Taiga - Knowledge

927: 887: 2406:, and other forms of development. Responding to a letter signed by 1,500 scientists calling on political leaders to protect at least half of the boreal forest, two Canadian provincial governments, Ontario and Quebec, offered election promises to discuss measures in 2008 that might eventually classify at least half of their northern boreal forest as "protected". Although both provinces admitted it would take decades to plan, working with Aboriginal and local communities and ultimately mapping out precise boundaries of the areas off-limits to development, the measures were touted to create some of the largest protected areas networks in the world once completed. Since then, however, very little action has been taken. 762: 2084:

eastern Russia. In Siberia, the taiga is converting from predominantly needle-shedding larch trees to evergreen conifers in response to a warming climate. This is likely to further accelerate warming, as the evergreen trees will absorb more of the sun's rays. Given the vast size of the area, such a change has the potential to affect areas well outside of the region. In much of the boreal forest in Alaska, the growth of white spruce trees are stunted by unusually warm summers, while trees on some of the coldest fringes of the forest are experiencing faster growth than previously. Lack of moisture in the warmer summers are also stressing the birch trees of central Alaska.

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vegetative reproduction as well as invasion by propagules. Seeds that have fallen and become buried provide little help in re-establishment of a species. The reappearance of lichens is reasoned to occur because of varying conditions and light/nutrient availability in each different microstate. Several different studies have been done that have led to the formation of the theory that post-fire development can be propagated by any of four pathways: self replacement, species-dominance relay, species replacement, or gap-phase self replacement.

2043:. Here, the frequency of fire is much less than on adjacent uplands dominated by pine, black spruce and aspen. In contrast, in the Cordilleran region, fire is most frequent in the valley bottoms, decreasing upward, as shown by a mosaic of young pioneer pine and broadleaf stands below, and older spruce–fir on the slopes above. Without fire, the boreal forest would become more and more homogeneous, with the long-lived white spruce gradually replacing pine, aspen, balsam poplar, and birch, and perhaps even black spruce, except on the 2088: 997: 60: 2935: 1553: 513: 1917: 365: 1362: 1396: 2427:

Self-Replacement is the least common and so far has only been documented in Western Canada. It is a self replacement of the surviving species into the canopy gaps after a fire kills another species. The particular pathway taken after fire disturbance depends on how the landscape is able to support trees as well as fire frequency. Fire frequency has a large role in shaping the original inception of the lower forest line of the lichen woodland taiga.

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important than temperature and further warming of up to 4 °C would result in substantial declines unless matched by increases in precipitation. A 2019 study suggested that the forest plots commonly used to evaluate boreal forest response to climate change tend to have less evolutionary competition between trees than the typical forest, and that with strong competition, there was little net growth in response to warming.

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forest stands in the boreal forest, typically with abrupt, irregular boundaries circumscribing homogenous stands, is indirect but compelling testimony to the role of fire in shaping the forest. The fact is that most boreal forest stands are less than 100 years old, and only in the rather few areas that have escaped burning are there stands of white spruce older than 250 years.

2036:– can be classed as pioneers in their adaptations for rapid invasion of open areas. White spruce shows some pioneering abilities, too, but is less able than black spruce and the pines to disperse seed at all seasons. Only balsam fir and alpine fir seem to be poorly adapted to reproduce after fire, as their cones disintegrate at maturity, leaving no seed in the crowns. 1132:, a closed-canopy, boreal forest with some scattered temperate, deciduous trees among the conifers. Commonly seen are species such as maple, elm and oak. This southern boreal forest experiences the longest and warmest growing season of the biome. In some regions, including Scandinavia and western Russia, this subzone is commonly used for agricultural purposes. 1944:, which has 3 elements: (1) fire type and intensity (e.g., crown fires, severe surface fires, and light surface fires), (2) size of typical fires of significance, and (3) frequency or return intervals for specific land units. The average time within a fire regime to burn an area equivalent to the total area of an ecosystem is its 2068:

pronounced in the western coniferous forests. However, in 2016, a study found no overall Canadian boreal forest trend between 1950 and 2012: while it also found improved growth in some southern boreal forests and dampened growth in the north (contrary to what the hypothesis would suggest), those patterns were statistically weak.

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is considered to be the predominant force behind community and ecosystem properties in the lichen woodland. The significance of fire is clearly evident when one considers that understory vegetation influences tree seedling germination in the short term and decomposition of biomass and nutrient availability in the long term.

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Alaska average 50–100 years, shorter than in the moister climates of eastern Canada, where they may average 200 years or more. Fire cycles also tend to be long near the tree line in the subarctic spruce-lichen woodlands. The longest cycles, possibly 300 years, probably occur in the western boreal in floodplain white spruce.

2435:. The spruce budworm is a deadly insect to the spruce populations in the southern regions of the taiga. J.P. Jasinski confirmed this theory five years later stating, "Their persistence, along with their previous moss forest histories and current occurrence adjacent to closed moss forests, indicate that they are an 2083:

While the majority of studies on boreal forest transitions have been done in Canada, similar trends have been detected in the other countries. Summer warming has been shown to increase water stress and reduce tree growth in dry areas of the southern boreal forest in central Alaska and portions of far

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Two lines of evidence support the thesis that fire has always been an integral factor in the boreal forest: (1) direct, eye-witness accounts and forest-fire statistics, and (2) indirect, circumstantial evidence based on the effects of fire, as well as on persisting indicators. The patchwork mosaic of

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The recurrent cycle of large, damaging fire occurs approximately every 70 to 100 years. Understanding the dynamics of this ecosystem is entangled with discovering the successional paths that the vegetation exhibits after a fire. Trees, shrubs, and lichens all recover from fire-induced damage through

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One of the biggest areas of research and a topic still full of unsolved questions is the recurring disturbance of fire and the role it plays in propagating the lichen woodland. The phenomenon of wildfire by lightning strike is the primary determinant of understory vegetation, and because of this, it

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Climatic change only stimulated growth for trees under weak competition in central boreal forests. A 2021 paper had confirmed that the boreal forests are much more strongly affected by climate change than the other forest types in Canada and projected that most of the eastern Canadian boreal forests

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The dominant fire regime in the boreal forest is high-intensity crown fires or severe surface fires of very large size, often more than 10,000 ha (100 km), and sometimes more than 400,000 ha (4000 km). Such fires kill entire stands. Fire rotations in the drier regions of western Canada and

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is received than further south. But the high latitude also ensures very long summer days, as the sun stays above the horizon nearly 20 hours each day, or up to 24 hours, with only around 6 hours of daylight, or none, occurring in the dark winters, depending on latitude. The areas of the taiga inside

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For instance, in February 2010 the Canadian government established limited protection for 13,000 square kilometres of boreal forest by creating a new 10,700-square-kilometre park reserve in the Mealy Mountains area of eastern Canada and a 3,000-square-kilometre waterway provincial park that follows

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Amiro et al. (2001) calculated the mean fire cycle for the period 1980 to 1999 in the Canadian boreal forest (including taiga) at 126 years. Increased fire activity has been predicted for western Canada, but parts of eastern Canada may experience less fire in future because of greater precipitation

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present in temperate deciduous forests. The colder climate hinders development of soil, and the ease with which plants can use its nutrients. The relative lack of deciduous trees, which drop huge volumes of leaves annually, and grazing animals, which contribute significant manure, are also factors.

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Seidl, Rupert; Thom, Dominik; Kautz, Markus; Martin-Benito, Dario; Peltoniemi, Mikko; Vacchiano, Giorgio; Wild, Jan; Ascoli, Davide; Petr, Michal; Honkaniemi, Juha; Lexer, Manfred J.; Trotsiuk, Volodymyr; Mairota, Paola; Svoboda, Miroslav; Fabrika, Marek; Nagel, Thomas A.; Reyer, Christopher P. O.

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4.6, 3.6, and 2.6) applied weekly for 7 weeks incurred no statistically significant (P 0.05) reduction in growth during the experiment compared with the background control (pH 5.6) (Abouguendia and Baschak 1987). However, symptoms of injury were observed in all treatments, the number of plants and

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areas converts them to taiga. While both of these processes can already be observed today, the assessment believes that they would likely not become unstoppable (and thus meet the definition of a tipping point) until global warming of around 4 °C. However, the certainty level is still limited

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It has been hypothesized that the boreal environments have only a few states which are stable in the long term - a treeless tundra/steppe, a forest with >75% tree cover and an open woodland with ~20% and ~45% tree cover. Thus, continued climate change would be able to force at least some of the

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In addition to these observations, there has also been work on projecting future forest trends. A 2018 study of the seven tree species dominant in the Eastern Canadian forests found that while 2 °C warming alone increases their growth by around 13% on average, water availability is much more

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forming the forests on peats, and with jack pine usually present on dry sites except in the extreme east, where it is absent. The effects of fires are inextricably woven into the patterns of vegetation on the landscape, which in the east favour black spruce, paper birch, and jack pine over balsam

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than the forests. According to a later study, disappearing of boreal forests can also increase warming despite the effect on albedo, while the conclusion about cooling from deforestation in these areas made by previous studies results from the failure of models to properly capture the effects of

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In keeping with this hypothesis, several studies published in the early 2010s found that there was already a substantial drought-induced tree loss in the western Canadian boreal forests since the 1960s: although this trend was weak or even non-existent in the eastern forests, it was particularly

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During the last quarter of the twentieth century, the zone of latitude occupied by the boreal forest experienced some of the greatest temperature increases on Earth. Winter temperatures have increased more than summer temperatures. In summer, the daily low temperature has increased more than the

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Self-replacement is simply the re-establishment of the pre-fire dominant species. Species-dominance relay is a sequential attempt of tree species to establish dominance in the canopy. Species replacement is when fires occur in sufficient frequency to interrupt species dominance relay. Gap-Phase

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of around 0.18 °C globally and between 0.5 °C to 2 °C regionally. Likewise, boreal forest expansion into tundra has a net global warming effect of around 0.14 °C globally and 0.5 °C to 1 °C regionally, even though new forest growth captures around 6 billion tons of

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attributed to climate change in the earlier studies had instead constituted a delayed response to anthropogenic disturbance. Subsequent research found that even in the forests where biomass trends did not change, there was a substantial shift towards the deciduous broad-leaved trees with higher

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Coniferous trees are the dominant plants of the taiga biome. Very few species, in four main genera, are found: the evergreen spruce, fir and pine, and the deciduous larch. In North America, one or two species of fir, and one or two species of spruce, are dominant. Across Scandinavia and western

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drought tolerance over the past 65 years, and another Landsat analysis of 100,000 undisturbed sites found that the areas with low tree cover became greener in response to warming, but tree mortality (browning) became the dominant response as the proportion of existing tree cover increased.

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In Canada and Scandinavia, the growing season is often estimated by using the period of the year when the 24-hour average temperature is +5 °C (41 °F) or more. For the Taiga Plains in Canada, growing season varies from 80 to 150 days, and in the Taiga Shield from 100 to 140 days.

2387:. In fact, current estimates place boreal forests as storing twice as much carbon per unit area as tropical forests. Wildfires could use up a significant part of the global carbon budget, so fire management at about 12 dollars per tonne of carbon not released is very cheap compared to the 2111:

In 2022, the results of a 5-year warming experiment in North America had shown that the juveniles of tree species which currently dominate the southern margins of the boreal forests fare the worst in response to even 1.5 °C or +3.1 °C of warming and the associated reductions in

667:, when the vegetation in the taiga comes alive, is usually slightly longer than the climatic definition of summer as the plants of the boreal biome have a lower temperature threshold to trigger growth than other plants. Some sources claim 130 days growing season as typical for the taiga. 1265:. Pine, spruce and fir do not lose their leaves seasonally and are able to photosynthesize with their older leaves in late winter and spring when light is good but temperatures are still too low for new growth to commence. The adaptation of evergreen needles limits the water lost due to 926: 551:

with the lowest annual average temperatures, with mean annual temperature generally varying from −5 to 5 °C (23 to 41 °F). Extreme winter minimums in the northern taiga are typically lower than those of the tundra. There are taiga areas of eastern Siberia and interior

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and their dark green color increases their absorption of sunlight. Although precipitation is not a limiting factor, the ground freezes during the winter months and plant roots are unable to absorb water, so desiccation can be a severe problem in late winter for evergreens.

2225:, but with the collapse of the Union, the restrictions regarding trade with Western nations have vanished. Trees are easy to harvest and sell well, so loggers have begun harvesting Russian taiga evergreen trees for sale to nations previously forbidden by Soviet law. 689:

The longest growing season is found in the smaller areas with oceanic influences; in coastal areas of Scandinavia and Finland, the growing season of the closed boreal forest can be 145–180 days. The shortest growing season is found at the northern taiga–tundra

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Once the "right" level of warming is met, either process would take at least 40–50 years to finish, and is more likely to unfold over a century or more. While the southern die-off would involve the loss of around 52 billion tons of carbon, the net result is

1349:. Rich in spruce and Scots pine (in the western Siberian plain), the taiga is dominated by larch in Eastern Siberia, before returning to its original floristic richness on the Pacific shores. Two deciduous trees mingle throughout southern Siberia: birch and 753:

is consequently low for most of the year, annual precipitation exceeds evaporation, and is sufficient to sustain the dense vegetation growth including large trees. This explains the striking difference in biomass per square metre between the Taiga and the

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daily high temperature. The number of days with extremely cold temperatures (e.g., −20 to −40 °C; −4 to −40 °F) has decreased irregularly but systematically in nearly all the boreal region, allowing better survival for tree-damaging insects. In

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with very large temperature range between seasons. −20 °C (−4 °F) would be a typical winter day temperature and 18 °C (64 °F) an average summer day, but the long, cold winter is the dominant feature. This climate is classified as

1952:(Van Wagner 1978). However, as Heinselman (1981) noted, each physiographic site tends to have its own return interval, so that some areas are skipped for long periods, while others might burn two-times or more often during a nominal fire rotation. 2149:

Primary boreal forests hold 1,042 billion tonnes of carbon, more than currently found in the atmosphere, 2 times more than all human caused GHG emissions since the year 1870. In a warmer climate their ability to store carbon will be reduced.

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has been one of the most important factors shaping the composition and development of boreal forest stands; it is the dominant stand-renewing disturbance through much of the Canadian boreal forest. The fire history that characterizes an

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significantly reduced NAR in all species and produced visible symptoms of injury in 2–20 days. The decrease in NAR of deciduous species (trembling aspen , willow , green alder , and white birch ) was significantly more rapid than of

1309:(with return times of between 20 and 200 years) clear out the tree canopies, allowing sunlight to invigorate new growth on the forest floor. For some species, wildfires are a necessary part of the life cycle in the taiga; some, e.g. 2430:

It has been hypothesized by Serge Payette that the spruce-moss forest ecosystem was changed into the lichen woodland biome due to the initiation of two compounded strong disturbances: large fire and the appearance and attack of the

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The prevalence of fire-adaptive morphologic and reproductive characteristics of many boreal plant species is further evidence pointing to a long and intimate association with fire. Seven of the ten most common trees in the boreal

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and it is possible that 1.5 °C would be sufficient for either tipping point; on the other hand, the southern die-off may not be inevitable until 5 °C, while the replacement of tundra with taiga may require 7.2 °C.

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fir, and in the west give the advantage to aspen, jack pine, black spruce, and birch over white spruce. Many investigators have reported the ubiquity of charcoal under the forest floor and in the upper soil profile. Charcoal in

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Girardin, Martin P.; Bouriaud, Olivier; Hogg, Edward H.; Kurz, Werner; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; Metsaranta, Juha M.; de Jong, Rogier; Frank, David C.; Esper, Jan; Büntgen, Ulf; Guo, Xiao Jing; Bhatti, Jagtar (12 December 2016).

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presently existing taiga forests into one of the two woodland states or even into a treeless steppe - but it could also shift tundra areas into woodland or forest states as they warm and become more suitable for tree growth.

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scheme, meaning that the short summers (24 h average 10 °C (50 °F) or more), although generally warm and humid, only last 1–3 months, while winters, with average temperatures below freezing, last 5–7 months.

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south of the 15 °C (59 °F) July isotherm where rainfall is very low, but more typically extends south to the 18 °C (64 °F) July isotherm, and locally where rainfall is higher, such as in eastern

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Acidification of precipitation by anthropogenic, acid-forming emissions has been associated with damage to vegetation and reduced forest productivity, but 2-year-old white spruce that were subjected to simulated

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at pH 4.3 and 2.8, but Abouguendia and Baschak (1987) found a significant reduction in white spruce at pH 2.6, while the foliar sulphur content significantly greater at pH 2.6 than any of the other treatments.

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In Siberian taiga the average temperature of the coldest month is between −6 °C (21 °F) and −50 °C (−58 °F). There are also some much smaller areas grading towards the oceanic

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Armstrong McKay, David; Abrams, Jesse; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah; Rockström, Johan; Staal, Arie; Lenton, Timothy (9 September 2022).

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The boreal forest/taiga supports a relatively small variety of highly specialized and adapted animals, due to the harshness of the climate. Canada's boreal forest includes 85 species of

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The fog, especially predominant in low-lying areas during and after the thawing of frozen Arctic seas, stops sunshine from getting through to plants even during the long summer days. As

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Predatory mammals of the taiga must be adapted to travel long distances in search of scattered prey, or be able to supplement their diet with vegetation or other forms of food (such as

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Payette, Serge (2000). "Origin of the lichen woodland at its southern range limit in eastern Canada: the catastrophic impact of insect defoliators and fire on the spruce-moss forest".

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provided Bryson et al. (1965) with clues about the forest history of an area 280 km north of the then-current tree line at Ennadai Lake, District Keewatin, Northwest Territories.

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scenario, boreal forests would experience a 15% worldwide increase in biomass by the end of the century, but this would be more than offset by the 41% biomass decline in the tropics.

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precipitation. While the temperate species which would benefit from such conditions are also present in the southern boreal forests, they are both rare and have slower growth rates.

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and some mosses growing on it. In clearings in the forest and in areas with more boreal deciduous trees, there are more herbs and berries growing, and soils are consequently deeper.

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reanalysis confirmed that there was a drying trend and a loss of forest in western Canadian forests and some greening in the wetter east, but it had also concluded that most of the

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species in the taiga (spruce, fir, and pine) have a number of adaptations specifically for survival in harsh taiga winters, although larch, which is extremely cold-tolerant, is

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groundcover; the latter is common in the northernmost taiga. In the northernmost taiga, the forest cover is not only more sparse, but often stunted in growth form; moreover,

6433: 5750: 5429:. Woodwell Climate Research Center, INTACT, Griffits University, GEOS institute, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Australian Rainforest Conservation Society. 17 December 2020 3988:

Amiro, B. D.; Stocks, B. J.; Alexander, M. E.; Flannigan, M. D.; Wotton, B. M. (2001). "Fire, climate change, carbon and fuel management in the Canadian boreal forest".

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to make them more resistant to freezing, called "hardening". The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, also help them shed snow.

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The principal tree species, depending on the length of the growing season and summer temperatures, vary across the world. The taiga of North America is mostly spruce;

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with a significantly more rapid decrease in NAR compared with those growing in the Brunisol, perhaps because of predisposing toxic material in the tailings. However,

2477: 781:, occasionally as far north as the 9 °C (48 °F) July isotherm, with the southern limit more variable. Depending on rainfall, and taiga may be replaced by 3428: 2669: 2281:

on woody boreal forest species was investigated by Addison et al. (1984), who exposed plants growing on native soils and tailings to 15.2 μmol/m (0.34 ppm) of SO

773:, Norway. This oceanic part of the forest can see more than 1,000 mm (39 in) precipitation annually and has warmer winters than the vast inland taiga. 674:

Other sources define growing season by frost-free days. Data for locations in southwest Yukon gives 80–120 frost-free days. The closed canopy boreal forest in

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Peng, Changhui; Ma, Zhihai; Lei, Xiangdong; Zhu, Qiuan; Chen, Huai; Wang, Weifeng; Liu, Shirong; Li, Weizhong; Fang, Xiuqin; Zhou, Xiaolu (20 November 2011).

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designated two inter-related tipping points associated with climate change - the die-off of taiga at its southern edge and the area's consequent reversion to

180: 3038: 5115:"Boreal forests will be more severely affected by projected anthropogenic climate forcing than mixedwood and northern hardwood forests in eastern Canada" 4744:"Canadian boreal forest greening and browning trends: an analysis of biogeographic patterns and the relative roles of disturbance versus climate drivers" 4887: 1995:

began in a taiga area that had not had a major fire in over 130 years, and so was allowed to burn unchecked until it began to threaten populated areas.

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have cones which only open to release their seed after a fire, dispersing their seeds onto the newly cleared ground; certain species of fungi (such as

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Fish of the taiga must be able to withstand cold water conditions and be able to adapt to life under ice-covered water. Species in the taiga include

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According to some sources, the boreal forest grades into a temperate mixed forest when mean annual temperature reaches about 3 °C (37 °F).

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the number of needles affected increased with increasing rain acidity and with time. Scherbatskoy and Klein (1983) found no significant effect of

6215: 4466: 2984: 2514: 1373: 464:. Hoffman (1958) discusses the origin of this differential use in North America and how this differentiation distorts established Russian usage. 5219:

Reich, Peter B.; Bermudez, Raimundo; Montgomery, Rebecca A.; Rich, Roy L.; Rice, Karen E.; Hobbie, Sarah E.; Stefanski, Artur (10 August 2022).

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These metabolic and visible injury responses seemed to be related to the differences in S uptake owing in part to higher gas exchange rates for

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8.5 scenario which represents the largest potential increase in anthropogenic emissions. Another 2021 study projected that under the "moderate"

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Addison, P.A.; Malhotra, S.S.; Khan, A.A. 1984. "Effect of sulfur dioxide on woody boreal forest species grown on native soils and tailings".

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found around the numerous bogs and lakes. Of the 300 species of birds that summer in the taiga, only 30 stay for the winter. These are either

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tolerates the coldest winters of the Northern Hemisphere, in eastern Siberia. The very southernmost parts of the taiga may have trees such as

4888:"Boreal Forests and Climate Change - Changes in Climate Parameters and Some Responses, Effects of Warming on Tree Growth on Productive Sites" 3640: 2470: 1442:, which depend on environmental conditions to regulate their body temperatures. There are only a few species in the boreal forest, including 4568:

Ma, Zhihai; Peng, Changhui; Zhu, Qiuan; Chen, Huai; Yu, Guirui; Li, Weizhong; Zhou, Xiaolu; Wang, Weifeng; Zhang, Wenhua (30 January 2012).

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La Roi, G. H. (1967). "Ecological studies in the boreal spruce–fir forests of the North American taiga. I. Analysis of the vascular flora".

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thrive on the damp ground and on the sides of tree trunks. In comparison with other biomes, however, the taiga has low botanical diversity.

1093:, consisting of many closely-spaced trees and mossy groundcover. In clearings in the forest, shrubs and wildflowers are common, such as the 5616:

Scherbatskoy, T.; Klein, R.M. 1983. "Response of spruce Picea glauca and birch Betula alleghaniensis foliage to leaching by acidic mists".

3013: 6449: 6418: 5511: 2662: 2060:, the length of the frost-free season has increased from 60 to 90 days in the early twentieth century to about 120 days a century later. 4347: 1431:, and as a part of the food web. Many nesting birds, rodents, and small carnivorous mammals rely on them for food in the summer months. 6259: 2875: 4629:"Net aboveground biomass declines of four major forest types with forest ageing and climate change in western Canada's boreal forests" 4249:

Bryson, R. A.; Irving, W. H.; Larson, J. A. (1965). "Radiocarbon and soil evidence of former forest in the southern Canadian tundra".

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Taiga in its current form is a relatively recent phenomenon, having only existed for the last 12,000 years since the beginning of the

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and peatland are widespread in the taiga. They are home to a unique flora, and store vast amounts of carbon. In western Eurasia, the

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The term "taiga" is not used consistently by all cultures. In the English language, "boreal forest" is used in the United States and

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The oldest forests in the northwest boreal region, some older than 300 years, are of white spruce occurring as pure stands on moist

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throughout the year (generally 200–750 mm (7.9–29.5 in) annually, 1,000 mm (39 in) in some areas), primarily as

6209: 2463: 3911: 2754: 1027:, more animals than plants, were able to colonize both land masses, and are globally-distributed throughout the taiga biome (see 523:

Taiga covers 17 million square kilometres (6.6 million square miles) or 11.5% of the Earth's land area, second only to

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Nilsson, M. C. (2005). "Understory vegetation as a forest ecosystem driver, evidence from the northern Swedish boreal forest".

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D'Orangeville, Loïc; Houle, Daniel; Duchesne, Louis; Phillips, Richard P.; Bergeron, Yves; Kneeshaw, Daniel (10 August 2018).

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Heinselman, M. L. (1981). "Fire intensity and frequency as factors in the distribution and structure of northern ecosystems".

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of eastern Canada. In the interior of the continents, with the driest climates, the boreal forests might grade into temperate

6385: 6162: 6141: 6117: 3400: 1178:, Alaska. Trees in this environment tend to grow closer to the trunk and not "bush out" in the normal manner of spruce trees. 810: 3800: 5989:

Johnson, E. A. (1981). "Vegetation Organization and Dynamics of Lichen Woodland Communities in the Northwest Territories".

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Kurkowski, Thomas (2008). "Relative Importance of Different Secondary Successional Pathways in an Alaskan Boreal Forest".

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in referring to more southerly regions, while "taiga" is used to describe the more northern, barren areas approaching the

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The response of six tree species common in Quebec's forests to 2°C and 4°C warming under different precipitation levels.

1254:. Taiga trees tend to have shallow roots to take advantage of the thin soils, while many of them seasonally alter their 758:

biomes, (in warmer climates), where evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, restricting vegetation to mostly grasses.

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Abouguendia, Z.M.; Baschak, L.A. 1987. "Response of two western Canadian conifers to simulated acidic precipitation".

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scattered among the conifers, and there is usually a gradual transition into a temperate, mixed forest, such as the

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having several distinct species, each occupying different regions of the taiga. Taigas also have some small-leaved

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Jasinski, J. P. (2005). "The Creation of Alternative Stable States in Southern Boreal Forest: Quebec, Canada".

3861: 2979: 2818: 2682: 2614: 2574: 1703:. These species have adapted to survive the harsh winters in their native ranges. Some larger mammals, such as 1556: 1261:

Because the sun is low in the horizon for most of the year, it is difficult for plants to generate energy from

1175: 4685:"No growth stimulation of Canada's boreal forest under half-century of combined warming and CO2 fertilization" 913: 746:. Snow may remain on the ground for as long as nine months in the northernmost extensions of the taiga biome. 5422: 3709: 2806: 2794: 2742: 2105: 1455: 1221: 761: 17: 4891: 3162: 6454: 6227: 5373:"Re-appraisal of the global climatic role of natural forests for improved climate projections and policies" 3336: 2598: 2550: 1838: 1117:, asymmetric black spruce (in North America) are often seen, with diminished foliage on the windward side. 524: 6317: 6271: 3187:"How should the world's nations account for the carbon absorbed by their forests? We better figure it out" 6849: 6695: 6380: 6249: 6199: 5448: 3748: 2842: 2830: 731: 6152: 6107: 1711:

during the winter. Other animals have adapted layers of fur or feathers to insulate them from the cold.

6700: 6390: 6233: 5469: 5072:

Luo, Yong; McIntire, Eliot J. B.; Boisvenue, Céline; Nikiema, Paul P.; Chen, Han Y. H. (17 June 2019).

3710:"Study reveals for first time true diversity of life in soils across the globe, new species discovered" 2899: 2526: 2233:

Recent years have seen outbreaks of insect pests in forest-destroying plagues: the spruce-bark beetle (

1747: 4024:

Proceedings of the Conference: Fire Regimes in Ecosystem Properties, Dec. 1978, Honolulu, Hawaii. USDA

3676: 3286: 797:

In these warmer areas the taiga has higher species diversity, with more warmth-loving species such as

604:

climate with milder winters, whilst the extreme south and (in Eurasia) west of the taiga reaches into

6798: 6710: 4037:

Heinselman, M. L. (1973). "Fire in the virgin forests of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, Minnesota".

2887: 2867: 1771: 1381: 605: 2325:

uptake and visible symptom development did not differ between conifers growing on the 2 substrates.

1967:

dominant on well-drained sites in eastern Canada changing centrally and westward to a prominence of

6720: 6127: 5371:

M. Makarieva, Anastassia; V. Nefiodov, Andrei; Rammig, Anja; Donato Nobre, Antonio (20 July 2023).

5074:"Climatic change only stimulated growth for trees under weak competition in central boreal forests" 3503: 2730: 2538: 2436: 2265: 1680: 1203: 1155:). Some berries can grow in both the taiga and the lower arctic (southern regions) tundra, such as 934: 675: 620: 3970:

Rowe, J. S. (1955). "Factors influencing white spruce reproduction in Manitoba and Saskatchewan".

3771: 3651: 3017: 1590:

in North America). Some areas of the more southern closed boreal forest have populations of other

1120:

In Canada, Scandinavia and Finland, the boreal forest is usually divided into three subzones: The

6705: 4913: 3890: 2969: 2403: 2235: 1642:

have been introduced into the Russian far-east, as part of the taiga regeneration project called

1603: 1451: 965:

for a long time in the cool, moist climate, which limits their organic contribution to the soil.

778: 453: 5561: 5347:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer" 446: 6280: 6204: 5114: 4302:

Rowe, J. S. (1970). "Spruce and fire in northwest Canada and Alaska". In Komarek, E. V. (ed.).

3241: 1869: 1834: 652: 423: 408: 31: 6256:

A network of NGOs, indigenous peoples or individuals that works to protect the boreal forests.

5515: 6690: 6180:

The Conservation Value of the North American Boreal Forest from an Ethnobotanical perspective

4377: 2562: 2388: 1649: 1467: 1211: 632: 6216:

Campaign against lumber giant Weyerhaeuser's logging practices in the Canadian boreal forest

3233: 3232:

Sporrong, Ulf (2003). "The Scandinavian landscape and its resources". In Helle, Knut (ed.).

6803: 6783: 6725: 6685: 6680: 6301: 5969: 5932: 5394: 5232: 5173: 5126: 5028: 4925: 4755: 4696: 4640: 4581: 4542: 4475: 4412: 4359: 4260: 4215: 4172: 4120: 4046: 3099: 2989: 2718: 2244: 2222: 2163: 1865: 1207: 834: 818: 427: 369: 4570:"Regional drought-induced reduction in the biomass carbon sink of Canada's boreal forests" 1896:. The only other viable adaptation is seed-eating birds, which include several species of 8: 6756: 6597: 6413: 2626: 2490: 2167: 2017: 1795: 1459: 1443: 1404: 1028: 951: 561: 5973: 5936: 5398: 5236: 5177: 5130: 5032: 4929: 4912:

Shuman, Jacquelyn Kremper; Shugart, Herman Henry; O'Halloran, Thomas Liam (2011-03-25).

4792: 4759: 4700: 4644: 4628: 4585: 4546: 4479: 4416: 4363: 4264: 4219: 4176: 4124: 4050: 3593: 3103: 2127:

dieback) and the opposite process to the north, where the rapid warming of the adjacent

6844: 6624: 6614: 6043: 6014: 6006: 5948: 5656: 5631: 5384: 5324: 5256: 5196: 5162:"Impact of rising temperatures on the biomass of humid old-growth forests of the world" 5161: 5142: 5095: 5049: 5016: 4966:"Fairbanks Daily News-Miner – New study states boreal forests shifting as Alaska warms" 4941: 4864: 4839: 4820: 4773: 4719: 4684: 4664: 4604: 4569: 4531:"A drought-induced pervasive increase in tree mortality across Canada's boreal forests" 4506: 4461: 4433: 4400: 4284: 4231: 4188: 4138: 4062: 3115: 2940: 1799: 1471: 1020: 833:

The area currently classified as taiga in Europe and North America (except Alaska) was

683: 338: 5278: 856: 6793: 6715: 6644: 6634: 6557: 6158: 6137: 6113: 5892: 5782:"Boreal landscapes added to Canada's parks Boreal landscapes added to Canada's parks" 5661: 5328: 5316: 5308: 5260: 5248: 5220: 5201: 5146: 5099: 5054: 4937: 4869: 4824: 4812: 4777: 4724: 4656: 4609: 4511: 4493: 4438: 4276: 4251: 4192: 4184: 4058: 3919: 3245: 3234: 2187: 2124: 2057: 2025: 1992: 1968: 1845: 1803: 1631: 1160: 1139:. Some species are confined to the southern and middle closed-boreal forest (such as 568: 479: 6047: 6018: 4945: 4840:"Satellite observations document trends consistent with a boreal forest biome shift" 4668: 4288: 4066: 2141:

carbon. In both cases, this is due to the snow-covered ground having a much greater

556:

where the mean annual temperature reaches down to −10 °C (14 °F), and the

6829: 6654: 6085: 6064: 6035: 5998: 5977: 5940: 5651: 5643: 5402: 5298: 5290: 5240: 5191: 5181: 5160:

Larjavaara, Markku; Lu, Xiancheng; Chen, Xia; Vastaranta, Mikko (12 October 2021).

5134: 5085: 5044: 5036: 4933: 4859: 4851: 4804: 4763: 4714: 4704: 4648: 4599: 4589: 4550: 4501: 4483: 4428: 4420: 4367: 4326: 4268: 4223: 4180: 4128: 4089: 4054: 3997: 3524: 3107: 2706: 2451: 2248: 1921: 1885: 1644: 1595: 1486: 1338: 1302: 1144: 838: 532: 431: 373: 251: 219: 95: 64: 5915: 4319:"Photointerpretation of the terrain along the southern part of the Alaska highway" 3375: 3307: 3265: 2087: 6629: 6619: 6522: 6294: 6286: 6253: 6240: 6131: 5693: 4457: 3758: 2289:

assimilation rate (NAR). The Canadian maximum acceptable limit for atmospheric SO

1830: 1767: 1743: 1731: 1518: 1514: 1498: 1351: 1274: 876: 822: 791: 475: 6193: 5679: 4272: 950:

The diversity of soil organisms in the boreal forest is high, comparable to the

945:

tends to be young and poor in nutrients, lacking the deep, organically enriched

863:, Canada. Several of the world's longest rivers go through the taiga, including 407:; Russian taiga has spruces, pines and larches depending on the region; and the 6670: 6649: 6639: 6179: 5244: 5186: 5138: 5040: 5017:"Beneficial effects of climate warming on boreal tree growth may be transitory" 4768: 4743: 4530: 2926: 2432: 2379:, more than the world's temperate and tropical forests combined, much of it in 2278: 2260: 2029: 2009: 1976: 1964: 1873: 1841: 1811: 1775: 1751: 1522: 1510: 1262: 1240: 1216: 1202:. The woodland mix varies according to geography and climate; for example, the 1059: 1055:. These grow mostly in areas further south of the most extreme winter weather. 806: 664: 636: 467: 419: 5407: 5372: 5279:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points" 3568: 59: 6818: 6567: 6517: 6480: 6364: 5312: 4793:"Rapid functional shifts across high latitude forests over the last 65 years" 4497: 3974:. For. Branch, For. Res. Div., Ottawa ON, Project MS-135, Silv. Tech. Note 3. 3547: 2958: 2934: 2880: 2763: 2723: 2711: 2687: 2033: 1972: 1755: 1723: 1700: 1696: 1623: 1490: 1479: 1475: 1266: 1234: 1012: 868: 814: 782: 711: 623:

is found in areas with mean annual temperature below freezing, whilst in the

501: 438: 400: 322: 5294: 5221:"Even modest climate change may lead to major transitions in boreal forests" 5090: 5073: 4742:

Sulla-Menashe, Damien; Woodcock, Curtis E; Friedl, Mark A (4 January 2018).

4709: 4594: 4488: 3457: 996: 512: 6675: 6552: 6547: 6542: 5665: 5647: 5320: 5252: 5205: 5058: 4873: 4816: 4791:

Hisano, Masumi; Ryo, Masahiro; Chen, Xinli; Chen, Han Y. H. (16 May 2021).

4728: 4660: 4613: 4515: 4442: 4280: 3482: 3211: 3066: 2974: 2343: 2334: 2256: 2218: 1925: 1901: 1861: 1857: 1815: 1791: 1763: 1735: 1707:, eat heartily during the summer in order to gain weight, and then go into 1639: 1538: 1506: 1502: 1447: 1255: 962: 946: 715: 706: 493: 489: 6276: 5907: 5694:"1,500 Scientists Worldwide Call for Protection of Canada's Boreal Forest" 5276: 3940: 1916: 1434:

The cold winters and short summers make the taiga a challenging biome for

364: 6532: 5727: 5540: 5370: 4554: 4424: 4372: 4080:

Van Wagner, C. E. (1978). "Age-class distribution and the forest cycle".

3912:"Government of Canada to Send Wood Bison to Russian Conservation Project" 2394:

Some nations are discussing protecting areas of the taiga by prohibiting

2339: 2221:. Previously, the forest was protected by the restrictions of the Soviet 2191: 2179: 2076: 1719: 1708: 1552: 1534: 1530: 1164: 1114: 1001: 973: 893: 860: 802: 798: 777:

In general, taiga grows to the south of the 10 °C (50 °F) July

750: 719: 471: 392: 5490: 5303: 358: 6761: 6537: 6010: 5952: 4235: 4142: 4109:"Future wildfire in circumboreal forests in relation to global warming" 3119: 2368: 2303: 2040: 1881: 1807: 1787: 1635: 1619: 1424: 1400: 1395: 1334: 1294: 1152: 872: 346: 5014: 4855: 4808: 4652: 4304:

Proc. 10th Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference, Tallahassee FL

3067:"Taiga | Plants, Animals, Climate, Location, & Facts | Britannica" 1638:

of northern Canada/Alaska; additionally, some numbers of the American

6751: 6746: 6562: 5914:. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report GTR-INT-319. pp. 4107:

Flannigan, M. D.; Bergeron, Y.; Engelmark, O.; Wotton, B. M. (1998).

2649: 2457: 2330: 2314: 2310: 2299: 2120: 2005: 1937: 1905: 1877: 1759: 1688: 1627: 1564: 1546: 1526: 1463: 1439: 1428: 1314: 1310: 1251: 1247: 1183: 1148: 1083: 1036: 970: 656: 485: 457: 442: 380: 271: 6068: 6039: 6002: 5981: 5944: 4227: 4133: 4108: 4093: 4001: 3840: 3111: 2195: 98:, from about 50°N to 70°N, but with considerable regional variation. 6583: 6527: 6490: 5389: 3865: 2643: 2603: 2384: 2175: 1987: 1932: 1668: 1664: 1611: 1607: 1591: 1583: 1408: 1342: 1306: 1229: 1170: 1156: 1140: 1094: 977: 864: 698: 679: 557: 415: 350: 87: 4914:"Russian boreal forests undergoing vegetation change, study shows" 4331: 4318: 4026:. For. Serv., Washington DC, Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26. pp. 7–57. 2199: 81: 6485: 4163:

Rowe, J. S.; Scotter, G. W. (1973). "Fire in the boreal forest".

2579: 2507: 2395: 2380: 2360: 2210: 2183: 2072: 1853: 1783: 1715: 1676: 1587: 1494: 1435: 1416: 1136: 1098: 1052: 1024: 1016: 985: 930: 787: 691: 516: 396: 342: 334: 326: 318: 310: 302: 5537:"Spruce budworm and sustainable management of the boreal forest" 4106: 2355: 1614:

reside in the taiga of Russia's Far East and North America. The

647: 6459: 6349: 5923:

Hoffmann, Robert S. (1958). "The Meaning of the Word 'Taiga'".

3090:

Hoffmann, Robert S. (1958). "The Meaning of the Word "Taiga"".

2904: 2892: 2863: 2859: 2847: 2835: 2823: 2811: 2799: 2787: 2775: 2759: 2747: 2735: 2699: 2631: 2619: 2607: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2567: 2555: 2543: 2531: 2519: 2495: 2399: 2376: 2322: 2214: 2142: 2128: 1897: 1849: 1779: 1672: 1660: 1656: 1567: 1420: 1326: 1286: 1225: 1191: 1110: 1048: 1005: 981: 897: 850: 821:

where oak and hornbeam appear and join the conifers, birch and

770: 755: 544: 528: 497: 461: 404: 330: 314: 306: 298: 294: 282: 274: 91: 72: 68: 2302:(white spruce, black spruce , and jack pine ) or an evergreen 1407:. Brown bears are among the largest and most widespread taiga 841:

in the topography that have since filled with water, creating

635:

occurs and restricts growth to very shallow-rooted trees like

6325: 6246: 6188: 5786:

NatGeo News Watch: News Editor David Braun's Eye on the World

5630:

Ruckstuhl, K. E.; Johnson, E. A.; Miyanishi, K. (July 2008).

4455: 3987: 2252: 2240: 2013: 1893: 1739: 1727: 1575: 1542: 1346: 1318: 1290: 1282: 1278: 1187: 1089:

There are two major types of taiga. The southern part is the

1075: 1067: 1044: 1040: 1032: 766: 553: 548: 384: 354: 290: 286: 267: 109: 44: 37: 4460:; Van Nes, Egbert H.; Chapin, F. Stuart (26 December 2012). 4348:"Coincidence and Contradiction in the Warming Boreal Forest" 3677:"Tampere/Pirkkala, Finland Weather History and Climate Data" 3525:"University of Helsinki: Carabid diversity in Finnish taiga" 3135:"'Zombie fires' may become more common as the climate warms" 1273:

Although the taiga is dominated by coniferous forests, some

6512: 6090:

10.1890/1540-9295(2005)003[0421:UVAAFE]2.0.CO;2

5218: 5071: 4911: 4741: 4397: 3752:, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg, November, 2008 2203: 2044: 1981: 1889: 1848:

to take advantage of the long summer days and abundance of

1826: 1822: 1704: 1692: 1684: 1615: 1322: 1298: 1199: 966: 958: 942: 842: 739: 735: 278: 234: 228: 5159: 5113:

Boulanger, Yan; Puigdevall, Jesus Pascual (3 April 2021).

1618:-Kamchatka region of far eastern Russia also supports the 1419:, 130 species of fish, and an estimated 32,000 species of 912:

Lakes and other water bodies are common in the taiga. The

6183: 5629: 3039:"List of Plants & Animals in the Canadian Wilderness" 2364: 1610:. While normally a polar species, some southern herds of 1599: 1195: 1071: 1063: 846: 743: 702: 527:. The largest areas are located in Russia and Canada. In 301:, and parts of the northern contiguous United States. In 289:. The taiga or boreal forest is the world's largest land 231: 4681: 2317:. Conifers growing in oil sands tailings responded to SO 1924:

in Alaska burned 193,597 acres (78,346 ha), mostly

1533:(including sea-run brook trout in the Hudson Bay area), 3362:édition 1976 Vol. 2 ASIE – Géographie physique, p. 568 2961: – effect of global warming on the taiga 1367:

Conifer cones and morels after fire in a boreal forest.

1337:

is a common component of the taiga, while taiga of the

5908:"Larix lyallii: Colonist of tree line and talus sites" 4838:

Berner, Logan T.; Goetz, Scott J. (24 February 2022).

794:, south to the 20 °C (68 °F) July isotherm. 5912:

Ecology and Management of Larix Forests: A Look Ahead

5906:

Arno, S. F.; Worral, J. & Carlson, C. E. (1995).

2174:

Some of the larger cities situated in this biome are

243: 2916: 1963:

The mature boreal forest pattern in the south shows

1305:

grow closer to the ground. Periodic stand-replacing

445:, it is not exclusively an alpine biome, and unlike 225: 5512:"A New Method to Reconstruct Bark Beetle Outbreaks" 5112: 1147:); others grow in most areas of the taiga (such as 817:coasts of North America and Asia), into coniferous 564:were recorded in the taiga of northeastern Russia. 222: 6316: 6105: 5910:. In Schmidt, W. C. & McDonald, K. J. (eds.). 4992:"Forest Changes in Alaska Reveal Changing Climate" 4248: 3617:, (New York: Twenty-First Century Books, 1994) 16. 2410:alongside the Eagle River from headwaters to sea. 2100:would reach a tipping point around 2080 under the 5905: 5809: 5807: 4790: 3972:Can. Dep. Northern Affairs and National Resources 3822: 3820: 3695: 3693: 2306:(Labrador tea) growing on a fertilized Brunisol. 1031:). Others differ regionally, typically with each 6816: 5889:Timberline. Mountain and Arctic Forest Frontiers 5272: 5270: 86:The taiga is found throughout the high northern 5344: 4467:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3355: 3353: 3163:"Carbon Emissions from Boreal Forest Wildfires" 2985:Success of fire suppression in northern forests 655:, along the northern shore of Lake Superior in 5842: 5840: 5821: 5819: 5804: 5423:"Primary Forests: Boreal, Temperate, Tropical" 3817: 3690: 3641:"Finland vegetation zone and freshwater biome" 2503:Iceland boreal birch forests and alpine tundra 1563:The taiga is mainly home to a number of large 705:does not rise far above the horizon, and less 686:, Russia, on average has 108 frost-free days. 437:Although at high elevations taiga grades into 6302: 5788:. National Geographic Society. Archived from 5539:. Cfs.nrcan.gc.ca. 2007-12-05. Archived from 5267: 4567: 2663: 2471: 984:, and the acidic forest floor often has only 293:. In North America, it covers most of inland 5886: 5340: 5338: 4528: 3769: 3350: 1860:that can take live mammal prey, such as the 1718:). Mammalian predators of the taiga include 1321:grow wherever they can find a patch of sun; 6450:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub 6136:. Greystone Books/David Suzuki Foundation. 5858: 5837: 5816: 5345:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022). 4837: 4162: 2515:Kamchatka–Kurile meadows and sparse forests 1206:ecoregion (of the higher elevations of the 1135:The boreal forest is home to many types of 6309: 6295: 6200:International Boreal Conservation campaign 5887:Arno, S. F. & Hammerly, R. P. (1984). 4627:Chen, Han Y. H.; Luo, Yong (2 July 2015). 4401:"Forest disturbances under climate change" 4079: 4036: 4021: 3083: 3008: 3006: 3004: 2670: 2656: 2478: 2464: 6025: 5717: 5682:. Boreal Songbird Initiative. 2014-05-12. 5655: 5406: 5388: 5335: 5302: 5195: 5185: 5089: 5048: 4863: 4767: 4718: 4708: 4603: 4593: 4505: 4487: 4462:"Thresholds for boreal biome transitions" 4432: 4371: 4330: 4316: 4132: 2965:Fire and carbon cycling in boreal forests 1655:Small mammals of the taiga biome include 1634:. The largest animal in the taiga is the 1109:, with trees that are farther-spaced and 383:, constituting part of the world's taiga 27:Biome characterized by coniferous forests 6260:Index of Boreal Forests/Taiga ecoregions 6133:Vanishing Halo: Saving the Boreal Forest 6126: 6078:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5959: 5922: 5636:Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci 4345: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4152: 4017: 4015: 4013: 4011: 3983: 3981: 3431:. Geography.ridley.on.ca. Archived from 3376:"The eastern forest – boreal transition" 3231: 3160: 3156: 3154: 3089: 3041:. Trails.com. 2010-07-27. Archived from 2375:The taiga stores enormous quantities of 2354: 2162: 2086: 1986: 1915: 1872:(in coastal northeastern Russia-Japan), 1551: 1482:. Most hibernate underground in winter. 1394: 1169: 995: 925: 855: 760: 646: 511: 507: 484: 363: 6279:—founded by William (Bill) Pruitt Jr., 6272:Slater museum of natural history: Taiga 6268:The Nature Conservancy and its partners 6075: 6054: 5988: 5748: 5599: 5597: 4626: 3240:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3001: 1868:(also known as the rough-legged hawk), 1622:, the Russian relative of the American 1214:) in Canada is dominated by balsam fir 14: 6817: 6230:Canadian Taiga Conservation Foundation 5377:Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 4242: 4205: 3864:. Hinterland Who's Who. Archived from 3839:. Hinterland Who's Who. Archived from 3266:"Marietta the Taiga and Boreal forest" 3132: 2949:Birds of North American boreal forests 2876:Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest 2413: 1810:(only small areas of northern taiga), 738:during the summer months, but also as 6290: 6150: 6106:Day, Trevor; Richard Garratt (2006). 5779: 5680:"Report: The Carbon the World Forgot" 5610: 4295: 4149: 4100: 4030: 4008: 3978: 3963: 3308:"Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga" 3151: 1182:The forests of the taiga are largely 730:The taiga experiences relatively low 558:lowest reliably recorded temperatures 6434:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands 6396:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands 6234:Coniferous Forest, Earth Observatory 5594: 4310: 4301: 3969: 3236:The Cambridge History of Scandinavia 3061: 3059: 2954:Boreal Forest Conservation Framework 2117:tipping points in the climate system 837:. As the glaciers receded they left 6057:Canadian Journal of Forest Research 6028:Canadian Journal of Forest Research 5751:"Charest promises to protect north" 5581: 4989: 4073: 3016:. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Archived from 2755:Interior Alaska–Yukon lowland taiga 2442: 2158: 892:The taiga in the river valley near 651:Boreal forest near Shovel Point in 418:epoch, covering land that had been 24: 6098: 4456:Scheffer, Marten; Hirota, Marina; 4317:Raup, H. M.; Denny, C. S. (1950). 4199: 3889:. Borealforest.org. Archived from 3456:. Blueplanetbiomes. Archived from 2855:South Avalon–Burin oceanic barrens 2783:Midwestern Canadian Shield forests 1423:. Insects play a critical role as 1124:(northern boreal/taiga zone), the 853:soil) found throughout the taiga. 470:is a threat to taiga, and how the 376:form the southernmost part of the 25: 6866: 6360:Montane grasslands and shrublands 6173: 5780:Braun, David (February 7, 2010). 5632:"Boreal forest and global change" 5562:"ALASKA'S CHANGING BOREAL FOREST" 3481:. Yukon.taiga.net. Archived from 3479:"Southwest Yukon:Frost-free days" 3056: 2213:'s taiga have been harvested for 2050: 1019:were originally connected by the 976:further leach the soil, creating 642: 543:After the permanent ice caps and 169:Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon (France) 5427:Woodwell Climate Research Center 4938:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02417.x 3592:. saskschools.ca. Archived from 3401:"Canada: Taiga Shield reference" 3161:Phillips, Carly (Apr 27, 2022). 2933: 2919: 2771:Mid-Continental Canadian forests 2153: 1372: 1360: 1080:eastern forest-boreal transition 905: 885: 725: 378:Eastern forest-boreal transition 341:, some lowland/coastal areas of 218: 80: 58: 6476:Flooded grasslands and savannas 5867: 5849: 5828: 5773: 5749:Marsden, William (2008-11-16). 5742: 5720:"Ontario to protect vast tract" 5718:Gillespie, Kerry (2008-07-15). 5711: 5686: 5672: 5623: 5554: 5529: 5504: 5483: 5462: 5441: 5415: 5364: 5212: 5153: 5106: 5065: 5008: 4983: 4968:. Newsminer.com. Archived from 4958: 4905: 4880: 4831: 4784: 4735: 4675: 4620: 4561: 4522: 4449: 4391: 4339: 3954: 3933: 3904: 3879: 3854: 3829: 3793: 3782:from the original on 2015-10-16 3763: 3741: 3732: 3723: 3702: 3669: 3633: 3626:Arno & Hammerly 1984, Arno 3620: 3607: 3582: 3561: 3540: 3517: 3496: 3471: 3446: 3421: 3393: 3368: 3325: 3300: 3279: 3258: 3212:"Taiga biological station: FAQ" 2695:Central Canadian Shield forests 2371:is common in the boreal forest. 2293:is 0.34 ppm. Fumigation with SO 1687:, as well as a small number of 1023:, a number of animal and plant 933:sandy area in the taiga of the 6789:Ecological land classification 6318:Biogeographic regionalisations 6157:. Twenty-First Century Books. 5514:. Colorado.edu. Archived from 5472:. Worldclimate.com. 2007-02-04 5451:. Worldclimate.com. 2007-02-04 4748:Environmental Research Letters 3918:. Jan 23, 2012. Archived from 3679:. Worldclimate.com. 2007-02-04 3429:"Climate of Canadian ecozones" 3289:. Worldclimate.com. 2007-02-04 3225: 3204: 3179: 3126: 3031: 2980:Scandinavian and Russian taiga 2819:Northern Canadian Shield taiga 2683:Alaska Peninsula montane taiga 2615:Urals montane tundra and taiga 2575:Scandinavian and Russian taiga 1557:Seney National Wildlife Refuge 1176:Kenai National Wildlife Refuge 538: 13: 1: 5891:. Seattle: The Mountaineers. 5605:Water, Air and Soil Pollution 5166:Carbon Balance and Management 3335:. Radford.edu. Archived from 3167:Union of Concerned Scientists 2995: 2807:Newfoundland Highland forests 2743:Eastern Canadian Shield taiga 2439:to the spruce–moss forests". 2350: 1456:northern two-lined salamander 1385:) cover on the floor of taiga 1317:) are also known to do this. 1222:Eastern Canadian Shield taiga 828: 594:Köppen climate classification 531:taiga is associated with the 449:, much of taiga is lowlands. 6455:Deserts and xeric shrublands 6151:Sayre, April Pulley (1994). 4352:Geophysical Research Letters 4185:10.1016/0033-5894(73)90008-2 4059:10.1016/0033-5894(73)90003-3 3943:. Boreal Songbird Initiative 3133:Graham, Karen (2021-05-19). 3014:"Berkeley: The forest biome" 2599:Trans-Baikal conifer forests 2272: 1839:black-throated green warbler 809:, and merges gradually into 525:deserts and xeric shrublands 430:in North America during the 7: 6696:Temperate Northern Atlantic 6386:Broadleaf and mixed forests 6262:at bioimages.Vanderbilt.edu 4346:Wilmking, M. (2009-10-09). 4273:10.1126/science.147.3653.46 3750:Black Spruce: Picea mariana 2912: 2843:Northwest Territories taiga 2831:Northern Cordillera forests 1578:), and a few subspecies of 1220:, while further north, the 1174:Taiga spruce forest in the 914:Helvetinjärvi National Park 547:, taiga is the terrestrial 399:taiga consists of a mix of 10: 6871: 6799:Vegetation classifications 6701:Temperate Northern Pacific 6266:The Canadian Boreal Forest 6247:Taiga Rescue Network (TRN) 6189:Boreal Canadian Initiative 6184:Boreal Songbird Initiative 5698:Boreal Songbird Initiative 5245:10.1038/s41586-022-05076-3 5187:10.1186/s13021-021-00194-3 5139:10.1007/s10980-021-01241-7 5041:10.1038/s41467-018-05705-4 3504:"Kenozersky National Park" 2990:Taiga Rescue Network (TRN) 2900:Yukon Interior dry forests 2228: 2217:since the collapse of the 1748:North American river otter 606:humid continental climates 42: 36: 29: 6776: 6734: 6711:Temperate Southern Africa 6663: 6607: 6596: 6576: 6503: 6468: 6442: 6404: 6373: 6342: 6333: 6324: 6218:Rainforest Action Network 6210:Threats to Boreal Forests 5408:10.3389/ffgc.2023.1150191 5351:climatetippingpoints.info 3776:The Canadian Encyclopedia 2888:Southern Hudson Bay taiga 2868:Saint Pierre and Miquelon 2795:Muskwa–Slave Lake forests 2641: 2449: 1821:More than 300 species of 1382:Ptilium crista-castrensis 1232:) is mostly black spruce 1128:(closed forest), and the 813:or, more locally (on the 426:in Eurasia and under the 255: 176: 166:Scotland (United Kingdom) 132: 127: 108: 103: 79: 57: 52: 6855:Turkic words and phrases 6825:Taiga and boreal forests 6721:Tropical Eastern Pacific 6671:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 6277:Taiga Biological Station 4769:10.1088/1748-9326/aa9b88 3837:"Canada's Boreal Forest" 3360:Encyclopedia Universalis 2731:Eastern Canadian forests 2551:Okhotsk–Manchurian taiga 2539:Northeast Siberian taiga 2437:alternative stable state 2269:); the spruce coneworm. 2266:Choristoneura fumiferana 2170:is situated in the taiga 1681:North American porcupine 1390: 1204:Eastern Canadian forests 1101:. The other type is the 991: 935:Central Yakutian Lowland 921: 676:Kenozersky National Park 621:Discontinuous permafrost 411:is a vast larch forest. 345:, and areas of northern 43:Not to be confused with 6840:Physiographic provinces 6742:Biogeographic provinces 6706:Temperate South America 6424:Moist broadleaf forests 5295:10.1126/science.abn7950 5091:10.1111/1365-2745.13228 4710:10.1073/pnas.1610156113 4595:10.1073/pnas.1111576109 4489:10.1073/pnas.1219844110 3805:forest.jrc.ec.europa.eu 3333:"radford:Taiga climate" 2970:Intact forest landscape 2236:Dendroctonus rufipennis 1911: 1604:Sitka black-tailed deer 1452:blue-spotted salamander 616:) with longer summers. 472:carbon dioxide absorbed 40:is also a Russian town. 6281:University of Manitoba 5648:10.1098/rstb.2007.2196 3380:Terrestrial Ecoregions 3312:Terrestrial Ecoregions 2527:Kamchatka–Kurile taiga 2404:oil and gas production 2372: 2171: 2092: 1996: 1929: 1835:white-throated sparrow 1829:grounds in the taiga. 1560: 1444:red-sided garter snake 1412: 1277:also occur, including 1179: 1008: 938: 880: 811:mixed temperate forest 774: 765:Late September in the 660: 653:Tettegouche State Park 520: 504: 424:Scandinavian Ice Sheet 409:Eastern Siberian taiga 388: 32:Taiga (disambiguation) 6804:Zoogeographic regions 6762:Global 200 ecoregions 6691:Temperate Australasia 6429:Dry broadleaf forests 5962:Ecological Monographs 5491:"Taiga Deforestation" 5021:Nature Communications 4918:Global Change Biology 4844:Global Change Biology 4797:Global Change Biology 4633:Global Change Biology 4535:Nature Climate Change 3990:Int. J. Wildland Fire 3382:. World Wildlife Fund 3314:. World Wildlife Fund 2563:Sakhalin Island taiga 2389:social cost of carbon 2358: 2166: 2115:A 2022 assessment of 2090: 1990: 1960:in a warmer climate. 1948:(Heinselman 1973) or 1919: 1691:species, such as the 1594:species, such as the 1555: 1505:, various species of 1468:northern leopard frog 1448:common European adder 1398: 1212:Appalachian Mountains 1173: 999: 929: 859: 819:temperate rainforests 764: 650: 633:continuous permafrost 515: 508:Climate and geography 488: 478:should be treated by 367: 277:consisting mostly of 117:Terrestrial subarctic 6835:Köppen climate types 6784:Altitudinal zonation 6726:Western Indo-Pacific 6686:Eastern Indo-Pacific 6681:Central Indo-Pacific 6196:Project Regeneration 5792:on February 15, 2010 4555:10.1038/nclimate1293 4425:10.1038/nclimate3303 4373:10.1029/2005GL023331 3862:"North American Elk" 3657:on 11 September 2011 3569:"NatureWorks:Tundra" 2719:Copper Plateau taiga 2647:boreal forests/taiga 2455:boreal forests/taiga 2245:mountain pine beetle 2223:Ministry of Forestry 2146:evapotranspiration. 1866:rough-legged buzzard 1659:species such as the 1208:Laurentian Mountains 1091:closed canopy forest 684:Arkhangelsk Province 428:Laurentide Ice Sheet 370:Adirondack Mountains 305:, it covers most of 30:For other uses, see 6757:Lists of ecoregions 6414:Tropical rainforest 6224:Canadian Geographic 5974:2005EcoM...75..561J 5937:1958Ecol...39..540H 5470:"Anchorage climate" 5399:2023FrFGC...650191M 5237:2022Natur.608..540R 5178:2021CarBM..16...31L 5131:2021LaEco..36.1725B 5033:2018NatCo...9.3213D 4996:Scientific American 4930:2011GCBio..17.2370S 4760:2018ERL....13a4007S 4701:2016PNAS..113E8406G 4695:(52): E8406–E8414. 4689:Biological Sciences 4645:2015GCBio..21.3675C 4586:2012PNAS..109.2423M 4574:Biological Sciences 4547:2011NatCC...1..467P 4480:2012PNAS..10921384S 4474:(52): 21384–21389. 4417:2017NatCC...7..395S 4364:2005GeoRL..3215715W 4323:US Geol. Surv. Bull 4265:1965Sci...147...46B 4220:1967EcoM...37..229L 4177:1973QuRes...3..444R 4125:1998JVegS...9..469F 4051:1973QuRes...3..329H 3104:1958Ecol...39..540H 2627:West Siberian taiga 2491:East Siberian taiga 2414:Natural disturbance 2168:Plesetsk Cosmodrome 2022:Populus balsamifera 1870:Steller's sea eagle 1796:American black bear 1460:Siberian salamander 1405:Kamchatka peninsula 1238:and tamarack larch 1029:Circumboreal Region 1000:Boreal forest near 952:tropical rainforest 562:Northern Hemisphere 325:(including much of 321:in the west to the 6850:Terrestrial biomes 6794:Floristic kingdoms 6558:Hydrothermal vents 6419:Coniferous forests 6381:Coniferous forests 6252:2013-04-06 at the 6239:2008-07-04 at the 5880:General references 5449:"Murmansk climate" 5289:(6611): eabn7950. 5078:Journal of Ecology 4306:. pp. 245–54. 3887:"Western roe deer" 3770:George H. La Roi. 3757:2011-10-05 at the 3747:C. Michael Hogan, 3550:. Blueplanetbiomes 3071:www.britannica.com 2941:Environment portal 2373: 2172: 2093: 1997: 1930: 1856:-feeding or large 1800:Asiatic black bear 1650:Przewalski's horse 1561: 1472:boreal chorus frog 1413: 1180: 1021:Bering land bridge 1009: 961:can remain on the 957:Fallen leaves and 939: 881: 835:recently glaciated 775: 718:in mid-summer and 661: 521: 505: 482:is controversial. 389: 357:(on the island of 339:Scottish Highlands 6812: 6811: 6772: 6771: 6716:Tropical Atlantic 6592: 6591: 6499: 6498: 6391:Deciduous forests 6164:978-0-8050-2830-0 6143:978-0-89886-681-0 6119:978-0-8160-5329-2 6112:. Facts On File. 5642:(1501): 2245–49. 5618:J. Environ. Qual. 5589:J. Environ. Qual. 5231:(7923): 540–545. 5119:Landscape Ecology 4990:Morello, Lauren. 4856:10.1111/gcb.16121 4850:(10): 3846–3858. 4809:10.1111/gcb.15710 4803:(16): 3846–3858. 4653:10.1111/gcb.12994 4639:(10): 3675–3684. 4325:. 963-D: 95–135. 3506:. Wild-russia.org 3287:"Yakutsk climate" 2910: 2909: 2637: 2636: 2342:concentration in 2313:species than for 2255:-leaf miner; the 2125:Amazon rainforest 2058:Fairbanks, Alaska 1993:Shanta Creek Fire 1804:Ussuri brown bear 1648:, in addition to 1632:long-tailed goral 1580:Rangifer tarandus 1301:and occasionally 1210:and the northern 569:subarctic climate 480:carbon accounting 270:characterized by 258:), also known as 207: 206: 16:(Redirected from 6862: 6605: 6604: 6340: 6339: 6331: 6330: 6311: 6304: 6297: 6288: 6287: 6222:Arctic and Taiga 6205:Tundra and Taiga 6182:a report by the 6168: 6147: 6128:Gawthrop, Daniel 6123: 6093: 6072: 6051: 6034:(7): 1911–1923. 6022: 5985: 5956: 5919: 5902: 5874: 5871: 5865: 5862: 5856: 5855:Kurkowski, 1912. 5853: 5847: 5844: 5835: 5832: 5826: 5823: 5814: 5813:Kurkowski, 1911. 5811: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5797: 5777: 5771: 5770: 5768: 5766: 5757:. Archived from 5755:Montreal Gazette 5746: 5740: 5739: 5737: 5735: 5726:. 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Archived from 3645: 3637: 3631: 3624: 3618: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3602: 3601: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3577: 3576: 3565: 3559: 3558: 3556: 3555: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3534: 3529: 3521: 3515: 3514: 3512: 3511: 3500: 3494: 3493: 3491: 3490: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3466: 3465: 3450: 3444: 3443: 3441: 3440: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3405: 3397: 3391: 3390: 3388: 3387: 3372: 3366: 3365: 3357: 3348: 3347: 3345: 3344: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3320: 3319: 3304: 3298: 3297: 3295: 3294: 3283: 3277: 3276: 3274: 3273: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3239: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3220: 3219: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3198: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3174: 3173: 3158: 3149: 3148: 3146: 3145: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3078: 3077: 3063: 3054: 3053: 3051: 3050: 3035: 3029: 3028: 3026: 3025: 3010: 2943: 2938: 2937: 2929: 2924: 2923: 2922: 2707:Cook Inlet taiga 2672: 2665: 2658: 2639: 2638: 2480: 2473: 2466: 2447: 2446: 2443:Taiga ecoregions 2249:British Columbia 2243:and Alaska; the 2159:Human activities 2123:(similar to the 1922:Funny River Fire 1886:great horned owl 1645:Pleistocene Park 1487:Alaska blackfish 1376: 1364: 1345:is dominated by 1339:Russian Far East 1297:plants, such as 980:, also known as 909: 889: 533:Norrland terrain 447:subalpine forest 432:Late Pleistocene 374:Upstate New York 257: 246: 241: 240: 237: 236: 233: 230: 227: 224: 96:temperate forest 84: 65:Jack London Lake 62: 50: 49: 21: 6870: 6869: 6865: 6864: 6863: 6861: 6860: 6859: 6815: 6814: 6813: 6808: 6768: 6730: 6659: 6599: 6588: 6584:Endolithic zone 6572: 6505: 6495: 6464: 6438: 6406: 6400: 6369: 6335: 6320: 6315: 6254:Wayback Machine 6241:Wayback Machine 6176: 6171: 6165: 6144: 6120: 6101: 6099:Further reading 6096: 6069:10.1139/x99-207 6040:10.1139/X08-039 6003:10.2307/1936682 5982:10.1890/04-1621 5945:10.2307/1931768 5899: 5877: 5872: 5868: 5863: 5859: 5854: 5850: 5845: 5838: 5833: 5829: 5824: 5817: 5812: 5805: 5795: 5793: 5778: 5774: 5764: 5762: 5761:on 5 April 2011 5747: 5743: 5733: 5731: 5716: 5712: 5702: 5700: 5692: 5691: 5687: 5678: 5677: 5673: 5628: 5624: 5615: 5611: 5602: 5595: 5586: 5582: 5573: 5571: 5564: 5560: 5559: 5555: 5546: 5544: 5535: 5534: 5530: 5521: 5519: 5510: 5509: 5505: 5496: 5494: 5489: 5488: 5484: 5475: 5473: 5468: 5467: 5463: 5454: 5452: 5447: 5446: 5442: 5432: 5430: 5421: 5420: 5416: 5369: 5365: 5355: 5353: 5343: 5336: 5275: 5268: 5217: 5213: 5158: 5154: 5111: 5107: 5070: 5066: 5013: 5009: 5000: 4998: 4988: 4984: 4975: 4973: 4964: 4963: 4959: 4950: 4948: 4910: 4906: 4897: 4895: 4886: 4885: 4881: 4836: 4832: 4789: 4785: 4740: 4736: 4680: 4676: 4625: 4621: 4566: 4562: 4527: 4523: 4454: 4450: 4396: 4392: 4383: 4381: 4344: 4340: 4315: 4311: 4300: 4296: 4259:(3653): 46–48. 4247: 4243: 4228:10.2307/1948439 4204: 4200: 4161: 4150: 4134:10.2307/3237261 4105: 4101: 4094:10.1139/x78-034 4078: 4074: 4035: 4031: 4020: 4009: 4002:10.1071/WF01038 3986: 3979: 3968: 3964: 3959: 3955: 3946: 3944: 3941:"Boreal Forest" 3939: 3938: 3934: 3925: 3923: 3910: 3909: 3905: 3896: 3894: 3885: 3884: 3880: 3871: 3869: 3860: 3859: 3855: 3846: 3844: 3835: 3834: 3830: 3825: 3818: 3809: 3807: 3799: 3798: 3794: 3785: 3783: 3772:"Boreal forest" 3768: 3764: 3759:Wayback Machine 3746: 3742: 3737: 3733: 3728: 3724: 3715: 3713: 3708: 3707: 3703: 3698: 3691: 3682: 3680: 3675: 3674: 3670: 3660: 3658: 3654: 3643: 3639: 3638: 3634: 3625: 3621: 3612: 3608: 3599: 3597: 3588: 3587: 3583: 3574: 3572: 3567: 3566: 3562: 3553: 3551: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3523: 3522: 3518: 3509: 3507: 3502: 3501: 3497: 3488: 3486: 3477: 3476: 3472: 3463: 3461: 3452: 3451: 3447: 3438: 3436: 3427: 3426: 3422: 3412: 3410: 3403: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3385: 3383: 3374: 3373: 3369: 3363: 3358: 3351: 3342: 3340: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3317: 3315: 3306: 3305: 3301: 3292: 3290: 3285: 3284: 3280: 3271: 3269: 3264: 3263: 3259: 3252: 3230: 3226: 3217: 3215: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3196: 3194: 3185: 3184: 3180: 3171: 3169: 3159: 3152: 3143: 3141: 3139:Digital Journal 3131: 3127: 3112:10.2307/1931768 3088: 3084: 3075: 3073: 3065: 3064: 3057: 3048: 3046: 3037: 3036: 3032: 3023: 3021: 3012: 3011: 3002: 2998: 2939: 2932: 2925: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2677: 2676: 2485: 2484: 2445: 2416: 2353: 2320: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2279:sulphur dioxide 2275: 2231: 2209:Large areas of 2161: 2156: 2053: 1914: 1831:Siberian thrush 1744:American marten 1732:Siberian weasel 1539:Siberian taimen 1519:pygmy whitefish 1515:round whitefish 1499:longnose sucker 1393: 1386: 1377: 1368: 1365: 1352:Populus tremula 1293:. Many smaller 1275:broadleaf trees 1186:, dominated by 1141:wild strawberry 1130:southern boreal 1103:lichen woodland 994: 924: 917: 910: 901: 890: 831: 823:Populus tremula 792:Outer Manchuria 728: 722:in mid-winter. 645: 541: 510: 353:, and northern 244: 221: 217: 202: 172: 123: 99: 75: 48: 41: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6868: 6858: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6810: 6809: 6807: 6806: 6801: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6780: 6778: 6774: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6767: 6766: 6765: 6764: 6759: 6749: 6744: 6738: 6736: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6667: 6665: 6661: 6660: 6658: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6611: 6609: 6602: 6598:Biogeographic 6594: 6593: 6590: 6589: 6587: 6586: 6580: 6578: 6574: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6509: 6507: 6501: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6494: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6472: 6470: 6466: 6465: 6463: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6446: 6444: 6440: 6439: 6437: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6410: 6408: 6402: 6401: 6399: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6377: 6375: 6371: 6370: 6368: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6346: 6344: 6337: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6314: 6313: 6306: 6299: 6291: 6285: 6284: 6274: 6269: 6263: 6257: 6244: 6231: 6225: 6219: 6213: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6194:Boreal Forests 6191: 6186: 6175: 6174:External links 6172: 6170: 6169: 6163: 6148: 6142: 6124: 6118: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6094: 6084:(8): 421–428. 6073: 6063:(2): 288–305. 6052: 6023: 5997:(1): 200–215. 5986: 5968:(4): 561–583. 5957: 5931:(3): 540–541. 5920: 5903: 5897: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5876: 5875: 5873:Jasinski, 561. 5866: 5857: 5848: 5836: 5827: 5815: 5803: 5772: 5741: 5710: 5685: 5671: 5622: 5609: 5593: 5580: 5553: 5528: 5503: 5493:. American.edu 5482: 5461: 5440: 5414: 5363: 5334: 5266: 5211: 5152: 5105: 5064: 5007: 4982: 4957: 4924:(7): 2370–84. 4904: 4879: 4830: 4783: 4734: 4674: 4619: 4560: 4541:(9): 467–471. 4521: 4448: 4411:(6): 395–402. 4399:(2017-05-31). 4390: 4358:(15): L15715. 4338: 4309: 4294: 4241: 4198: 4165:Quaternary Res 4148: 4099: 4072: 4029: 4007: 3977: 3962: 3953: 3932: 3903: 3878: 3853: 3828: 3816: 3792: 3762: 3740: 3731: 3722: 3701: 3689: 3668: 3632: 3619: 3606: 3581: 3560: 3539: 3516: 3495: 3470: 3445: 3420: 3392: 3367: 3349: 3324: 3299: 3278: 3268:. Marietta.edu 3257: 3250: 3224: 3203: 3178: 3150: 3125: 3098:(3): 540–541. 3082: 3055: 3030: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2993: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2956: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2930: 2927:Ecology portal 2914: 2911: 2908: 2907: 2902: 2896: 2895: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2878: 2872: 2871: 2857: 2851: 2850: 2845: 2839: 2838: 2833: 2827: 2826: 2821: 2815: 2814: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2785: 2779: 2778: 2773: 2767: 2766: 2757: 2751: 2750: 2745: 2739: 2738: 2733: 2727: 2726: 2721: 2715: 2714: 2709: 2703: 2702: 2697: 2691: 2690: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2675: 2674: 2667: 2660: 2652: 2642: 2635: 2634: 2629: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2577: 2571: 2570: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2553: 2547: 2546: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2517: 2511: 2510: 2505: 2499: 2498: 2493: 2487: 2486: 2483: 2482: 2475: 2468: 2460: 2450: 2444: 2441: 2433:spruce budworm 2415: 2412: 2352: 2349: 2318: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2277:The effect of 2274: 2271: 2261:spruce budworm 2230: 2227: 2160: 2157: 2155: 2152: 2052: 2051:Climate change 2049: 2010:lodgepole pine 1913: 1910: 1874:great gray owl 1812:Siberian tiger 1776:Mongolian wolf 1752:European otter 1523:Arctic lamprey 1511:lake whitefish 1392: 1389: 1388: 1387: 1378: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1359: 1263:photosynthesis 1241:Larix laricina 1217:Abies balsamea 1145:partridgeberry 1060:Dahurian larch 993: 990: 923: 920: 919: 918: 911: 904: 902: 891: 884: 830: 827: 807:Manchurian fir 727: 724: 701:mean that the 665:growing season 644: 643:Growing season 641: 637:Siberian larch 631:climate zones 540: 537: 509: 506: 468:Climate change 420:mammoth steppe 337:, some of the 205: 204: 201: 200: 197: 194: 191: 188: 185: 181: 178: 174: 173: 171: 170: 167: 164: 161: 158: 155: 152: 149: 146: 143: 140: 136: 134: 130: 129: 125: 124: 122: 121: 118: 114: 112: 106: 105: 101: 100: 90:, between the 85: 77: 76: 63: 55: 54: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6867: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6822: 6820: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6781: 6779: 6775: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6754: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6739: 6737: 6733: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6668: 6666: 6662: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6612: 6610: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6595: 6585: 6582: 6581: 6579: 6575: 6569: 6568:Demersal zone 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6510: 6508: 6502: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6473: 6471: 6467: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6447: 6445: 6441: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6411: 6409: 6403: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6378: 6376: 6372: 6366: 6365:Alpine tundra 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6347: 6345: 6343:Polar/montane 6341: 6338: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6312: 6307: 6305: 6300: 6298: 6293: 6292: 6289: 6282: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6267: 6264: 6261: 6258: 6255: 6251: 6248: 6245: 6242: 6238: 6235: 6232: 6229: 6226: 6223: 6220: 6217: 6214: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6181: 6178: 6177: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6155: 6149: 6145: 6139: 6135: 6134: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6115: 6111: 6110: 6104: 6103: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5904: 5900: 5898:0-89886-085-7 5894: 5890: 5885: 5884: 5879: 5878: 5870: 5864:Payette, 289. 5861: 5852: 5843: 5841: 5834:Johnson, 212. 5831: 5825:Nilsson, 421. 5822: 5820: 5810: 5808: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5776: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5745: 5730:on 2012-02-29 5729: 5725: 5721: 5714: 5699: 5695: 5689: 5681: 5675: 5667: 5663: 5658: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5633: 5626: 5619: 5613: 5606: 5600: 5598: 5591:13(3):333–36. 5590: 5584: 5570: 5563: 5557: 5543:on 2008-12-02 5542: 5538: 5532: 5518:on 2011-06-06 5517: 5513: 5507: 5492: 5486: 5471: 5465: 5450: 5444: 5428: 5424: 5418: 5409: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5367: 5352: 5348: 5341: 5339: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5273: 5271: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5215: 5207: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5156: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5109: 5101: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5068: 5060: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5011: 4997: 4993: 4986: 4972:on 2012-01-19 4971: 4967: 4961: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4908: 4894:on 2011-07-27 4893: 4889: 4883: 4875: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4834: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4787: 4779: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4754:(1): 014007. 4753: 4749: 4745: 4738: 4730: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4678: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4623: 4615: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4564: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4525: 4517: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4452: 4444: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4394: 4380:on 2011-10-03 4379: 4374: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4342: 4333: 4332:10.3133/b963D 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4305: 4298: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4253: 4245: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4214:(3): 229–53. 4213: 4209: 4202: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4171:(3): 444–64. 4170: 4166: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4144: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4119:(4): 469–76. 4118: 4114: 4110: 4103: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4076: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4045:(3): 329–82. 4044: 4040: 4033: 4025: 4018: 4016: 4014: 4012: 4003: 3999: 3996:(4): 405–13. 3995: 3991: 3984: 3982: 3973: 3966: 3957: 3942: 3936: 3922:on 2013-02-09 3921: 3917: 3913: 3907: 3893:on 2011-05-26 3892: 3888: 3882: 3868:on 2011-01-03 3867: 3863: 3857: 3843:on 2011-01-03 3842: 3838: 3832: 3823: 3821: 3806: 3802: 3796: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3766: 3760: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3744: 3738:Sayre, 12–13. 3735: 3729:Sayre, 19–20. 3726: 3712:. Physorg.com 3711: 3705: 3696: 3694: 3678: 3672: 3653: 3649: 3642: 3636: 3629: 3623: 3616: 3610: 3596:on 2011-04-10 3595: 3591: 3585: 3570: 3564: 3549: 3543: 3526: 3520: 3505: 3499: 3485:on 2011-07-24 3484: 3480: 3474: 3460:on 2011-04-10 3459: 3455: 3449: 3435:on 2011-05-05 3434: 3430: 3424: 3409: 3408:Enr.gov.nt.ca 3402: 3396: 3381: 3377: 3371: 3361: 3356: 3354: 3339:on 2011-06-09 3338: 3334: 3328: 3313: 3309: 3303: 3288: 3282: 3267: 3261: 3253: 3251:9780521472999 3247: 3243: 3238: 3237: 3228: 3213: 3207: 3192: 3188: 3182: 3168: 3164: 3157: 3155: 3140: 3136: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3072: 3068: 3062: 3060: 3045:on 2018-09-14 3044: 3040: 3034: 3020:on 2019-06-20 3019: 3015: 3009: 3007: 3005: 3000: 2991: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2978: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2959:Drunken trees 2957: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2947: 2946: 2942: 2936: 2931: 2928: 2917: 2906: 2903: 2901: 2898: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2885: 2882: 2881:United States 2879: 2877: 2874: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2853: 2852: 2849: 2846: 2844: 2841: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2828: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2816: 2813: 2810: 2808: 2805: 2804: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2792: 2789: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2780: 2777: 2774: 2772: 2769: 2768: 2765: 2764:United States 2761: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2752: 2749: 2746: 2744: 2741: 2740: 2737: 2734: 2732: 2729: 2728: 2725: 2724:United States 2722: 2720: 2717: 2716: 2713: 2712:United States 2710: 2708: 2705: 2704: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2692: 2689: 2688:United States 2686: 2684: 2681: 2680: 2673: 2668: 2666: 2661: 2659: 2654: 2653: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2640: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 2612: 2609: 2605: 2602: 2600: 2597: 2596: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2578: 2576: 2573: 2572: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2560: 2557: 2554: 2552: 2549: 2548: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2537: 2536: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2525: 2524: 2521: 2518: 2516: 2513: 2512: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 2500: 2497: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2488: 2481: 2476: 2474: 2469: 2467: 2462: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2453: 2448: 2440: 2438: 2434: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2411: 2407: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2357: 2348: 2345: 2341: 2336: 2332: 2326: 2324: 2316: 2312: 2307: 2305: 2301: 2280: 2270: 2268: 2267: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2237: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2169: 2165: 2154:Other threats 2151: 2147: 2144: 2139: 2133: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2113: 2109: 2107: 2103: 2097: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2059: 2048: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2018:balsam poplar 2015: 2011: 2007: 2001: 1994: 1989: 1985: 1983: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1951: 1947: 1946:fire rotation 1943: 1939: 1934: 1927: 1923: 1918: 1909: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1756:American mink 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1724:Eurasian lynx 1721: 1717: 1712: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1701:mountain hare 1698: 1697:snowshoe hare 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1646: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1624:bighorn sheep 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1566: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1491:northern pike 1488: 1483: 1481: 1480:Canadian toad 1477: 1476:American toad 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1384: 1383: 1375: 1370: 1363: 1358: 1357: 1356: 1354: 1353: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1330: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1271: 1268: 1267:transpiration 1264: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1243: 1242: 1237: 1236: 1235:Picea mariana 1231: 1227: 1224:(of northern 1223: 1219: 1218: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1177: 1172: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1126:middle boreal 1123: 1118: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1087: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1013:North America 1007: 1003: 998: 989: 987: 983: 979: 975: 972: 968: 964: 960: 955: 953: 948: 944: 936: 932: 928: 915: 908: 903: 899: 895: 888: 883: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 826: 824: 820: 816: 815:Pacific Ocean 812: 808: 804: 800: 795: 793: 790:and adjacent 789: 784: 783:forest steppe 780: 772: 768: 763: 759: 757: 752: 747: 745: 741: 737: 733: 732:precipitation 726:Precipitation 723: 721: 717: 713: 712:Arctic Circle 708: 704: 700: 695: 693: 687: 685: 681: 677: 672: 668: 666: 658: 654: 649: 640: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 617: 615: 611: 607: 603: 598: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 570: 565: 563: 559: 555: 550: 546: 536: 534: 530: 526: 518: 514: 503: 502:United States 499: 495: 492:taiga in the 491: 487: 483: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 463: 459: 455: 450: 448: 444: 440: 439:alpine tundra 435: 433: 429: 425: 422:or under the 421: 417: 412: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 386: 382: 379: 375: 371: 366: 362: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 323:Pacific Ocean 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 273: 269: 265: 261: 260:boreal forest 253: 249: 248: 239: 215: 211: 203: 198: 195: 192: 189: 186: 183: 182: 179: 175: 168: 165: 162: 160:United States 159: 156: 153: 150: 147: 144: 141: 138: 137: 135: 131: 126: 119: 116: 115: 113: 111: 107: 102: 97: 93: 89: 83: 78: 74: 70: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 39: 33: 19: 18:Boreal forest 6735:Subdivisions 6625:Australasian 6615:Afrotropical 6577:Other biomes 6553:Benthic zone 6548:Pelagic zone 6543:Neritic zone 6533:Kelp forests 6405:Tropical and 6354: 6228:Terraformers 6153: 6132: 6108: 6081: 6077: 6060: 6056: 6031: 6027: 5994: 5990: 5965: 5961: 5928: 5924: 5911: 5888: 5869: 5860: 5851: 5846:Johnson, 200 5830: 5794:. Retrieved 5790:the original 5785: 5775: 5763:. Retrieved 5759:the original 5754: 5744: 5732:. Retrieved 5728:the original 5724:Toronto Star 5723: 5713: 5701:. Retrieved 5697: 5688: 5674: 5639: 5635: 5625: 5617: 5612: 5604: 5588: 5583: 5572:. Retrieved 5568: 5556: 5545:. Retrieved 5541:the original 5531: 5520:. Retrieved 5516:the original 5506: 5495:. Retrieved 5485: 5474:. Retrieved 5464: 5453:. Retrieved 5443: 5431:. Retrieved 5426: 5417: 5380: 5376: 5366: 5354:. Retrieved 5350: 5304:10871/131584 5286: 5282: 5228: 5224: 5214: 5169: 5165: 5155: 5122: 5118: 5108: 5081: 5077: 5067: 5024: 5020: 5010: 4999:. Retrieved 4995: 4985: 4974:. Retrieved 4970:the original 4960: 4949:. Retrieved 4921: 4917: 4907: 4896:. Retrieved 4892:the original 4882: 4847: 4843: 4833: 4800: 4796: 4786: 4751: 4747: 4737: 4692: 4688: 4677: 4636: 4632: 4622: 4577: 4573: 4563: 4538: 4534: 4524: 4471: 4465: 4451: 4408: 4404: 4393: 4382:. 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