/j.it.2004.10.008 8961:Nature Reviews. Genetics 6925:10.3389/fimmu.2018.00648 5676:Murphy & Weaver 2016 3310:British Medical Bulletin 3068:Plant disease resistance 3052:List of human cell types 2837:Burkholderia cenocepacia 2758:type II secretion system 2218:antigen-presenting cells 2023:Manipulation in medicine 1884:diabetes mellitus type 1 1850:, an autoimmune disorder 1792:at an early age through 1528:pituitary growth hormone 1344:Physiological regulation 1323:transferred artificially 1107:. In addition there are 1085:complex (MHC) molecule. 1025:hematopoietic stem cells 739:antigen-presenting cells 277:Response is non-specific 208:diabetes mellitus type 1 12291:Transmembrane receptors 11189:Hematopoietic stem cell 10522:A History of Immunology 9837:10.1073/pnas.0505126102 9517:10.1126/science.1119420 9140:10.1126/science.1159689 9075:10.1126/science.1138140 9010:Microbiological Reviews 8239:10.1126/science.1129003 7825:21 October 2008 at the 7350:Microbiological Reviews 6912:Frontiers in Immunology 5957:10.1126/science.1213099 5697:Reviews of Reproduction 5569:(NIAID). Archived from 5365:10.1007/3-540-32636-7_3 4161:Journal of Cell Science 3701:10.1126/science.1071059 3493:The Biochemical Journal 3355:10.1007/3-540-29916-5_3 2674:hypersensitive response 2407:are overrepresented in 2389:neutralizing antibodies 2360:immunological tolerance 2058:Immunosuppressive drugs 1961:Idiopathic inflammation 1876:Hashimoto's thyroiditis 1681:Repair and regeneration 1491:relative to REM sleep. 1481:tumor necrosis factor-α 1234:Humoral immune response 1033:humoral immune response 979:membrane attack complex 977:via the formation of a 479:contains defensins and 319:No immunological memory 200:Hashimoto's thyroiditis 11909:Lymphoid immune system 11478:Musculoskeletal system 10983:Tolerance in pregnancy 10725:adaptive immune system 9593:Trends in Microbiology 9189:10.1098/rstb.2015.0496 8882:Applied Bioinformatics 8848:10.1186/1471-2164-6-79 8714:10.4161/self.1.4.13904 7986:Clinics in Dermatology 7913:10.1038/sj.jid.5700001 7474:"Rheumatoid arthritis" 7183:10.1093/ajcn/66.2.460S 6347:10.1210/edrv.21.3.0397 6263:10.1093/molehr/6.2.191 6193:10.1093/molehr/5.7.656 5537:10.1038/sj.jid.5700003 5435:10.1073/pnas.232058599 4912:Bertok & Chow 2005 4749:Trends in Cell Biology 4545:Bertok & Chow 2005 4305:Inflammation and Fever 4173:10.1242/jcs.114.6.1061 3062:Original antigenic sin 2959:germ theory of disease 2919: 2831:Pseudomonas aeruginosa 2642:Antimicrobial peptides 2632:unicellular eukaryotes 2330: 2177: 2038: 2033:immunosuppressive drug 1851: 1631:(βARs). The number of 1629:β-adrenergic receptors 1612: 1607:Four neutrophils in a 1353: 1249: 1211:natural killer T cells 1172: 1131:on the T cell, called 1095:Cell-mediated immunity 1089:Cell mediated immunity 1015:Recognition of antigen 1000: 991:Adaptive immune system 985:Adaptive immune system 640: 564:transmembrane proteins 433:antimicrobial peptides 422:gastrointestinal tract 271:Adaptive immune system 248:adaptive immune system 133:antimicrobial peptides 98:adaptive immune system 49: 11897:Myeloid immune system 11683:Cardiovascular system 11018:Somatic hypermutation 10852:Polyclonal antibodies 10847:Monoclonal antibodies 10019:10.3406/rhs.1954.3379 8173:10.1007/s002620000169 7953:10.1084/jem.183.3.725 7778:. Amherst, New York: 7447:"Hashimoto's disease" 7207:Immunological Reviews 5879:10.1210/edrv-14-5-539 5709:10.1530/ror.0.0040081 4430:10.1055/s-2006-939514 3957:Vijay K (June 2018). 3022:immune network theory 2914: 2907:History of immunology 2905:Further information: 2901:History of immunology 2853:Staphylococcus aureus 2792:parasites that cause 2449:Further information: 2325:for the treatment of 2317: 2295:) into tumors called 2232:Further information: 2192:) is to introduce an 2175: 2166:Further information: 2030: 1965:Further information: 1898:Further information: 1845: 1836:Further information: 1747:Further information: 1709:innate lymphoid cells 1695:. Key actors include 1606: 1453:Institute of Medicine 1351: 1333:Further information: 1290:complement activation 1247: 1238:Further information: 1170: 1093:Further information: 998: 989:Further information: 967:vascular permeability 878:that attract certain 843:Further information: 665:innate lymphoid cells 606: 513:Further information: 164:inflammatory diseases 119:that protect against 35: 12249:Islets of Langerhans 12109:Genitourinary system 11845:Integumentary system 11207:Hassall's corpuscles 11035:Junctional diversity 10803:Antigen presentation 10543:Sompayrac L (2019). 10265:General bibliography 10034:Trends in Immunology 9290:10.1093/icb/43.2.293 8541:Stix G (July 2007). 8427:The Lancet. Oncology 7848:Nature Biotechnology 7768:(July–August 2020). 7732:Molecular Immunology 7487:(10055): 2023–2038. 7395:Immunologic Research 6388:10.1210/er.2004-0002 4830:Immunologic Research 4513:10.1155/2016/1376595 3026:Georges J. F. Köhler 2743:in a similar way to 2591:innate immunity 2377:Cancer immunotherapy 2261:human papillomavirus 2043:transplant rejection 1880:rheumatoid arthritis 1848:rheumatoid arthritis 1782:developing countries 1652:natural killer cells 1496:active immunizations 1457:autoimmune disorders 1445:vitamin D deficiency 1329:Immunological memory 1009:antigen presentation 1005:immunological memory 829:Natural killer cells 681:natural killer cells 545:innate immune system 515:Innate immune system 509:Innate immune system 375:of most leaves, the 266:Innate immune system 252:immunological memory 240:innate immune system 204:rheumatoid arthritis 149:immunological memory 94:innate immune system 12641:Accessory molecules 12506:Accessory molecules 12139:Reproductive system 11858:Subcutaneous tissue 11627:Cartilaginous joint 11290:Trabecular arteries 11030:V(D)J recombination 11013:Affinity maturation 10765:Antigenic variation 10349:Ciccone CD (2015). 9910:Journal of Virology 9828:2005PNAS..10214943B 9508:2005Sci...310.1970A 9461:10.1038/nature02874 9453:2004Natur.431..356B 9417:10.1038/nature05286 9408:2006Natur.444..323J 9132:2008Sci...321..960B 9067:2007Sci...315.1709B 8562:2007SciAm.297a..60S 8550:Scientific American 8231:2006Sci...314..126M 7896:"Cytotoxic T cells" 6671:Krueger JM (2008). 6544:2003NYASA.992....9K 6148:Clinical Immunology 6093:2017PLoSO..1275918W 6040:Nature Neuroscience 5949:2011Sci...334...47T 5734:on 30 January 2021. 5467:Alberts et al. 2002 5426:2002PNAS...9915006K 5318:1996Natur.383..787A 4842:10.1385/IR:33:2:103 4069:Alberts et al. 2002 3963:Int Immunopharmacol 3806:"The inflammasomes" 3733:Alberts et al. 2002 3693:2002Sci...296..301M 3642:10.1038/nature06246 3633:2007Natur.449..819M 3288:Alberts et al. 2002 3073:Polyclonal response 3004:, who proposed the 2965:. It was not until 2876:antigenic variation 2721:jawless vertebrates 2244:immune surveillance 2118:signal transduction 1856:autoimmune diseases 1766:developed countries 1401:lupus erythematosus 1393:female sex hormones 1215:rearrange TCR genes 1203:Gamma delta T cells 1198:Gamma delta T cells 948:. This recognition 944:on the surfaces of 926:biochemical cascade 735:complement proteins 599:Innate immune cells 568:toll-like receptors 398:genitourinary tract 261: 160:autoimmune diseases 12705:cytokine receptors 12305:Antibody receptor: 11921:Respiratory system 11674:Circulatory system 10640:Dettmer P (2021). 10581:Mucosal Immunology 10103:(4 Suppl): S5–11. 9871:Trends in Genetics 9774:10.1042/BST0310716 9277:Integr. Comp. Biol 9183:(1707): 20150496. 9084:20.500.11794/38902 7786:on 21 January 2021 7780:Center for Inquiry 7775:Skeptical Inquirer 7738:(17–18): 1073–77. 7602:Ghaffar A (2006). 7407:10.1007/BF02918299 7102:, pp. 111–14. 7090:, pp. 114–18. 7078:, pp. 120–24. 4994:10.1042/BST0320021 3582:Annals of Medicine 3505:10.1042/BJ20030225 3323:10.1093/bmb/61.1.1 3057:Neuroimmune system 2979:infectious disease 2920: 2889:Trypanosoma brucei 2859:Peptostreptococcus 2331: 2250:of tumors express 2216:that activate the 2178: 2039: 2014:in the host cell. 1943:contact dermatitis 1852: 1824:and some types of 1754:Immunodeficiencies 1743:Immunodeficiencies 1713:regulatory T cells 1613: 1354: 1335:Immunity (medical) 1250: 1173: 1109:regulatory T cells 1066:antigen processing 1001: 906:in the host cell. 809:and belong to the 768:connective tissues 641: 589:NOD–like receptors 284:specific response 257: 125:plants and animals 58:biological systems 50: 40:image of a single 18:Immunosurveillance 12870: 12869: 12695:Cytokine receptor 12689: 12688: 12685: 12684: 12530: 12529: 12501: 12500: 12416: 12415: 12257: 12256: 11780: 11779: 11770:Glymphatic system 11668: 11667: 11432: 11431: 11428: 11427: 11258:Cords of Billroth 11215: 11214: 11129: 11128: 11057: 11056: 10807:professional APCs 10606:Library resources 10554:978-1-119-54212-4 10535:978-0-08-092583-7 10501:978-1-4425-3176-5 10474:978-1-61779-841-2 10447:978-0-8153-4505-3 10360:978-0-80364-029-0 10333:978-3-03897-580-9 10304:978-0-44451-755-5 10285:978-0-8153-3218-3 10208:. The Nobel Prize 9959:. The Nobel Prize 9502:(5756): 1970–73. 9271:Bayne CJ (2003). 9061:(5819): 1709–12. 8433:(12): e731–e741. 8392:978-0-12-006695-7 8339:10.1002/ijc.21312 8132:978-0-12-006690-2 8084:978-0-12-373636-9 7631:, pp. 83–85. 7572:. February 2015. 7570:www.niams.nih.gov 6457:978-0-309-16394-1 6375:Endocrine Reviews 6334:Endocrine Reviews 5867:Endocrine Reviews 5576:on 3 January 2007 5374:978-3-540-32635-9 5207:, pp. 51–53. 5111:10.1159/000086659 4951:978-0-12-022461-6 4890:10.1111/sji.12070 4582:Nature Immunology 4406:, pp. 13–34. 4252:on 31 March 2020. 4167:(Pt 6): 1061–77. 3737:"Innate Immunity" 3536:Smith JL (2003). 3364:978-3-540-29915-8 3006:side-chain theory 2998:cellular immunity 2856:(protein A), and 2705:jawed vertebrates 2690:virus replication 2650:complement system 2598: 2597: 2582: 2581: 2573: 2572: 2430:immunoinformatics 2340:complement system 2285:mouth, and throat 2248:transformed cells 2242:. This is called 2234:Cancer immunology 2198:specific immunity 2124:Immunostimulation 2072:Anti-inflammatory 2053:Immunosuppression 2012:protein synthesis 1617:white blood cells 1590:Physical exercise 1504:circadian rhythms 1469:sleep deprivation 1441:clinical evidence 1417:immunosuppressive 1409:male sex hormones 1397:immunostimulators 1272:, its offspring ( 963:positive feedback 904:protein synthesis 880:white blood cells 708:respiratory burst 621:white blood cells 619:, several knobby 406:respiratory tract 343:. In immunology, 337: 336: 332:jawed vertebrates 145:Jawed vertebrates 141:complement system 60:that protects an 16:(Redirected from 12936: 12911: 12910: 12899: 12898: 12897: 12887: 12886: 12878: 12574:Antigen receptor 12541: 12540: 12459: 12458: 12437:Antigen receptor 12434: 12433: 12425: 12424: 12421:Antigen receptor 12379:Alpha (α)/mu (μ) 12313: 12312: 12298:immune receptors 12284: 12277: 12270: 12261: 12260: 12216:Endocrine system 11978:Digestive system 11723:Lymphatic system 11706:Lymphatic vessel 11679: 11678: 11483: 11482: 11459: 11452: 11445: 11436: 11435: 11358:Lymphatic vessel 11335:Tonsillar crypts 11295:Trabecular veins 11226: 11225: 11221:Secondary organs 11177: 11176: 11164:lymphatic system 11156: 11149: 11142: 11133: 11132: 11023:Clonal selection 10995:Immune privilege 10990:Immunodeficiency 10945:Cross-reactivity 10935:Hypersensitivity 10740: 10739: 10715: 10708: 10701: 10692: 10691: 10677: 10675: 10673: 10594: 10575: 10566: 10539: 10513: 10492:Campbell biology 10490:Reece J (2011). 10486: 10451: 10432: 10397: 10375: 10364: 10345: 10325: 10312:Iriti M (2019). 10308: 10295:Natural Immunity 10289: 10259: 10258: 10256: 10224: 10218: 10217: 10215: 10213: 10206:"Niels K. Jerne" 10202: 10196: 10195: 10182: 10168: 10162: 10156: 10150: 10137: 10131: 10130: 10120: 10088: 10082: 10079:Silverstein 1989 10076: 10070: 10067:Silverstein 1989 10064: 10058: 10057: 10029: 10023: 10022: 10002: 9996: 9995: 9975: 9969: 9968: 9966: 9964: 9953: 9944: 9943: 9933: 9901: 9895: 9894: 9866: 9860: 9859: 9849: 9839: 9822:(42): 14943–48. 9807: 9801: 9800: 9799:on 2 March 2019. 9798: 9792:. 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Archived from 5694: 5685: 5679: 5673: 5667: 5666: 5638: 5632: 5631: 5595: 5586: 5585: 5583: 5581: 5575: 5564: 5556: 5550: 5549: 5539: 5515: 5509: 5508: 5480: 5474: 5464: 5458: 5457: 5447: 5437: 5420:(23): 15006–11. 5405: 5399: 5393: 5387: 5386: 5352: 5346: 5345: 5326:10.1038/383787a0 5312:(6603): 787–93. 5301: 5295: 5294: 5264: 5255: 5254: 5226: 5220: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5094: 5085: 5079: 5068: 5062: 5056: 5055: 5027: 5021: 5020: 5019:on 2 March 2019. 5018: 5012:. Archived from 4979: 4970: 4964: 4963: 4935: 4925: 4919: 4909: 4903: 4902: 4892: 4868: 4862: 4861: 4825: 4816: 4815: 4779: 4773: 4772: 4744: 4735: 4734: 4716: 4707: 4698: 4697: 4687: 4663: 4654: 4653: 4625: 4616: 4615: 4597: 4573: 4564: 4558: 4552: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4525: 4515: 4491: 4485: 4484: 4456: 4450: 4449: 4413: 4407: 4401: 4395: 4394: 4366: 4357: 4356: 4346: 4314: 4308: 4298: 4289: 4288: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4251: 4245:. Archived from 4212: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4194: 4192: 4187:on 31 March 2020 4183:. Archived from 4152: 4146: 4145: 4117: 4111: 4110: 4082: 4076: 4066: 4060: 4054: 4048: 4047: 4037: 4027: 4025:10.3390/v3060920 4003: 3997: 3996: 3986: 3954: 3948: 3947: 3937: 3905: 3899: 3898: 3862: 3856: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3825: 3801: 3795: 3794: 3758: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3730: 3721: 3720: 3687:(5566): 301–05. 3678: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3644: 3627:(7164): 819–26. 3612: 3606: 3605: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3557: 3548:(7): 1292–1303. 3533: 3527: 3526: 3516: 3499:(Pt 2): 473–83. 3484: 3478: 3477: 3449: 3443: 3442: 3414: 3408: 3407: 3383: 3377: 3376: 3342: 3336: 3335: 3325: 3301: 3295: 3285: 3279: 3273: 3267: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3201: 3169: 3163: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3140: 3108: 3099: 3093: 3014:Elie Metchnikoff 2994:humoral immunity 2931:plague of Athens 2713:T-cell receptors 2658:RNA interference 2628:RNA interference 2525: 2524: 2502:cephalochordates 2486: 2485: 2476: 2475: 2435:Immunoproteomics 2417:machine learning 2228:Tumor immunology 2066:organ transplant 1935:Immune complexes 1905:Hypersensitivity 1900:Hypersensitivity 1894:Hypersensitivity 1806:genetic disorder 1794:genetic mutation 1762:immunosenescence 1749:Immunodeficiency 1621:endothelial cell 1584:oxidative stress 1389:immunomodulators 1314:passive immunity 1240:Humoral immunity 1224:common molecules 1074:clonal selection 920:Humoral defenses 811:lymphoid lineage 772:mucous membranes 754:present antigens 449:phospholipase A2 379:of insects, the 367:Surface barriers 361:immune receptors 262: 256: 190:, or the use of 172:Immunodeficiency 56:is a network of 46:anthrax bacteria 21: 12944: 12943: 12939: 12938: 12937: 12935: 12934: 12933: 12919: 12918: 12917: 12905: 12895: 12893: 12881: 12873: 12871: 12866: 12798: 12710: 12681: 12636: 12604: 12569: 12526: 12497: 12481: 12448: 12412: 12396: 12373: 12340: 12306: 12300: 12288: 12258: 12253: 12210: 12172:Seminal vesicle 12133: 12095: 12045:Small intestine 11972: 11915: 11874: 11839: 11776: 11717: 11664: 11642:Muscular system 11636: 11608: 11487:Skeletal system 11472: 11463: 11433: 11424: 11420:Germinal center 11396: 11380:Germinal center 11344: 11301: 11280:Germinal center 11211: 11193: 11166: 11160: 11130: 11125: 11099: 11053: 10999: 10978:Clonal deletion 10906: 10900: 10830: 10731: 10719: 10689: 10671: 10669: 10654: 10636: 10635: 10634: 10614: 10613: 10609: 10602: 10600:Further reading 10597: 10591: 10555: 10536: 10502: 10475: 10448: 10421: 10394: 10361: 10334: 10316:. Basel: MDPI. 10305: 10286: 10267: 10262: 10235:(Book review). 10225: 10221: 10211: 10209: 10204: 10203: 10199: 10180: 10169: 10165: 10157: 10153: 10147:Wayback Machine 10138: 10134: 10097:Nature Medicine 10089: 10085: 10077: 10073: 10065: 10061: 10030: 10026: 10003: 9999: 9976: 9972: 9962: 9960: 9955: 9954: 9947: 9916:(11): 6577–87. 9902: 9898: 9867: 9863: 9808: 9804: 9796: 9757: 9751: 9747: 9708: 9704: 9659: 9655: 9624: 9620: 9589: 9585: 9540: 9533: 9488: 9484: 9437: 9433: 9388: 9384: 9374: 9372: 9368: 9362: 9355: 9310: 9306: 9269: 9265: 9218: 9214: 9169: 9165: 9112: 9108: 9051: 9047: 9002: 8998: 8973:10.1038/nrg2703 8953: 8944: 8905: 8901: 8878: 8874: 8827: 8823: 8800:10.1002/jmr.771 8784: 8780: 8743: 8739: 8694: 8690: 8645: 8641: 8596: 8592: 8584: 8545: 8539: 8535: 8504: 8500: 8461: 8454: 8423: 8408: 8393: 8367: 8363: 8318: 8311: 8268: 8264: 8211: 8207: 8152: 8148: 8133: 8107: 8100: 8085: 8063: 8056: 8017: 8013: 7982: 7978: 7933: 7929: 7892: 7885: 7854:(11): 1075–81. 7840: 7836: 7827:Wayback Machine 7818: 7814: 7806: 7799: 7789: 7787: 7763: 7759: 7728: 7724: 7693: 7689: 7658: 7651: 7639: 7635: 7627: 7623: 7613: 7611: 7600: 7589: 7579: 7577: 7564: 7563: 7559: 7520: 7516: 7476: 7470: 7466: 7456: 7454: 7445: 7436: 7434: 7430: 7391: 7387: 7342: 7338: 7307: 7303: 7258: 7254: 7246: 7242: 7203: 7199: 7176:(2): 460S–63S. 7162: 7155: 7110: 7106: 7098: 7094: 7086: 7082: 7074: 7070: 7025: 7021: 6982: 6978: 6955: 6951: 6904: 6900: 6860: 6854: 6841: 6796: 6792: 6782: 6780: 6771: 6770: 6766: 6729:Pflügers Archiv 6721: 6714: 6683:(32): 3408–16. 6669: 6665: 6620: 6616: 6579: 6575: 6528: 6524: 6501:10.1038/nri1369 6485: 6481: 6458: 6430: 6426: 6416: 6414: 6409: 6408: 6404: 6367: 6363: 6326: 6322: 6293:(3–4): 166–74. 6283: 6279: 6242: 6206: 6172: 6144: 6140: 6132: 6128: 6087:(5): e0175918. 6073: 6069: 6053:10.1038/nn.4496 6034: 6033: 6029: 5984: 5980: 5933: 5929: 5898: 5894: 5863: 5859: 5851: 5847: 5839: 5835: 5827: 5823: 5778: 5774: 5753:(24): 3374–76. 5743: 5739: 5731: 5692: 5686: 5682: 5674: 5670: 5639: 5635: 5606:(2–3): 139–55. 5596: 5589: 5579: 5577: 5573: 5562: 5558: 5557: 5553: 5516: 5512: 5481: 5477: 5465: 5461: 5406: 5402: 5394: 5390: 5375: 5353: 5349: 5302: 5298: 5265: 5258: 5227: 5223: 5219:, pp. 7–8. 5215: 5211: 5203: 5199: 5195:, pp. 5–6. 5191: 5187: 5175: 5171: 5140: 5136: 5121: 5095: 5088: 5080: 5071: 5063: 5059: 5028: 5024: 5016: 4988:(Pt 1): 21–27. 4977: 4971: 4967: 4952: 4926: 4922: 4910: 4906: 4869: 4865: 4826: 4819: 4780: 4776: 4755:(11): 599–607. 4745: 4738: 4714: 4708: 4701: 4664: 4657: 4626: 4619: 4574: 4567: 4561:Rajalingam 2012 4559: 4555: 4543: 4539: 4492: 4488: 4457: 4453: 4414: 4410: 4402: 4398: 4367: 4360: 4315: 4311: 4299: 4292: 4261: 4257: 4249: 4221:(24): 3043–50. 4210: 4204: 4200: 4190: 4188: 4153: 4149: 4128:(1–2): 185–94. 4118: 4114: 4083: 4079: 4067: 4063: 4059:, pp. 1–4. 4055: 4051: 4004: 4000: 3955: 3951: 3906: 3902: 3863: 3859: 3851: 3847: 3802: 3798: 3759: 3755: 3747: 3743: 3731: 3724: 3676: 3670: 3666: 3613: 3609: 3575: 3571: 3534: 3530: 3485: 3481: 3450: 3446: 3415: 3411: 3398:(10): 2347–54. 3384: 3380: 3365: 3343: 3339: 3302: 3298: 3286: 3282: 3274: 3270: 3262: 3258: 3235:10.1038/nri3802 3219: 3215: 3170: 3166: 3158: 3154: 3129:10.1038/nri1712 3109: 3102: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3038: 3018:Niels Kaj Jerne 2909: 2903: 2842:cystic fibrosis 2753: 2709:immunoglobulins 2698: 2599: 2583: 2574: 2458: 2453: 2447: 2385: 2358:. In addition, 2236: 2230: 2170: 2164: 2140: 2130:Immunostimulant 2128:Main articles: 2126: 2106:Cytotoxic drugs 2084:central obesity 2076:Glucocorticoids 2055: 2025: 1969: 1963: 1902: 1896: 1840: 1834: 1751: 1745: 1737: 1689: 1683: 1601: 1592: 1569: 1565: 1559: 1555: 1548:differentiation 1489:slow-wave sleep 1465: 1449:supplementation 1437: 1407:. By contrast, 1382: 1346: 1337: 1331: 1242: 1236: 1200: 1165: 1145:plasma membrane 1125:T-cell receptor 1117: 1097: 1091: 1082: 1017: 993: 987: 975:plasma membrane 922: 847: 841: 819:T-cell receptor 661:dendritic cells 617:red blood cells 601: 533: 517: 511: 369: 224: 222:Layered defense 176:genetic disease 78:parasitic worms 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12942: 12932: 12931: 12916: 12915: 12903: 12891: 12868: 12867: 12865: 12864: 12859: 12854: 12849: 12844: 12839: 12834: 12829: 12824: 12819: 12814: 12808: 12806: 12800: 12799: 12797: 12796: 12791: 12786: 12781: 12776: 12771: 12766: 12761: 12756: 12751: 12746: 12741: 12736: 12731: 12726: 12720: 12718: 12712: 12711: 12709: 12708: 12699: 12697: 12691: 12690: 12687: 12686: 12683: 12682: 12680: 12679: 12665: 12660: 12655: 12650: 12644: 12642: 12638: 12637: 12635: 12634: 12629: 12614: 12612: 12606: 12605: 12603: 12602: 12597: 12592: 12587: 12577: 12575: 12571: 12570: 12568: 12567: 12566: 12565: 12560: 12549: 12547: 12538: 12532: 12531: 12528: 12527: 12525: 12524: 12509: 12507: 12503: 12502: 12499: 12498: 12496: 12495: 12489: 12487: 12483: 12482: 12480: 12479: 12465: 12463: 12456: 12450: 12449: 12447: 12446: 12440: 12438: 12431: 12422: 12418: 12417: 12414: 12413: 12411: 12410: 12404: 12402: 12398: 12397: 12395: 12394: 12389: 12383: 12381: 12375: 12374: 12372: 12371: 12366: 12361: 12356: 12350: 12348: 12342: 12341: 12339: 12338: 12327: 12321: 12319: 12310: 12302: 12301: 12287: 12286: 12279: 12272: 12264: 12255: 12254: 12252: 12251: 12246: 12241: 12236: 12231: 12226: 12220: 12218: 12212: 12211: 12209: 12208: 12207: 12206: 12201: 12196: 12191: 12186: 12176: 12175: 12174: 12169: 12164: 12159: 12154: 12143: 12141: 12135: 12134: 12132: 12131: 12126: 12121: 12116: 12111: 12105: 12103: 12101:Urinary system 12097: 12096: 12094: 12093: 12092: 12091: 12086: 12081: 12069: 12068: 12067: 12062: 12057: 12052: 12047: 12037: 12036: 12035: 12030: 12025: 12023:Laryngopharynx 12020: 12010: 12009: 12008: 12003: 11998: 11993: 11991:Salivary gland 11982: 11980: 11974: 11973: 11971: 11970: 11969: 11968: 11963: 11958: 11948: 11947: 11946: 11941: 11936: 11925: 11923: 11917: 11916: 11914: 11913: 11912: 11911: 11901: 11900: 11899: 11888: 11886: 11884:immune systems 11880:Haematopoietic 11876: 11875: 11873: 11872: 11871: 11870: 11860: 11855: 11849: 11847: 11841: 11840: 11838: 11837: 11832: 11830:Somatic system 11827: 11826: 11825: 11820: 11813:Sensory system 11810: 11809: 11808: 11803: 11798: 11790: 11788: 11786:Nervous system 11782: 11781: 11778: 11777: 11775: 11774: 11773: 11772: 11765:CNS equivalent 11762: 11761: 11760: 11755: 11745: 11744: 11743: 11738: 11727: 11725: 11719: 11718: 11716: 11715: 11710: 11709: 11708: 11703: 11698: 11687: 11685: 11676: 11670: 11669: 11666: 11665: 11663: 11662: 11657: 11652: 11646: 11644: 11638: 11637: 11635: 11634: 11632:Synovial joint 11629: 11624: 11618: 11616: 11610: 11609: 11607: 11606: 11601: 11600: 11599: 11594: 11589: 11584: 11579: 11574: 11569: 11564: 11559: 11554: 11549: 11544: 11539: 11534: 11529: 11524: 11519: 11514: 11508: 11502: 11491: 11489: 11480: 11474: 11473: 11462: 11461: 11454: 11447: 11439: 11430: 11429: 11426: 11425: 11423: 11422: 11417: 11412: 11406: 11404: 11398: 11397: 11395: 11394: 11393: 11392: 11387: 11382: 11372: 11371: 11370: 11360: 11354: 11352: 11346: 11345: 11343: 11342: 11337: 11332: 11327: 11322: 11317: 11311: 11309: 11303: 11302: 11300: 11299: 11298: 11297: 11292: 11286:Blood vessels 11284: 11283: 11282: 11277: 11267: 11266: 11265: 11260: 11250: 11249: 11248: 11243: 11234: 11232: 11223: 11217: 11216: 11213: 11212: 11210: 11209: 11203: 11201: 11195: 11194: 11192: 11191: 11185: 11183: 11174: 11172:Primary organs 11168: 11167: 11162:Organs of the 11159: 11158: 11151: 11144: 11136: 11127: 11126: 11124: 11123: 11118: 11113: 11107: 11105: 11101: 11100: 11098: 11097: 11092: 11091: 11090: 11080: 11079: 11078: 11067: 11065: 11059: 11058: 11055: 11054: 11052: 11051: 11042: 11037: 11032: 11027: 11026: 11025: 11020: 11009: 11007: 11005:Immunogenetics 11001: 11000: 10998: 10997: 10992: 10987: 10986: 10985: 10980: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10953: 10952: 10950:Co-stimulation 10947: 10942: 10937: 10932: 10927: 10922: 10917: 10910: 10908: 10902: 10901: 10899: 10898: 10893: 10891:Immune complex 10887: 10886: 10881: 10876: 10871: 10866: 10865: 10864: 10859: 10854: 10849: 10838: 10836: 10832: 10831: 10829: 10828: 10823: 10818: 10813: 10811:Dendritic cell 10799: 10798: 10793: 10792: 10791: 10789:Conformational 10786: 10775: 10774: 10769: 10768: 10767: 10762: 10757: 10746: 10744: 10737: 10733: 10732: 10718: 10717: 10710: 10703: 10695: 10688: 10687:External links 10685: 10684: 10683: 10652: 10633: 10632: 10627: 10622: 10616: 10615: 10604: 10603: 10601: 10598: 10596: 10595: 10589: 10576: 10567: 10553: 10540: 10534: 10526:Academic Press 10518:Silverstein AM 10514: 10500: 10487: 10473: 10457:Immunogenetics 10452: 10446: 10433: 10419: 10398: 10392: 10376: 10365: 10359: 10346: 10332: 10309: 10303: 10290: 10284: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10261: 10260: 10219: 10197: 10163: 10151: 10132: 10109:10.1038/nm1209 10083: 10071: 10059: 10040:(12): 623–31. 10024: 9997: 9970: 9945: 9896: 9877:(11): 614–20. 9861: 9802: 9745: 9702: 9653: 9618: 9599:(12): 581–88. 9583: 9531: 9482: 9431: 9382: 9353: 9324:(3): 299–306. 9304: 9263: 9226:Biology Direct 9212: 9163: 9106: 9045: 8996: 8942: 8915:(5): 488–492. 8899: 8872: 8821: 8778: 8737: 8708:(4): 314–322. 8688: 8639: 8590: 8533: 8498: 8452: 8406: 8391: 8361: 8309: 8262: 8205: 8146: 8131: 8098: 8083: 8054: 8011: 7976: 7927: 7883: 7834: 7812: 7810:, p. 965. 7797: 7757: 7722: 7687: 7649: 7633: 7629:Sompayrac 2019 7621: 7587: 7557: 7514: 7464: 7428: 7385: 7336: 7301: 7272:(5): 561–571. 7252: 7250:, p. 967. 7240: 7197: 7153: 7104: 7100:Sompayrac 2019 7092: 7088:Sompayrac 2019 7080: 7076:Sompayrac 2019 7068: 7019: 6992:(1): R41–R54. 6976: 6949: 6898: 6839: 6790: 6764: 6712: 6663: 6634:(4): 270–287. 6614: 6593:(6): 1188–98. 6573: 6522: 6479: 6456: 6448:10.17226/13050 6424: 6402: 6361: 6340:(3): 292–312. 6320: 6287:The Aging Male 6277: 6138: 6126: 6067: 6027: 5978: 5943:(6052): 47–8. 5927: 5892: 5857: 5853:Sompayrac 2019 5845: 5833: 5821: 5772: 5737: 5680: 5668: 5633: 5587: 5551: 5510: 5475: 5459: 5400: 5396:Sompayrac 2019 5388: 5373: 5347: 5296: 5256: 5237:(1): 275–308. 5221: 5217:Sompayrac 2019 5209: 5205:Sompayrac 2019 5197: 5193:Sompayrac 2019 5185: 5169: 5134: 5119: 5086: 5069: 5065:Sompayrac 2019 5057: 5038:(1): 497–518. 5022: 4965: 4950: 4920: 4904: 4863: 4817: 4774: 4736: 4699: 4655: 4617: 4595:10.1038/ni1303 4565: 4553: 4537: 4486: 4451: 4408: 4396: 4358: 4309: 4290: 4255: 4198: 4147: 4112: 4077: 4061: 4057:Sompayrac 2019 4049: 3998: 3949: 3900: 3857: 3853:Sompayrac 2019 3845: 3796: 3753: 3741: 3722: 3664: 3607: 3569: 3528: 3479: 3444: 3409: 3378: 3363: 3337: 3296: 3280: 3278:, p. 146. 3276:Sompayrac 2019 3268: 3264:Sompayrac 2019 3256: 3213: 3164: 3160:Sompayrac 2019 3152: 3123:(11): 866–79. 3100: 3096:Sompayrac 2019 3087: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3077: 3076: 3075: 3070: 3065: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3044: 3037: 3034: 3030:César Milstein 3020:developed the 2902: 2899: 2880:viral envelope 2780:food poisoning 2752: 2749: 2723:, such as the 2697: 2694: 2608:bacteriophages 2596: 2595: 2585: 2584: 2580: 2579: 2576: 2575: 2571: 2570: 2560: 2559: 2551: 2548: 2547: 2537: 2536: 2533:Jawless fishes 2528: 2523: 2521: 2514: 2513: 2510: 2509: 2489: 2484: 2482: 2474: 2457: 2454: 2446: 2443: 2425:bioinformatics 2384: 2381: 2335:Tumor antigens 2301:tumor antigens 2229: 2226: 2222:immunogenicity 2163: 2160: 2156:acupuncturists 2125: 2122: 2054: 2051: 2024: 2021: 2016:Growth factors 1984:prostaglandins 1962: 1959: 1895: 1892: 1833: 1830: 1744: 1741: 1736: 1733: 1685:Main article: 1682: 1679: 1637:immature forms 1625:catecholamines 1609:Giemsa-stained 1600: 1597: 1591: 1588: 1576:catecholamines 1567: 1563: 1557: 1553: 1536:interleukin-12 1520:norepinephrine 1464: 1463:Sleep and rest 1461: 1443:to prove that 1436: 1433: 1425:growth hormone 1381: 1378: 1345: 1342: 1330: 1327: 1235: 1232: 1199: 1196: 1176:Helper T cells 1164: 1163:Helper T cells 1161: 1120:Killer T cells 1116: 1115:Killer T cells 1113: 1090: 1087: 1081: 1078: 1016: 1013: 986: 983: 921: 918: 908:Growth factors 860:prostaglandins 840: 837: 710:that releases 615:. One can see 600: 597: 532: 531:Immune sensing 529: 510: 507: 461:antibacterials 435:such as the β- 426:microorganisms 368: 365: 335: 334: 330:Found only in 328: 324: 323: 320: 316: 315: 305: 294: 293: 290: 286: 285: 278: 274: 273: 268: 223: 220: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12941: 12930: 12929:Immune system 12927: 12926: 12924: 12914: 12909: 12904: 12902: 12892: 12890: 12885: 12880: 12879: 12876: 12863: 12860: 12858: 12855: 12853: 12850: 12848: 12845: 12843: 12840: 12838: 12835: 12833: 12830: 12828: 12825: 12823: 12820: 12818: 12815: 12813: 12810: 12809: 12807: 12805: 12801: 12795: 12792: 12790: 12787: 12785: 12782: 12780: 12777: 12775: 12772: 12770: 12767: 12765: 12762: 12760: 12757: 12755: 12752: 12750: 12747: 12745: 12742: 12740: 12737: 12735: 12732: 12730: 12727: 12725: 12722: 12721: 12719: 12717: 12713: 12707: 12706: 12701: 12700: 12698: 12696: 12692: 12677: 12673: 12670:(also called 12669: 12666: 12664: 12661: 12659: 12656: 12654: 12651: 12649: 12646: 12645: 12643: 12639: 12633: 12630: 12627: 12623: 12619: 12616: 12615: 12613: 12611: 12607: 12601: 12598: 12596: 12593: 12591: 12588: 12586: 12582: 12579: 12578: 12576: 12572: 12564: 12561: 12559: 12556: 12555: 12554: 12551: 12550: 12548: 12546: 12542: 12539: 12537: 12533: 12522: 12518: 12514: 12511: 12510: 12508: 12504: 12494: 12491: 12490: 12488: 12484: 12478: 12474: 12470: 12467: 12466: 12464: 12460: 12457: 12455: 12451: 12445: 12442: 12441: 12439: 12435: 12432: 12430: 12426: 12423: 12419: 12409: 12406: 12405: 12403: 12399: 12393: 12390: 12388: 12385: 12384: 12382: 12380: 12376: 12370: 12367: 12365: 12362: 12360: 12357: 12355: 12352: 12351: 12349: 12347: 12343: 12336: 12335:C-type lectin 12332: 12328: 12326: 12323: 12322: 12320: 12318: 12314: 12311: 12309: 12303: 12299: 12296: 12292: 12285: 12280: 12278: 12273: 12271: 12266: 12265: 12262: 12250: 12247: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12222: 12221: 12219: 12217: 12213: 12205: 12202: 12200: 12197: 12195: 12192: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12181: 12180: 12177: 12173: 12170: 12168: 12165: 12163: 12160: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12149: 12148: 12145: 12144: 12142: 12140: 12136: 12130: 12127: 12125: 12122: 12120: 12117: 12115: 12112: 12110: 12107: 12106: 12104: 12102: 12098: 12090: 12087: 12085: 12084:Biliary tract 12082: 12080: 12077: 12076: 12075: 12074: 12070: 12066: 12063: 12061: 12058: 12056: 12053: 12051: 12048: 12046: 12043: 12042: 12041: 12038: 12034: 12031: 12029: 12026: 12024: 12021: 12019: 12016: 12015: 12014: 12011: 12007: 12004: 12002: 11999: 11997: 11994: 11992: 11989: 11988: 11987: 11984: 11983: 11981: 11979: 11975: 11967: 11964: 11962: 11959: 11957: 11954: 11953: 11952: 11949: 11945: 11942: 11940: 11937: 11935: 11932: 11931: 11930: 11927: 11926: 11924: 11922: 11918: 11910: 11907: 11906: 11905: 11902: 11898: 11895: 11894: 11893: 11890: 11889: 11887: 11885: 11881: 11877: 11869: 11868:Mammary gland 11866: 11865: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11850: 11848: 11846: 11842: 11836: 11833: 11831: 11828: 11824: 11821: 11819: 11816: 11815: 11814: 11811: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11799: 11797: 11794: 11793: 11792: 11791: 11789: 11787: 11783: 11771: 11768: 11767: 11766: 11763: 11759: 11756: 11754: 11751: 11750: 11749: 11746: 11742: 11739: 11737: 11734: 11733: 11732: 11729: 11728: 11726: 11724: 11720: 11714: 11711: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11694: 11693: 11692: 11689: 11688: 11686: 11684: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11671: 11661: 11658: 11656: 11653: 11651: 11648: 11647: 11645: 11643: 11639: 11633: 11630: 11628: 11625: 11623: 11622:Fibrous joint 11620: 11619: 11617: 11615: 11611: 11605: 11602: 11598: 11595: 11593: 11590: 11588: 11585: 11583: 11580: 11578: 11575: 11573: 11570: 11568: 11565: 11563: 11560: 11558: 11555: 11553: 11550: 11548: 11545: 11543: 11540: 11538: 11535: 11533: 11530: 11528: 11525: 11523: 11520: 11518: 11515: 11512: 11509: 11506: 11503: 11501: 11498: 11497: 11496: 11493: 11492: 11490: 11488: 11484: 11481: 11479: 11475: 11471: 11467: 11466:Human systems 11460: 11455: 11453: 11448: 11446: 11441: 11440: 11437: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11415:Peyer's patch 11413: 11411: 11408: 11407: 11405: 11403: 11399: 11391: 11390:Marginal zone 11388: 11386: 11383: 11381: 11378: 11377: 11376: 11373: 11369: 11366: 11365: 11364: 11361: 11359: 11356: 11355: 11353: 11351: 11347: 11341: 11338: 11336: 11333: 11331: 11328: 11326: 11323: 11321: 11318: 11316: 11313: 11312: 11310: 11308: 11304: 11296: 11293: 11291: 11288: 11287: 11285: 11281: 11278: 11276: 11273: 11272: 11271: 11268: 11264: 11263:Marginal zone 11261: 11259: 11256: 11255: 11254: 11251: 11247: 11244: 11242: 11239: 11238: 11236: 11235: 11233: 11231: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11218: 11208: 11205: 11204: 11202: 11200: 11196: 11190: 11187: 11186: 11184: 11182: 11178: 11175: 11173: 11169: 11165: 11157: 11152: 11150: 11145: 11143: 11138: 11137: 11134: 11122: 11119: 11117: 11114: 11112: 11109: 11108: 11106: 11102: 11096: 11093: 11089: 11086: 11085: 11084: 11081: 11077: 11074: 11073: 11072: 11069: 11068: 11066: 11064: 11060: 11050: 11046: 11043: 11041: 11038: 11036: 11033: 11031: 11028: 11024: 11021: 11019: 11016: 11015: 11014: 11011: 11010: 11008: 11006: 11002: 10996: 10993: 10991: 10988: 10984: 10981: 10979: 10976: 10974: 10973:Clonal anergy 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10960: 10959: 10955: 10954: 10951: 10948: 10946: 10943: 10941: 10938: 10936: 10933: 10931: 10928: 10926: 10923: 10921: 10918: 10916: 10912: 10911: 10909: 10903: 10897: 10894: 10892: 10889: 10888: 10885: 10882: 10880: 10877: 10875: 10872: 10870: 10867: 10863: 10862:Microantibody 10860: 10858: 10855: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10844: 10843: 10840: 10839: 10837: 10833: 10827: 10824: 10822: 10819: 10817: 10814: 10812: 10808: 10804: 10801: 10800: 10797: 10794: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10781: 10780: 10777: 10776: 10773: 10770: 10766: 10763: 10761: 10758: 10756: 10753: 10752: 10751: 10748: 10747: 10745: 10741: 10738: 10734: 10730: 10726: 10723: 10716: 10711: 10709: 10704: 10702: 10697: 10696: 10693: 10681: 10667: 10663: 10659: 10655: 10653:9780593241318 10649: 10645: 10644: 10638: 10637: 10631: 10628: 10626: 10623: 10621: 10618: 10617: 10612: 10611:Immune system 10607: 10592: 10590:0-12-491543-4 10586: 10582: 10577: 10573: 10568: 10564: 10560: 10556: 10550: 10546: 10541: 10537: 10531: 10527: 10523: 10519: 10515: 10511: 10507: 10503: 10497: 10493: 10488: 10484: 10480: 10476: 10470: 10466: 10462: 10458: 10453: 10449: 10443: 10439: 10438:Immunobiology 10434: 10430: 10426: 10422: 10420:1-59259-967-2 10416: 10412: 10408: 10404: 10399: 10395: 10393:0-443-07310-4 10389: 10385: 10384:Immunobiology 10381: 10377: 10373: 10372: 10371:Immunobiology 10366: 10362: 10356: 10352: 10347: 10343: 10339: 10335: 10329: 10324: 10319: 10315: 10310: 10306: 10300: 10296: 10291: 10287: 10281: 10277: 10276: 10270: 10269: 10255: 10250: 10246: 10242: 10238: 10234: 10230: 10223: 10207: 10201: 10194: 10190: 10186: 10179: 10178: 10173: 10172:Metchnikoff E 10167: 10160: 10155: 10148: 10144: 10141: 10136: 10128: 10124: 10119: 10114: 10110: 10106: 10102: 10098: 10094: 10087: 10080: 10075: 10068: 10063: 10055: 10051: 10047: 10043: 10039: 10035: 10028: 10020: 10016: 10012: 10008: 10001: 9993: 9989: 9985: 9981: 9974: 9958: 9952: 9950: 9941: 9937: 9932: 9927: 9923: 9919: 9915: 9911: 9907: 9900: 9892: 9888: 9884: 9880: 9876: 9872: 9865: 9857: 9853: 9848: 9843: 9838: 9833: 9829: 9825: 9821: 9817: 9813: 9806: 9795: 9791: 9787: 9783: 9779: 9775: 9771: 9767: 9763: 9756: 9749: 9741: 9737: 9733: 9729: 9725: 9721: 9718:(4): 241–53. 9717: 9713: 9706: 9698: 9694: 9689: 9684: 9680: 9676: 9673:(2): 136–69. 9672: 9668: 9664: 9657: 9649: 9645: 9641: 9637: 9634:(2): 116–26. 9633: 9629: 9622: 9614: 9610: 9606: 9602: 9598: 9594: 9587: 9579: 9575: 9571: 9567: 9562: 9557: 9554:(4): 767–82. 9553: 9549: 9545: 9538: 9536: 9527: 9523: 9518: 9513: 9509: 9505: 9501: 9497: 9493: 9486: 9478: 9474: 9470: 9466: 9462: 9458: 9454: 9450: 9446: 9442: 9435: 9427: 9423: 9418: 9413: 9409: 9405: 9401: 9397: 9393: 9386: 9367: 9364:Schneider D. 9360: 9358: 9349: 9345: 9340: 9335: 9331: 9327: 9323: 9319: 9315: 9308: 9300: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9283:(2): 293–99. 9282: 9278: 9274: 9267: 9259: 9255: 9250: 9245: 9240: 9235: 9231: 9227: 9223: 9216: 9208: 9204: 9199: 9194: 9190: 9186: 9182: 9178: 9174: 9167: 9159: 9155: 9150: 9145: 9141: 9137: 9133: 9129: 9125: 9121: 9117: 9110: 9102: 9098: 9094: 9090: 9085: 9080: 9076: 9072: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9049: 9041: 9037: 9032: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9016:(2): 434–50. 9015: 9011: 9007: 9000: 8992: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8974: 8970: 8966: 8962: 8958: 8951: 8949: 8947: 8938: 8934: 8930: 8926: 8922: 8918: 8914: 8910: 8903: 8895: 8891: 8888:(4): 167–76. 8887: 8883: 8876: 8868: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8840: 8836: 8832: 8825: 8817: 8813: 8809: 8805: 8801: 8797: 8794:(3): 200–08. 8793: 8789: 8782: 8774: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8757:(2): 215–18. 8756: 8752: 8748: 8741: 8733: 8729: 8724: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8707: 8703: 8699: 8692: 8684: 8680: 8675: 8670: 8666: 8662: 8659:(9): 3335–7. 8658: 8654: 8650: 8643: 8635: 8631: 8626: 8621: 8617: 8613: 8609: 8605: 8601: 8594: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8559: 8555: 8551: 8544: 8537: 8529: 8525: 8521: 8517: 8513: 8509: 8502: 8494: 8490: 8486: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8471:(6): 347–54. 8470: 8466: 8459: 8457: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8432: 8428: 8421: 8419: 8417: 8415: 8413: 8411: 8402: 8398: 8394: 8388: 8384: 8380: 8376: 8372: 8365: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8345: 8340: 8335: 8332:(1): 129–38. 8331: 8327: 8323: 8316: 8314: 8305: 8301: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8285: 8281: 8277: 8273: 8266: 8258: 8254: 8249: 8244: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8228: 8224: 8220: 8216: 8209: 8201: 8197: 8193: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8165: 8161: 8157: 8150: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8128: 8124: 8120: 8116: 8112: 8105: 8103: 8094: 8090: 8086: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8061: 8059: 8050: 8046: 8042: 8038: 8034: 8030: 8027:(3): 323–31. 8026: 8022: 8015: 8007: 8003: 7999: 7995: 7992:(2): 227–34. 7991: 7987: 7980: 7972: 7968: 7963: 7958: 7954: 7950: 7947:(3): 725–29. 7946: 7942: 7938: 7931: 7923: 7919: 7914: 7909: 7905: 7901: 7897: 7890: 7888: 7879: 7875: 7871: 7867: 7862: 7861:10.1038/15058 7857: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7838: 7831: 7828: 7824: 7821: 7816: 7809: 7804: 7802: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7776: 7771: 7767: 7761: 7753: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7726: 7718: 7714: 7710: 7706: 7703:(1–3): 2–14. 7702: 7698: 7691: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7656: 7654: 7646: 7642: 7637: 7630: 7625: 7609: 7605: 7598: 7596: 7594: 7592: 7575: 7571: 7567: 7561: 7553: 7549: 7545: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7530:(4): 407–14. 7529: 7525: 7518: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7498: 7494: 7490: 7486: 7482: 7475: 7468: 7452: 7448: 7443: 7442:public domain 7432: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7408: 7404: 7401:(2): 115–30. 7400: 7396: 7389: 7381: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7356:(4): 722–42. 7355: 7351: 7347: 7340: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7320: 7317:(5): 445–48. 7316: 7312: 7305: 7297: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7279: 7275: 7271: 7267: 7266:Eur J Pediatr 7263: 7256: 7249: 7244: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7201: 7193: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7160: 7158: 7149: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7124:(4): 435–46. 7123: 7119: 7115: 7108: 7101: 7096: 7089: 7084: 7077: 7072: 7064: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7023: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6987: 6980: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6953: 6945: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6902: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6859: 6852: 6850: 6848: 6846: 6844: 6835: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6794: 6779:on 9 May 2014 6778: 6774: 6768: 6760: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6735:(1): 121–37. 6734: 6730: 6726: 6719: 6717: 6708: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6667: 6659: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6618: 6610: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6577: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6526: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6495:(6): 457–67. 6494: 6490: 6483: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6440: 6435: 6428: 6412: 6406: 6398: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6381:(5): 662–87. 6380: 6376: 6372: 6365: 6357: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6324: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6281: 6273: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6256:(2): 191–96. 6255: 6251: 6247: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6216:(9): 635–38. 6215: 6211: 6203: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6186:(7): 656–61. 6185: 6181: 6177: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6154:(3): 224–30. 6153: 6149: 6142: 6135: 6130: 6122: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6071: 6063: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6031: 6023: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5998:(4): 801–11. 5997: 5993: 5989: 5982: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5931: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5896: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5873:(5): 539–63. 5872: 5868: 5861: 5855:, p. 98. 5854: 5849: 5843: 5837: 5831: 5825: 5817: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5792:(4): 602–14. 5791: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5741: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5691: 5684: 5677: 5672: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5637: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5594: 5592: 5572: 5568: 5561: 5555: 5547: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5514: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5491:(1): 111–35. 5490: 5486: 5479: 5472: 5468: 5463: 5455: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5404: 5397: 5392: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5351: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5300: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5277:(3): 265–90. 5276: 5272: 5271: 5263: 5261: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5225: 5218: 5213: 5206: 5201: 5194: 5189: 5182: 5178: 5173: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5150:(9): 977–79. 5149: 5145: 5138: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5120:3-8055-7862-8 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5093: 5091: 5083: 5078: 5076: 5074: 5067:, p. 38. 5066: 5061: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5026: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4976: 4969: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4934: 4933: 4924: 4917: 4913: 4908: 4900: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4883:(2): 181–93. 4882: 4878: 4874: 4867: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4836:(2): 103–12. 4835: 4831: 4824: 4822: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4778: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4743: 4741: 4732: 4728: 4725:(2): 95–104. 4724: 4720: 4713: 4706: 4704: 4695: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4662: 4660: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4624: 4622: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4588:(2): 131–37. 4587: 4583: 4579: 4572: 4570: 4562: 4557: 4550: 4546: 4541: 4533: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4490: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4455: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4424:(2): 117–27. 4423: 4419: 4412: 4405: 4400: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4377:(1): 621–67. 4376: 4372: 4365: 4363: 4354: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4329:(3): 319–32. 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4306: 4302: 4297: 4295: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4271:(5): 557–64. 4270: 4266: 4259: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4209: 4202: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4151: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4116: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4093:(2): 119–33. 4092: 4088: 4081: 4074: 4070: 4065: 4058: 4053: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4018:(6): 920–40. 4017: 4013: 4009: 4002: 3994: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3953: 3945: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3920:(4): 447–59. 3919: 3915: 3911: 3904: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3861: 3855:, p. 20. 3854: 3849: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3816:(6): 821–32. 3815: 3811: 3807: 3800: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3757: 3751:, p. xi. 3750: 3745: 3738: 3734: 3729: 3727: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3675: 3668: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3643: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3573: 3565: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3483: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3460:(2): 169–77. 3459: 3455: 3448: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3425:(3): 205–09. 3424: 3420: 3413: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3382: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3341: 3333: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3300: 3293: 3289: 3284: 3277: 3272: 3266:, p. 11. 3265: 3260: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3229:(3): 149–59. 3228: 3224: 3217: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3184:(5): 556–63. 3183: 3179: 3175: 3168: 3161: 3156: 3148: 3144: 3139: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3107: 3105: 3097: 3092: 3088: 3074: 3071: 3069: 3066: 3063: 3060: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3050: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3039: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2990: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2963:miasma theory 2960: 2956: 2955:Louis Pasteur 2951: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2898: 2896: 2891: 2890: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2863:(protein L). 2862: 2860: 2855: 2854: 2850:(protein G), 2849: 2848: 2847:Streptococcus 2843: 2839: 2838: 2833: 2832: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2818: 2813: 2811: 2806: 2805:leishmaniasis 2802: 2800: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2786: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2770: 2769:intracellular 2765: 2763: 2759: 2748: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2693: 2691: 2687: 2686:RNA silencing 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2654:Ribonucleases 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2594: 2593: 2592: 2587: 2586: 2578: 2577: 2569: 2568: 2567: 2562: 2561: 2558: 2557: 2550: 2549: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2539: 2538: 2535: 2534: 2527: 2526: 2520: 2516: 2515: 2512: 2511: 2508: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2498:hemichordates 2495: 2488: 2487: 2481: 2480:Deuterostomes 2478: 2477: 2473: 2471: 2470:deuterostomes 2467: 2466:invertebrates 2463: 2452: 2442: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2411:regions than 2410: 2406: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2380: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2343: 2341: 2336: 2328: 2324: 2323:Immunotherapy 2320: 2316: 2312: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2259:viruses like 2258: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2235: 2225: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2202: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2174: 2169: 2159: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2148:chiropractors 2145: 2139: 2135: 2134:Immunotherapy 2131: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2088:hyperglycemia 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2050: 2049:) or cancer. 2048: 2044: 2037: 2036:dexamethasone 2034: 2029: 2020: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2002:that promote 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1968: 1958: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1891: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1872:self-antigens 1869: 1868:self antigens 1865: 1861: 1857: 1849: 1844: 1839: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1750: 1740: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1688: 1678: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1663: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1610: 1605: 1596: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1571: 1561: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1477:interleukin-1 1474: 1470: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1366:embryogenesis 1363: 1359: 1350: 1341: 1336: 1326: 1324: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1297: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1246: 1241: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1195: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1180: 1177: 1169: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1121: 1112: 1110: 1106: 1105:helper T cell 1102: 1101:killer T cell 1096: 1086: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1053:self-antigens 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1012: 1010: 1006: 997: 992: 982: 980: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 955: 951: 947: 943: 942:carbohydrates 939: 938:invertebrates 935: 931: 927: 917: 914: 913:inflammasomes 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 890:that promote 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 872:blood vessels 869: 865: 862:that produce 861: 857: 853: 846: 836: 834: 830: 826: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 803:innate immune 799: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 759: 755: 751: 748: 742: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 719: 717: 713: 712:free radicals 709: 705: 704:phagolysosome 701: 697: 693: 688: 684: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 605: 596: 594: 590: 585: 583: 579: 578: 573: 569: 565: 560: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 528: 526: 522: 516: 506: 504: 500: 497: 492: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 455:, tears, and 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 429: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 386: 382: 378: 374: 364: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 333: 329: 326: 325: 321: 318: 317: 313: 309: 308:Cell-mediated 306: 303: 299: 298:Cell-mediated 296: 295: 291: 288: 287: 283: 280:Pathogen and 279: 276: 275: 272: 267: 263: 260: 255: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 219: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 156: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 109: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 80:, as well as 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 54:immune system 47: 43: 39: 34: 30: 19: 12702: 12610:Co-receptors 12563:MHC class II 12071: 12039: 12012: 11908: 11896: 11883: 11764: 11747: 11730: 11690: 10940:Inflammation 10925:Alloimmunity 10920:Autoimmunity 10905:Immunity vs. 10857:Autoantibody 10755:Superantigen 10678:(The book's 10670:. Retrieved 10642: 10620:Online books 10610: 10580: 10571: 10544: 10521: 10491: 10456: 10437: 10402: 10383: 10370: 10350: 10313: 10294: 10274: 10236: 10233:EMBO Reports 10232: 10222: 10210:. Retrieved 10200: 10192: 10176: 10166: 10154: 10135: 10100: 10096: 10086: 10081:, p. 7. 10074: 10069:, p. 6. 10062: 10037: 10033: 10027: 10013:(1): 60–78. 10010: 10006: 10000: 9986:(1): 50–53. 9983: 9979: 9973: 9961:. Retrieved 9913: 9909: 9899: 9874: 9870: 9864: 9819: 9815: 9805: 9794:the original 9765: 9761: 9748: 9715: 9711: 9705: 9670: 9666: 9656: 9631: 9627: 9621: 9596: 9592: 9586: 9551: 9547: 9499: 9495: 9485: 9444: 9440: 9434: 9399: 9395: 9385: 9373:. 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In 1974, 2987:Walter Reed 2975:Nobel Prize 2967:Robert Koch 2933:in 430 BC. 2872:amino acids 2612:Prokaryotes 2519:Vertebrates 2494:Echinoderms 2462:vertebrates 2413:hydrophobic 2405:amino acids 2402:hydrophilic 2356:lymphocytes 2352:macrophages 2319:Macrophages 2305:cell growth 2293:melanocytes 2186:vaccination 2168:Vaccination 2162:Vaccination 2138:Vaccination 2114:cyclosporin 2008:interferons 1976:eicosanoids 1955:macrophages 1719:such as in 1701:neutrophils 1697:macrophages 1671:macrophages 1648:lymphocytes 1633:neutrophils 1516:epinephrine 1415:seem to be 1387:can act as 1372:repair and 1266:lymphokines 1258:proteolysis 1147:, allowing 1129:co-receptor 1059:, in which 1041:Class I MHC 1029:bone marrow 954:proteolytic 896:interferons 852:eicosanoids 788:eosinophils 780:anaphylaxis 723:bloodstream 673:eosinophils 657:neutrophils 653:macrophages 625:lymphocytes 457:breast milk 377:exoskeleton 314:components 153:vaccination 12462:stimulate: 12018:Oropharynx 11758:Lymph node 11691:peripheral 11537:Metatarsus 11532:Metacarpus 11511:Thigh bone 11507:(clavicle) 11325:Pharyngeal 11270:White pulp 11246:Trabeculae 11104:Substances 10968:Peripheral 10956:Inaction: 10835:Antibodies 10816:Macrophage 10729:complement 10662:1263845194 10563:1083261548 10403:Mast Cells 10380:Janeway CA 10342:1105775088 8117:: 157–77. 7808:Reece 2011 7790:21 January 7643:, Chapter 7248:Reece 2011 7118:Immunology 5649:: 331–60. 5105:: 151–83. 4547:, p. 4467:: 647–75. 4191:6 November 3873:: 353–89. 3749:Iriti 2019 3578:Gorbach SL 3079:References 2935:Thucydides 2923:Immunology 2810:Leishmania 2799:Plasmodium 2790:eukaryotic 2785:Salmonella 2782:bacterium 2776:life-cycle 2745:antibodies 2717:lymphocyte 2662:eukaryotes 2439:proteomics 2372:metastasis 2289:tyrosinase 2180:Long-term 2152:homeopaths 2146:, such as 2120:pathways. 2082:, such as 2004:chemotaxis 2000:chemokines 1918:mast cells 1814:phagocytes 1804:is a rare 1774:alcoholism 1717:amphibians 1705:γδ T cells 1675:stem cells 1627:affecting 1611:blood film 1510:levels of 1475:, such as 1395:are known 1294:phagocytes 1153:granulysin 1139:, such as 1137:cytotoxins 1049:γδ T cells 930:antibodies 898:that have 892:chemotaxis 888:chemokines 731:chemotaxis 702:to form a 669:mast cells 645:leukocytes 633:neutrophil 577:Drosophila 396:, and the 394:intestines 304:components 216:Immunology 139:, and the 42:neutrophil 12401:Secretory 12346:Gamma (γ) 12224:Pituitary 12073:accessory 12028:Esophagus 11748:secondary 11660:Diaphragm 11604:Cartilage 11552:Phalanges 11121:Cytolysin 11111:Cytokines 10958:Tolerance 10907:tolerance 10826:Immunogen 10672:4 January 10510:712136178 9963:8 January 9375:1 January 8937:198982175 8610:(1): 99. 8049:196590144 7039:: 71–79. 7014:244369441 5580:1 January 5144:Nutrition 4446:260317790 3914:Structure 3084:Citations 2985:virus by 2678:apoptosis 2646:defensins 2309:oncogenes 2297:melanomas 2257:oncogenic 2214:adjuvants 2206:acellular 1980:cytokines 1951:monocytes 1922:basophils 1667:monocytes 1660:pathogens 1580:melatonin 1544:IFN-gamma 1540:TNF-alpha 1532:prolactin 1473:cytokines 1435:Vitamin D 1429:vitamin D 1421:prolactin 1358:endocrine 1310:colostrum 1228:epithelia 1157:apoptosis 959:catalytic 900:antiviral 856:cytokines 792:parasites 784:Basophils 750:dendrites 716:nutrients 696:phagosome 694:called a 677:basophils 637:platelets 582:cytokines 566:known as 553:pathogens 496:commensal 459:are also 437:defensins 404:from the 402:irritants 341:molecules 228:infection 137:defensins 102:molecules 86:splinters 70:pathogens 12923:Category 12901:Medicine 12749:KIR2DL5B 12744:KIR2DL5A 12486:inhibit: 12369:Neonatal 12204:Placenta 12167:Testicle 12162:Prostate 12089:Pancreas 12050:Appendix 12040:lower GI 12013:upper GI 11961:Bronchus 11904:Lymphoid 11587:Vertebra 11542:Ossicles 11527:Mandible 11315:Palatine 11253:Red pulp 11071:Cellular 10915:Immunity 10913:Action: 10896:Paratope 10884:Idiotype 10874:Allotype 10842:Antibody 10796:Mimotope 10760:Allergen 10743:Antigens 10736:Lymphoid 10666:Archived 10520:(1989). 10483:22665247 10429:16110146 10382:(2005). 10189:68025143 10174:(1905). 10143:Archived 10127:15812490 10054:15530829 9940:15890896 9891:16908087 9856:16219699 9790:10322322 9782:12773190 9740:31788349 9732:16086598 9648:11211218 9613:16216510 9578:15418509 9570:16497587 9526:16373579 9469:15372043 9426:17108957 9348:16732482 9299:21680436 9258:28187792 9232:(1): 5. 9207:27672148 9158:18703739 9093:17379808 8991:19997068 8929:31356379 8894:15130835 8867:15921533 8816:18197810 8808:16598694 8732:21487506 8683:26325031 8634:32555170 8578:17695843 8528:17017974 8485:16392887 8465:BioDrugs 8447:29208439 8401:16860661 8348:16003759 8304:25182066 8296:15965712 8257:16946036 8200:42681479 8192:11315507 8183:11036832 8141:14710950 8093:17145305 8041:10653598 8006:24559558 7922:16417215 7878:21346647 7870:10545912 7823:Archived 7752:12835079 7717:16436275 7682:16039869 7574:Archived 7552:19872862 7544:26049639 7509:37973054 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