History of foreign relations of China

545: 1648:. Other Asian countries harshly affected by the crisis sought the United States or Japan to bail them out of the difficult economic conditions. As the United States and Japan moved slowly, China made a highly regarded symbolic gesture by refusing to devalue its own currency (which presumably would have touched off a series of competitive devaluations with serious consequences for the region). Instead, China contributed $ 4 billion to neighboring countries via a combination of bilateral bailouts and contributing to IMF bailout packages. In 1999, as a result of these actions, the World Bank described China as a "source of stability for the region" in one of its reports. 467:

geographical expansion, which was reluctantly allowed by the Chinese government every time it lost a war. At first they were limited to the Canton area. In the 1842 treaty ending the First Opium War missionaries were granted the right to live and work in five coastal cities. In 1860, the treaties ending the Second Opium War opened up the entire country to missionary activity. Protestant missionary activity exploded during the next few decades. From 50 missionaries in China in 1860, the number grew to 2,500 (counting wives and children) in 1900. 1,400 of the missionaries were British, 1,000 were Americans, and 100 were from

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and the Arab states. During the 1980s, Deng began formulating a good neighboring policy to capitalize on regional activism. Under this policy, China no longer considered a neighboring country's ideological tendencies as a critical factor in foreign policy, and instead focused on developing international relationships with its neighbors regardless of their respective ties to the United States or the Soviet Union. Thus, in 1988, China signed an agreement with Mongolia regarding borders, despite the fact that China's government had long viewed neighboring Mongolia as a Soviet satellite.

1597:, various countries imposed sanctions, cancelled aid, banned sales of military equipment, or cut back diplomatic ties. In response to these efforts to isolate China, Deng articulated the "twenty-four character guidelines" for China to adopt in its international affairs: observe carefully (冷静观察), secure China's positions (稳住阵脚), calmly cope with the challenges (沉着应付), hide China's capacities and bide its time (韬光养晦), be good at maintaining a low profile (善于守拙), and never claim leadership (绝不当头). China's approach focused on learning to live with the fact of United States hegemony. 385:. Manchu leaders of the Qing government found the treaties useful, because they forced the foreigners into a few limited areas, so that the vast majority of Chinese had no contact whatsoever with them or their dangerous ideas. The missionaries, however, ventured more widely but they were widely distrusted and made very few converts. Their main impact was setting up schools and hospitals. Since the 1920s, the "unequal treaties" have been a centerpiece of angry Chinese grievances against the West in general. 499:

the only foreigners they ever saw. Outside the protected international centers, they came under frequent verbal attack, and sometimes violent episodes. This led the international community to threaten military action to protect missionaries, as their diplomats demanded the government provide more and more protection. Attacks reached a crescendo during the Boxer Rebellion, which had a major anti-missionary component. The Boxers killed over 200 foreign missionaries and thousands of Chinese Christians. Dr.

1143: 790:. The Chinese public responded with a spontaneous nationwide boycott of Japanese goods; Japan's exports to China fell by 40%. Britain was officially a military ally of Japan but was affronted and no longer trusted Japan. With the British tied down on the Western Front against Germany, Japan's position was strong. Nevertheless, Britain and the United States forced Japan to drop the fifth set of demands that would have given Japan a large measure of control over the entire Chinese economy and ended the 1466:, Deng involved more parties in foreign policy decision-making, decentralizing the foreign policy bureaucracy. Deng's approach attempted to build broad consensus and required enormous efforts to achieve compromises acceptable to all relevant stakeholders on an issue. This decentralized approach led to consideration of a great number of interests and views, but also fragmentation of policy institutions and extensive bargaining between different bureaucratic units during the policy-making process. 294: 641: 657:(1835–1911), a British diplomat to run it from 1863. He set up an efficient system based in Canton that was largely free of corruption, and expanded it to other ports. The top echelon of the service was recruited from all the nations trading with China. Hart promoted numerous modernising programs. His agency established a modern postal service and supervision of internal taxes on trade. Hart helped establish its own embassies in foreign countries. He helped set up the 507: 160:: Following Mao's establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, China's foreign policy became closely aligned with the Soviet Union and the Communist movement. The CCP saw the Soviet Union as a key ally in the struggle against imperialism and sought to model China's development after the Soviet Union's socialist system. This led to increased cooperation between the two countries in areas such as trade, military assistance, and ideological exchange. 8109: 8119: 910: 32: 182:: In the late 1970s, China embarked on a program of economic reforms and opening-up. This led to increased engagement with the global economy and the development of China as a major economic power. China sought to increase trade and investment ties with other countries, and became an active member of international economic organizations such as the World Trade Organization. 695:

against her. Late Qing China remains a symbol of national humiliation and weakness in Chinese and international historiography. Scholars attribute Cixi's "rule behind the curtains" responsible for the ultimate decline of the Qing dynasty and its capitulatory peace with foreign powers. Her failures hastened the revolution to overthrow the dynasty.

1769:) and has legitimized a more active role for China on the world stage, particularly with regards to reform of the international order, engaging in open ideological competition with the West, and assuming a greater responsibility for global affairs in accordance with China's rising power and status. During the first five years of 810:

Rebellion. It managed to negotiate an increase in the customs revenue, and represented China in international affairs such as the Paris peace conference. It tried with limited success to renegotiate the unequal treaties. Britain and the other powers continue to control Shanghai and the other port cities until the late 1920s.

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of Western ideas. John Fairbank argues that in 1840 to 1895 China's response to the worsening relations with Western nations came in four phases. China's military weakness was interpreted in the 1840s and 1850s as a need for Western arms. Very little was achieved in this regard until the 1860s. Since the 1860s the

1029:, which began in 1943, was the first official American contact with the Communists. Other Americans, led by Chennault, argued for air power. In 1944, Generalissimo Chiang acceded to Roosevelt's request that an American general take charge of all forces in the area, but demanded that Stilwell be recalled. General 1254:). People's diplomacy was expressed through the slogan, "influence the policy through the people." Pursuant to its people's diplomacy, China sent doctors, scientists, and athletes to developing countries in Asia to cultivate ties. This form of people's diplomacy was often executed through the communist party's 625:, was controlled by the Russians, and became a major military factor for them In controlling key parts of Manchuria. Later in 1896 Russia and China made a secret alliance, whereby Russia would work to prevent further Japanese expansion at China's expense. In 1898 Russia obtained a 25-year lease over the 1226:. After the Beijing government assumed the China seat in 1971 (and the ROC government was expelled), the great majority of nations have switched diplomatic relations from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China. Japan established diplomatic relations with the PRC in 1972, following the 1574:

Since the 1980s, China's foreign policy has been peace-seeking with a focus on optimizing mutual economic interests between states. It has generally sought to maintain good relationships with countries that may be opposed to each other, for example in its cultivation of relationships with both Israel

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During the Mao era, China's foreign relations were rooted in Chinese leadership's perceptions of the international socialist movement's purpose. In their view, the primary concern of worldwide revolutionary activities should be anti-imperialism, and the economic development brought by socialism would

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Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) was in control of imperial policy after 1861; she had remarkable political skills but historians blame her for major policy failures and the growing weakness of China. Her reversal of reforms in 1898 and especially support for the Boxers caused all the powers to join

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authority over numerous adjacent areas. The areas had internal autonomy but were forced to give tribute to China while being theoretically under the protection of China in terms of foreign affairs. By the 19th century the relationships were nominal, and China exerted little or no actual control. The

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Diplomatic Recognition: China struggled for several decades to gain recognition from the international community. In 1971, the United Nations finally recognized the PRC and expelled the Republic of China (Taiwan). Since then, China has established diplomatic relations with almost all countries in the

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Isolationism: China was largely isolated from the rest of the world during this period, with limited contact with other countries outside of its immediate neighbors. This was partly due to China's self-imposed isolationist policies, as well as the fact that Western powers had a major presence only in

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in an effort to end North Korea's nuclear program in the early 2000s. China hoped to play a lead role in developing the Six-Party Talks into a lasting multilateral security mechanism for northeast Asia, but ultimately the talks failed. China's efforts in the unsuccessful tasks nonetheless raised its

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China emerged as something of a symbol of American-sponsored resistance to Japanese aggression.... A new policy appeared, one predicated on the maintenance of a pro-American China which might be a bulwark against Japan. The United States hoped to use China as the weapon with which to contain Tokyo's

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of 1884–1885, France took control of Vietnam, another supposed "tributary state." After Britain took over Burma, as a show of good faith they maintained the sending of tribute to China, putting themselves in a lower status than in their previous relations. To affirm this, Britain agreed in the Burma

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In long-term perspective, the major impact of the missions was not the thousands of converts out of million of people, but introducing modern medical standards, and especially building schools for the few families eager to learn about the outside world. The hospitals not only cured sick people, they

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By the mid 19th century, Chinese stability had come under increasing threat from both domestic and international sources. Social unrest and serious revolts became more common while the regular army had was too weak to deal with foreign military forces. Chinese leaders increasingly feared the impact

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and to cement relations with the Central Asian states following the Soviet Union's dissolution, China signed the 1996 Treaty of Enhancing Military Mutual Trust in the Border Areas with nearby Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Russia, and Kyrgyzstan at a meeting in Shanghai. The group of nations began meeting

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portrayed as the legitimate leader of the global battle against imperialism and capitalism. It urged Third World countries not to side with either the United States or the Soviet Union, viewing both of those count as coveting hegemony over the Third World. Mao described Africa and Latin America as

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in China between 1897 and 1901. They attacked and often killed missionaries, Christian converts, and foreigners. They held the international diplomats in Peking under siege. The ruler of China, the Dowager Empress Cixi, supported the Boxers and the Chinese government paid the penalty. The uprising

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When missionaries returned home they typically preached a highly favorable view toward China, and a negative view toward Japan, helping promote public opinion in the West that increasingly supported China. At the local level across China, for the vast majority of the population, missionaries were

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Assertiveness and Expansion: Since 2000, China has become more assertive in its foreign policy, as it seeks to expand its influence in the world. China has sought to strengthen its military presence in the South China Sea, expand its Belt and Road Initiative, and promote Chinese values and culture

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Unequal treaties: In the 19th century, China was forced to sign a series of unequal treaties with Great Britain, the U.S., France and other Western powers (and also Japan), which granted extraterritorial rights to foreigners and opened China's ports to foreign trade. China's foreign policy during

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in 1955, at which Zhou led the Chinese delegation, was an important milestone for China's foreign relations. China developed its foreign relations with many newly independent and soon-to-be independent countries. China termed this cooperative approach the "Bandung Line." This was the beginning of

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China was close to the USSR at first, and fought a major war against the United States and South Korea (and the UN) in 1950–1953. However, by the 1960s China and the USSR were enemies and both were trying to build support worldwide/ while simultaneously supporting anti-colonial movements in Asia,

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on May 7, 1999, which the United States claimed occurred by mistake. The bombing created outrage among Chinese people, who did not accept the United States claim that the bombing was accidental. For several days, Beijing was rocked by massive anti-US demonstrations. Deeming the importance of the

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Although the crackdown hurt relations with Western countries, it had relatively little impact on China's relations with its Asian neighbors. Most of these neighboring countries did not have better human rights records than China and were generally sympathetic to China in light of the pressure it

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started and there was a focus on acquiring Western technology—as Japan was doing very successfully at the same time, but China gradually lagged behind. The 1870s to 1890s were characterized with efforts to reform and revitalize the Chinese political system more broadly. There was steady moderate

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on September 29, 1972, and normalization of diplomatic relations between Japan and the PRC. Japan stated that it was aware of its responsibility for causing enormous damage to the Chinese people during World War II and China renounced its demand for war reparation from Japan. Avoiding political

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handled foreign-policy and developed a strong reputation for his diplomatic and negotiating skills. Zhou stressed discipline in the diplomatic corps, maintaining that "there is no small matter in diplomacy." Despite his diplomatic skills, Zhou's bargaining position was undercut by the domestic

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was a hero to him—and saw it as an ally in the Second World War. He was bitterly disappointed when the U.S. would not abandon the Nationalists, writing that "the imperialists who had always been hostile to the Chinese people will not change overnight to treat us on an equal level." His official

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was a small rump establishment based in Beijing, with little or no control over most of China. However it did control foreign affairs, and was recognized by foreign countries. It receive the customs revenue; the money was largely used to pay off old debts, such as the indemnities for the Boxer

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Beginning in Protestant missionaries started to come, to include thousands of men, their wives and children, and unmarried female missionaries. These were not individual operations, they were sponsored and financed by organized churches in their home country. The 19th century is one of steady

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continued Deng's good neighboring policy, under the principles of stabilizing the periphery, expanding diplomacy, and altering the situation. China had considered the Soviet Union its principal security threat, and its dissolution reduced the importance of security considerations in China's

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policy was "wiping out the control of the imperialists in China completely." Truman and Marshall, while supplying military aid and advice, determined that American intervention could not save the Nationalist cause. One recent scholar argues that the Communists won the Civil War because

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Countries of the world indicating decade diplomatic relations commenced with the People's Republic of China: 1949/1950s (dark red), 1960s (red), 1970s (orange), 1980s (beige), 1990s/2000s (yellow) and 2010s/2020s (green). Countries not recognized by or not recognizing the PRC are in

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and established international settlements in the treaty ports under the control of foreign diplomats. China was required to accept diplomats at the capital in Peking, provided for the free movement for foreign ships in Chinese rivers, kept its tariffs low, and opened the interior to

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became ambassador, and Chinese-American relations became much smoother. The U.S. had included China in top-level diplomacy in the hope that large masses of Chinese troops would defeat Japan with minimal American casualties. When that hope was seen as illusory, and it was clear that

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and clashes in 1969 on the Sino-Soviet border, Chinese competition with the Soviet Union increasingly reflected concern over China's own strategic position. China then lessened its anti-Western rhetoric and began developing formal diplomatic relations with West European nations.

475:. Protestant missionary activity peaked in the 1920s and thereafter declined due to war and unrest in China, As well as a sense of frustration among the missionaries themselves. By 1953, all Protestant missionaries had been expelled by the communist government of China. 1457:

In the 1970s and 1980s, China sought to create a secure regional and global environment for itself and foster good relations with countries that could aid its economic development. During the time of Mao, China was a closed country. After his death, authorities led by

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of major powers. On top of all the damage and pillage, China was forced to pay annual installments of an indemnity of $ 333 million American dollars to all the victors—actual total payments amounted to about $ 250 million. Robert Hart, the inspector general of the

939:, called the 'Rape of Nanking'. By early 1941, the U.S. was preparing to send American planes flown by American pilots under American command, but wearing Chinese uniforms, to fight the Japanese invaders and even to bomb Japanese cities. There were delays and the " 1274:

In the 1947-1962 era, Mao emphasized the desire for international partnerships, on the one hand to more rapidly develop the economy, and on the other to protect against attacks, especially by the U.S. His numerous alliances, however, all fell apart, including the

1802:, the film's tagline was "Even though a thousand miles away, anyone who affronts China will pay." Efforts aimed at incorporating Chinese diaspora into China's foreign policy have also intensified with an emphasis placed on ethnic loyalty over national loyalty. 552:

Japan after 1860 modernized its military after Western models and was far stronger than China. The war, fought in 1894 and 1895, was fought to resolve the issue of control over Korea, which was yet another suzerain claimed by China and under the rule of the

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The 1990s presented several challenges in China-United States relations, although there were positive developments for China including the United States' de-linking of China's most favored nation status from its human rights record. In July 1993, the

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became president in 1912 and, with support from regional war lords, tried to be a dictator. He showed little interest in foreign affairs apart from obtaining loans from Europe. When he suddenly died in 1916 the national government was left in chaos.

990:. Despite his status and position in China, he became involved in conflicts with other senior Allied officers, over the distribution of Lend-Lease materiel, Chinese political sectarianism and proposals to incorporate Chinese and U.S. forces in the 1444:

In a March 22, 1969 meeting on the Sino-Soviet border clashes, Mao stated that in foreign relations, China was "now isolated" and "we need to relax a little". Later that year, China began to restore its embassies, which had been disrupted by the

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in an official visit. To this end, China looked to the West for assistance with its modernization drive and for help in countering Soviet expansionism, which it characterized as the greatest threat to its national security and to world peace.

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The terminology of "the Cold War" was not prominent in Chinese discourse during the Mao era. From the dominant Chinese view, the conflict between capitalism and socialism that existed from the late 1940s into the 1970s had not gone "cold."

794:. Japan and China reached a series of agreements which ratified the first four sets of goals on 25 May 1915. Japan gained a little at the expense of China, but Britain refused to renew the alliance and American opinion turned hostile. The 1505:, but it also placed growing emphasis on a foreign policy independent of both the U.S. and the Soviet Union. While improving ties with the West, China continued to closely follow the political and economic positions of the Third World 1190:

The early PRC operated under the principle of "cleaning the house before inviting guests," meaning that it would seek to "clean up" colonial influences before it sought recognition from states that it deemed as Western imperialists.

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China's entry into the Korean War was the first of many "preemptive counterattacks". Chinese leaders decided to intervene when they saw their North Korean ally being overwhelmed and no guarantee American forces would stop at the

1230:, and the U.S. did so in 1979. In 2011, the number of countries that had established diplomatic relations with Beijing had risen to 171, while 23 maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (or Taiwan). (See also: 1688:

ultimately agreed to an inspection which found no chemical weapon precursors. Despite China's request for a formal apology, the United States refused to apologize and refused to pay compensation. Despite the humiliation of the

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During the COVID-19 pandemic, Xi kept an extensive schedule of phone and video foreign meetings as part of his "cloud diplomacy" (云外交), which received prominent attention in Chinese media, similar to in-person foreign visits.

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was left, and that was highly problematic since the Tibetans, as most of the supposed suzerainty, had never accepted Chinese claims of lordship and tribute. The losses humiliated China and marked it as a repeated failure.

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Beginning in 1992, China began to balance its relationships with North and South Korea. It normalized its diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992 while continuing its strategic relationship with North Korea.

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By the late 1950s, relations between China and the Soviet Union had become so divisive that in 1960, the Soviets unilaterally withdrew their advisers from China. The two then began to vie for allegiances among the

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Since its establishment in 1949, the People's Republic of China has worked vigorously to win international recognition and support for its position that it is the sole legitimate government of all China, including

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During the Mao era, China's foreign policy bureaucracy was small. Strategic decisions and security issues were handled in a top-down style. With Mao in overall control and making final decisions, Chinese Premier

5523: 1291:. He was unable to organize an anti-American coalition. Furthermore, Mao was insensitive to the fears of alliance partners that China was so big, and so inwardly directed, that their needs would be ignored. 1258:. People's diplomacy with the capitalist countries sought to cultivate informal, non-state ties in the hope of developing "foreign friends" who would lobby their governments to improve relations with China. 225:, as a sort of echo of Western nationalism, but that led to a quick defeat in war with Japan in 1895. An intense reaction against modernization set in at the grassroots level in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900. 1671:

prompted Jiang's adoption of the "sixteen-characters formula" for working with the United States: "enhancing confidence, reducing troubles, expanding cooperation, and avoiding confrontation." During the

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both sought to resist foreign domination and establish a unified, independent China. This led to the strengthening of nationalist sentiment and the rise of anti-foreign sentiment throughout the country.

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units and the fight against communists in 1933–1935. All military academies had German officers, as did most army units. In addition, German engineers provided expertise and bankers provided loans for

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China's foreign policy between 1925 and 1949 was marked by significant political upheaval and a shifting relationship with the outside world. Main points of China's foreign policy during this period:

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as the head of the new Cambodian government. The move antagonized China, which now viewed the Soviet Union as capable of encircling its southern border. China launched an invasion of Vietnam in the

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and its numerous bilateral and bi-party ties. In the 1960s, Beijing competed with Moscow for political influence among communist parties and in the developing world generally. In 1962, China had a

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antagonized key interest groups. Furthermore, his armies had been weakened in the war against Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists promised to improve the ways of life for groups such as farmers.

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In the 1990s, China adopted conservative negotiating tactics in its territorial disputes, deemphasizing the use of confrontation and instead relying on legal agreements and diplomatic measures.

3612: 723:, was the chief negotiator for the peace terms. The indemnity, despite some beneficial programs, was "nothing but bad" for China, as Hart had predicted at the beginning of the negotiations. 4100: 1621:

perceptions of South and Central Asian geo-politics. China began rebuilding relations with its Central Asian countries, with their economic ties growing during the 1990s and subsequently.

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who opposed war in Europe supported a hard-line against Japan. American public sympathy for the Chinese, and hatred of Japan, was aroused by reports from missionaries, novelists such as

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The perception grew that Chiang's government, with poorly equipped and ill-fed troops was unable to effectively fight the Japanese or that he preferred to focus more on defeating the

1680:, based on incorrect suspicions that the ship contained chemical weapon precursors bound for Iran. Although China denied the allegation, the United States unilaterally cut off the 4181: 1370: 1125: 463:

in Shanghai in 1903 to reach an elite audience. German missionaries arrived in the late 19th century, and Americans arrived in force in the 1920s, largely to replace the French.

1746:, articulating a new view that it was willing to condition its diplomatic protection of pariah countries, forcing them to become more acceptable to the international community. 1717:

is a significant area of interaction within FOCAC. Through FOCAC, China provides aid in the forms of debt forgiveness, aid grants, concessional loans, and interest-free loans.

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had allied itself with Japan, the great enemy of the Republic of China. Nevertheless, Chiang Kai-Shek continued to hope to use Germany as a model for his nation, as his mentor

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After the Sino-Soviet split, Moscow and Beijing sometimes sponsored rival Communist parties around the world, which expended energy fighting each other. China announced its

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advising Stilwell argued that it was in American interest to establish communication with the Communists to prepare for a land-based counteroffensive invasion of Japan. The

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European commercial interests sought to end the trading barriers, but China fended off repeated efforts by Britain to reform the trading system. Increasing sales of Indian

609:. To pay the indemnities, British French and Russian banks loaned China the money, but they also gained other advantages. Russia in 1896 was given permission to extend its 4347: 1588: 854:, and spent heavily to set up modern facilities that would be a showcase for Asia. Japan seized the German operations in 1914 after sharp battles. After World War I, the 7572: 2709: 1335:

the "First Intermediate Zone," in which China's status as a non-white power might enable it to compete with and supersede both United States and Soviet Union influence.

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also increased Chinese apprehensions. In the Chinese view, Vietnam was pursuing a regional hegemonic policy in an attempt to control Indochina. On 25 December 1978,

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resulted in the Versailles Treaty that allowed Japan to retain territories in Shandong that had been surrendered by Germany in 1914. Chinese students launched the

4131: 459:. The Jesuits left, but returned in 1842. Converts were from the lower social strata, and numbered about 240,000 in 1840 and 720,000 in 1901. The Jesuits opened 6680: 1255: 5741: 1901: 1307:, which sought to resolve issues from the Korean War and the Indochina War, was the PRC's first significant involvement in an international diplomatic event. 7024: 6719: 455:

from France and Italy in the 16th century. For a while were highly successful in placing intellectuals and scientists in the royal court. The Pope, however,

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to Japan. However this was not acceptable. Russia, taking the self-appointed mantle of protector of China, worked with Germany and France to intervene and

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Jean-Paul Wiest, "Bringing Christ to the nations: shifting models of mission among Jesuits in China." The Catholic historical review 83.4 (1997): 654-681.

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has become an integral component of Chinese diplomacy. From April 2019 to April 2020 the output of Chinese diplomat's Twitter accounts increased fourfold.

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countries. On 4 January 1950, Pakistan became the first Muslim country to recognize China. Among the first Western countries to recognize China were the

870:. Trade with Germany flourished in the 1920s, with Germany as China's largest supplier of government credit. The last major advisor left in 1938, after 8143: 6752: 6638: 5425: 4061: 679:

was a failed 103-day national, cultural, political, and educational reform movement from 11 June to 22 September 1898. It was undertaken by the young

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and one of the longest serving politicians in the leadership of China. He visited many countries and thus began opening China to the world. In 1985,

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Efforts for occupation Mongolia, Tibet and Eastern Turkistan for establishment of the new borders equal to those of the coolapsed Manchu Qing Empire.

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Luke S.K. Kwong, "Chinese politics at the crossroads: Reflections on the Hundred Days Reform of 1898." Modern Asian Studies 34.3 (2000): 663-695.

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to China at the end of 1945 to broker a compromise between the Nationalist government and the Communists, who had established control in much of

832:'s Ministry of Foreign Affairs published a "Map of National Shame" which listed Mongolia, parts of Siberia, and Indochina as "lost territories." 202: 1616:

in late 1991, China also opened diplomatic relations with the republics of the former Soviet Union. In the post-Cold War environment, President

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convention in 1886 to continue the Burmese payments to China every 10 years, in return for which China would recognise Britain's occupation of

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Henk Vynckier and Chihyun Chang, "'Imperium In Imperio': Robert Hart, the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, and its (Self-)Representations,"

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was recognized diplomatically by most world powers and held China's permanent seat in the UN Security Council, including its associated

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Signed on April 17, 1895. China became responsible for a financial indemnity of £30 million. It had to surrender To Japan the island of

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Robyn L. Rodriguez, "Journey to the East: The German Military Mission in China, 1927-1938" (PhD Diss. The Ohio State University, 2011)

1393:, China sought to balance its identification as a member of the Soviet bloc by establishing friendly relations with Pakistan and other 1223: 1080:, and brought the two distrustful sides together. At home, many Americans saw China as a bulwark against the spread of communism, but 5862: 4603: 1601:

received from Western countries. Even in the wake of the crackdown, China's foreign relations with its neighbors generally improved.

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disputes over this traumatic history facilitated immediate strategic cooperation. The Japanese agreed with the Chinese view on the

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over a border dispute. By 1969, relations with Moscow were so tense that fighting erupted along their common border. Following the

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bilateral relationship too great to be harmed by the embassy bombing, President Jiang sought to calm the Chinese public outrage.

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could not operate effectively from China, China became much less important to Washington, but it was promised a seat in the new

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great powers did not recognize China's fiefdom and one by one seized the supposed suzerain areas. Japan moved to dominate the

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Ying-Kit Chan, "Diplomacy and the Appointment of officials in Late Qing China: He Ruzhang and Japan’s Annexation Of Ryukyu."

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Xu Guangqiu, "The Impact of Medical Missionaries on Chinese Officials: Dr. Peter Parker and the Canton Hospital, 1835-1855"

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In 2001, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan began regular meetings under the auspices of the

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and his reform-minded supporters. Following the issuing of over 100 reformative edicts, a coup d'état ("The Coup of 1898",

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was killed by a mob in 1905. Likewise nationalist movements in the 1920s and 1930s also had an anti-missionary component.

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Amanda J. Cheney, "Tibet Lost in Translation: Sovereignty, Suzerainty and International Order Transformation, 1904–1906."

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incident, Jiang adopted a posture of diplomatic good will to the United States, including the sixteen-characters formula.

557:. A peasant rebellion led to a request by the Korean government for China to send in troops to stabilize the country. The 102:

During the period from 1800 to 1925, China's foreign policy was largely shaped by the country's efforts to resist Western

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provided extensive advisory services to the Republic of China, especially training for the Chinese army. Colonel General

593:. Japan received most favored nation status, like all the other powers/ Korea became nominally independent, although the 92: 19:

This article is about the foreign relations of China. For the foreign relations of the Republic of China after 1949, see

8089: 7777: 6692: 6527: 5907: 5611: 5553: 5389: 5254: 4123: 1873: 955:, which made operations in China a high priority, and generated enormous favorable publicity for the China in the U.S. 1501:", focusing almost exclusively on the expansionist actions of the Soviet Union and Soviet proxies such as Vietnam and 528:

A weakened China lost wars with Japan and gave up nominal control over the Ryukyu Islands in 1870 to Japan. After the

106:

and maintain its territorial integrity. Some of the key features of China's foreign relations in this period include:

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The Boxer Rebellion : The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900

2270: 2243: 2086: 1890: 1885: 1863: 1721: 1638: 1560: 922: 753: 720: 71: 3633:

Dong Wang, "The Quarrelling Brothers: New Chinese Archives and a Reappraisal of the Sino-Soviet Split, 1959-1962."

7924: 7919: 7814: 7505: 7500: 7275: 6812: 6468: 5874: 5583: 5176: 5124: 4763: 4753: 4563: 4397:

Kirby, William C. "The internationalization of China: Foreign relations at home and abroad in the Republican era."

3190:(in Chinese). Gothenburg, Sweden: Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in Gothenburg. Archived from 3081:, "Sino-Soviet Relations and the Emergence of the Chinese Communist Regime, 1946–1950: New Documents, Old Story." 2475: 2118: 1810: 1809:

China has been criticized for its aggressive diplomatic response to the COVID-19 outbreak which included spreading

2507: 2397: 2024: 565:. China objected and war ensued. It was a brief affair, with Japanese ground troops routing Chinese forces on the 8044: 8019: 7934: 7914: 7864: 7834: 7824: 7495: 7243: 6987: 6916: 6473: 6201: 6168: 6041: 5849: 5756: 5716: 5435: 5379: 5329: 5134: 5114: 5092: 4965: 4884: 4768: 4658: 3752: 3050: 1613: 1532:

of the Soviet Union. Vietnam's claim to be the world's third largest military power following its victory in the

1352: 1043: 570: 4385: 8009: 8004: 7884: 7552: 7192: 5679: 5486: 5359: 5324: 5314: 5186: 5161: 5052: 5047: 5000: 4980: 4975: 4864: 4748: 4713: 4698: 4683: 4578: 4333: 1911: 1168: 951:(December 7, 1941) brought the U.S. into the war officially. The Flying Tigers were soon incorporated into the 814: 479:

taught hygiene and care of children. They lessened the hostility of Chinese officials. The key leader of the

49: 4506: 1528:

China grew concerned about the strong Soviet influence in Vietnam, fearing that Vietnam could become a pseudo-

913:

Chiang Kai-shek with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the

8074: 8024: 7979: 7959: 7949: 7849: 6675: 6665: 6463: 6458: 5410: 5309: 5146: 5129: 5109: 5015: 4949: 4914: 4824: 4703: 2019:

Andre Schmid, "Colonialism and the ‘Korea Problem’ in the Historiography of Modern Japan: A Review Article."

952: 851: 127:

in 1919, China's foreign policy became increasingly focused on anti-imperialism and national liberation. The

4301: 2653:

Zhitian Luo. "National humiliation and national assertion: The Chinese response to the twenty-one demands."

2110:

John Harney, "Enshrining the Mission: The Bishop Sheehan Memorial Museum and Vincentian Visions of China."

115:

a few treaty ports such as Shanghai, China was engaged in several small wars with Britain, France and Japan.

8049: 7964: 7944: 7829: 7819: 7675: 7670: 7082: 6395: 6341: 6309: 6136: 5573: 5558: 5420: 5394: 5344: 5239: 5166: 5104: 5077: 5072: 5067: 4995: 4929: 4899: 4859: 4834: 4803: 4778: 4628: 4608: 4573: 4558: 2701:

Alison Adcock Kaufman, "In Pursuit of Equality and Respect: China’s Diplomacy and the League of Nations."

1537: 1121: 966:

at enormous expense and frustrating delay. Chiang's beleaguered government was now headquartered in remote

841: 654: 460: 111:

this period was characterized by a desire to resist these treaties and regain control over its own affairs.

1739:(CASCF) serves as the major multi-lateral cooperation mechanism between China and the Arab League states. 221:

in 1898 roused the conservatives who stamped out the effort and executed its leaders. There was a rise in

8094: 8029: 7994: 7929: 7909: 7899: 7859: 7844: 7839: 7582: 7460: 7445: 7052: 7009: 6945: 6928: 6802: 6324: 6071: 5834: 5465: 5384: 5349: 5319: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5274: 5264: 5259: 5244: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5191: 5082: 5062: 5005: 4970: 4944: 4904: 4889: 4879: 4839: 4829: 4788: 4758: 4743: 4728: 4718: 4708: 4673: 4668: 4623: 4593: 4568: 4543: 1921: 1684:'s GPS, causing it to lose direction and forcing it to anchor on the high seas for twenty-four days. The 1655:: that no single state, even the most powerful, is capable of coping with all security challenges alone. 1645: 1316: 1176: 1113: 1073: 863: 653:

One of the government's main source of income was a five percent tariff on imports. The government hired

213: 196: 20: 974:

to train Chinese troops and coordinate military strategy. He became the Chief of Staff to Generalissimo

778:

and played a small role. Japan seized the German possessions in China. In January 1915 Japan issued the

8054: 8014: 7989: 7969: 7904: 7879: 7869: 7854: 7097: 6977: 6733: 6687: 6670: 6653: 6400: 6364: 6211: 5786: 5694: 5568: 5374: 5364: 5354: 5339: 5334: 5304: 5279: 5269: 5249: 5196: 5171: 5030: 4990: 4985: 4919: 4909: 4849: 4844: 4798: 4793: 4733: 4688: 4648: 4638: 4548: 4514: 4154: 3328: 1916: 1522: 1231: 1172: 741:

Manchuria was a contested zone with Russia and Japan taking control away from China and in the process

96: 4212:"'Put on a mask and shut up': China's new 'Wolf Warriors' spread hoaxes and attack a world of critics" 3771:

China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace

7974: 7939: 7894: 7889: 7700: 7292: 7116: 6997: 6950: 6894: 6359: 6304: 6031: 5917: 5844: 5460: 5450: 5430: 5369: 5299: 5203: 5151: 5119: 5087: 5035: 5010: 4894: 4854: 4773: 4723: 4678: 4663: 4643: 4633: 4613: 4553: 3976: 3932: 3659: 3508: 3444: 3407: 3129: 3100: 2852: 1780: 1750: 1348: 1039: 979: 710: 456: 244: 1540:, overrunning most of the country, deposing the Khmer Rouge regime favored by China, and installing 1373:

signed in 1950 to oppose China's chief antagonists, the West and in particular the U.S. The 1950–53

802:

in 1919, inspiring a nationwide nationalistic hostility against Japan and the other foreign powers.

7806: 7658: 7287: 7233: 7158: 6834: 6769: 6611: 6594: 6572: 6405: 6380: 6319: 6221: 5974: 5889: 5649: 5644: 5543: 5440: 5415: 5057: 5025: 5020: 4924: 4869: 4783: 4693: 4588: 3290: 3217: 893: 887: 775: 150: 146: 5991: 3710: 2293: 1713:(FOCAC) is the primary multi-lateral coordination mechanism between China and the African states. 1525:, namely "that Taiwan is an inalienable part of the territory of the People's Republic of China." 7708: 7490: 7206: 7092: 7087: 6992: 6967: 6911: 6745: 6697: 6532: 6453: 6448: 6390: 6314: 6299: 6158: 5939: 5669: 4407:

Mackerras, Colin. "Fifty Years of Australian Diplomatic Relations with China: Some Reflections."

3476: 3179: 3160: 2330: 2061:

Anthony Webster, "Business and empire: A reassessment of the British conquest of Burma in 1885."

1895: 1770: 1564: 1018: 987: 867: 736: 732: 634: 622: 529: 523: 302: 218: 179: 128: 6113: 3973:

China's Rise in the Global South: The Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's Alternative World Order

3287:

People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War

1228:

Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China

7663: 7470: 7304: 7260: 7238: 6935: 6385: 6289: 6096: 5839: 5751: 5578: 5563: 5528: 5518: 5156: 4093:"Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi defends 'wolf warrior' diplomats for standing up to 'smears'" 2522:

Ying-kit Chan, "A Precious Mirror for Governing the Peace: A Primer for Empress Dowager Cixi."

1787: 1304: 1059: 1030: 999: 948: 806: 610: 314: 306: 136: 4443: 2076: 1112:'s policy was opportunistic and utilitarian. He offered official Soviet support only when the 7653: 7648: 7603: 7539: 7450: 7153: 7102: 7040: 6762: 6599: 6587: 6577: 6346: 5979: 5779: 5481: 4384:(2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 2018), a major comprehensive scholarly history since 1945. 3814: 2576: 2260: 2233: 1786:

The aggressive style of Chinese diplomacy which emerged in the 21st century has been termed “

1552: 1548:. On Match 6, 1979, China declared that its punitive mission had been achieved and withdrew. 1463: 1247: 1003: 715: 582: 452: 446: 442: 4375: 4124:"China is embracing a new brand of foreign policy. Here's what wolf warrior diplomacy means" 3017: 153:

marked a turning point in China's foreign policy. The CCP and the KMT resisted the Japanese.

7379: 7327: 7187: 6982: 6957: 6884: 6879: 6714: 6606: 6582: 6440: 5922: 3586: 2923: 1652: 1506: 1425: 1077: 944: 847: 688: 279: 275: 2578:

A History of Modern Shanghai Banking: The Rise and Decline of China's Financial Capitalism

2389:

Frank W. Ikle, "The Triple Intervention. Japan's Lesson in the Diplomacy of Imperialism."

1361:

After its founding, the PRC's foreign policy initially focused on its solidarity with the

1210:(14 February 1950). The first Western country to establish diplomatic ties with China was 8: 7680: 7525: 7419: 7414: 7384: 7342: 7265: 7228: 7148: 7133: 6962: 6923: 6630: 6244: 6148: 5899: 5729: 5699: 5659: 5533: 3806: 3563: 3013: 2287: 1714: 1559:. Sharp differences between China and the Soviet Union persisted over Soviet support for 1545: 1446: 1327: 799: 675: 606: 488: 252: 222: 124: 2499:

Young-Tsu Wong, "Revisionism Reconsidered: Kang Youwei and the Reform Movement of 1898"

2324: 7567: 7562: 7547: 7399: 7367: 7362: 7255: 7177: 7165: 7074: 6740: 6660: 6648: 6616: 6271: 6266: 6184: 5884: 3893: 3852: 3836: 3769:

Atatüre, Süha (2023). "The US and China as Main Powers in Multipolar World Order 2.0".

3681: 3358: 3191: 1421: 1311: 779: 742: 630: 626: 602: 566: 468: 413: 349: 345: 274:, in 1856-60 saw a joint Anglo-French military mission including Great Britain and the 4392:

The struggle for order: Hegemony, hierarchy, and transition in post-Cold War East Asia

2849:

The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy

2135:

William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the Ideal Missionary

905:

larger imperialism. Economic assistance, Washington hoped, could achieve this result.

8118: 7626: 7618: 7332: 7199: 7170: 7128: 7057: 7014: 6972: 6839: 6779: 6551: 6488: 6350: 6131: 6101: 5927: 5724: 5711: 4450:

China's quest: the history of the foreign relations of the people's Republic of China

4382:

China's quest: the history of the foreign relations of the people's Republic of China

4275: 4216: 3980: 3946: 3936: 3897: 3883: 3856: 3844: 3826: 3788: 3778: 3671: 3567: 3512: 3480: 3448: 3411: 3362: 3350: 3340: 3294: 3143: 3133: 3104: 3023: 2866: 2856: 2582: 2360: 2266: 2239: 2082: 1414: 1093: 1055: 1034: 818: 805:

After 1916 almost all of China was in the hands of regional warlords. Until 1929 the

662: 382: 373: 341: 287: 283: 3246: 2176:

Michelle Renshaw, "'Family-Centred Care' in American Hospitals in Late-Qing China."

1943:

Cahiers d'Histoire Mondiale. Journal of World History. Cuadernos de Historia Mundial

1753:, China has adopted a new foreign policy doctrine called "Major Country Diplomacy" ( 1389:(UN) forces has long been a reason for bitter feelings. After the conclusion of the 7744: 7737: 7636: 7631: 7557: 7485: 7404: 7319: 7309: 7280: 7216: 7211: 7045: 7019: 7004: 6889: 6867: 6851: 6757: 6206: 6196: 6036: 5829: 5814: 5806: 4009: 3875: 3818: 3663: 3468: 3332: 3078: 2376: 2372: 1762: 1761:) which has replaced the earlier Deng Xiaoping era slogan of "keep a low profile" ( 1754: 1117: 1011: 936: 914: 791: 691:. The Emperor was locked up until his death and key reformers were exiled or fled. 492: 421: 417: 238: 88: 1158:

Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China

821:. Japan quit the League, which was helpless. The most active Chinese diplomat was 561:

responded by sending its own force to Korea and installing a puppet government in

7352: 7347: 7270: 7221: 7182: 6846: 6428: 6234: 6121: 5689: 5654: 4471:

The United States and China: A history from the eighteenth century to the present

4351: 3756: 3705: 3685: 3167: 3054: 2713: 2563: 2511: 2479: 2401: 2150:

Nicolas Standaert, "New trends in the historiography of Christianity in China."

2122: 1728: 1429: 1369:

nations, and other communist countries, sealed with, among other agreements, the

1194:

Upon its establishment in 1949, the People's Republic of China was recognized by

1184: 1180: 1102: 1069: 1065: 991: 975: 971: 859: 855: 829: 759: 704: 680: 594: 558: 533: 510: 500: 480: 318: 260: 248: 234: 140: 4412: 3872:

Rethinking Japan's Identity and International Role: An Intercultural Perspective

3042:

He Di, "The Most Respected Enemy: Mao Zedong's Perception of the United States"

3001:

China Tangle: American Effort in China from Pearl Harbor to the Marshall Mission

862:, the former commander the German army, organized the training of China's elite 644:

British cartoon shows the victory of "little" Japan over "large" China. in 1894.

7753: 7685: 7608: 7455: 7409: 7394: 7389: 7372: 7357: 7143: 6498: 6493: 6423: 6009: 5684: 4036:"Over here, overbearing: The origins of China's 'Wolf Warrior' style diplomacy" 3605:"China's Dangerous Weakness, Part 1: Beijing's Aggressive Idea Of Self-Defense" 3436: 3097:

Developmental Piece: Theorizing China's Approach to International Peacebuilding

2451: 2215: 1798: 1665: 1386: 1199: 1007: 995: 822: 637:

to Port Arthur greatly expanded Russian military capabilities in the Far East.

598: 409: 369: 337: 331: 310: 3848: 3792: 3354: 2870: 1941:

John King Fairbank, "China's Response to the West: Problems and Suggestions."

8137: 8112: 7718: 7465: 7299: 7138: 6940: 6261: 6249: 6091: 5952: 3950: 3924: 3147: 2844: 1551:

Chinese anxiety about Soviet strategic advances was heightened following the

1513: 1485:

was the first president of China to visit the U.S. President Li also visited

1478: 1459: 1280: 1142: 1109: 1085: 1026: 940: 931: 897: 538: 457:

prohibited the priests from making accommodations to Confucianism or paganism

405: 7769: 3840: 3546:

China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic

2527: 2202:

Hu Cheng, "The Modernization of Japanese and Chinese Medicine (1914-1931)."

640: 293: 7758: 7643: 7515: 7480: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6066: 6061: 6051: 5969: 5964: 2896:

Hsi‐Huey Liang, "China, the Sino‐Japanese conflict and the Munich crisis."

1850: 1822: 1792: 1743: 1529: 1490: 1366: 1362: 1276: 1195: 871: 658: 377: 353: 298: 157: 4182:"In China, a young diplomat rises as aggressive foreign policy takes root" 4013: 3879: 3336: 2350:(Colonial period Korea; WWC-5)(Original from the University of California) 1014:

of late 1943, but promises of major increases in aid did not materialize.

8122: 7337: 6254: 6239: 6046: 6004: 5999: 5947: 3929:

The New Great Game: China and South and Central Asia in the Era of Reform

3822: 3126:

The New Great Game: China and South and Central Asia in the Era of Reform

2262:

China's Foreign Policy Making: Societal Force and Chinese American Policy

1617: 1556: 1541: 1533: 1486: 1482: 1470: 1394: 1382: 1378: 1331: 1284: 1203: 1081: 1022: 959: 900:

was a strong supporter of China. Michael Schaller says that during 1938:

875: 771: 763: 618: 581:

China, badly defeated, sued for peace and was forced to accept the harsh

506: 484: 472: 103: 4302:"Chinese diplomacy ramps up social media offensive in COVID-19 info war" 2472: 2115: 1002:

and toured the country to rally support for China. Congress amended the

7510: 6418: 6229: 5957: 4452:(2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 2018), chapters 3, 9, 11, 21, 23, 24. 2692:

Robert T. Pollard, China's Foreign Relations, 1917-1931 (1933) p. 310.

2504: 2394: 2218:, "Christianity and Dr. Sun Yat-sen's schooling in Hawai'i, 1879-83." 1776: 1676:

incident, the United States Navy stopped a Chinese container ship, the

1402: 1390: 1374: 1344: 1296: 1098: 1089: 983: 958:

After Japan took Southeast Asia, American aid had to be routed through

926: 400: 132: 3749: 3667: 3047: 2671: 762:

overthrew the imperial court and brought an era of confused politics.

709:

The Boxer Rebellion (1897–1901) was an anti-foreigner movement by the

548:

Chinese generals in Pyongyang surrender to the Japanese, October 1894.

7520: 7475: 6413: 6354: 4402: 3774: 3404:

Revolutionary Becomings: Documentary Media in Twentieth-Century China

1637:

in 1997 as the "Shanghai Five" (and continuing into the 2000s as the

1424:, for China saw itself as a natural champion through its role in the 967: 963: 783: 684: 614: 357: 256: 4341:

The Scramble for China: Foreign devils in the Qing empire, 1832-1914

3656:

Fighting on the Cultural Front: U.S.-China Relations in the Cold War

2310:

burma was a tributary state of china british forward tribute peking.

1571:—the so-called "three obstacles" to improved Sino-Soviet relations. 207:

Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty

186:

globally. This has led to tensions with India and the United States.

7595: 7588: 6901: 3180:

Consulate-General of the People's Republic of China in Gothenburg.

1878: 1826: 1633: 1629: 1568: 1498: 1356: 909: 601:

were vying for control. The most controversial provision ceded the

365: 4062:"China's 'wolf warrior' diplomats roar at Hong Kong and the world" 1563:, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and Soviet troops along the 1084:

hoped that the Communists would remain on friendly terms with the

935:

of Japanese brutality in China, including reports surrounding the

6024: 6019: 6014: 5771: 4440:

America’s Response To China: A History Of Sino-American Relations

4367:(Naval Institute Press, 2013), stress on military and naval power 3927:(2016). "China and South and Central Asia in the Era of Reform". 3377:

Towards the End of Isolationism: China's Foreign Policy After Mao

1830: 1128:

was but a cloak for Soviet expansionist ambitions in East Asia".

1010:. Chiang and Mme. Chiang met with Roosevelt and Churchill at the 425: 87:

covers diplomatic, military, political and economic relations in

3441:

China's Relations with Africa: a New Era of Strategic Engagement

2454:, "Revisiting the Chinese maritime customs service, 1854–1950." 1993:

Dong Wang, "The Discourse of Unequal Treaties in Modern China,"

1658: 1371:

Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance

7690: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 590: 586: 554: 361: 4426:

Chinese Foreign Relations: Power and Policy Since the Cold War

4276:"China and Twitter: The year China got louder on social media" 3562:. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: 3019:

The China Mission: George Marshall's Unfinished War, 1945-1947

2165:

Civilizing missions: International religious agencies in China

1644:

China increased its reputation among its neighbors during the

1578: 846:

The German military had a major role in Republican China. The

5802: 5538: 4509: 4464:

Normalization of US-China relations: an international history

2988:

Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost

2235:

American Doctors in Canton: Modernization in China, 1835-1935

1982:

China's response to the West: a documentary survey, 1839-1923

1433: 1243: 562: 429: 4466:(Harvard University Asia Center Publications Program, 2005). 4421:(Oxford UP, 2013), its recent economic role in world affairs 3635:

Cold War International History Project Working Paper Series

2326:

China's intercourse with Korea from the XVth century to 1895

1589:

Reactions to the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre

687:) was perpetrated by powerful conservative opponents led by 633:, their only such facility in the East. An extension of the 3046:

No. 137 (March 1994), pp. 144-158, quotations on page 147.

1969:

Deadly dreams: Opium and the Arrow war (1856-1860) in China

1651:

Beginning in the late 1990s, China began to articulate its

1502: 986:

supplies going to China, and was later Deputy Commander of

263:

forced China to open trade with the West on Western terms.

4358:

China, Russia, and Twenty-First Century Global Geopolitics

4245:"Why Chinese Embassies Have Embraced Aggressive Diplomacy" 3811:

Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise

2601:

Frank H.H. King, "The Boxer Indemnity—‘Nothing but Bad’."

2322: 1790:." The phrase is derived from the patriotic Chinese movie 1497:

China maintained its consistent opposition to "superpower

4372:

Contested memories in Chinese and Japanese foreign policy

3910:

Samuel S. Kim, "Chinese Foreign Policy After Tiananmen,"

2363:(1964). "The Battle off the Tayang, 17 September 1894". 1698:

United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade

629:

in southern Manchuria, including the ice free harbor of

91:

from 1800 to the modern era. For the earlier period see

3325:

Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China

1323:

were incorporated into the Ten Principles of Bandung.

251:(1839–1842). The superiority of Western militaries and 3473:

Living U.S.-China relations: From Cold War to Cold War

2962:

Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–45

2683:

Klaus Mühlhahn, Making China Modern (2019) pp 251-252.

1813:

about how other countries were handling the outbreak.

1462:

began initiating reforms. Along with Deng's policy of

517: 3733:

End of Isolationism: China's Foreign Policy After Mao

2727:

V.K. Wellington Koo and the emergence of modern China

2666:

Joseph T. Chen, "The May Fourth Movement Redefined."

1138:

List of wars involving the People's Republic of China

782:. The goal was to greatly extend Japanese control of 95:, and for the current foreign relations of China see 1840: 1330:

at the United Nations in 1974. China's focus on the

668: 301:

being carved up and divided among the great powers:

297:

French political cartoon from 1898 depicts helpless

3560:

The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History

3124:Hussain, Syed Rifaat (2016). "Sino-Pakistan Ties". 3012: 1902:

Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China

998:, who had been educated in the U.S., addressed the 2975:Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady 1267:result in a shift in the global balance of power. 217:progress, but efforts to leap forward such as the 3744:Michael Yahuda, "Deng Xiaoping: the statesman." 3161:Bilateral relations between Switzerland and China 8135: 607:forced Japan to withdraw from Liaodong Peninsula 4432: 3218:"China-Sweden relations continue to strengthen" 3067:Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750 2292:. LONDON: Hood, Douglas, & Howard. p. 2050:France and the exploitation of China, 1885-1901 203:List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty 4457:Nixon and Mao: the week that changed the world 3603:Freedberg Jr., Sydney J. (26 September 2013). 2911:Restless Empire: China in the world since 1750 1338: 569:and nearly destroying the Chinese navy in the 7799: 7785: 7438: 5787: 4492: 4413:https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2022.2135481 4121: 3602: 3505:One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty 3435: 2353: 1659:Relations with the United States in the 1990s 1131: 4330:China-India Relations: Contemporary Dynamics 4180:Zhai, Keith; Lun Tien, Yew (31 March 2020). 4179: 4122:Jiang, Steven; Westcott, Ben (29 May 2020). 3548:(2nd ed. 2018), pp 85, 196-98, 228-231, 264. 2456:Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 2313:(Original from the University of California) 2285: 2074: 1742:In 2008, China revised its policies towards 1214:(on 9 May 1950). Until the early 1970s, the 1151: 881: 532:of 1894 it lost Formosa to Japan. After the 5707:Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership 3805: 3498: 3496: 2231: 1595:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 1585:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 1579:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 1397:countries, particularly in Southeast Asia. 1261: 388: 278:win an easy victory. The agreements of the 7792: 7778: 5794: 5780: 5508: 4499: 4485: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3272: 2574: 1561:Vietnam's continued occupation of Cambodia 1516:to Beijing culminated in the signing of a 1509:, although China was not a formal member. 947:finally became operational days after the 123:Anti-Imperialism: In the aftermath of the 8144:History of the foreign relations of China 2528:https://doi.org/10.1163/15685268-00172p02 2220:Chinese America: History and Perspectives 436: 408:(and annexed it in 1910) and seized the 72:Learn how and when to remove this message 4428:(3rd ed. Rowman & Littlefield, 2012) 3698: 3493: 3322: 1141: 908: 639: 576: 543: 505: 292: 4526: 4209: 3931:. Thomas Fingar. Stanford, California: 3768: 3502: 3467: 3431: 3429: 3427: 3269: 3128:. Thomas Fingar. Stanford, California: 3123: 1477:, nominal head of state of China under 1321:Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence 247:to China by British traders led to the 8136: 6729:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 4242: 3970: 3923: 3649: 3647: 3615:from the original on 29 September 2013 3318: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3284: 3215: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2755: 2258: 1438:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 7773: 5775: 5600: 5507: 4525: 4480: 4299: 4155:"How Chinese Nationalism Is Changing" 3999: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3874:(1 ed.). 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Norton. pp. 7, 141. 1891:History of Sino-Russian relations 1864:Diplomatic history of World War I 1722:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation 1711:Forum on China-Africa Cooperation 1639:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation 1116:had virtually won the Civil War. 1101:made fewer military mistakes and 815:Japan seized control of Manchuria 721:Imperial Maritime Customs Service 669:Hundred Days Reform fails in 1898 451:Catholic missions began with the 352:(1860), forced China to open new 151:Japan's invasion of China in 1937 8117: 8108: 8107: 7506:Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty 7501:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty 4508: 4293: 4267: 4236: 4210:Bengali, Shashank (4 May 2020). 4203: 4152: 4134:from the original on 29 May 2020 4103:from the original on 27 May 2020 4072:from the original on 28 May 2020 2300:from the original on 6 June 2017 1843: 1709:Since its founding in 2000, the 1489:. 1986 saw the arrival of Queen 1256:International Liaison Department 776:China officially entered the war 399:For centuries China had claimed 368:. The treaties also allowed the 30: 7496:Four Paragons of the Early Tang 6693:Political parties and movements 6057:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 6042:Northern and Southern dynasties 5757:Xi Jinping Thought on Diplomacy 5665:Dates of diplomatic recognition 4243:Palmer, James (15 April 2020). 4224:from the original on 5 May 2020 4192:from the original on 2020-04-22 4173: 4146: 4115: 4084: 4053: 4034:Loh, Dylan M.H (12 June 2020). 4027: 3993: 3917: 3904: 3863: 3738: 3725: 3692: 3627: 3596: 3580: 3538: 3525: 3390:Towards the End of Isolationism 3382: 3369: 3239: 3228:from the original on 2014-08-19 3209: 3173: 3154: 3117: 3072: 3059: 3036: 3006: 2993: 2980: 2967: 2954: 2941: 2928: 2916: 2903: 2890: 2877: 2719: 2695: 2686: 2677: 2660: 2647: 2634: 2621: 2608: 2595: 2568: 2545: 2532: 2516: 2493: 2484: 2461: 2445: 2432: 2419: 2406: 2383: 2337:from the original on 9 May 2016 2316: 2279: 2252: 2225: 2209: 2196: 2191:Journal of Presbyterian History 2183: 2170: 2157: 2144: 2127: 2104: 2095: 2068: 2055: 1816: 1704: 1614:dissolution of the Soviet Union 1006:and Roosevelt moved to end the 621:, a 350-mile shortcut. The new 190: 5680:Foreign relations of Hong Kong 3591:China's road to the Korean War 2377:10.1080/00253359.1964.10657787 2042: 2029: 2013: 2000: 1987: 1974: 1961: 1948: 1935: 1912:Foreign relations of Hong Kong 1315:China's official discourse of 1246:institutionalized its view of 835: 796:Paris Peace Conference in 1919 1: 5601: 4365:China’s Quest For Great Power 4300:Scott, Mark (29 April 2020). 3870:Klien, Susanne (2018-10-24). 3699:Anderson, Kurt (7 May 1984). 3327:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: 2540:A map history of modern China 2414:A map history of modern China 2008:Journal of Contemporary China 1956:A map history of modern China 1898:, Mao's policy speech of 1956 1886:China–United States relations 1242:Soon after its founding, the 1120:argues that "all the talk of 852:Jiaozhou Bay Leased Territory 760:Republican Revolution of 1911 754:Republic of China (1912–1949) 228: 6798:Ministry of National Defense 6137:Chinese Communist Revolution 5636:Diplomatic missions of China 4442:(6th ed. Columbia UP, 2019) 4433:Relations with United States 3323:Meyskens, Covell F. (2020). 3253:. U.S. Department of State. 2885:Germany and Republican China 2137:(2009), p. 14; Jane Hunter, 1122:proletarian internationalism 1049: 953:United States Army Air Force 842:China-Nazi Germany relations 726: 487:spent four-year in exile in 7: 7461:Flowers of the Four Seasons 7446:Four Treasures of the Study 7065:Water supply and sanitation 6793:Central Military Commission 6788:Outline of military history 6538:Province-level subdivisions 5624:Ministry of Foreign Affairs 3773:. Mher Sahakyan. New York: 3439:; Eisenman, Joshua (2023). 3083:Journal of Cold War Studies 2631:(1962) pp. 147–160, 173–77. 2526:17.2 (2015): 214-244. DOI: 1922:Foreign relations of Taiwan 1836: 1696:Tensions also followed the 1646:1997 Asian financial crisis 1353:China–North Korea relations 1339:Soviet Union and Korean War 864:National Revolutionary Army 850:was in charge of Germany's 817:over the objections of the 214:Self-Strengthening Movement 197:History of the Qing dynasty 21:Foreign relations of Taiwan 10: 8160: 6734:Primary stage of socialism 6676:National People's Congress 6144:People's Republic of China 5695:Political status of Taiwan 4515:Foreign relations of China 4462:Kirby, William C., et al. 3329:Cambridge University Press 2990:(2005) pp 408-14, 428-433. 2898:Diplomacy & Statecraft 2204:Chinese Studies in History 2152:Catholic Historical Review 2081:. Routledge. p. 257. 1917:Foreign relations of Macao 1582: 1523:political status of Taiwan 1412: 1342: 1300:turmoil initiated by Mao. 1244:People's Republic of China 1232:Political status of Taiwan 1155: 1135: 1132:People's Republic of China 1092:had long admired the U.S.— 1053: 982:, was responsible for all 885: 839: 751: 730: 714:was crushed by the ad hoc 702: 521: 495:and eventually converted. 440: 392: 329: 232: 200: 194: 172:Africa, and Latin America. 97:Foreign relations of China 18: 16:Foreign Relations of China 8103: 8063: 7805: 7800:Foreign relations of Asia 7731: 7699: 7617: 7538: 7318: 7124: 7115: 7073: 7033: 6875: 6866: 6778: 6629: 6559: 6550: 6513: 6484:UNESCO Biosphere Reserves 6439: 6373: 6282: 6220: 6192: 6183: 6112: 5990: 5938: 5898: 5822: 5813: 5607: 5596: 5514: 5503: 5474: 5403: 5212: 4958: 4812: 4536: 4532: 4521: 4091:Wu, Wendy (24 May 2020). 3977:Stanford University Press 3933:Stanford University Press 3660:Columbia University Press 3509:Stanford University Press 3445:Columbia University Press 3408:Columbia University Press 3130:Stanford University Press 3101:Columbia University Press 2853:Stanford University Press 2581:. 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Breaking Media, Inc. 3558:Crean, Jeffrey (2024). 2900:10.2-3 (1999): 342-369. 2471:37#1 (2014), pp. 69-92 2289:China and her mysteries 2139:The Gospel of Gentility 2065:43.4 (2000): 1003-1025. 2010:26.107 (2017): 769-783. 1997:(2003) 76#3 pp 399-425. 1896:Ten Major Relationships 1771:Chinese Communist Party 1381:ally against the U.S., 1377:waged by China and its 1317:South-South cooperation 1076:. Marshall hoped for a 1019:Chinese Communist Party 988:South East Asia Command 868:China's railroad system 737:South Manchuria Railway 733:Chinese Eastern Railway 635:Chinese Eastern Railway 623:Chinese Eastern Railway 530:First Sino-Japanese War 524:First Sino-Japanese War 424:; Russia took parts of 180:Chinese economic reform 129:Chinese Communist Party 7244:Science and technology 6917:Special economic zones 6169:persecution of Uyghurs 6097:Century of humiliation 5752:Wolf warrior diplomacy 5579:Arctic policy of China 5519:BCIM Economic Corridor 5509:Multilateral relations 4604:Congo, Republic of the 4411:47.1 (2023): 109–116. 4068:. Nikkei Asia Review. 3503:Laikwan, Pang (2024). 3095:Meng, Wenting (2024). 2023:59.4 (2000): 951-976. 1788:Wolf Warrior Diplomacy 1632:-fueled separatism in 1305:1954 Geneva Conference 1206:(17 January 1950) and 1181:Senkaku/Diaoyu islands 1148: 1060:Cross-Strait relations 1031:Albert Coady Wedemeyer 949:attack on Pearl Harbor 918: 807:Nationalist government 645: 611:Trans-Siberian Railway 549: 514: 491:, where he studied in 437:Christian missionaries 383:Christian missionaries 322: 137:Nationalist government 7451:Four Great Inventions 6835:People's Armed Police 5675:Foreign Relations Law 5650:China's peaceful rise 4739:São Tomé and Príncipe 4459:(Random House, 2008). 4455:MacMillan, Margaret. 4401:150 (1997): 433–458. 4345:online review p 342ff 3880:10.4324/9781315811055 3815:Yale University Press 3654:Li, Hongshan (2024). 3337:10.1017/9781108784788 3216:Xinhua (2007-06-11). 2705:40.6 (2014): 605-638 2657:27.2 (1993): 297-319. 2605:40.3 (2006): 663-689. 2458:36.2 (2008): 221-226. 2286:Alfred Stead (1901). 2193:(2019) 97#1 pp 16-28. 2154:83.4 (1997): 573-613. 2075:Wendy Palace (2012). 1971:(Cambridge UP, 2002). 1735:Founded in 2004, the 1469:In 1983, 74-year-old 1464:reform and opening up 1349:Sino–Soviet relations 1145: 1004:Chinese Exclusion Act 996:Madame Chiang Kaishek 912: 840:Further information: 716:Eight Nation Alliance 643: 583:Treaty of Shimonoseki 577:Treaty of Shimonoseki 547: 509: 453:Jesuit China missions 447:Jesuit China missions 443:Christianity in China 441:Further information: 296: 282:led to the ceding of 8040:United Arab Emirates 7430:World Heritage Sites 6958:Foreign aid received 6666:Environmental policy 6464:Environmental policy 6459:Environmental issues 5182:United Arab Emirates 4409:Asian Studies Review 3823:10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k 3807:Marquis, Christopher 3748:135 (1993): 551-572 3085:9.4 (2007): 115-124. 2964:(1971), pp. 231–232. 2887:(Stanford UP, 1984). 2668:Modern Asian Studies 2655:Modern Asian Studies 2603:Modern Asian Studies 2440:Empress Dowager Cixi 2365:The Mariner's Mirror 2232:Guangqiu Xu (2017). 1653:new security concept 1507:Non-Aligned Movement 1426:Non-Aligned Movement 1126:Sino-Soviet alliance 1078:coalition government 945:Claire Lee Chennault 848:Imperial German Navy 689:Empress Dowager Cixi 356:, including Canton ( 280:Convention of Peking 219:Hundred Days' Reform 8067:limited recognition 7676:History of religion 7671:Freedom of religion 7526:Four Pests campaign 7471:Four Classic Novels 7083:Automotive industry 6963:Foreign aid program 6654:Pro-democratisation 6149:Cultural Revolution 5700:Chinese unification 5660:Confucius Institute 5197:Northern Domination 4935:Trinidad and Tobago 4820:Antigua and Barbuda 4527:Bilateral relations 4444:2010 edition online 4399:The China Quarterly 4060:NAKAZAWA, KATSUJI. 4014:10.1093/fpa/orab002 3746:The China Quarterly 3731:Michael B. 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Craft, 2712:2018-11-08 at the 2670:4.1 (1970): 63-81 2562:2018-12-12 at the 2510:2019-08-28 at the 2478:2019-08-28 at the 2400:2019-08-26 at the 2361:Perry, John Curtis 2121:2019-08-28 at the 2063:Historical Journal 1967:John Yue-wo Wong, 1565:Sino-Soviet border 1475:President of China 1312:Bandung Conference 1248:people's diplomacy 1238:People's diplomacy 1202:(6 January 1950), 1149: 919: 780:Twenty-One Demands 646: 603:Liaodong Peninsula 567:Liaodong Peninsula 550: 515: 469:Continental Europe 323: 270:also known as the 8131: 8130: 7767: 7766: 7727: 7726: 7534: 7533: 7111: 7110: 7098:Shipping industry 6862: 6861: 6828:Strategic Support 6703:General Secretary 6688:National security 6671:Foreign relations 6625: 6624: 6546: 6545: 6509: 6508: 6212:Natural disasters 6179: 6178: 6132:Chinese Civil War 6127:Republic of China 6102:Taiping Rebellion 5975:Spring and Autumn 5880:Foreign relations 5769: 5768: 5765: 5764: 5747:Theater diplomacy 5712:Stadium diplomacy 5632: 5620: 5617:General Secretary 5592: 5591: 5499: 5498: 5495: 5494: 4619:Equatorial Guinea 4438:Cohen, Warren I. 4363:Cole, Bernard d. 4343:(Penguin, 2016). 4339:Bickers, Robert. 4249:foreignpolicy.com 4217:Los Angeles Times 3986:978-1-5036-3060-4 3942:978-0-8047-9764-1 3889:978-1-315-81105-5 3832:978-0-300-26883-6 3784:978-1-003-35258-7 3713:on 22 August 2013 3686:10.7312/li--20704 3668:10.7312/li--20704 3573:978-1-350-23394-2 3486:978-1-5381-8725-8 3469:Lampton, David M. 3454:978-0-231-21001-0 3379:(1983) pp 120-22. 3346:978-1-108-78478-8 3139:978-0-8047-9764-1 3065:Odd Arne Westad, 3003:(1953) pp 376-79. 2960:Barbara Tuchman, 2909:Odd Arne Westad, 2862:978-1-5036-3088-8 2542:(1976), pp 34-35. 2416:(1976), pp 32-33. 2222:(2010) pp. 75-86. 2167:(Springer, 2008). 1958:(1976), pp 21-23. 1954:Brian Catchpole, 1774:general secretary 1415:Sino-Soviet split 1409:Break with Moscow 1216:Republic of China 1094:George Washington 1056:Chinese Civil War 1035:Patrick J. Hurley 970:. Roosevelt sent 878:had recommended. 819:League of Nations 663:Peking University 627:Liadong Peninsula 591:Pescatore Islands 493:Christian schools 461:Aurora University 342:Treaty of Nanking 340:", including the 284:Kowloon Peninsula 82: 81: 74: 54:lead layout guide 8151: 8121: 8111: 8110: 7807:Sovereign states 7794: 7787: 7780: 7771: 7770: 7747: 7740: 7637:Tibetan Buddhism 7632:Chinese Buddhism 7486:Four Holy Beasts 7436: 7435: 7288:Social relations 7217:Standard Chinese 7212:Chinese language 7122: 7121: 6907:Economic history 6873: 6872: 6852:Maritime Militia 6561: 6560: 6557: 6556: 6528:Border crossings 6523:Baseline islands 6218: 6217: 6190: 6189: 6154:Tiananmen Square 6037:Sixteen Kingdoms 5845:Military history 5820: 5819: 5796: 5789: 5782: 5773: 5772: 5717:String of Pearls 5629:Foreign Minister 5626: 5614: 5598: 5597: 5505: 5504: 5446:Papua New Guinea 4534: 4533: 4523: 4522: 4513: 4512: 4501: 4494: 4487: 4478: 4477: 4448:Garver, John W. 4380:Garver, John W. 4317: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4297: 4291: 4290: 4288: 4286: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4260: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4198: 4197: 4177: 4171: 4170: 4168: 4166: 4150: 4144: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4119: 4113: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4057: 4051: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4031: 4025: 4024: 4022: 4020: 3997: 3991: 3990: 3968: 3955: 3954: 3921: 3915: 3908: 3902: 3901: 3867: 3861: 3860: 3803: 3797: 3796: 3766: 3760: 3742: 3736: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3709:. Archived from 3696: 3690: 3689: 3658:. New York, NY: 3651: 3642: 3631: 3625: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3600: 3594: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3555: 3549: 3544:John W. Garver, 3542: 3536: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3507:. Stanford, CA: 3500: 3491: 3490: 3465: 3459: 3458: 3433: 3422: 3421: 3406:. New York, NY: 3399: 3393: 3386: 3380: 3375:Michael Yahuda, 3373: 3367: 3366: 3320: 3305: 3304: 3282: 3267: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3243: 3237: 3236: 3234: 3233: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3201: 3199: 3188:www.fmprc.gov.cn 3177: 3171: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3092: 3086: 3079:Sergey Radchenko 3076: 3070: 3063: 3057: 3040: 3034: 3033: 3010: 3004: 2997: 2991: 2986:Jonathan Fenby, 2984: 2978: 2973:Laura Tyson Li, 2971: 2965: 2958: 2952: 2945: 2939: 2932: 2926: 2920: 2914: 2907: 2901: 2894: 2888: 2881: 2875: 2874: 2841: 2730: 2723: 2717: 2699: 2693: 2690: 2684: 2681: 2675: 2664: 2658: 2651: 2645: 2638: 2632: 2625: 2619: 2612: 2606: 2599: 2593: 2592: 2572: 2566: 2549: 2543: 2536: 2530: 2520: 2514: 2497: 2491: 2488: 2482: 2465: 2459: 2449: 2443: 2436: 2430: 2425:Rhoads Murphey, 2423: 2417: 2410: 2404: 2387: 2381: 2380: 2357: 2351: 2349: 2344: 2342: 2320: 2314: 2312: 2307: 2305: 2283: 2277: 2276: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2229: 2223: 2213: 2207: 2200: 2194: 2187: 2181: 2174: 2168: 2161: 2155: 2148: 2142: 2131: 2125: 2108: 2102: 2099: 2093: 2092: 2072: 2066: 2059: 2053: 2046: 2040: 2033: 2027: 2017: 2011: 2004: 1998: 1991: 1985: 1978: 1972: 1965: 1959: 1952: 1946: 1945:3.2 (1956): 381. 1939: 1853: 1848: 1847: 1846: 1768: 1760: 1422:developing world 1118:Sergey Radchenko 1012:Cairo Conference 1008:unequal treaties 937:Nanjing Massacre 915:Cairo Conference 792:Open Door Policy 748:Republican China 649:Reforms in 1890s 348:(1858), and the 338:unequal treaties 326:Unequal treaties 268:Second Opium War 261:Congreve rockets 239:Second Opium War 167:Following 1949: 89:History of China 77: 70: 66: 63: 57: 50:improve the lead 34: 33: 26: 8159: 8158: 8154: 8153: 8152: 8150: 8149: 8148: 8134: 8133: 8132: 8127: 8099: 8080:Northern Cyprus 8066: 8059: 7801: 7798: 7768: 7763: 7750: 7743: 7736: 7723: 7695: 7613: 7573:Life expectancy 7530: 7434: 7314: 7234:Public holidays 7222:Written Chinese 7207:Intellectualism 7159:Sex trafficking 7107: 7069: 7029: 6858: 6774: 6621: 6612:Nationality law 6595:Law enforcement 6573:Judicial system 6542: 6505: 6479:Nature reserves 6469:Protected areas 6435: 6406:Water resources 6369: 6278: 6216: 6175: 6159:Economic reform 6122:1911 Revolution 6108: 6072:Jin (1115–1234) 5986: 5934: 5894: 5809: 5800: 5770: 5761: 5690:Panda diplomacy 5655:Chinese Century 5603: 5588: 5510: 5491: 5470: 5456:Solomon Islands 5399: 5208: 4954: 4808: 4528: 4517: 4507: 4505: 4435: 4352:Wayback Machine 4325: 4323:Further reading 4320: 4310: 4308: 4306:www.politico.eu 4298: 4294: 4284: 4282: 4272: 4268: 4258: 4256: 4241: 4237: 4227: 4225: 4208: 4204: 4195: 4193: 4186:www.reuters.com 4178: 4174: 4164: 4162: 4159:thediplomat.com 4151: 4147: 4137: 4135: 4120: 4116: 4106: 4104: 4089: 4085: 4075: 4073: 4058: 4054: 4044: 4042: 4032: 4028: 4018: 4016: 3998: 3994: 3987: 3969: 3958: 3943: 3922: 3918: 3912:Current History 3909: 3905: 3890: 3868: 3864: 3833: 3817:. p. 251. 3804: 3800: 3785: 3767: 3763: 3757:Wayback Machine 3743: 3739: 3730: 3726: 3716: 3714: 3697: 3693: 3678: 3652: 3645: 3632: 3628: 3618: 3616: 3601: 3597: 3585: 3581: 3574: 3556: 3552: 3543: 3539: 3533:Restless Empire 3530: 3526: 3519: 3501: 3494: 3487: 3466: 3462: 3455: 3437:Shinn, David H. 3434: 3425: 3418: 3400: 3396: 3387: 3383: 3374: 3370: 3347: 3321: 3308: 3301: 3283: 3270: 3260: 3258: 3245: 3244: 3240: 3231: 3229: 3214: 3210: 3197: 3195: 3194:on 2 March 2009 3184: 3178: 3174: 3168:Wayback Machine 3159: 3155: 3140: 3132:. p. 118. 3122: 3118: 3111: 3093: 3089: 3077: 3073: 3064: 3060: 3055:Wayback Machine 3044:China Quarterly 3041: 3037: 3030: 3011: 3007: 2998: 2994: 2985: 2981: 2972: 2968: 2959: 2955: 2946: 2942: 2933: 2929: 2921: 2917: 2908: 2904: 2895: 2891: 2882: 2878: 2863: 2842: 2733: 2724: 2720: 2714:Wayback Machine 2700: 2696: 2691: 2687: 2682: 2678: 2665: 2661: 2652: 2648: 2639: 2635: 2626: 2622: 2613: 2609: 2600: 2596: 2589: 2573: 2569: 2564:Wayback Machine 2551:Diana Preston, 2550: 2546: 2537: 2533: 2521: 2517: 2512:Wayback Machine 2498: 2494: 2489: 2485: 2480:Wayback Machine 2466: 2462: 2450: 2446: 2437: 2433: 2424: 2420: 2411: 2407: 2402:Wayback Machine 2388: 2384: 2358: 2354: 2340: 2338: 2321: 2317: 2303: 2301: 2284: 2280: 2273: 2259:Lin Su (2017). 2257: 2253: 2246: 2230: 2226: 2214: 2210: 2201: 2197: 2188: 2184: 2175: 2171: 2162: 2158: 2149: 2145: 2132: 2128: 2123:Wayback Machine 2114:(2015): 45-69. 2109: 2105: 2100: 2096: 2089: 2073: 2069: 2060: 2056: 2047: 2043: 2034: 2030: 2018: 2014: 2005: 2001: 1995:Pacific Affairs 1992: 1988: 1979: 1975: 1966: 1962: 1953: 1949: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1849: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1819: 1796:and its sequel 1729:Six-Party talks 1707: 1661: 1607: 1591: 1583:Main articles: 1581: 1518:joint statement 1455: 1453:1970s and 1980s 1417: 1411: 1359: 1343:Main articles: 1341: 1264: 1240: 1185:South China Sea 1160: 1154: 1140: 1134: 1103:Chiang Kai-shek 1070:George Marshall 1066:Harry S. Truman 1062: 1054:Main articles: 1052: 1046:, with a veto. 992:11th Army Group 976:Chiang Kai-shek 972:Joseph Stilwell 896:. By 1938, the 890: 884: 860:Hans von Seeckt 856:Weimar Republic 844: 838: 830:Chiang Kai-Shek 788:Chinese economy 756: 750: 739: 729: 707: 705:Boxer Rebellion 701: 699:Boxer rebellion 681:Guangxu Emperor 671: 651: 595:Empire of Japan 579: 559:Empire of Japan 534:Sino-French War 526: 520: 511:Sino-French War 501:Eleanor Chesnut 481:1911 Revolution 449: 439: 416:; Britain took 397: 391: 334: 328: 249:First Opium War 241: 235:First Opium War 231: 209: 199: 193: 141:Chiang Kai-shek 78: 67: 61: 58: 47: 35: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8157: 8147: 8146: 8129: 8128: 8126: 8125: 8115: 8104: 8101: 8100: 8098: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8071: 8069: 8061: 8060: 8058: 8057: 8052: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7997: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7967: 7962: 7957: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7811: 7809: 7803: 7802: 7797: 7796: 7789: 7782: 7774: 7765: 7764: 7762: 7761: 7756: 7749: 7748: 7741: 7733: 7732: 7729: 7728: 7725: 7724: 7722: 7721: 7716: 7711: 7705: 7703: 7697: 7696: 7694: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7667: 7666: 7661: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7640: 7639: 7634: 7623: 7621: 7615: 7614: 7612: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7600: 7599: 7592: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7544: 7542: 7536: 7535: 7532: 7531: 7529: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7493: 7488: 7483: 7478: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7456:Four Gentlemen 7453: 7448: 7442: 7440: 7439:Fours of China 7433: 7432: 7427: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7376: 7375: 7365: 7360: 7355: 7350: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7324: 7322: 7316: 7315: 7313: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7296: 7295: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7258: 7253: 7252: 7251: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7225: 7224: 7219: 7209: 7204: 7203: 7202: 7197: 7196: 7195: 7180: 7175: 7174: 7173: 7163: 7162: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7125: 7119: 7113: 7112: 7109: 7108: 7106: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7088:Civil aviation 7085: 7079: 7077: 7071: 7070: 7068: 7067: 7062: 7061: 7060: 7050: 7049: 7048: 7037: 7035: 7034:Infrastructure 7031: 7030: 7028: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 7001: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6988:Semiconductors 6985: 6980: 6970: 6968:Historical GDP 6965: 6960: 6955: 6954: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6933: 6932: 6931: 6921: 6920: 6919: 6914: 6904: 6899: 6898: 6897: 6887: 6882: 6876: 6870: 6864: 6863: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6856: 6855: 6854: 6844: 6843: 6842: 6832: 6831: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6784: 6782: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6772: 6767: 6766: 6765: 6760: 6750: 6749: 6748: 6746:Vice President 6738: 6737: 6736: 6726: 6725: 6724: 6723: 6722: 6712: 6711: 6710: 6705: 6690: 6685: 6684: 6683: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6657: 6656: 6646: 6641: 6635: 6633: 6627: 6626: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6603: 6602: 6592: 6591: 6590: 6585: 6575: 6569: 6567: 6554: 6548: 6547: 6544: 6543: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6519: 6517: 6511: 6510: 6507: 6506: 6504: 6503: 6502: 6501: 6496: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6474:National parks 6471: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6454:Climate policy 6451: 6449:Climate change 6445: 6443: 6437: 6436: 6434: 6433: 6432: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6377: 6375: 6371: 6370: 6368: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6355:Central Plains 6344: 6339: 6338: 6337: 6332: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6286: 6284: 6280: 6279: 6277: 6276: 6275: 6274: 6269: 6259: 6258: 6257: 6252: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6226: 6224: 6215: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6202:Extreme points 6199: 6193: 6187: 6181: 6180: 6177: 6176: 6174: 6173: 6172: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6141: 6140: 6139: 6134: 6124: 6118: 6116: 6110: 6109: 6107: 6106: 6105: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6028: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6010:Three Kingdoms 6007: 6002: 5996: 5994: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5984: 5983: 5982: 5980:Warring States 5977: 5972: 5962: 5961: 5960: 5950: 5944: 5942: 5936: 5935: 5933: 5932: 5931: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5910: 5904: 5902: 5896: 5895: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5871: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5840:Historiography 5837: 5832: 5826: 5824: 5817: 5811: 5810: 5799: 5798: 5791: 5784: 5776: 5767: 5766: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5733: 5732: 5727: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5703: 5702: 5692: 5687: 5685:Nine-dash line 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5633: 5621: 5608: 5605: 5604: 5594: 5593: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5574:United Nations 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5554:European Union 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5501: 5500: 5497: 5496: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5489: 5484: 5478: 5476: 5472: 5471: 5469: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5397: 5392: 5390:United Kingdom 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5255:Czech Republic 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5216: 5214: 5210: 5209: 5207: 5206: 5201: 5200: 5199: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5143: 5142: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5101: 5100: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5044: 5043: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4962: 4960: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4816: 4814: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4540: 4538: 4530: 4529: 4519: 4518: 4504: 4503: 4496: 4489: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4467: 4460: 4453: 4446: 4434: 4431: 4430: 4429: 4422: 4415: 4405: 4395: 4388: 4378: 4370:Dian, Matteo. 4368: 4361: 4354: 4337: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4318: 4292: 4266: 4235: 4202: 4172: 4161:. The Diplomat 4145: 4114: 4083: 4052: 4040:hongkongfp.com 4026: 3992: 3985: 3956: 3941: 3935:. p. 16. 3925:Fingar, Thomas 3916: 3903: 3888: 3862: 3831: 3798: 3783: 3761: 3737: 3724: 3691: 3676: 3643: 3626: 3595: 3579: 3572: 3550: 3537: 3524: 3517: 3492: 3485: 3475:. Lanham, MD: 3460: 3453: 3423: 3416: 3394: 3381: 3368: 3345: 3306: 3299: 3289:. Ithaca, NY: 3268: 3238: 3208: 3172: 3153: 3138: 3116: 3109: 3087: 3071: 3058: 3035: 3028: 3005: 2999:Herbert Feis, 2992: 2979: 2966: 2953: 2940: 2927: 2915: 2902: 2889: 2876: 2861: 2845:Zhao, Suisheng 2731: 2718: 2694: 2685: 2676: 2659: 2646: 2642:Yuan Shih-K'Ai 2633: 2629:Yuan Shih-K'Ai 2627:Jerome Ch'en, 2620: 2607: 2594: 2587: 2567: 2544: 2531: 2515: 2492: 2483: 2460: 2452:Robert Bickers 2444: 2431: 2418: 2405: 2382: 2371:(4): 243–259. 2352: 2347:tribute china. 2315: 2278: 2271: 2251: 2244: 2224: 2216:Irma Tam Soong 2208: 2195: 2182: 2169: 2156: 2143: 2126: 2103: 2094: 2087: 2067: 2054: 2041: 2028: 2012: 1999: 1986: 1973: 1960: 1947: 1933: 1931: 1928: 1927: 1926: 1925: 1924: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1899: 1893: 1888: 1883: 1882: 1881: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1855: 1854: 1838: 1835: 1825:sites such as 1821:Engagement on 1818: 1815: 1811:misinformation 1799:Wolf Warrior 2 1706: 1703: 1660: 1657: 1630:militant Islam 1612:Following the 1606: 1603: 1580: 1577: 1454: 1451: 1413:Main article: 1410: 1407: 1387:United Nations 1340: 1337: 1263: 1260: 1252:renmin waijiao 1239: 1236: 1218:government in 1200:United Kingdom 1153: 1150: 1133: 1130: 1108:Soviet leader 1082:some Americans 1074:northern China 1051: 1048: 907: 906: 886:Main article: 883: 880: 837: 834: 823:Wellington Koo 752:Main article: 749: 746: 728: 725: 703:Main article: 700: 697: 670: 667: 650: 647: 599:Russian Empire 578: 575: 555:Joseon Dynasty 522:Main article: 519: 516: 438: 435: 412:; France took 390: 387: 370:British Empire 332:Unequal treaty 330:Main article: 327: 324: 230: 227: 195:Main article: 192: 189: 188: 187: 183: 177: 173: 165: 164: 161: 154: 144: 117: 116: 112: 80: 79: 62:September 2024 39:The article's 38: 36: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8156: 8145: 8142: 8141: 8139: 8124: 8120: 8116: 8114: 8106: 8105: 8102: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8090:South Ossetia 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8072: 8070: 8068: 8062: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7812: 7810: 7808: 7804: 7795: 7790: 7788: 7783: 7781: 7776: 7775: 7772: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7751: 7746: 7742: 7739: 7735: 7734: 7730: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7706: 7704: 7702: 7698: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7665: 7664:Protestantism 7662: 7660: 7657: 7656: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7649:Folk religion 7647: 7645: 7642: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7629: 7628: 7625: 7624: 7622: 7620: 7616: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7597: 7593: 7590: 7586: 7585: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7553:Ethnic groups 7551: 7549: 7546: 7545: 7543: 7541: 7537: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7466:Four Beauties 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7443: 7441: 7437: 7431: 7428: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7374: 7371: 7370: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7325: 7323: 7321: 7317: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7305:Urban society 7303: 7301: 7298: 7294: 7291: 7290: 7289: 7286: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7263: 7262: 7261:Social issues 7259: 7257: 7254: 7250: 7247: 7246: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7239:Rural society 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7214: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7201: 7198: 7194: 7191: 7190: 7189: 7186: 7185: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7172: 7169: 7168: 7167: 7164: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7146: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7139:Chinese Dream 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7114: 7104: 7103:Space program 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7080: 7078: 7076: 7072: 7066: 7063: 7059: 7056: 7055: 7054: 7051: 7047: 7044: 7043: 7042: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7032: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6975: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6938: 6937: 6934: 6930: 6927: 6926: 6925: 6922: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6909: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6896: 6893: 6892: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6877: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6865: 6853: 6850: 6849: 6848: 6845: 6841: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6833: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6805: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6785: 6783: 6781: 6777: 6771: 6768: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6755: 6754: 6753:State Council 6751: 6747: 6744: 6743: 6742: 6739: 6735: 6732: 6731: 6730: 6727: 6721: 6718: 6717: 6716: 6713: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6700: 6699: 6696: 6695: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6682: 6679: 6678: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6639:Civil service 6637: 6636: 6634: 6632: 6628: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6601: 6598: 6597: 6596: 6593: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6580: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6570: 6568: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6549: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6520: 6518: 6516: 6512: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6491: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6446: 6444: 6442: 6438: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6411: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6378: 6376: 6372: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6327: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6287: 6285: 6281: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6264: 6263: 6260: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6247: 6246: 6245:South Central 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6227: 6225: 6223: 6219: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6194: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6182: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6146: 6145: 6142: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6129: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6119: 6117: 6115: 6111: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6032:Jin (266–420) 6030: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6012: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5997: 5995: 5993: 5989: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5967: 5966: 5963: 5959: 5956: 5955: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5941: 5937: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5915: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5905: 5903: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5875:Ethnic groups 5873: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5827: 5825: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5797: 5792: 5790: 5785: 5783: 5778: 5777: 5774: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5722: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5701: 5698: 5697: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5637: 5634: 5630: 5625: 5622: 5618: 5613: 5610: 5609: 5606: 5599: 5595: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5559:Latin America 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5513: 5506: 5502: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5479: 5477: 5475:Former states 5473: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5402: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5211: 5205: 5202: 5198: 5195: 5194: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5141: 5138: 5137: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5099: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5042: 5039: 5038: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4963: 4961: 4957: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4940:United States 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4817: 4815: 4811: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4654:Guinea-Bissau 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4511: 4502: 4497: 4495: 4490: 4488: 4483: 4482: 4479: 4472: 4468: 4465: 4461: 4458: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4436: 4427: 4423: 4420: 4416: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4393: 4390:Goh, Evelyn. 4389: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4366: 4362: 4359: 4355: 4353: 4349: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4326: 4307: 4303: 4296: 4281: 4277: 4270: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4239: 4223: 4219: 4218: 4213: 4206: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4176: 4160: 4156: 4153:Wong, Brian. 4149: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4118: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4087: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4056: 4041: 4037: 4030: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3996: 3988: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3920: 3913: 3907: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3866: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3813:. New Haven: 3812: 3808: 3802: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3765: 3758: 3754: 3751: 3747: 3741: 3734: 3728: 3712: 3708: 3707: 3702: 3695: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3677:9780231207058 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3650: 3648: 3640: 3636: 3630: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3599: 3592: 3588: 3583: 3575: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3554: 3547: 3541: 3534: 3528: 3520: 3518:9781503638815 3514: 3510: 3506: 3499: 3497: 3488: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3464: 3456: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3419: 3417:9780231204477 3413: 3409: 3405: 3398: 3391: 3385: 3378: 3372: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3302: 3300:9781501774157 3296: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3242: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3212: 3205: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3176: 3169: 3165: 3162: 3157: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3120: 3112: 3110:9783838219073 3106: 3102: 3098: 3091: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3068: 3062: 3056: 3052: 3049: 3045: 3039: 3031: 3029:9780393243086 3025: 3021: 3020: 3015: 3009: 3002: 2996: 2989: 2983: 2976: 2970: 2963: 2957: 2950: 2947:Martha Byrd, 2944: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2912: 2906: 2899: 2893: 2886: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2728: 2722: 2715: 2711: 2708: 2704: 2698: 2689: 2680: 2673: 2669: 2663: 2656: 2650: 2643: 2637: 2630: 2624: 2617: 2611: 2604: 2598: 2590: 2588:9781317478072 2584: 2580: 2579: 2571: 2565: 2561: 2558: 2554: 2548: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2525: 2519: 2513: 2509: 2506: 2502: 2496: 2487: 2481: 2477: 2474: 2470: 2464: 2457: 2453: 2448: 2441: 2435: 2429:(1997) p 325. 2428: 2422: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2399: 2396: 2392: 2386: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2356: 2348: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2327: 2319: 2311: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2290: 2282: 2274: 2272:9781351952095 2268: 2264: 2263: 2255: 2247: 2245:9781351532778 2241: 2237: 2236: 2228: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2205: 2199: 2192: 2186: 2179: 2173: 2166: 2163:Miwa Hirono, 2160: 2153: 2147: 2140: 2136: 2130: 2124: 2120: 2117: 2113: 2107: 2098: 2090: 2088:9781134278633 2084: 2080: 2079: 2071: 2064: 2058: 2051: 2045: 2038: 2032: 2026: 2022: 2016: 2009: 2003: 1996: 1990: 1983: 1977: 1970: 1964: 1957: 1951: 1944: 1938: 1934: 1923: 1920: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1903: 1900: 1897: 1894: 1892: 1889: 1887: 1884: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1852: 1841: 1834: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1814: 1812: 1807: 1803: 1801: 1800: 1795: 1794: 1789: 1784: 1782: 1778: 1775: 1772: 1764: 1756: 1752: 1747: 1745: 1744:pariah states 1740: 1738: 1733: 1730: 1725: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1712: 1702: 1699: 1694: 1692: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1656: 1654: 1649: 1647: 1642: 1640: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1622: 1619: 1615: 1610: 1602: 1598: 1596: 1590: 1586: 1576: 1572: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1549: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1524: 1519: 1515: 1514:Kakuei Tanaka 1510: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1495: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1479:Deng Xiaoping 1476: 1472: 1467: 1465: 1461: 1460:Deng Xiaoping 1450: 1448: 1442: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1416: 1406: 1404: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1336: 1333: 1329: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1306: 1301: 1298: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1281:North Vietnam 1278: 1272: 1268: 1259: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1235: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1159: 1144: 1139: 1129: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1110:Joseph Stalin 1106: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1086:United States 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1068:sent General 1067: 1061: 1057: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1027:Dixie Mission 1024: 1020: 1015: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 1000:U.S. Congress 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 962:and over the 961: 960:British India 956: 954: 950: 946: 942: 941:Flying Tigers 938: 934: 933: 932:Time Magazine 928: 924: 923:isolationists 916: 911: 903: 902: 901: 899: 898:United States 895: 889: 879: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 843: 833: 831: 826: 824: 820: 816: 811: 808: 803: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 768: 765: 761: 755: 745: 744: 738: 734: 724: 722: 717: 712: 706: 696: 692: 690: 686: 682: 678: 677: 666: 664: 660: 656: 642: 638: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 574: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 546: 542: 540: 535: 531: 525: 512: 508: 504: 502: 496: 494: 490: 486: 482: 476: 474: 470: 464: 462: 458: 454: 448: 444: 434: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 406:Korean Empire 402: 396: 386: 384: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 336:A series of " 333: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 295: 291: 289: 285: 281: 277: 276:French Empire 273: 269: 264: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 240: 236: 226: 224: 220: 215: 208: 204: 198: 184: 181: 178: 174: 170: 169: 168: 162: 159: 155: 152: 148: 145: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 121: 120: 113: 109: 108: 107: 105: 100: 98: 94: 90: 86: 76: 73: 65: 55: 52:and read the 51: 45: 42: 37: 28: 27: 22: 8035:Turkmenistan 8000:Saudi Arabia 7654:Christianity 7644:Confucianism 7604:Urbanization 7540:Demographics 7516:Gang of Four 7481:Four Symbols 7380:Martial arts 7154:Prostitution 7041:Architecture 6895:Central bank 6763:Vice Premier 6715:United front 6644:Constitution 6600:Penal system 6578:Human rights 6515:Subdivisions 6353: / 6349: / 6272:Southwestern 6267:Northwestern 5970:Western Zhou 5918:Yellow River 5879: 5868:1949–present 5482:Soviet Union 5395:Vatican City 5177:Turkmenistan 5125:Saudi Arabia 4764:South Africa 4754:Sierra Leone 4564:Burkina Faso 4470: 4469:Wang, Dong. 4463: 4456: 4449: 4439: 4425: 4418: 4408: 4398: 4391: 4381: 4371: 4364: 4357: 4340: 4329: 4309:. 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