407:
19:
599:
Israel), mostly farmers, being forced off or abandoning their land in what became Israel—and few of them have been able to return. For example, prior to the war about one-half of the commercially-important citrus orchards near the
Mediterranean coast were owned by Palestinians. Palestinian and Israeli citrus-growers cooperated as members of a Citrus Board. In 1950, after the Palestinian owners had been expelled from their lands, several prominent Jewish citrus growers requested the Israeli government to allow four Palestinians who had been members of the Citrus Board to return and reclaim their property. The Israeli government turned down the request and the former Palestinian citrus orchards remained in Israeli hands.
571:
579:
436:
275:
427:
stimulated the former landowners to invest in modernizing
Palestinian agriculture. Charles S. Kamen doubts that view as many land owners were urban dwellers or not residents of Palestine, although some of the money may have been invested in Palestinian citrus plantations. Palestinians claim that the Jewish land purchases displaced many farmers. Kamen estimates that the displacement amounted to between 10,000 and 30,000 Palestinians.
342:
and vineyards. The settlements were located in the plains near the
Mediterranean coast where Palestinian commercial agriculture was also expanding. This was the most fertile area of Palestine. The emphasis was on citrus production for export to Europe. By 1914, near the end of the Ottoman empire, Jews owned an area of 42,000 ha (100,000 acres) of land, 6.4 percent of cultivated land in Palestine.
398:
of the agricultural exports of the
Palestinian Arabs. Despite the rapid increase in Palestinian citrus cultivation, by 1945, the acreage of Jewish-grown citrus had risen to slightly exceed Palestinian acreage. Palestinian vegetable production continued to be almost triple than of Jewish production. The production of wheat, barley, and olives was dominated by Palestinian farmers.
113:
415:
the Jewish population was mostly due to immigration. Jewish agriculture increased as the Jewish population did. In 1914, the 6.4 percent of cultivated land owned by the "European sector" (predominately Jews) increased in 1941 to 160,480 ha (396,600 acres) of land, 24.5 percent of cultivated land.
426:
peasants in the hills and mountains in the interior. The first Jewish settlements utilized
Palestinian labor, but soon the standard was to employ only Jews on Jewish-owned land even although the cost was higher than when Palestinian labor was used. The Jews claimed that the money they spent for land
397:
was an area of increase in growing olives and producing olive oil. During the mandate period, Palestinian vegetable production increased more than ten-fold, olive production more than doubled, and acreage planted in citrus increased more than seven-fold. Citrus comprised about 40 percent of the value
233:
raids in the lowlands. The highlands were densely populated compared to the lowlands. Many highland villages also owned land in the lowlands and established satellite settlements there. The population in the lowlands increased towards the end of the 19th century as population pressure forced highland
384:
During the mandate period, the typical
Palestinian farmer in the highlands continued to practice subsistence farming of wheat, barley, and millet and continued to have problems of too-small holdings, debt, and uncertain tenancy. "They devoted their energies into holding on to what they had." Yields
366:
to administer
Palestine. The mandate lasted from 1920 to 1948. The mandate "included the incompatible goals" of encouraging settlement of Jews while protecting the rights of the Palestinian Arabs and a small population of European Christians. According to 1922 census, Jews made up 11 percent of the
299:
system reduced risks to peasant communities and encouraged communal cooperation and responsibility. In the late 19th century, the growing dependence of some farmers on selling to local and foreign markets for agricultural products and encouraged the increase in individual entrepreneurs who operated
270:
was allocated and utilized in common by a village or community and parceled out to individuals and peasant families. At intervals of one to five years the peasants redistributed the land usually by lot. Thus, a village farmer did not have rights to a single plot of land, but rather the plot of land
77:
immigrants, with financing and technical assistance from abroad, began to purchase land and establish agricultural settlements in the coastal area of the Holy Land. Jewish farmers focused on producing commercial and export crops such as vegetables and citrus. By 1941, Jews owned 24.5 percent of the
414:
During the mandate period the Jewish population in
Palestine increased much more rapidly than the Arab Palestinians. In 1918, the population of Palestine consisted of about 60,000 Jews and 630,000 non-Jews. By 1947, the population was 630,000 Jews as compared to 1,324,000 non-Jews. The increase in
392:
system of land tenancy in favor of privately owned land) as
Palestinian agriculture increased in diversity. Palestinian production of export and commercial crops increased rapidly. Vegetables (including potatoes, a new crop), olives, and fruit, especially citrus, were the most important commercial
341:
invested in the settlements, encouraging and financing commercial rather than subsistence agriculture and the adoption of modern
European technology. By the year 1900, more than 5,000 Jews were engaged in agriculture and they cultivated 5,500 ha (14,000 acres) of land mostly devoted to grains
241:
Wheat and barley were the most important crops, grown on 75 percent of cultivated land. Yields were best in the northern Jordan valley and the lowland coast with many highland areas having poor yields. Most of the wheat and barley was consumed by the farmers rather than sold. Olive cultivation was
336:
The first Jewish agricultural settlements were established in 1882 after purchasing land from Palestinians. Their inhabitants were eastern European Jews who had little knowledge of agriculture and adopted local practices. The first settlements were in danger of failing, but were saved when banker
375:
system declined from 70 percent in 1917 to 25 percent in 1940. The mandate period is also characterized by the side-by-side existence of the indigenous agricultural systems of Palestinians and the imported technology of Jewish farmers, the rise of capitalism in the agricultural sector, the rapid
610:
This displacement and disruption caused the near disappearance of Palestinian agriculture in Israel and the replacement of Palestinian farmers by Israelis. In the Palestinian territories (and since 1988 the State of Palestine), much farmland has been occupied by Israeli settlers. Concurrently,
598:
resulted in the partition of Palestine into the independent state of Israel, inhabited primarily by Jews, and the Palestinian territories, inhabited primarily by Palestinian Arabs. The wars resulted in 700,000 Palestinians (85 percent of the Palestinian population living within the borders of
443:
In 1943, 91.7 percent of crop land was rainfed and 8.3 percent was irrigated. Most of the Jewish land was cultivated in commercial and export crops while most Palestinians continued to practice subsistence farming growing wheat, barley, and olives. The acreage devoted to crops (including both
327:
system were impoverished by government policy hostile to the continuation of collective land tenure, higher taxes, indebtedness, and increased pressure on the land due to population growth. Land was increasingly owned by large investors, many of whom were not resident in Palestine.
271:
he cultivated changed every few years. The redistribution process tended to equalize the economic possibilities of each peasant. A peasant allocated a poor plot of land might find himself with a better plot of land with the redistribution and vice versa.
249:
Theoretically, almost all the agricultural land in the empire was owned by the Ottoman state, but inheritable rights to use the land was granted to individuals and villages. The most important systems of land tenure for agriculture in Palestine were
290:
system is often criticized as inefficient and hindering agricultural progress. Given the periodic redistribution of land, the peasant had no incentive to improve the land he was cultivating. The opposite view is that no evidence proves that the
234:
farmers to migrate and the Ottomans pushed the Bedouin tribes eastward beyond the Jordan River. Opportunities to profit from commercial agriculture for export also motivated highlanders to move toward the Mediterranean Coast on the west and the
89:
in 1947–1948 resulted in a war in which most Palestinian farmers living in Israel were dispossessed of their land which was subsequently farmed by Israelis. More land farmed by Palestinians in the Palestinian territories (and subsequent
607:(221,000 ha (550,000 acres)) Israel claimed was brought into cultivation after the 1948 war was agricultural land that belonged to and had been cultivated by the Palestinians before their displacement from the land during the war.
611:
Israeli policies limiting Palestinian access to land, water, markets, and technology have been detrimental to Palestinian Arab farmers and favorable to Israeli settlers in Palestine, a situation which endures into the 21st century.
370:
The British conducted surveys and implemented policies to convert land cultivated in common by Palestinian communities into private property. As a consequence, the percentage of land cultivated by Palestinian communities in the
602:
The value of the agricultural land of the Palestinians lost to the Israelis was valued in 1996 at between 2.2 and 2.6 billion dollars (1993 dollars), about $ 5 billion in 2023. Eighty percent of the 2,185,000
393:
crops. As opposed to grain production in the highlands, most commercial agriculture was on the plains near the Mediterranean Sea and irrigation was commonly used to make up deficits in precipitation. Inland
38:
dates back to 8000 BCE and some of the earliest agricultural settlements in the world. Several of the crops grown by the earliest farmers continued to be important throughout the long history of
312:. The Ottomans aimed to increase its revenue from taxation and to exert more control over land. Jewish settlers who wished to buy land in Palestine beginning about 1880 found the
238:
and Jordan River on the east. The years after 1856 were a period of economic growth for Palestine, especially for agricultural exports to Europe and regional markets.
218:(1914–1918). Under pressure from European rivals and steeped in a traditional system, the Ottomans attempted a modernization and reform of their society during the
422:
objective of creating a Jewish state. The Jews mostly purchased land from large landowners on the plains near the fertile Mediterranean coast rather than from the
1120:
225:
In the mid 19th century most Palestinians lived in the hills and mountains that run down the center of the region. This was due to the prevalence of
202:
added apples, citrus, and sesame to the list of important Palestinian crops. Cotton and sesame were exported to Europe from the 16th century onward.
1546:
385:
of the grain crops varied greatly from year to year and imports were necessary to make up deficits in the demand for grain for local consumption.
376:
increase in the Jewish population due to immigration, and the progress in growing and marketing cash crops by both Jewish and Palestinian farmers.
406:
1604:
1584:
179:
but were introduced into Palestine during the first millennium BCE. The early farmers of Palestine had four important domesticated animals:
98:. Israeli policies limiting the supply of water, access to farmland, and other factors of production have impacted Palestinian agriculture.
1391:
1283:
1589:
591:
18:
367:
population of 750,000 in the British mandate with Palestinians, both Muslims and Christians, making up almost all of the remainder.
316:
system inconsistent with their preference for clear titles and boundaries to land. The British continued the effort to eliminate
1599:
551:
246:. Citrus production expanded in the latter decades of the 19th century near the Mediterranean and was an important export.
62:
are an important traditional crop. In the late 19th century Palestinians began to grow commercial and export crops such as
222:
period beginning in 1839. Among the reforms was a 1867 law which permitted foreigners to own land in the Ottoman empire.
78:
cultivated land in Palestine. Most Palestinians continued to live in the highlands and practice subsistence agriculture.
198:
who cited olives, cotton, grapes, and sugar cane among the crops of the region. In the 16th century, Franciscan priest
1530:
1505:
1442:
936:
565:
351:
278:
In the 19th and early 20th century most Palestinian Arabs lived in the hilly interior. Photo dated 1922, taken near
127:
in Palestine, is one of the oldest agricultural settlements in the world dating to 8,000 BCE or earlier. Eight
70:
coast. Large landowners, both resident and non-resident, owned a large part of the land, especially near the coast.
242:
common or poorer lands in the highlands both for home use and as a cash crop. Grapes were grown in the vicinity of
1579:
723:
1594:
816:
Deringil, Selim (1993). "The Invention of Tradition as Public Image in the Late Ottoman Empire, 1808 to 1908".
561:
58:
were their most important crops and were grown primarily for subsistence rather than the commercial market.
22:
A 1924 survey of Palestinian land. The best agricultural land is colored purple and is near the coast from
1466:
194:
The importance of Palestinian agriculture was attested in the 10th century by the Palestinian geographer
570:
697:
309:
86:
757:
266:
land made up only a small percentage of agricultural land. The larger percentage of land called
107:
960:
595:
555:
363:
338:
262:
a land tenure system that roughly corresponds to the European concept of private property.
1094:"The Beginnings of Modern Jewish Agriculture in Palestine: "Indigenous" versus "Imported""
8:
987:
578:
833:
95:
91:
659:
1526:
1501:
1438:
932:
837:
355:
199:
67:
30:. Tan and brown shaded land is of medium quality. The poorest land is colored yellow.
1609:
928:
Little Common Ground: Arab Agriculture and Jewish Settlement in Palestine 1920-1948
825:
731:
671:
435:
628:
167:
tree may have been domesticated even earlier, possibly around 9000 BCE. The
46:
discouraged, with limited success, the long-standing communal land system called
1121:"Creating Facts of the Ground: Agriculture in Israel and Palestine (1882-2000)"
583:
300:
in a monetary economy rather than the collective and traditional nature of the
211:
176:
43:
829:
1573:
735:
388:
However, the share of farmland devoted to growing grain declined (as did the
359:
132:
128:
675:
304:. The Ottoman government attempted, without much success, to eliminate the
156:
124:
39:
215:
136:
94:) has since been gained by Israel as a result of wars and uprisings and
1174:
1093:
1050:
883:
852:
786:
724:"The Citrus Route Revealed: From Southeast Asia into the Mediterranean"
410:
Jewish-owned land (blue and green) in Palestine as of 31 December 1944.
195:
295:
system was less efficient than individual land-holdings and that the
274:
1357:
926:
279:
235:
219:
152:
27:
1432:
419:
394:
230:
226:
144:
120:
418:
Agriculture and the acquisition of agricultural land served the
931:. Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press. pp. 135, 156.
604:
243:
172:
140:
82:
74:
63:
55:
1437:. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. pp. 118–119, 123.
988:"Reconsidering peasant communes in the Levant, c. 1850s-1940s"
961:"Enclosures from Below: The Mushaa' in Contemporary Palestine"
658:
Kislev, Mordechai E.; Hartmann, Anat; Bar-Yosef, Ofer (2006).
131:
were grown at that time or shortly thereafter: three cereals (
188:
168:
59:
23:
1358:"The Alientation of a Homeland: How Palestine Became Israel"
574:
Garden plots and orchards in the State of Palestine in 2016.
1392:"Palestine, Israel and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Primer"
1032:
1030:
1017:
1015:
1013:
787:"The Agricultural Exports of Southern Palestine, 1885-1914"
323:
By the end of the Ottoman period, the small farmers of the
184:
180:
160:
51:
1284:"Jewish and Non-Jewish Population of Israel and Palestine"
112:
1467:"Agricultural Property and the 1948 Palestinian Refugees"
1412:
758:"Studies in Zionism: Palestines Rural Economy, 1917-1929"
214:
conquered the Palestinian region in 1516 and ruled until
164:
148:
1325:
1264:
1204:
1027:
1010:
282:
with Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea in the distance.
1313:
1192:
906:
657:
320:
after they overthrew Ottoman rule during World War I.
1525:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 252–258.
1276:
1337:
1301:
1252:
1240:
1228:
1216:
1155:
1143:
1073:
331:
884:"The Economic Development of Palestine, 1856-1882"
1571:
444:Palestinian and Jewish land) was the following.
1424:
620:
379:
81:The partition of Palestine into the country of
1498:Facts and Fables (RLE Israel and Palestinians)
1430:
660:"Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley"
439:An olive orchard in as-Samu, Palestine (2015)
1383:
1051:"The Development of Capitalism in Palestine"
627:Weiss, Ehud; Zohary, Daniel (October 2011).
1167:
651:
626:
171:tree was domesticated about 6000 BCE.
54:farmers living in the highlands. Wheat and
1547:"Resilience Series: Agriculture in Area C"
818:Comparative Studies in Society and History
728:American Society for Horticultural Science
1431:Karlinsky, Nahum; Kabha, Mustafa (2021).
1091:
1085:
1048:
1042:
1036:
958:
952:
853:"The Peasantry of Late Ottoman Palestine"
629:"Neolithic Southwest Asian Founder Crops"
1389:
1355:
1349:
815:
698:"The Origins of the Olive Tree Revealed"
577:
569:
434:
405:
273:
111:
42:agriculture. In the 19th century CE the
17:
1523:A History of the First Arab-Israeli War
1500:. New York: Routledge. pp. 38–39.
881:
784:
1572:
1520:
1514:
1495:
1489:
1418:
1343:
1319:
1307:
1198:
1161:
1149:
1118:
912:
875:
850:
778:
1605:1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight
1585:Agriculture in the State of Palestine
1464:
1458:
1331:
1270:
1258:
1246:
1234:
1222:
1210:
1079:
1021:
985:
979:
924:
918:
844:
552:Agriculture in the State of Palestine
401:
1539:
749:
689:
545:
101:
721:
36:history of agriculture in Palestine
13:
1554:United Nations Development Program
345:
14:
1621:
1590:Economy of the State of Palestine
755:
695:
566:Economy of the State of Palestine
533:435,700 ha (1,077,000 acres)
352:dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
1471:Explorations in Economic History
639:(Supplement 4): S237, S247, S250
332:Beginnings of Jewish agriculture
1179:Economic Cooperation Foundation
1112:
475:118,200 ha (292,000 acres)
464:133,400 ha (330,000 acres)
430:
205:
1365:Journal of Libertarian Studies
809:
715:
519:43,700 ha (108,000 acres)
486:83,100 ha (205,000 acres)
1:
1600:History of Palestine (region)
1356:Halbrook, Stephen P. (1981).
614:
562:Olive production in Palestine
508:26,700 ha (66,000 acres)
497:30,600 ha (76,000 acres)
354:after World War I led to the
50:practiced by the Palestinian
1496:Wright, Clifford A. (2015).
1390:Beinen, Joel; Hajjar, Lisa.
1119:Temper, Leah (August 2009).
1055:Journal of Palestine Studies
888:Journal of Palestine Studies
857:Journal of Palestine Studies
791:Journal of Palestine Studies
456:percentage of total acreage
380:Palestinian Arab agriculture
7:
882:Scholch, Alexander (1981).
785:Buheiry, Marwan R. (1981).
453:hectares cultivated (acres)
10:
1626:
1175:"1922 Census of Palestine"
925:Kamen, Charles S. (1991).
559:
549:
105:
959:Alkhalili, Noura (2017).
830:10.1017/S0010417500018247
66:in the lowlands near the
1465:Lewis, Frank D. (1996).
736:10.21273/HORTSCI11023-16
1092:Aaronsohn, Ran (1995).
992:Economic History Review
676:10.1126/science.1125910
87:Palestinian territories
1580:History of agriculture
1521:Morris, Benny (2009).
1399:University of Michigan
1288:Jewish Virtual Library
851:Reilly, James (1981).
592:civil war in Palestine
590:The post-World War II
587:
575:
483:Orchards and vineyards
440:
411:
283:
117:
108:History of agriculture
31:
1595:Agriculture in Israel
1049:Zu'bi, Nahia (1984).
596:1948 Arab-Israeli War
581:
573:
556:Agriculture in Israel
438:
409:
277:
115:
106:Further information:
21:
1098:Agricultural History
986:Nadan, Amos (2020).
730:. pp. 814–822.
633:Current Anthropology
339:Edmond de Rothschild
175:trees originated in
1421:, pp. 252–258.
1334:, pp. 150–159.
1273:, pp. 205–209.
1213:, pp. 195–198.
1024:, pp. 136–137.
702:Scientific American
670:(5778): 1372–2374.
96:Israeli settlements
1100:: 438–439, 481–482
756:Stein, Kenneth W.
588:
586:of Israel in 2010.
576:
441:
412:
402:Jewish agriculture
284:
229:and the danger of
118:
92:State of Palestine
32:
1322:, pp. 80–83.
1201:, pp. 78–79.
915:, pp. 83–85.
546:Partition and war
543:
542:
356:League of Nations
200:Francesco Suriano
102:Early agriculture
68:Mediterranean Sea
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1434:The Lost Orchard
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1125:Historia Agraria
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824:(1): 6, 11, 22.
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765:Emory University
762:
753:
747:
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722:Langgut, Dafna.
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310:land law of 1858
143:); four pulses (
116:Jericho, c. 1900
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1261:, pp. 200.
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1047:
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1039:, pp. 5–7.
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550:Main articles:
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346:British mandate
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1275:
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1249:, p. 205.
1239:
1237:, p. 207.
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1225:, p. 206.
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1191:
1166:
1154:
1142:
1111:
1084:
1072:
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1037:Alkhalili 2017
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998:(1): 34, 55–56
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917:
905:
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584:Jezreel Valley
582:Fields in the
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212:Ottoman empire
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177:Southeast Asia
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44:Ottoman Empire
9:
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206:Ottoman rule
193:
157:bitter vetch
125:Jordan River
119:
80:
72:
47:
35:
33:
26:to south of
15:
1419:Morris 2009
1344:Temper 2009
1320:Temper 2009
1308:Temper 2009
1199:Temper 2009
1162:Temper 2009
1150:Reilly 1981
913:Reilly 1981
216:World War I
137:emmer wheat
123:, near the
40:Palestinian
1574:Categories
1332:Kamen 1991
1271:Kamen 1991
1259:Kamen 1991
1247:Kamen 1991
1235:Kamen 1991
1223:Kamen 1991
1211:Kamen 1991
1080:Kamen 1991
1061:(4): 93–95
1022:Kamen 1991
894:(3): 57–58
863:(4): 82–83
797:(4): 65–66
615:References
560:See also:
494:Vegetables
196:Al-Maqdisi
838:145056061
308:with its
183:, sheep,
153:chickpeas
73:In 1882,
1559:14 March
1481:15 March
1450:15 March
1404:15 March
1375:14 March
1371:(4): 368
1293:10 March
1184:14 March
1135:15 March
1104:15 March
1065:14 March
1002:14 March
971:14 March
965:Antipode
944:14 March
898:10 March
867:10 March
801:10 March
770:10 March
741:10 March
681:10 March
594:and the
280:Ramallah
260:mafrouz,
236:Dead Sea
220:Tanzimat
85:and the
28:Tel Aviv
1610:Zionism
1131:: 69–98
707:8 March
664:Science
643:8 March
424:musha'a
420:Zionist
395:Galilee
390:musha'a
373:musha'a
364:mandate
358:giving
325:musha'a
318:musha'a
314:musha'a
306:musha'a
302:musha'a
297:musha'a
293:musha'a
288:musha'a
268:musha'a
264:Mafrouz
256:masha'a
252:musha'a
231:Bedouin
227:malaria
159:), and
145:lentils
133:Einkorn
121:Jericho
48:musha'a
1529:
1504:
1441:
935:
836:
605:dunums
538:100.0%
522:10.0%
505:Citrus
489:19.1%
478:27.1%
472:Barley
467:30.6%
258:) and
254:(also
244:Hebron
189:camels
187:, and
173:Citrus
155:, and
141:barley
83:Israel
75:Jewish
64:citrus
60:Olives
56:barley
1550:(PDF)
1395:(PDF)
1361:(PDF)
967:: 4–5
834:S2CID
761:(PDF)
528:Total
516:Other
511:6.1%
500:7.0%
461:Wheat
181:goats
169:olive
24:Haifa
1561:2024
1527:ISBN
1502:ISBN
1483:2024
1452:2024
1439:ISBN
1406:2024
1377:2024
1295:2024
1186:2024
1137:2024
1106:2024
1067:2024
1004:2024
973:2024
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933:ISBN
900:2024
869:2024
803:2024
772:2024
743:2024
709:2024
683:2024
645:2024
564:and
554:and
450:Crop
350:The
286:The
210:The
185:oxen
163:The
161:flax
149:peas
139:and
135:and
52:Arab
34:The
1477:(2)
826:doi
732:doi
672:doi
668:312
637:522
165:fig
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674::
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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