288:
161:
272:
719:
349:
643:. Utilitarians judge actions by their overall consequences, usually by comparing, in monetary terms, the relevant benefits obtained by a particular protective measure with the net cost of introducing that measure. On the other hand, the principle of applying dose limits aims to protect the rights of the individual not to be exposed to an excessive level of harm, even if this could cause great problems for society at large. This principle therefore satisfies the
583:
therefore asked a working group to consider these, and their report, Publication 8 (1966), for the first time for the ICRP summarised the current knowledge about radiation risks, both somatic and genetic. Publication 9 then followed, and substantially changed radiation protection emphasis by moving from deterministic to stochastic effects.
696:
into account. This procedure should be constrained by restrictions on the doses to individuals (dose constraints), or on the risks to individuals in the case of potential exposures (risk constraints) so as to limit the inequity likely to result from the inherent economic and social judgements. (The optimisation of protection)
391:
in 1937. At the 1934 meeting in Zurich, the
Commission was faced with undue membership interference. The hosts insisted on having four Swiss participants (out of a total of 11 members), and the German authorities replaced the Jewish German member with another of their choice. In response to this, the
709:
In the 21st century, the latest overall recommendations on an international system of radiological protection appeared. ICRP Publication 103 (2007), after two phases of international public consultation, has resulted in more continuity than change. Some recommendations remain because they work and
416:
and Rolf
Sievert. Taylor was invited to revive and revise the IXRPC, which included renaming it as the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Sievert remained an active member, Sir Ernest Rock Carling (UK) was appointed as Chairman, and Walter Binks (UK) took over as Scientific
184:
The
International System of Radiological Protection has been developed by ICRP based on the current understanding of the science of radiation exposures and effects, and value judgements. These value judgements take into account societal expectations, ethics, and experience gained in application of
699:
The exposure of individuals resulting from the combination of all the relevant practices should be subject to dose limits, or to some control of risk in the case of potential exposures. These are aimed at ensuring that no individual is exposed to radiation risks that are judged to be unacceptable
695:
In relation to any particular source within a practice, the magnitude of individual doses, the number of people exposed, and the likelihood of incurring exposures where these are not certain to be received should all be kept as low as reasonably achievable, economic and social factors being taken
546:
A first recommendation on restrictions of exposures of members of the general public appeared in the commission's part of the 1954 Recommendations. It was also stated that 'since no radiation level higher than the natural background can be regarded as absolutely "safe", the problem is to choose a
195:
Committee 1 considers the effects of radiation action from the subcellular to population and ecosystem levels, including the induction of cancer, heritable and other diseases, impairment of tissue/organ function and developmental defects, and assesses implications for protection of people and the
622:
These principles have since become known as justification, optimisation (as low as reasonably achievable), and the application of dose limits. The optimisation principle was introduced because of the need to find some way of balancing costs and benefits of the introduction of a radiation source
582:
The significance of stochastic effects began to influence the commission's policy and a new set of recommendations was published as
Publication 9 in 1966. However, during development its editors became concerned about the many different opinions on the risk of stochastic effects. The Commission
306:
The dangers of radioactivity and radiation were not immediately recognized. The discovery of X‑rays had led to widespread experimentation by scientists, physicians, and inventors, but many people began recounting stories of burns, hair loss and worse in technical journals as early as 1896. In
686:
from exposure to ionising radiation. The following year, it adopted its 1990 Recommendations for a 'system of radiological protection'. The principles of protection recommended by the
Commission were still based on the general principles given in Publication 26. However, there were important
662:
and to restrict the uncontrolled build-up of exposure to long-lived radio nuclides in the environment. With the global expansion of nuclear reactors and reprocessing it was feared global doses could again reach the levels seen from atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. So, by 1977, the
591:
In
October 1974, the official definition of Reference man was adopted by the ICRP: “Reference man is defined as being between 20-30 years of age, weighing 70 kg, is 170 cm in height, and lives in a climate with an average temperature of from 10 to 20 degrees C. He is a
236:
These have become one of the main means of communicating advances by the ICRP in the form of technical presentations and reports from various committees drawn from the international radiological protection community. They have been held every two years since 2011.
311:
performed an experiment involving X-raying Dudley's head that resulted in his hair loss. A report by Dr. H.D. Hawks, a graduate of
Columbia College, of his suffering severe hand and chest burns in an x-ray demonstration, was the first of many other reports in
630:
basis of how to decide what is reasonably achievable in dose reduction. The principle of justification aims to do more good than harm, and that of optimisation aims to maximise the margin of good over harm for society as a whole. They therefore satisfy the
180:
It is an independent, international organization with more than two hundred volunteer members from approximately thirty countries on six continents, who represent the world's leading scientists and policy makers in the field of radiological protection.
543:. At this time it was first stated that the purpose of radiological protection was that of avoiding deterministic effects from occupational exposures, and the principle of radiological protection was to keep individuals below the relevant thresholds.
574:
In 1957, there was pressure on ICRP from both the World Health
Organisation and UNSCEAR to reveal all of the decisions from its 1956 meeting in Geneva. The final document, the Commission's 1958 Recommendations was the first ICRP report published by
204:
Committee 2 develops dosimetric methodology for the assessment of internal and external radiation exposures, including reference biokinetic and dosimetric models and reference data and dose coefficients, for use in the protection of people and the
335:
also reported burns. Elihu
Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an X-ray tube over a period of time and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering. Other effects, including ultraviolet rays and ozone were sometimes blamed for the damage. Many
302:
discovery of X-rays in 1895, the
American engineer Wolfram Fuchs gave what was probably the first radiation protection advice, but many early users of X-rays were initially unaware of the hazards and protection was rudimentary or non-existent.
519:
The key output of the ICRP and its historic predecessor has been the issuing of recommendations in the form of reports and publications. The contents are made available for adoption by national regulatory bodies to the extent that they wish.
356:
Wide acceptance of ionizing radiation hazards was slow to emerge, and it was not until 1925 that the establishment of international radiological protection standards was discussed at the first International Congress of Radiology (ICR).
539:) in any 1 week in the case of whole-body exposure to X and gamma radiation at the surface, and 1.5 roentgen (0.013 grays) in any 1 week in the case of exposure of hands and forearms. Maximum permissible body burdens were given for 11
164:
International policy relationships in radiological protection. The ICRP sits at the interface between ongoing worldwide radiation research and the creation of internationally agreed recommendations for regulation and
408:
substances being handled as a result of military and civil nuclear programmes led to large additional groups of occupational workers and the public being potentially exposed to harmful levels of ionising radiation.
691:
No practice involving exposures to radiation should be adopted unless it produces sufficient benefit to the exposed individuals or to society to offset the radiation detriment it causes. (The justification of a
1379:
710:
are clear, others have been updated because understanding has evolved, some items have been added because there has been a void, and some concepts are better explained because more guidance is needed.
443:
The next meeting was in 1956 in Geneva. This was the first time that a formal meeting of the Commission took place independently of the ICR. At this meeting, ICRP became formally affiliated with the
213:
Committee 3 addresses protection of persons and unborn children when ionising radiation is used in medical diagnosis, therapy, and biomedical research, as well as protection in veterinary medicine.
2391:
221:
Committee 4 provides advice on the application of the Commission's recommendations for the protection of people and the environment in an integrated manner for all exposure situations.
2012:"Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC"
687:
additions which weakened the link to cost benefit analysis and collective dose, and strengthened the protection of the individual, which reflected changes in societal values:
2371:
1335:
477:
At the meeting in Stockholm in May 1962, the Commission also decided to reorganise the committee system in order to improve productivity and four committees were created:
149:
152:(ICRU). In general terms ICRU defines the units, and ICRP recommends, develops and maintains the International system of radiological protection which uses these units.
596:
and is a Western European or North American in habitat and custom.” The reference man is created for the estimation of radiation doses without adverse health effects.
494:
After many assessments of committee roles within an environment of increasing workloads and changes in societal emphasis, by 2008 the committee structure had become:
1341:
729:
The table below shows the number of different units for various quantities and is indicative of changes of thinking in world metrology, especially the movement from
547:
practical level that, in the light of present knowledge, involves a negligible risk'. However, the Commission had not rejected the possibility of a threshold for
2502:
2073:
Full text of ICRP report 103 (2007) These revised Recommendations for a System of Radiological Protection formally replace the Commission's 1990 recommendations.
291:
1204:
ICRP issues two awards the Bo Lindell Medal which is awarded annually and the Gold Medal for Radiation Protection which is issued every four years since 1962.
759:
566:
At its 1956 meeting the concept of a controlled area and radiation safety officer were introduced, and the first specific advice was given for pregnant women.
1383:
126:, with the mission to protect people, animals, and the environment from the harmful effects of ionising radiation. Its recommendations form the basis of
2497:
1733:
228:
The ICRP's key output is the production of regular publications disseminating information and recommendations through the "Annals of the ICRP".
2381:
2098:
1329:
730:
467:
2257:
373:
726:
In collaboration with the ICRU, the commission has assisted in defining the use of many of the dose quantities in the accompanying diagram.
412:
Against this background, the first post-war ICR convened in London in 1950, but only two IXRPC members were still active from pre-war days;
1245:
679:. The risks of exposure were claimed to be higher than those used by ICRP, and pressures began to appear for a reduction in dose limits.
2522:
2492:
1814:
1423:
752:
52:
1918:
605:
672:
1193:
2068:- M.A. Boyd, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. An account of chronological differences between USA and ICRP dosimetry systems.
2512:
2065:
2422:
745:
145:). In 1950 it was restructured to take account of new uses of radiation outside the medical area and re-named as the ICRP.
2507:
1745:
Hrabak, M.; Padovan, R. S.; Kralik, M.; Ozretic, D.; Potocki, K. (July 2008). "Nikola Tesla and the Discovery of X-rays".
2386:
1353:
134:
1962:
2366:
2091:
1311:
451:
1873:
1482:
722:
External dose quantities used in radiation protection and dosimetry based on ICRU 57, jointly developed with the ICRP
663:
establishment of dose limits was secondary to the establishment of cost–benefit analysis and use of collective dose.
560:
463:
618:
the doses to individuals shall not exceed the limits recommended for the appropriate circumstances by the Commission
1515:
2407:
615:
all exposures shall be kept as low as reasonably achievable, economic and social factors being taken into account
2011:
2189:
1994:
2517:
2472:
2417:
2412:
2084:
786:
734:
123:
535:
In the "1951 Recommendations" the commission recommended a maximum permissible dose of 0.5 roentgen (0.0044
1362:- Radiation protection pioneer, and the first to conduct controlled experiments into the hazards of X-rays.
352:
Rolf Maximilian Sievert, pioneer in the science of radiological protection and first chairman of the IXRPC.
459:
1151:
1113:
1074:
1045:
523:
Early recommendations were general guides on exposure and thereby dose limits, and it was not until the
2460:
2199:
1274:
1094:
1291:
The recipients of the Bo Lindell Medal for the Promotion of Radiological Protection are listed below:
160:
2146:
659:
444:
283:
to optimise tube emissions, the other has his head close to the tube. No precautions are being taken.
287:
2456:
2443:
2438:
1734:
Ronald L. Kathern and Paul L. Ziemer, he First Fifty Years of Radiation Protection, physics.isu.edu
1338:- Devoted to the development and maintenance of international measurement standards and techniques
2234:
1889:
1780:
1359:
1142:
1065:
556:
365:
225:
Supporting these committees are Task Groups, established primarily to develop ICRP publications.
127:
2464:
2361:
2294:
1323:
392:
Commission decided on new rules in order to establish full control over its future membership.
1863:
1472:
2468:
2277:
1968:. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. 14 March 2012. Archived from
1944:
608:
set out the new system of dose limitation and introduced the three principles of protection:
308:
1196:
required that their use for "public health ... purposes" be phased out by 31 December 1985.
2289:
2282:
2121:
2107:
254:
4th International ICRP symposium 2017. Key areas of focus: Recovery after nuclear accidents
17:
2071:
8:
2304:
2214:
1498:
1268:
417:
Secretary because of Taylor's concurrent involvement with the sister organisation, ICRU.
413:
294:
erected 1936 at St. Georg hospital in Hamburg, commemorating 359 early radiology workers.
2151:
2141:
2136:
1837:
1708:
1675:
1651:
1626:
1446:
1356:- the IRPA-affiliated national professional radiological protection organisation for UK
880:
548:
360:
The second ICR was held in Stockholm in 1928 and the ICRU proposed the adoption of the
257:
5th International symposium 2019. Key areas of focus: Mines, Medicine and Space travel.
251:
3rd International ICRP symposium 2015. Key areas of focus: Medicine, science and ethics
1902:
1332:(IRPA) -The worldwide umbrella body for national radiological protection organisations
1181:
Although the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission permits the use of the units
299:
2194:
1869:
1762:
1713:
1695:
1656:
1478:
1378:. The copyright holder has licensed the content in a manner that permits reuse under
852:
794:
328:
1841:
1450:
612:
no practice shall be adopted unless its introduction produces a positive net benefit
364:; and the 'International X-ray and Radium Protection Committee' (IXRPC) was formed.
2335:
2330:
1897:
1829:
1754:
1703:
1687:
1646:
1638:
1438:
1314:(JRP) -The peer-reviewed scientific publication devoted to radiological protection.
1235:
640:
2229:
2204:
1026:
913:
682:
By 1989, the commission had itself revised upwards its estimates of the risks of
655:
361:
1865:
A Half Century of Health Physics: 50th Anniversary of the Health Physics Society
2320:
2267:
2184:
2131:
1833:
1642:
1442:
1280:
1190:
683:
636:
632:
593:
576:
271:
170:
2486:
2174:
1969:
1699:
1262:
1250:
949:
648:
644:
433:
protection against X rays above 2 million volts, and beta rays and gamma rays
369:
324:
320:
188:
The work of the Commission centres on the operation of four main committees:
1691:
1212:
The recipients of the gold medal for Radiation Protection are listed below:
718:
2299:
2219:
2156:
1766:
1717:
1660:
1229:
1182:
823:
401:
332:
276:
2340:
2272:
2209:
1758:
1603:
1317:
959:
921:
536:
405:
348:
280:
169:
The ICRP is a not-for-profit organization registered as a charity in the
1320:- Physical dose unit, used for comparison of deterministic health effect
2224:
2076:
2032:
2009:
1614:
1592:
1581:
1570:
1523:
1350:- Biological dose unit, used for comparison of stochastic health effect
1186:
1007:
579:. The 1958 Recommendations are usually referred to as 'Publication 1'.
552:
524:
430:
protection against X rays generated at potentials up to 2 million volts
337:
1545:
2262:
2179:
2126:
804:
676:
1372:
As of 10 May 2017, this article is derived in whole or in part from
671:
During the 1980s, there were re-evaluations of the survivors of the
244:
2nd International ICRP symposium 2013. Key areas of focus: science,
2325:
894:
241:
1st International ICRP symposium 2011. Key areas of focus: Various.
436:
protection against heavy particles, including neutrons and protons
2356:
2239:
1347:
1104:
1036:
890:
627:
540:
455:
388:
343:
69:
1499:"ICRP Announces Changes to its Committee Structure and Mandates"
379:
The committee met for just a day at each of the ICR meetings in
471:
384:
340:
claimed that there were no effects from X-ray exposure at all.
174:
73:
65:
1963:"International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements"
967:
507:
Committee 4 - Application of the Commission's recommendations
380:
248:, emergency preparedness and recovery, medicine, environment.
1336:
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
439:
disposal of radioactive wastes and handling of radioisotopes
279:
X-Ray apparatus in 1896. One man is viewing his hand with a
150:
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
1676:"Early victims of X-rays: a tribute and current perception"
245:
218:
Committee 4 Application of the Commission's Recommendations
1781:"A Critical Review of the Draft 2005 ICRP Recommendations"
1744:
447:(WHO) as a 'participating non-governmental organisation'.
2059:
1342:
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
981:
450:
In 1959, a formal relationship was established with the
130:
policy, regulations, guidelines and practice worldwide.
1896:. ICRP Publication 23. OS_23 (1): i–xix. January 1975.
1815:"The History of ICRP and the Evolution of its Policies"
1627:"History and Organizations for Radiological Protection"
1424:"The History of ICRP and the Evolution of its Policies"
1374:
292:
Monument to the X-ray and Radium Martyrs of All Nations
133:
The ICRP was effectively founded in 1928 at the second
2010:
The Council of the European Communities (1979-12-21).
1862:
Ryan, Michael T.; Sr, John W. Poston (30 March 2006).
1673:
1207:
626:
The 1977 Recommendations were very concerned with the
527:
that a greater degree of sophistication was required.
420:
At that meeting, six sub-committees were established:
106:
1790:. Directorate-General for Energy and Transport. 2008
1326:- USA professional body for radiological protection
139:
International X-ray and Radium Protection Committee
116:
International Commission on Radiological Protection
28:
International Commission on Radiological Protection
1868:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 205.
1729:
1727:
1812:
1667:
1421:
700:from these practices in any normal circumstances.
307:February 1896 Professor Daniel and Dr. Dudley of
2484:
1919:"Cost-Benefit Analysis and Radiation Protection"
1477:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 137.
1474:Radiation Protection In Diagnostic X-Ray Imaging
1724:
1674:Sansare, K.; Khanna, V.; Karjodkar, F. (2011).
623:involving ionising radiation or radionuclides.
514:
210:Committee 3 Radiological Protection in Medicine
2503:International medical and health organizations
1945:"Nuclear Industry Considers Tougher Standards"
1330:International Radiation Protection Association
468:International Organization for Standardization
344:Emergence of international standards – the ICR
2092:
753:
137:in Stockholm, Sweden but was then called the
2066:"The confusing world of radiation dosimetry"
569:
368:was named Chairman, and a driving force was
2258:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring
1955:
1890:"Report of the task group on reference man"
647:principle of ethics, proposed primarily by
599:
510:Committee 5 - Protection of the environment
501:Committee 2 - Doses from radiation exposure
2498:International nuclear energy organizations
2099:
2085:
760:
746:
1999:. US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2009.
1901:
1707:
1650:
1470:
1417:
1415:
673:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
666:
498:Committee 1 - Radiation effects Committee
231:
201:Committee 2 Doses from Radiation Exposure
148:The ICRP is a sister organisation to the
2106:
2062:- The European radiation dosimetry group
1916:
1773:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1194:European units of measurement directives
717:
635:ethical principle proposed primarily by
347:
286:
270:
159:
1807:
1805:
713:
530:
427:permissible dose for internal radiation
424:permissible dose for external radiation
14:
2485:
1861:
1386:. All relevant terms must be followed.
741:Ionizing radiation related quantities
559:were introduced for absorbed dose and
173:and has its scientific secretariat in
2423:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960
2080:
1942:
1613:5th International ICRP symposium 2019
1392:
1802:
1624:
1471:Seeram, Euclid; Brennan, Patrick C.
504:Committee 3 - Protection in medicine
404:the increased range and quantity of
122:) is an independent, international,
1354:Society for Radiological Protection
1286:
1208:Gold Medal for Radiation Protection
135:International Congress of Radiology
24:
2025:
1813:Clarke, R.H.; J. Valentin (2009).
1422:Clarke, R.H.; J. Valentin (2009).
1312:Journal of Radiological Protection
490:C4: Application of recommendations
452:International Atomic Energy Agency
25:
2534:
2523:Standards organizations in Canada
2493:Organizations established in 1928
2053:
1943:Milne, Roger (3 September 1987).
1631:Journal of Korean Medical Science
675:, partly due to revisions in the
654:Consequently, the concept of the
464:Food and Agriculture Organization
1136:
1059:
975:
907:
817:
586:
395:
266:
2003:
1987:
1936:
1910:
1882:
1855:
1738:
1618:
1607:
704:
2513:Nuclear medicine organizations
2190:Computed tomography dose index
1596:
1585:
1574:
1563:
1538:
1508:
1491:
1464:
1301:2018: Nicole E. Martinez (USA)
454:(IAEA), and subsequently with
13:
1:
1917:Ahmed, J U; Daw, H T (1980).
1903:10.1016/S0074-2740(75)80015-8
1366:
1298:2019: Elizabeth Ainsbury (UK)
658:was introduced to facilitate
563:-weighted dose respectively.
319:Many experimenters including
192:Committee 1 Radiation Effects
124:non-governmental organization
1680:Dentomaxillofacial Radiology
1602:4th international symposium
1591:3rd international symposium
1580:2nd international symposium
1569:1st international symposium
1295:2021: Haruyuki Ogino (Japan)
515:Evolution of recommendations
374:National Physical Laboratory
155:
7:
2508:Nuclear safety and security
1305:
460:International Labour Office
10:
2539:
2454:
1834:10.1016/j.icrp.2009.07.009
1643:10.3346/jkms.2016.31.S1.S4
1443:10.1016/j.icrp.2009.07.009
1275:William Valentine Mayneord
551:effects. At this time the
261:
2452:
2431:
2400:
2349:
2313:
2248:
2165:
2147:Radioactive contamination
2114:
1199:
1093:
1025:
948:
879:
793:
445:World Health Organization
102:
92:
82:
58:
48:
40:
32:
2455:See also the categories
2444:Radiation-induced cancer
2439:Acute radiation syndrome
1824:. ICRP Publication 109.
1625:Kang, Keon Wook (2016).
1433:. ICRP Publication 109.
1225:2008: K Sankaranarayanan
1189:alongside SI units, the
600:Principles of protection
1360:William Herbert Rollins
128:radiological protection
2295:Semiconductor detector
2251:measurement techniques
1324:Health Physics Society
1143:röntgen equivalent man
1066:röntgen equivalent man
723:
667:Re-evaluation of doses
487:C3: External exposure;
484:C2: Internal exposure;
481:C1: Radiation effects;
353:
295:
284:
232:International Symposia
166:
2314:Protection techniques
2278:Scintillation counter
1692:10.1259/dmfr/73488299
721:
660:cost–benefit analysis
351:
309:Vanderbilt University
290:
274:
163:
107:ICRP Official website
2518:Radiation protection
2473:Radiation protection
2290:Radiation monitoring
2283:Proportional counter
2168:quantities and units
2122:Background radiation
2108:Radiation protection
1975:on 29 September 2013
1759:10.1148/rg.284075206
1516:"Annals of the ICRP"
1344:of the United States
1279:1962: W Binks &
1222:2012: Keith Eckerman
714:Radiation quantities
531:1951 recommendations
2305:Whole-body counting
2215:Mean glandular dose
2152:Radioactive sources
1788:European Commission
1269:Lauriston S. Taylor
1219:2016: Ethel Gilbert
767:
177:, Ontario, Canada.
29:
2142:Internal dosimetry
2137:Ionizing radiation
1894:Annals of the ICRP
1822:Annals of the ICRP
1431:Annals of the ICRP
1240:1993: I Shigematsu
1216:2020: Dale Preston
740:
724:
354:
296:
285:
167:
94:Official language
27:
2480:
2479:
2461:Radiation effects
2432:Radiation effects
2195:Counts per minute
1637:(Suppl 1): S4-5.
1258:1985: S Takahashi
1179:
1178:
1150:100 ergâ‹…g Ă—
1073:100 ergâ‹…g Ă—
329:William J. Morton
314:Electrical Review
112:
111:
16:(Redirected from
2530:
2336:Radon mitigation
2331:Potassium iodide
2249:Instruments and
2101:
2094:
2087:
2078:
2077:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1974:
1967:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1923:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1819:
1809:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1785:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1742:
1736:
1731:
1722:
1721:
1711:
1671:
1665:
1664:
1654:
1622:
1616:
1611:
1605:
1600:
1594:
1589:
1583:
1578:
1572:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1526:on 23 March 2014
1522:. Archived from
1512:
1506:
1505:
1503:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1428:
1419:
1287:Bo Lindell Medal
1263:Edward E. Pochin
1254:
1236:Angelina Guskova
1002:
1000:
944:
942:
931:
929:
874:
873:
870:
846:
837:
835:
768:
762:
755:
748:
739:
641:John Stuart Mill
414:Lauriston Taylor
30:
26:
21:
2538:
2537:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2527:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2476:
2475:
2457:Medical physics
2448:
2427:
2396:
2345:
2309:
2250:
2244:
2205:Equivalent dose
2167:
2161:
2110:
2105:
2056:
2051:
2050:
2041:
2039:
2031:
2030:
2026:
2016:
2014:
2008:
2004:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1941:
1937:
1921:
1915:
1911:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1860:
1856:
1846:
1844:
1817:
1810:
1803:
1793:
1791:
1783:
1779:
1778:
1774:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1725:
1672:
1668:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1597:
1590:
1586:
1579:
1575:
1568:
1564:
1554:
1552:
1546:"ICRP Symposia"
1544:
1543:
1539:
1529:
1527:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1501:
1497:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1469:
1465:
1455:
1453:
1426:
1420:
1393:
1369:
1308:
1289:
1248:
1210:
1202:
1168:
1159:
1130:
1121:
1082:
1053:
1027:Equivalent dose
1015:100 ergâ‹…g
998:
996:
940:
938:
927:
925:
871:
868:
866:
844:
833:
831:
766:
716:
707:
669:
656:collective dose
602:
589:
572:
570:"Publication 1"
533:
517:
398:
372:of the British
346:
269:
264:
234:
158:
95:
85:
78:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2536:
2526:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2478:
2477:
2453:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2446:
2441:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2353:
2351:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2321:Lead shielding
2317:
2315:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2268:Geiger counter
2265:
2260:
2254:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2200:Effective dose
2197:
2192:
2187:
2185:Committed dose
2182:
2177:
2171:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2132:Health physics
2129:
2124:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2111:
2104:
2103:
2096:
2089:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2063:
2055:
2054:External links
2052:
2049:
2048:
2024:
2002:
1996:10 CFR 20.1004
1986:
1954:
1935:
1909:
1881:
1874:
1854:
1811:Abridged from
1801:
1772:
1753:(4): 1189–92.
1737:
1723:
1686:(2): 123–125.
1666:
1617:
1606:
1595:
1584:
1573:
1562:
1537:
1507:
1490:
1483:
1463:
1390:
1389:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1281:Karl Z. Morgan
1277:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1256:
1241:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1209:
1206:
1201:
1198:
1191:European Union
1177:
1176:
1175:0.010 Sv
1173:
1170:
1164:
1155:
1148:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1126:
1117:
1110:
1107:
1102:
1095:Effective dose
1091:
1090:
1089:0.010 Sv
1087:
1084:
1078:
1071:
1068:
1062:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1049:
1042:
1039:
1034:
1023:
1022:
1021:0.010 Gy
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1004:
1003:
994:
991:
988:
985:
978:
977:
974:
971:
965:
962:
957:
946:
945:
936:
933:
919:
916:
910:
909:
906:
903:
900:
897:
888:
877:
876:
864:
861:
858:
855:
849:
848:
841:
838:
829:
826:
820:
819:
816:
813:
810:
807:
802:
791:
790:
784:
781:
778:
775:
772:
765:
764:
757:
750:
742:
715:
712:
706:
703:
702:
701:
697:
693:
684:carcinogenesis
668:
665:
637:Jeremy Bentham
620:
619:
616:
613:
606:Publication 26
601:
598:
588:
585:
577:Pergamon Press
571:
568:
532:
529:
516:
513:
512:
511:
508:
505:
502:
499:
492:
491:
488:
485:
482:
441:
440:
437:
434:
431:
428:
425:
397:
394:
345:
342:
268:
265:
263:
260:
259:
258:
255:
252:
249:
242:
233:
230:
223:
222:
219:
215:
214:
211:
207:
206:
202:
198:
197:
193:
171:United Kingdom
157:
154:
110:
109:
104:
100:
99:
96:
93:
90:
89:
86:
84:Region served
83:
80:
79:
77:
76:
62:
60:
56:
55:
50:
46:
45:
42:
38:
37:
34:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2535:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2465:Radioactivity
2462:
2458:
2451:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2350:Organisations
2348:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2312:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2247:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2175:Absorbed dose
2173:
2172:
2170:
2164:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2115:Main articles
2113:
2109:
2102:
2097:
2095:
2090:
2088:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2038:
2034:
2028:
2013:
2006:
1998:
1997:
1990:
1971:
1964:
1958:
1950:
1949:New Scientist
1946:
1939:
1931:
1927:
1926:IAEA Bulletin
1920:
1913:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1877:
1875:9780781769341
1871:
1867:
1866:
1858:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1828:(1): 75–110.
1827:
1823:
1816:
1808:
1806:
1789:
1782:
1776:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1747:RadioGraphics
1741:
1735:
1730:
1728:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1662:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1615:
1610:
1604:
1599:
1593:
1588:
1582:
1577:
1571:
1566:
1551:
1547:
1541:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1500:
1494:
1486:
1484:9781449614539
1480:
1476:
1475:
1467:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1437:(1): 75–110.
1436:
1432:
1425:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1373:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1309:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1282:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1205:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1005:
995:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
979:
972:
969:
966:
963:
961:
958:
955:
951:
950:Absorbed dose
947:
937:
934:
923:
920:
917:
915:
912:
911:
904:
901:
898:
896:
892:
889:
886:
882:
878:
865:
862:
859:
856:
854:
851:
850:
842:
839:
830:
827:
825:
822:
821:
814:
811:
808:
806:
803:
800:
796:
792:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
769:
763:
758:
756:
751:
749:
744:
743:
738:
736:
732:
727:
720:
711:
698:
694:
690:
689:
688:
685:
680:
678:
674:
664:
661:
657:
652:
650:
649:Immanuel Kant
646:
645:Deontological
642:
638:
634:
629:
624:
617:
614:
611:
610:
609:
607:
597:
595:
587:Reference man
584:
580:
578:
567:
564:
562:
558:
554:
550:
544:
542:
538:
528:
526:
521:
509:
506:
503:
500:
497:
496:
495:
489:
486:
483:
480:
479:
478:
475:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
448:
446:
438:
435:
432:
429:
426:
423:
422:
421:
418:
415:
410:
407:
403:
396:Birth of ICRP
393:
390:
387:in 1934, and
386:
382:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
362:roentgen unit
358:
350:
341:
339:
334:
330:
326:
325:Thomas Edison
322:
321:Elihu Thomson
317:
315:
310:
304:
301:
298:A year after
293:
289:
282:
278:
273:
267:Early dangers
256:
253:
250:
247:
243:
240:
239:
238:
229:
226:
220:
217:
216:
212:
209:
208:
203:
200:
199:
194:
191:
190:
189:
186:
182:
178:
176:
172:
162:
153:
151:
146:
144:
140:
136:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
108:
105:
101:
97:
91:
87:
81:
75:
71:
67:
64:
63:
61:
57:
54:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
19:
2469:Radiobiology
2376:
2300:Survey meter
2220:Monitor unit
2166:Measurement
2157:Radiobiology
2040:. Retrieved
2037:www.icrp.org
2036:
2027:
2015:. Retrieved
2005:
1995:
1989:
1977:. Retrieved
1970:the original
1957:
1948:
1938:
1929:
1925:
1912:
1893:
1884:
1864:
1857:
1845:. Retrieved
1825:
1821:
1792:. Retrieved
1787:
1775:
1750:
1746:
1740:
1683:
1679:
1669:
1634:
1630:
1620:
1609:
1598:
1587:
1576:
1565:
1553:. Retrieved
1549:
1540:
1528:. Retrieved
1524:the original
1519:
1510:
1493:
1473:
1466:
1454:. Retrieved
1434:
1430:
1380:CC BY-SA 3.0
1377:
1371:
1370:
1290:
1244:
1230:Richard Doll
1211:
1203:
1180:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1152:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1098:
1079:
1075:
1050:
1046:
1030:
953:
943:10 C/kg
902:Câ‹…kg of air
884:
798:
728:
725:
708:
705:21st century
681:
670:
653:
625:
621:
603:
590:
581:
573:
565:
545:
534:
522:
518:
493:
476:
449:
442:
419:
411:
402:World War II
399:
378:
366:Rolf Sievert
359:
355:
333:Nikola Tesla
318:
313:
305:
297:
277:Crookes tube
275:Using early
235:
227:
224:
205:environment.
196:environment.
187:
185:the system.
183:
179:
168:
147:
142:
138:
132:
119:
115:
113:
33:Abbreviation
2341:Respirators
2273:Ion chamber
1555:18 November
1318:gray (unit)
1249: [
1185:, rad, and
847:10 Bq
789:equivalent
780:Derivation
633:utilitarian
525:nuclear era
470:(ISO), and
466:(FAO), the
462:(ILO), the
406:radioactive
370:George Kaye
281:fluoroscope
2487:Categories
2401:Regulation
2042:2022-01-07
1367:References
1246:Bo Lindell
1001:10 Gy
860:10 s
853:rutherford
549:stochastic
338:physicians
2413:NRC (USA)
2362:HPS (USA)
2263:Dosimeter
2180:Becquerel
2127:Dosimetry
1700:0250-832X
984:per gram
875: Bq
836:10 s
805:becquerel
771:Quantity
692:practice)
677:dosimetry
594:Caucasian
383:in 1931,
300:Röntgen's
156:Operation
88:Worldwide
41:Formation
2418:ONR (UK)
2408:IRR (UK)
2387:SRP (UK)
2326:Glovebox
2230:Roentgen
1842:71278114
1767:18635636
1718:21239576
1661:26908987
1451:71278114
1306:See also
1137:SI unit
1060:SI unit
976:SI unit
908:SI unit
895:kilogram
881:Exposure
818:SI unit
795:Activity
604:In 1977
541:nuclides
327:'s lab,
165:practice
59:Location
2392:UNSCEAR
2357:Euratom
2240:Sievert
2060:Eurados
1709:3520298
1652:4756341
1348:sievert
1112:Jâ‹…kg Ă—
1105:sievert
1044:Jâ‹…kg Ă—
1037:sievert
932:of air
930: g
914:röntgen
891:coulomb
777:Symbol
737:units.
628:ethical
456:UNSCEAR
389:Chicago
262:History
103:Website
98:English
70:Ontario
2471:, and
2033:"ICRP"
2017:19 May
1979:1 June
1932:(5/6).
1872:
1847:12 May
1840:
1794:10 May
1765:
1716:
1706:
1698:
1659:
1649:
1530:10 May
1481:
1456:12 May
1449:
1273:1965:
1267:1973:
1261:1981:
1243:1989:
1234:2000:
1228:2004:
1200:Awards
990:ergâ‹…g
987:erg/g
472:UNESCO
458:, the
400:After
385:Zurich
331:, and
175:Ottawa
74:Canada
66:Ottawa
1973:(PDF)
1966:(PDF)
1922:(PDF)
1838:S2CID
1818:(PDF)
1784:(PDF)
1502:(PDF)
1447:S2CID
1427:(PDF)
1253:]
1183:curie
1172:1971
1134:1977
1086:1971
1057:1977
1018:1953
993:1950
973:1974
935:1928
926:0.001
905:1974
899:C/kg
863:1946
840:1953
824:curie
815:1974
783:Year
774:Unit
537:grays
381:Paris
143:IXRPC
2382:IRPA
2377:ICRP
2372:ICRU
2367:IAEA
2210:Gray
2019:2012
1981:2012
1870:ISBN
1849:2012
1796:2017
1763:PMID
1714:PMID
1696:ISSN
1657:PMID
1557:2020
1550:ICRP
1532:2017
1520:ICRP
1479:ISBN
1458:2012
1384:GFDL
1382:and
1375:ICRP
1147:rem
1070:rem
1012:rad
970:â‹…kg
960:gray
939:2.58
893:per
761:edit
754:talk
747:view
639:and
555:and
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