429:, including the United States and the nations of Western Europe. Temperate forests were the primary ecosystem in many of the most developed areas today. These lands are now used for intensive agriculture or have become urbanized. As lands have been developed for agricultural uses and human occupation, natural habitat has for the most part become limited to areas considered unsuitable for human use, such as slopes or rocky areas. This pattern of development limits the ability of animals, especially large ones, to migrate from place to place.
541:. It brings together a wide variety of environmental organizations for a shared purpose. The goal of the Initiative is to create a core of protected areas, connected by corridors and surrounded by buffer zones. This will build on the many existing protected areas in this region, with a focus on integrating existing and future human activities into the conservation plan rather than seeking to exclude them (Yellowstone to Yukon). If these efforts are successful, they will be especially beneficial to wide-ranging species such as
451:
31:
437:, regulating the populations of the species they prey on. Thus, their conservation has direct implications for a wide range of species, and is difficult to accomplish politically due to the large size of the areas they need. With increasing development, these species in particular are at risk, which could have effects that carry down throughout the ecosystem.
372:
cold winters typical of the boreal forest. Many do not make it, especially in harsh winters. However, recently the winters have grown milder, which has had a drastic effect on the forest. Winter mortality of some insect species drastically decreased, allowing the population to build on itself in subsequent years. In some areas the effects have been severe.
400:. In the far north, shrubs may later take over what was formerly tundra. The precise effect depends on whether the water that was locked up is able to drain off. In either case, the habitat will undergo a shift. Melting permafrost may also accelerate climate change in the future. Within the permafrost, vast quantities of
319:. When the glaciers receded, plants and animals spread rapidly into the newly opened areas. Different taxa responded to these rapidly changing conditions in different ways. Tree species spread outward from refugia during interglacial periods, but in varied patterns, with different trees dominating in different periods.
253:) is one of the best-known birds of prey in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the most widely distributed species of eagle. Golden eagles use their agility and speed combined with powerful feet and massive, sharp talons to snatch up a variety of prey (mainly hares, rabbits, marmots and other ground squirrels).
493:. Developed countries who sign this protocol agree to cut their collective greenhouse gas emissions by five percent since 1990 by sometime between 2008 and 2012. The vast majority of these nations are found within the Holarctic. Each country is given a target for emission levels, and they may trade
371:
Global warming is a threat to all the Earth's ecosystems, but it is a more immediate threat to those found in cold climates. The communities of species found at these latitudes are adapted to the cold, so any significant warming can upset the balance. For instance, insects struggle to survive the
351:
are different, but have many species in common. This is the result of several faunal interchanges that took place across the Bering land bridge. However, these migrations were mostly limited to large, cold-tolerant species. Today it is mainly these species which are found throughout the realm.
432:
Large carnivores are particularly affected by habitat fragmentation. These mammals, such as brown bears and wolves, require large areas of land with relatively intact habitat to survive as individuals. Much larger areas are required to maintain a sustainable population. They may also serve as
201:) is a highly adaptable predator. It has the widest distribution of any terrestrial carnivore, and is adapted to a wide range of habitats, including areas of intense human development. Like the wolf, it is distributed throughout the majority of the Holarctic, but it has avoided extirpation.
424:
suffers and they become susceptible to sudden disasters and extinction. While the northern parts of the
Holarctic represent some of the largest areas of wilderness left on Earth, the southern parts are in some places extensively developed. This realm contains most of the world's
383:
In this case a native species has caused massive disturbance of habitat as a result of climate change. Warming temperatures may also allow pest species to enlarge their range, moving into habitats that were previously unsuitable. Studies of potential areas for outbreaks of
323:, on the other hand, shifted their ranges with the climate, maintaining consistency in species for the most part throughout the period. Their high degree of mobility allowed them to move as the glaciers advanced or retreated, maintaining a constant habitat despite the
186:) is found in a wide variety of habitats from tundra to desert, with different populations adapted for each. Its historical distribution encompasses the vast majority of the Holarctic realm, though human activities such as development and active extermination have
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indicate that as the climate shifts, these beetles will expand to the north and to higher elevations than they have previously affected. With warmer temperatures, insect infestation will become a greater problem throughout the northern parts of the
Holarctic.
331:
indicate that trees recolonized these lands at an exponential rate. Mammals recolonized at varying rates. Brown bears, for instance, moved quickly from refugia with the receding glaciers, becoming one of the first large mammals to recolonize the land. The
312:, small areas that maintained a suitable climate due to local geography. These areas are believed to have been primarily in southern regions, but some genetic and paleontological evidence points to additional refugia in the sheltered areas of the north.
481:
The threats to the
Holarctic realm are not going unrecognized. Many efforts are being made to mitigate these threats, with the hope of preserving the biodiversity of the region. International agreements to combat global warming may help to lessen the
396:. This can have significant effects on the plant communities that are adapted to the frozen soil, and may also have implications for further climate change. As permafrost melts, any trees growing above it may die, and the land shifts from forest to
513:
Fighting habitat fragmentation is a major challenge in conserving the wide-ranging species of the
Holarctic. Some efforts are limited to a local scale of protection, while others are regional in scope. Local efforts include creating
268:, and one of the largest. It is found in a variety of habitats, but primarily wooded northern areas. It has been known to adapt well to areas of human activity. Their distribution also makes up most of the Holarctic realm.
242:) is found in boreal forest and tundra in the northern parts of the Holarctic. In Eurasia, it has been domesticated. It is divided into several subspecies, which are adapted to different habitats and geographic areas.
419:
Habitat fragmentation threatens a wide variety of habitats throughout the world, and the
Holarctic is no exception. Fragmentation has a variety of negative effects on populations. As populations become cut off, their
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and the animal and plant communities that depend on them extend across a number of continents and cover large portions of the
Holarctic realm. This continuity is the result of those regions’ shared glacial history.
775:
Bennett, K. D.; Southwood, Sir
Richard; Lawton, John Hartley; Gibbs, A.; Williamson, M. H.; Holdgate, M. W.; Hamilton, William Donald; Conway, Gordon Richard; Kornberg, Hans Leo; Williamson, M. H. (1986-12-15).
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was held to begin planning for the successor to the Kyoto
Protocol. This agreement will aim to build on the successes and failures of Kyoto to produce a more effective method of cutting greenhouse gas emissions
159:
A variety of animal species are distributed across continents, throughout much of the
Holarctic realm. These include the brown bear, grey wolf, red fox, wolverine, moose, caribou, golden eagle and common raven.
115:
Within the
Holarctic realm, there are a variety of ecosystems. The type of ecosystem found in a given area depends on its latitude and the local geography. In the far north, a band of Arctic
171:) is found in mountainous and semi-open areas distributed throughout the Holarctic. It once occupied much larger areas, but has been driven out by human development and the resulting
308:(Ice Age), these areas were subjected to repeated glaciations. Icecaps expanded, scouring the land of life and reshaping its topography. During glacial periods, species survived in
227:) is the largest member of the deer family. It is found throughout most of the boreal forest through continental Eurasia into Scandinavia, eastern North America, and boreal and
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368:. The former is of particular concern in the north, as these ecosystems are adapted to cold. The latter is more of a concern in the south, where development is prevalent.
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found primarily in the arctic and in boreal forests, ranging south in mountainous regions. It is distributed in such areas throughout Eurasia and North America.
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and establishing safe routes for animals to cross roads and other human-made barriers. Regional efforts to combat habitat fragmentation take a broader scope.
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As the Holarctic is an enormous area, it is subject to environmental problems of international scale. The primary threats throughout the region result from
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is a small red Holarctic ant widely distributed across Eurasia, ranging from central Spain and Italy to the northernmost parts of Scandinavia and Siberia.
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is a species of brown lacewing in the family Hemerobiidae. It is found in Europe and Northern Asia (excluding China), North America, and Southern Asia.
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is a species of orb-weaving spider with a Holarctic distribution, mostly inhabiting urban and suburban regions of Europe and parts of North America.
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in a market-based system that includes developing countries as well. Once this period is ended, a new agreement will be written to further
510:). If these efforts are successful, the biodiversity of the Holarctic and the rest of the world will see fewer effects of climate change.
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Another factor contributing to the continuity of Holarctic ecosystems is the movement between continents allowed by the
867:"An evaluation of the influence of environment and biogeography on community structure: the case of Holarctic mammals"
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343:, which was exposed by the lowering of sea level due to the expansion of the ice caps. The communities found in the
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525:. This organization was started in 1997 to help establish a contiguous network of protection for the northern
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on this region. Efforts are also underway to fight habitat fragmentation, both on local and regional scales.
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127:(frozen year-round). In these difficult growing conditions, few plants can survive. South of the tundra, the
327:. Despite their apparent lack of mobility, plants managed to colonize new areas rapidly as well. Studies of
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828:"The recolonization of Europe by brown bears Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758 after the Last Glacial Maximum"
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501:. The process of drafting a new agreement has already begun. In late 2007, an international meeting in
719:"The Response of Insect Faunas to Glacial-Interglacial Climatic Fluctuations [and Discussion]"
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545:. If these species can survive, other members of the communities they live in will survive as well.
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Noss, Reed F.; Quigley, Howard B.; Hornocker, Maurice G.; Merrill, Troy; Paquet, Paul C. (1996).
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regions of western North America. In some areas it ranges south into the deciduous forest.
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380:'s spruce trees; this is blamed primarily on a series of unusually warm years since 1987.
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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are locked up. If this soil melts, the carbon may be released into the air as either
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Another potential effect of global warming to northern ecosystems is the melting of
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ended about 10,000 years ago, resulting in the present distribution of ecoregions.
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences
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The continuity of the northern parts of the Holarctic results from their shared
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that comprises the majority of habitats found throughout the continents in the
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Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative. Updated 2006. Available at
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966:"Climate change and the outbreak ranges of two North American bark beetles"
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596:"Annotated Checklist of the Neuropterida of Virginia (Arthropoda: Insecta)"
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151:, which are dominated by plants and animals adapted to the dry conditions.
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stretches across North America and Eurasia. This land is characterized by
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1105:"Conservation Biology and Carnivore Conservation in the Rocky Mountains"
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661:"ECOLOGY: Enhanced: Quaternary Refugia and Persistence of Biodiversity"
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Wherever these areas were found, they became source populations during
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The most comprehensive effort to combat global warming to date is the
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Schultz, JĂĽrgen (1995), "Regional Section: the Individual Ecozones",
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The ecozones of the world: the ecological divisions of the geosphere
135:. Further south, the ecosystems become more diverse. Some areas are
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566:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 74–430,
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925:"Assessing the impacts of global warming on forest pest dynamics"
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622:"Cryptic northern refugia and the origins of the modern biota"
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Logan, Jesse A.; Régnière, Jacques; Powell, James A. (2003).
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10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0130:ATIOGW]2.0.CO;2
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175:. Today it is only found in remaining wilderness areas.
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These regions are further subdivided into a variety of
147:. Many of the southernmost parts of the Holarctic are
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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
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outbreaks have wiped out up to ninety percent of the
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964:Williams, David W.; Liebhold, Andrew M. (2002).
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723:Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences
521:One major such effort in the Holarctic is the
1192:
865:RodrĂguez, J.; Hortal, J.; Nieto, M. (2006).
825:
619:
60:zoogeographical region (which covers most of
1015:"Defrosting the Carbon Freezer of the North"
716:
620:Stewart, John R.; Lister, Adrian M. (2001).
523:Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative
155:Animal species with a Holarctic distribution
1340:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
1199:
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717:Coope, G. Russell; Wilkins, A. S. (1994).
981:
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929:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
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29:
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499:mitigate the effects of climate change
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190:the species from much of this range.
1324:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
1286:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
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1121:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10040949.x
826:Sommer, R. S.; Benecke, N. (2005).
123:. The ground beneath this land is
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1074:(2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer.
970:Agricultural and Forest Entomology
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1250:Montane grasslands and shrublands
626:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
983:10.1046/j.1461-9563.2002.00124.x
883:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2005.01397.x
844:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2005.00063.x
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264:) is the most widespread of the
1366:Flooded grasslands and savannas
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1679:Ecological land classification
1208:Biogeographic regionalisations
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638:10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02338-2
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1345:Deserts and xeric shrublands
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1586:Temperate Northern Atlantic
1276:Broadleaf and mixed forests
1013:Stokstad, E. (2004-06-11).
659:Taberlet, P. (2002-09-20).
572:10.1007/978-3-662-03161-2_3
212:) is a large member of the
119:encircles the shore of the
10:
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1689:Vegetation classifications
1591:Temperate Northern Pacific
1173:. Accessed December 2007.
1166:. Accessed December 2007.
1164:http://unfccc.int/2860.php
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1601:Temperate Southern Africa
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594:Flint, Oliver S. (2015).
564:The Ecozones of the World
484:effects of climate change
458:This section needs to be
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1611:Tropical Eastern Pacific
1561:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
1068:Schultz, JĂĽrgen (2005).
49:. It corresponds to the
1632:Biogeographic provinces
1596:Temperate South America
1314:Moist broadleaf forests
871:Journal of Biogeography
56:. It includes both the
802:10.1098/rstb.1986.0071
735:10.1098/rstb.1994.0046
533:to the border between
73:zoogeographical region
34:
1694:Zoogeographic regions
1652:Global 200 ecoregions
1581:Temperate Australasia
1319:Dry broadleaf forests
366:habitat fragmentation
325:climatic oscillations
273:Leptothorax acervorum
173:habitat fragmentation
33:
1720:Biogeographic realms
1674:Altitudinal zonation
1616:Western Indo-Pacific
1576:Eastern Indo-Pacific
1571:Central Indo-Pacific
1109:Conservation Biology
441:Conservation actions
412:. Both of these are
317:interglacial periods
304:history. During the
289:Hemerobius humulinus
1647:Lists of ecoregions
1304:Tropical rainforest
1025:(5677): 1618–1620.
794:1986RSPTB.314..523B
671:(5589): 2009–2010.
427:developed countries
334:Last Glacial Period
139:, while others are
137:temperate grassland
89:Indian subcontinent
47:Northern Hemisphere
43:biogeographic realm
27:Biogeographic realm
1684:Floristic kingdoms
1448:Hydrothermal vents
1309:Coniferous forests
1271:Coniferous forests
1171:http://www.y2y.net
341:Bering land bridge
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1606:Tropical Atlantic
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1281:Deciduous forests
1162:. Available at:
788:(1167): 523–531.
581:978-3-662-03163-6
495:emissions credits
479:
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422:genetic diversity
281:Zygiella x-notata
251:Aquila chrysaetos
240:Rangifer tarandus
141:temperate forests
93:Arabian Peninsula
16:(Redirected from
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62:North America
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1725:Biogeography
1625:Subdivisions
1519:
1515:Australasian
1505:Afrotropical
1467:Other biomes
1443:Benthic zone
1438:Pelagic zone
1433:Neritic zone
1423:Kelp forests
1295:Tropical and
1145:. Retrieved
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262:Corvus corax
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258:common raven
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247:golden eagle
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169:Ursus arctos
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121:Arctic Ocean
114:
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83:except for
77:North Africa
38:
36:
1535:Neotropical
1525:Indomalayan
1498:Terrestrial
1428:Coral reefs
1297:subtropical
1224:Terrestrial
529:, from mid
306:Pleistocene
225:Alces alces
184:Canis lupus
1709:Categories
1642:Ecoregions
1637:Bioregions
1545:Palearctic
1453:Cold seeps
1413:Intertidal
1147:2020-11-02
909:2020-11-02
812:2020-11-02
761:2020-11-02
703:2022-06-30
603:Banisteria
549:References
394:permafrost
345:Palearctic
188:extirpated
165:brown bear
125:permafrost
104:ecosystems
100:ecoregions
70:Palearctic
1715:Holarctic
1520:Holarctic
1510:Antarctic
1418:Mangroves
1264:Temperate
1129:0888-8892
1090:209855917
1039:0036-8075
992:1461-9555
951:1540-9309
891:1365-2699
852:0305-1838
743:0962-8436
646:0169-5347
210:Gulo gulo
206:wolverine
180:grey wolf
51:floristic
18:Holarctic
1667:See also
1540:Oceanian
1530:Nearctic
1408:Littoral
1381:Mangrove
1371:Riparian
1141:Archived
1055:37443830
1047:15192214
1000:84848140
903:Archived
899:84478153
806:Archived
755:Archived
697:Archived
693:44477521
685:12242431
516:reserves
398:peatland
349:Nearctic
347:and the
236:reindeer
58:Nearctic
1394:Aquatic
1376:Wetland
1137:2387132
1019:Science
790:Bibcode
665:Science
609:: 3–47.
531:Wyoming
460:updated
410:methane
356:Threats
321:Insects
310:refugia
302:glacial
266:corvids
229:montane
195:red fox
149:deserts
102:. Many
81:Eurasia
64:), and
1566:Arctic
1554:Marine
1490:realms
1396:biomes
1350:Steppe
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1226:biomes
1216:Biomes
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535:Alaska
508:UNFCCC
402:carbon
296:Origin
117:tundra
87:, the
1245:Taiga
1133:JSTOR
1051:S2CID
996:S2CID
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751:56149
747:JSTOR
689:S2CID
599:(PDF)
539:Yukon
221:moose
41:is a
1403:Pond
1125:ISSN
1086:OCLC
1076:ISBN
1043:PMID
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