182:, can fit into the empty spaces of the compound and be carried through the produced fluids. As the fluids approach the surface, changes in the temperature and pressure cause the barium, calcium, strontium and radium sulfates to precipitate out of solution and form scale on the inside, or on occasion, the outside of the tubulars and/or casing. The use of tubulars in the production process that are NORM contaminated does not cause a health hazard if the scale is inside the tubulars and the tubulars remain downhole. Enhanced concentrations of the radium 226 and 228 and the daughter products such as
40:
245:" which when inside the body migrate to the bone tissue and concentrate. This exposure can cause bone cancers and other bone abnormalities. The concentration of radium and other daughter products build over time, with several years of excessive exposures. Therefore, from a liability standpoint an employee that has not had respiratory protection over several years could develop bone or other cancers from NORM exposure and decide to seek compensation such as medical expenses and lost wages from the oil company which generated the TENORM and the employer.
295:, is a measurement of absorption of radiation on parts of the body over an extended period of time. A DAC is a concentration of alpha and beta particles that an average working employee is exposed to for 2,000 hours of light work. If an employee is exposed to over 10% of an ALI, 500 mREM, then the employee's dose must be documented under instructions with federal and state regulations.
271:
and can travel farther than alpha particles in air. They are in the middle of the scale in terms of ionizing potential and penetrating power, being stopped by a few millimeters of plastic. This radiation is a small portion of the total emitted during radium 226 decay. Radium 228 emits beta particles,
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Alpha and beta particles are harmful once inside the body. Breathing NORM contaminates from dusts should be prevented by wearing respirators with particulate filters. In the case of properly trained occupational NORM workers, air monitoring and analysis may be necessary. These measurements, ALI and
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is not the most dangerous particle associated with NORM, as an external hazard. Alpha particles are identical with helium-4 nuclei. Alpha particles travel short distances in air, of only 2–3 cm, and cannot penetrate through a dead layer of skin on the human body. However, some radium alpha particle
201:
NORM characteristics vary depending on the nature of the waste. NORM may be created in a crystalline form, which is brittle and thin, and can cause flaking to occur in tubulars. NORM formed in carbonate matrix can have a density of 3.5 grams/cubic centimeters and must be noted when packing for
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Cutting and reaming oilfield pipe, removing solids from tanks and pits, and refurbishing gas processing equipment may expose employees to particles containing increased levels of alpha emitting radionuclides that could pose health risks if inhaled or ingested.
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emitters are "bone seekers" due to radium possessing a high affinity for chloride ions. In the case that radium atoms are not expelled from the body, they concentrate in areas where chloride ions are prevalent, such as bone tissue. The
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An activity which involves the processing of radionuclides of natural terrestrial or cosmic origin for their radioactive, fissile or fertile properties is not a type 1 NORM industrial activity or a type 2 NORM industrial activity.
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may also occur in sludge that accumulates in oilfield pits, tanks and lagoons. Radon gas in the natural gas streams concentrate as NORM in gas processing activities. Radon decays to lead-210, then to
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DAC, are calculated values based on the dose an average employee working 2,000 hours a year may be exposed to. The current legal limit exposure in the United States is 1 ALI, or 5 rems. A rem, or
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Oil and gas TENORM and/or NORM is created in the production process, when produced fluids from reservoirs carry sulfates up to the surface of the Earth's crust. Some states, such as
198:. Radon decay elements occur as a shiny film on the inner surface of inlet lines, treating units, pumps and valves associated with propylene, ethane and propane processing systems.
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emitted from radium 226, accounting for 4% of the radiation, are harmful to humans with sufficient exposure. Gamma rays are highly penetrating and some can pass through metals, so
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transportation. NORM scales may be white or a brown solid, or thick sludge to solid, dry flaky substances. NORM may also be found in oil and gas production produced waters.
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The hazards associated with NORM are inhalation and ingestion routes of entry as well as external exposure where there has been a significant accumulation of scales.
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Radium radionuclides emit alpha and beta particles as well as gamma rays. The radiation emitted from a radium 226 atom is 96% alpha particles and 4% gamma rays. The
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The hazardous elements found in NORM are radium 226, 228 and radon 222 and also daughter products from these radionuclides. The elements are referred to as "
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for radium 226 is approximately 1,620 years, and will remain in the body for the lifetime of the human — a significant length of time to cause damage.
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510:"Geologic and Geochemical Controls on Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) in Produced Water from Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Operations"
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316:(EPA) has jurisdiction over NORM. Since no federal entity has implemented NORM regulations, NORM is variably regulated by the states.
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335:(a) the production and use of thorium, or thorium compounds, and the production of products where thorium is deliberately added; or
162:. If radioactivity is much higher than background level, handling TENORM may cause problems in many industries and transportation.
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may be necessary in dry processes, where NORM scales and dust become air borne and have a significant chance to enter the body.
338:(b) the production and use of uranium or uranium compounds, and the production of products where uranium is deliberately added
623:
UK guidance on
Radioactive Substances Regulation For the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010:Defra
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355:(d) the removal and management of radioactive scales and precipitates from equipment associated with industrial activities;
174:, uses the term "diffuse NORM". Barium, calcium and strontium sulfates are larger compounds, and the smaller atoms, such as
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are present in very low concentrations in Earth's crust, and are brought to the surface through human activities such as
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or (l) The remediation of contamination from any type 1 NORM industrial activity or any of the activities listed above.
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In the UK regulation is via the
Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010.
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Cox, James R. “Naturally
Occurring Radioactive Materials in the Oilfield: Changing the NORM,”
346:(a) the extraction, production and use of rare earth elements and rare earth element alloys;
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discharges and spills are a good example of entering NORMs into the surrounding environment.
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gas to the atmosphere or through dissolution in ground water. Another example of TENORM is
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424:. IOGP - International Association of Oil and Gas Producers. 1 March 2016. Archived from
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419:"Managing Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) in the Oil and Gas Industry"
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364:(g) the extraction and refining of zircon and manufacture of zirconium compounds;
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Guidance to
Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations (EPR) 2010
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395:, ionizing radiation constantly present in the natural environment of the Earth
312:(NRC) has jurisdiction over a relatively narrow spectrum of radiation, and the
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367:(h) the production of tin, copper, aluminium, zinc, lead and iron and steel;
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540:"Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials NORM - World Nuclear Association"
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technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM)
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and is also a concern for human health through inhalation and ingestion.
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452:"Impacts of Oil and Gas Production on Contaminant Levels in Sediments"
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are used to measure gamma ray exposures when monitoring for NORM.
376:(k) water treatment associated with provision of drinking water;
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349:(b) the mining and processing of ores other than uranium ore;
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Mineral sands (rare earth minerals, titanium and zirconium).
370:(i) any activity related to coal mine de-watering plants;
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NORM is not federally regulated in the United States. The
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358:(e) any industrial activity utilising phosphate ore;
361:(f) the manufacture of titanium dioxide pigments;
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150:, and through natural processes like leakage of
97:Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM)
450:D. Atoufi, Hossein; Lampert, David J. (2020).
209:NORM is found in many industries including
27:"NORM" redirects here. For other uses, see
614:Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials
600:Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission
327:This defines two types of NORM activity:
213:The coal industry (mining and combustion)
123:and any of their decay products, such as
84:Learn how and when to remove this message
47:This article includes a list of general
14:
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342:Type 2 NORM industrial activity means:
331:Type 1 NORM industrial activity means:
648:Environmental impact of fossil fuels
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352:(c) the production of oil and gas;
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111:found in the environment, such as
53:it lacks sufficient corresponding
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609:Domestic Nuclear Detection Office
591:North Dakota Department of Health
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605:Radiation Quick Reference Guide
314:Environmental Protection Agency
222:Fertilizer (phosphate) industry
166:NORM in oil and gas exploration
653:Environmental impact of mining
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158:produced from coal burning in
103:consist of materials, usually
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310:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
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107:or by-products enriched with
486:– via Springer Nature.
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399:Environmental radioactivity
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373:(j) china clay extraction;
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596:NORM Technology Connection
508:R. Stephen Fisher (1998).
468:10.1007/s40726-020-00137-5
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618:World Nuclear Association
514:Environmental Geosciences
456:Current Pollution Reports
216:Metal mining and smelting
293:roentgen equivalent man
144:oil and gas exploration
68:more precise citations.
544:www.world-nuclear.org
393:Background radiation
194:and stabilizes with
140:radioactive elements
109:radioactive elements
285:scintillation probe
638:Radioactive waste
565:Tulane Law Review
431:on 5 October 2016
225:Building industry
105:industrial wastes
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643:By-products
236:Respirators
188:bismuth-210
74:August 2011
66:introducing
632:Categories
549:2019-07-17
497:TENORM.com
405:References
299:Regulation
277:gamma rays
180:radium-228
176:radium-226
49:references
616:from the
526:1075-9565
484:211080984
476:2198-6592
435:3 October
269:positrons
265:electrons
255:half-life
121:potassium
387:See also
196:lead-206
184:lead-210
156:coal ash
138:Natural
568:, 1993.
230:Hazards
117:thorium
113:uranium
62:improve
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482:
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148:mining
125:radium
51:, but
520:(3).
480:S2CID
429:(PDF)
422:(PDF)
283:or a
152:radon
129:radon
522:ISSN
472:ISSN
437:2016
275:The
263:are
178:and
127:and
119:and
99:and
29:Norm
18:NORM
464:doi
267:or
146:or
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