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is the essence of liberty. Nor does it deny the possibility that B might accept a duty to A to give a benefit to C. In that situation, C would have no right and would have to rely on A to enforce the duty. The truth is that liberty is significant from both a legal and a moral point of view because only liberty ensures that an individual has control over his or her choices on whether and how to act. If something interferes with this choice, the natural reaction is to resent it and to seek a remedy. The correlative between right and duty inevitably describes the way in which two people are limited in their choices to act, and the outside observer cannot capture the legal and moral implications without examining the nature of the right held by A. Hence, this relationship is qualitatively different. An interference with liberty would be considered wrongful without having to ask for detailed evidence. Yet whether A's relationship with B is morally suspect could only be determined by evaluating evidence on precisely what B's duty requires B to do or not to do.
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people are multital (or "in rem"). A contract right is paucital (or "in personam") because it can be enforced only against the specific parties to the contract. A property right is multital (or "in rem") because a landowner has the right to exclude not only specific people from his land but the "whole world". The landowner has many rights, privileges, powers, and immunities; his multital rights are composed of many paucital rights. For example, the owner has a right that others do not step on his land but there is not just one such right against a mass of persons (the community), but many separate although usually identical paucital rights with this content (as many instances as there are people in the community). This is what
Hohfeld calls "multital" rights.
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pleases because B has no duty to refrain from doing it. Each individual is located within a matrix of relationships with other individuals. By summing the rights held and duties owed across all these relationships, the analyst can identify both the degree of liberty — A would have perfect liberty if A has no duty to refrain from acting and others have a duty never to interfere with A's actions — and whether the concept of liberty is comprised by commonly followed practices, thereby establishing general moral principles and
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understanding rights in general is wrong. In particular, Hohfeld demonstrates that there is no such thing as a legal relation between a person and a thing, since a legal relation always operates between two people. As the legal relations between any two people are complex, it is helpful to break them down into their simplest forms. Legal rights do not correspond to single
Hohfeldian relations, but are compounds of them. A right can be defined as an aggregate of the Hohfeldian relations with other people.
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had to play mediator, calm down a frustrated
Hohfeld, and explain to the president the deal which Hohfeld had worked out between the two law schools. Hohfeld then exercised his right to stay at Yale, apparently because he believed Yale students would come around, like his former Stanford students who had already begun to express their gratitude for the utility of his ideas. He continued to teach at Yale until his death in 1918. He died on October 21, 1918, in
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224:, sometimes switching senses of the word several times in a single sentence. He wrote that such imprecision of language indicated a concomitant imprecision of thought, and thus also of the resulting legal conclusions. In order to both facilitate reasoning and clarify rulings, he attempted to disambiguate the term
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which deals with principles of law and the legal systems through which the law is applied. Hohfeld's contribution was to simplify; he created a very precise analysis which distinguished between fundamental legal concepts and then identified the framework of relationships between them. His work offers
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Consider also the definition of liberty. In
Hohfeldian analysis, liberty is defined by an absence both of a duty and of a right. B is free because he has no duty to refrain from acting and because A has no right that he not act. That does not deny that B might decide to do what A wants because that
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Hohfeld replaces the concept of "right in personam" by "paucital right" and "right in rem" by a compound or aggregate of "multital rights". Rights held by a person against one or a few definite persons are paucital (or "in personam"), and rights held by a person against a large indefinite class of
380:
rights", there is a direct relationship between a person and a thing. Real rights are in this respect unlike claim rights or "rights in personam", which by nature must be exercised against a person, the best example being when someone is owed money by another. Hohfeld demonstrates that this way of
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When
Hohfeld started teaching at Yale in 1914, many of his students signed a petition to Yale's president to send him back to Stanford. They were terrified he would flunk them for their inability to master his strange ideas. When the president told Hohfeld to take it easy on his students, Corbin
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Hohfeld argued that right and duty are correlative concepts, i.e. the one must always be matched by a claim about the other. If A has a right against B, this is equivalent to B having a duty to honor A's right. If B has no duty, that means that B has a privilege, i.e. B can do whatever he or she
152:
offered
Hohfeld a professorship on the basis of that article. Hohfeld cleverly applied his own ideas about "rights" and "privileges" to the deal he struck with Yale and Stanford: after one academic year, he would have the "right" to a permanent faculty appointment at Yale and the "privilege" of
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a sophisticated method for deconstructing broad legal principles into their component elements. By showing how legal relationships are connected to each other, the resulting analysis illuminates policy implications and identifies the issues which arise in practical decision making.
58:(1913) and (1917) that had been partially revised in anticipation of publication in longer form. Editorial work was undertaken to complete the revisions and the book was published with the inclusion of the manuscript notes that Hohfeld had left, plus seven other essays.
122:(which collapsed in 2003). After Alexander Morrison died in 1921, Hohfeld's brother Edward obtained the permission of Morrison's widow, May Treat Morrison, to use the Morrison name for his new law firm: Morrison, Hohfeld, Foerster, Shuman and Clark.
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by breaking it into eight distinct concepts. To eliminate ambiguity, he defined these terms relative to one another, grouping them into four pairs of jural opposites and four pairs of jural correlatives.
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Luca
Fiorito and Massimiliano Vatiero (2011), "Beyond Legal Relations: Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld's Influence on American Institutionalism". Journal of Economics Issues, 45 (1): 199-222.
133:, where he became a full-time professor and taught from 1905 to 1914. He also continued to work as a consultant to the Morrison firm on various matters, such as the division of
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Hohfeld's obituary, "Wesley
Newcomb Hohfeld", 28 Yale Law Journal 166 (1918) and Walter W. Cook, "Hohfeld's Contributions to the Science of Law", 28 Yale Law Journal 721 (1918).
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returning to
Stanford, while Stanford agreed to grant him the "privilege" of leave for one year or longer, with the "right" to return to Stanford after one academic year.
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Dictionary of
American Biography 5:124 (Charles Scribner's Sons, New York 1933); Guide to American Law 6:58 (St. Paul, West Publishing 1984);
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Vatiero, Massimiliano (2010), "From W. N. Hohfeld to J. R. Commons, and Beyond? A "Law and Economics" Enquiry on Jural Relations",
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In 1958, Edward Hohfeld, as trustee of the May Treat Morrison Foundation, endowed a chair at Yale in his late brother's memory.
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published Hohfeld's landmark article, "Some Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning". According to
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for one year with the San Francisco law firm of Morrison, Cope & Brobeck, the distant ancestor of two large law firms:
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Perry, Thomas. "A Paradigm of Philosophy: Hohfeld on Legal Rights", 14 American Philosophical Quarterly 41 (January 1977).
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Hohfeld, Wesley. "Some Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Legal Reasoning," 23 Yale Law Journal 16 (1913).
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Cullison, Allen. "A Review of Hohfeld's Fundamental Legal Concepts", 16 Cleveland-Marshall Law Review 559 (1967).
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Hohfeld defines the correlatives in terms of the relationships between two individuals. In the theory of "
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Cook, Walter Wheeler. "Hohfeld's Contribution to the Science of Law," 28 Yale Law Journal 721 (1918).
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is named after him. The chair is currently occupied by Gideon Yaffe as of 2019 and was last held by
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Wesley Hohfeld A Century Later: Edited Work, Select Personal Papers, and Original Commentaries
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Wesley Hohfeld A Century Later: Edited Work, Select Personal Papers, and Original Commentaries
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Wesley Hohfeld A Century Later: Edited Work, Select Personal Papers, and Original Commentaries
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Wesley Hohfeld A Century Later: Edited Work, Select Personal Papers, and Original Commentaries
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Wesley Hohfeld A Century Later: Edited Work, Select Personal Papers, and Original Commentaries
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Wesley Hohfeld A Century Later: Edited Work, Select Personal Papers, and Original Commentaries
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Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning and Other Legal Essays
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Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning and Other Legal Essays
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Perry, Thomas. "Reply in Defense of Hohfeld," 37 Philosophical Studies 203 (1980).
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Hohfeld noticed that even respected jurists conflate various meanings of the term
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The work remains a powerful contribution to modern understanding of the nature of
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942:"How to Do Things With Hohfeld," 78 Law and Contemporary Problems 185 (2015).
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The Legal Rights Debate in Analytical Jurisprudence from Bentham to Hohfeld
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Hohfeld briefly taught as an instructor at the law school then called the
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797:. In Smith, Henry E.; Balganesh, Shyamkrishna; Sichelman, Ted M. (eds.).
767:. In Smith, Henry E.; Balganesh, Shyamkrishna; Sichelman, Ted M. (eds.).
721:. In Smith, Henry E.; Balganesh, Shyamkrishna; Sichelman, Ted M. (eds.).
684:. In Smith, Henry E.; Balganesh, Shyamkrishna; Sichelman, Ted M. (eds.).
651:. In Smith, Henry E.; Balganesh, Shyamkrishna; Sichelman, Ted M. (eds.).
593:. In Smith, Henry E.; Balganesh, Shyamkrishna; Sichelman, Ted M. (eds.).
560:. In Smith, Henry E.; Balganesh, Shyamkrishna; Sichelman, Ted M. (eds.).
530:. In Smith, Henry E.; Balganesh, Shyamkrishna; Sichelman, Ted M. (eds.).
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Taking the Right Seriously: Hohfeldian Semiotics and Rights Discourse
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33:(August 9, 1879 – October 21, 1918) was an American
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Some Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning
897:. "Legal Analysis and Terminology", 29 Yale Law Journal 163 (1919).
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513:"Gideon Yaffe to Present Inaugural Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld Lecture"
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Hohfeld is also credited as the progenitor of the concept of the
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Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning
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articles. After his death the material forming the basis of
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725:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 494–517.
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Hohfeld, Wesley Newcomb & Cook, Walter Wheeler (ed.):
801:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–96.
771:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–96.
688:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–96.
655:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–96.
597:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–96.
564:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–96.
534:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–96.
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69:. To reflect Hohfeld's continuing importance, a chair at
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Morrison & Foerster LLP: The Evolution of a Law Firm
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After returning to California after graduation, Hohfeld
865:. St. Paul: American Law Institute Publishers (1936).
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During his brief life, he published only a handful of
199:, although Hohfeld himself never used the term. The
89:, in 1879. He graduated first in his class from the
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was derived from two articles first published in the
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Merrill, Thomas W.; Smith, Henry E. (January 2014).
795:"Selected Personal Papers of Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld"
765:"Selected Personal Papers of Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld"
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682:"Selected Personal Papers of Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld"
649:"Selected Personal Papers of Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld"
625:. San Francisco: Morrison & Foerster. p. 32
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558:"Selected Personal Papers of Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld"
528:"Selected Personal Papers of Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld"
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Teaching Wesley Hohfeld's Theory of Legal Relations
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203:'s first Reporter of Property,
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118:(still in business today), and
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881:University of Miami Law Review
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619:O'Hara, Eileen (2006).
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297:
294:
286:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
256:
252:
251:
248:
245:
242:
239:
236:
217:
214:
212:
209:
181:
178:
95:Phi Beta Kappa
82:
79:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1796:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1749:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
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1716:
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1699:
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1676:
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1659:
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1654:
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1632:
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1609:
1607:
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1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1581:Legal realism
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
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1544:
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1541:
1539:
1535:
1526:
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1521:
1516:
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1506:
1505:
1501:
1496:
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1476:
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1471:
1466:
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1461:
1456:
1455:
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1436:
1433:
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1428:
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1403:
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1398:
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1378:
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1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
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1188:
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1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1107:Legal history
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
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1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1060:
1057:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1048:Jurisprudence
1042:
1037:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1023:
1022:
1019:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1003:
1000:
998:
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988:
983:
982:
972:
968:
964:
960:
955:
952:
948:
945:
943:
939:
936:
933:
931:
927:
923:
919:
916:
913:
909:
906:
902:
899:
896:
893:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
873:Balkin, J. M.
870:
868:
864:
860:
859:
847:(2): 681–708.
846:
842:
838:
831:
829:
819:
810:
808:9781108135597
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571:9781108135597
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541:9781108135597
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467:
464:November 2008
457:
453:
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295:
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261:
253:
237:
233:
230:
227:
223:
208:
206:
205:Harry Bigelow
202:
198:
193:
190:
186:
185:Jurisprudence
177:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
154:
151:
147:
146:Arthur Corbin
143:
140:In 1913, the
138:
136:
132:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
112:practiced law
108:
106:
105:
100:
96:
92:
88:
78:
76:
75:Jules Coleman
72:
68:
64:
59:
57:
56:
51:
47:
42:
40:
36:
32:
19:
1679:Usul al-Fiqh
1677:
1660:
1656:Legal system
1633:
1626:
1524:Law's Empire
1522:
1512:
1502:
1492:
1482:
1472:
1462:
1452:
1127:Philosophers
1069:Legal theory
996:
986:
962:
958:
950:
921:
911:
904:
884:
880:
862:
844:
840:
818:
798:
788:
768:
747:
742:
737:(At p. 510.)
722:
685:
652:
627:. Retrieved
621:
614:
594:
561:
551:
531:
521:
507:
490:
470:
461:
442:
399:Civil rights
387:
383:
375:
366:civil rights
362:
353:
349:
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225:
221:
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194:
183:
175:
170:
163:endocarditis
155:
141:
139:
124:
109:
102:
84:
60:
53:
49:
43:
38:
30:
29:
1759:1918 deaths
1754:1879 births
1601:Paternalism
1596:Natural law
1458:(c. 355 BC)
1305:Montesquieu
1097:Legal norms
813:(At p. 91.)
783:(At p. 90.)
700:(At p. 87.)
667:(At p. 81.)
629:October 29,
609:(At p. 80.)
576:(At p. 79.)
546:(At p. 76.)
456:introducing
342:Disability
279:Disability
137:'s estate.
1748:Categories
1708:Law portal
1335:Petrażycki
1325:Pashukanis
1320:Olivecrona
1255:Hägerström
1170:Blackstone
1008:at HIIT.fi
887:(5): 1119.
439:references
420:References
337:Liability
284:Liability
189:philosophy
46:law review
1468:(c. 1270)
1350:Pufendorf
1285:Llewellyn
1145:Aristotle
354:privilege
332:No-right
330:Privilege
272:Privilege
269:No-right
1698:Category
1620:Concepts
1586:Legalism
1538:Theories
1425:Voegelin
1395:Scaevola
1355:Radbruch
1330:Perelman
1315:Nussbaum
1260:Jellinek
1225:Habermas
1220:Gurvitch
1190:Durkheim
1160:Beccaria
1002:Archived
930:42893752
875:(1990).
748:see also
414:Property
393:See also
340:Immunity
282:Immunity
216:Overview
41:(1919).
1733:changes
1646:Justice
1400:Schmitt
1390:Savigny
1370:Reinach
1295:Maistre
1290:Luhmann
1265:Jhering
1215:Grotius
1200:Ehrlich
1195:Dworkin
1185:Cardozo
1165:Bentham
1155:Bastiat
1140:Aquinas
452:improve
296:
293:
238:
235:
67:liberty
18:Hohfeld
1628:Dharma
1528:(1986)
1518:(1980)
1508:(1961)
1498:(1934)
1488:(1820)
1478:(1748)
1430:Walzer
1410:Suárez
1375:Renner
1340:Posner
1310:Müller
1275:Kelsen
1250:Hobbes
1230:Haller
1210:Fuller
1205:Finnis
1175:Bobbio
1150:Austin
928:
867:Review
805:
775:
729:
692:
659:
601:
568:
538:
441:, but
378:in rem
226:rights
169:. The
81:Career
63:rights
35:jurist
1445:Works
1435:Weber
1420:Unger
1415:Stahl
1405:Shang
1360:Rawls
1345:Pound
1280:Leoni
1245:Hegel
1135:Alexy
1059:Index
926:JSTOR
350:right
335:Power
327:Duty
325:Right
277:Power
274:Duty
267:Right
222:right
161:, of
1454:Laws
1385:Rumi
1380:Ross
1300:Marx
1270:Kant
1240:Hart
1180:Bork
803:ISBN
773:ISBN
727:ISBN
690:ISBN
657:ISBN
631:2023
599:ISBN
566:ISBN
536:ISBN
494:The
352:and
1365:Raz
1235:Han
967:doi
1750::
1662:Li
1635:Fa
963:69
961:,
949:.
885:44
883:.
879:.
845:79
843:.
839:.
827:^
755:^
705:^
672:^
639:^
581:^
368:.
360:.
148:,
1040:e
1033:t
1026:v
974:.
969::
811:.
781:.
735:.
698:.
665:.
633:.
607:.
574:.
544:.
515:.
502:.
477:)
471:(
466:)
462:(
448:.
20:)
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