5348:
8173:
53:
6340:
7236:" was stamped in their identity cards. Numerous restrictions and prohibitions targeting Jews were introduced and brutally enforced. For example, Jews were forbidden to walk on the sidewalks, use public transport, or enter places of leisure, sports arenas, theaters, museums and libraries. On the street, Jews had to lift their hat to passing Germans. By the end of 1941 all Jews in German-occupied Poland, except the children, had to wear an identifying badge with a blue Star of David. Rabbis were humiliated in "spectacles organised by the German soldiers and police" who used their rifle butts "to make these men dance in their praying shawls." The Germans "disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate", made little attempts to set up a collaborationist government in Poland, nevertheless, German
7551:
4543:
7472:
7686:
6764:. This religious-based antisemitism was sometimes joined with an ultra-nationalistic stereotype of Jews as disloyal to the Polish nation. On the eve of World War II, many typical Polish Christians believed that there were far too many Jews in the country, and the Polish government became increasingly concerned with the "Jewish question". According to the British Embassy in Warsaw, in 1936 emigration was the only solution to the Jewish question that found wide support in all Polish political parties. The Polish government condemned wanton violence against the Jewish minority, fearing international repercussions, but shared the view that the Jewish minority hindered Poland's development; in January 1937 Foreign Minister
6609:
7222:
6601:, meant that the situation of Jewish Poles was never very satisfactory, and it deteriorated again after Piłsudski's death in May 1935, which many Jews regarded as a tragedy. The Jewish industries were negatively affected by the development of mass production and the advent of department stores offering ready-made products. The traditional sources of livelihood for the estimated 300,000 Jewish family-run businesses in the country began to vanish, contributing to a growing trend toward isolationism and internal self-sufficiency. The difficult situation in the private sector led to enrolment growth in higher education. In 1923 the Jewish students constituted 62.9% of all students of
7851:
7244:
5916:
8327:
confiscated by the Nazis, suggest "abandoned property" was equivalent to "Jewish property". According to Łukasz Krzyżanowski, the state actively sought to gain control over a large number of "abandoned" properties. According to Krzyżanowski, this declaration of "abandoned" property can be seen as the last stage of the expropriation process that began during the German wartime occupation; by approving the status-quo shaped by the German occupation authorities, the Polish authorities became "the beneficiary of the murder of millions of its Jewish citizens, who were deprived of all their property before death". A 1945 memorandum by the
4150:
4669:
4989:
that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle-workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, culminating in a series of false "Messianic" movements, most famously as
3913:
7492:
12881:. On 5 October 1935, the Polish delegate in the economic committee of the League of Nations presented the Jewish issue as 'requiring quick preventive measures.' In 1937, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs viewed the League of Nations as the right place for manifesting its support for the cause of developing a Jewish state in Palestine. This had been declared at the League by Foreign Minister Józef Beck.11 He also supported the idea of an international conference and campaign for organizing and facilitating Jewish emigration.12 Talks were held with British Foreign Secretary
7488:
the death penalty. Another law implemented by the
Germans was that Poles were forbidden from buying from Jewish shops, and if they did they were subject to execution. Many Jews tried to escape from the ghettos in the hope of finding a place to hide outside of it, or of joining the partisan units. When this proved difficult escapees often returned to the ghetto on their own. If caught, Germans would murder the escapees and leave their bodies in plain view as a warning to others. Despite these terror tactics, attempts at escape from ghettos continued until their liquidation.
5204:
8768:
8672:. The leaders of the Communist party tried to stifle the ongoing protests and unrest by scapegoating the Jews. At the same time there was an ongoing power struggle within the party itself and the antisemitic campaign was used by one faction against another. The so-called "Partisan" faction blamed the Jews who had held office during the Stalinist period for the excesses that had occurred, but the result was that most of the remaining Polish Jews, regardless of their background or political affiliation, were targeted by the communist authorities.
6207:
4848:
7044:
9010:
8856:
7395:
4366:, which, among other things, abolished the ancient privileges of the Jews "as contrary to divine right and the law of the land." Nevertheless, the king continued to offer his protection to the Jews. Two years later Casimir issued another document announcing that he could not deprive the Jews of his benevolence on the basis of "the principle of tolerance which in conformity with God's laws obliged him to protect them". The policy of the government toward the Jews of Poland oscillated under Casimir's sons and successors,
4392:
8948:
6975:
7594:
6090:
7021:
military, suffered equally at the hands of the Soviet occupiers. Whatever initial enthusiasm for the Soviet occupation Jews might have felt was soon dissipated upon feeling the impact of the suppression of Jewish societal modes of life by the occupiers. The tensions between ethnic Poles and Jews as a result of this period has, according to some historians, taken a toll on relations between Poles and Jews throughout the war, creating until this day, an impasse to Polish–Jewish rapprochement.
7790:
5972:
7969:
6504:
6940:. Jews under German occupation were immediately maltreated, beaten, publicly executed, and even burnt alive in the synagogue. As a result 350,000 Polish Jews fled from the German-occupied area to the Soviet area. Upon annexing the region, the Soviet government recognized as Soviet citizens Jews (and other non-Poles) who were permanent residents of the area, while offering refugees the choice of either taking on Soviet citizenship or returning to their former homes.
7815:– the Jews and the Polish bandits succeeded in repelling the participating units, including tanks and armored cars, by a well-prepared concentration of fire. (...) The main Jewish battle group, mixed with Polish bandits, had already retired during the first and second day to the so-called Muranowski Square. There, it was reinforced by a considerable number of Polish bandits. Its plan was to hold the Ghetto by every means in order to prevent us from invading it.
5734:
6744:, declared an "economic war against Jews", while introducing the term "Christian shop". As a result a boycott of Jewish businesses grew intensively. A national movement to prevent the Jews from kosher slaughter of animals, with animal rights as the stated motivation, was also organized. Violence was also frequently aimed at Jewish stores, and many of them were looted. At the same time, persistent economic boycotts and harassment, including property-destroying
7700:
7145:
5128:, along with others, demanded that the inviolability of their persons and property should be guaranteed and that religious toleration should be to a certain extent granted them; but he insisted that Jews living in the cities should be separated from the Christians, that those of them having no definite occupation should be banished from the kingdom, and that even those engaged in agriculture should not be allowed to possess land. On the other hand, some
4329:
6148:
6846:
8364:
both Jewish and Polish population and massive destruction caused by Nazi
Germany, as well as the expansion of Soviet Union and communism into Polish territories after the war, which dictated the property laws for the next 50 years. Poland remains "the only EU country and the only former Eastern European communist state not to have enacted law," but rather "a patchwork of laws and court decisions promulgated from 1945-present." As stated by
4018:
4638:. In part it was also caused due to mass migration of the Jews to Ruthenia and their role perceived by local population and in turn led to multiple Cossack uprisings. The largest one of them started in 1648 and was followed by several conflicts, in which the country lost over a third of its population (over three million people). The Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these large-scale atrocities was the
171:
5621:
5287:
5539:
7289:) were tortured and beaten to death by members of the local population. The full extent of Polish participation in the massacres of the Polish Jewish community remains a controversial subject, in part due to Jewish leaders' refusal to allow the remains of the Jewish victims to be exhumed and their cause of death to be properly established. The Polish Institute for National Remembrance identified twenty-two other towns that had
179:
5898:
8986:. The synagogue, the sole synagogue in Oświęcim to survive World War II and an adjacent Jewish cultural and educational center, provide visitors a place to pray and to learn about the active pre–World War II Jewish community that existed in Oświęcim. The synagogue was the first communal property in the country to be returned to the Jewish community under the 1997 law allowing for restitution of Jewish communal property.
8757:
1253:
4571:– witnessed the appearance of "a virtual galaxy of sparkling intellectual figures." Jewish academies were established in Lublin, Kraków, Brześć (Brisk), Lwów, Ostróg and other towns. Poland-Lithuania was the only country in Europe where the Jews cultivated their own farmer's fields. The central autonomous body that regulated Jewish life in Poland from the middle of the 16th to mid-18th century was known as the
6801:(the military branch of the Revisionist Zionist movement) in the form of military training and weapons. According to Irgun activists, the Polish state supplied the organisation with 25,000 rifles, additional material and weapons, and by summer 1939 Irgun's Warsaw warehouses held 5,000 rifles and 1,000 machine guns. The training and support by Poland would allow the organisation to mobilise 30,000-40,000 men.
16481:
1264:
8746:
8511:, functioned between 1945 and 1948 until it was absorbed by the CKŻP. Eleven independent political Jewish parties, of which eight were legal, existed until their dissolution during 1949–50. Hospitals and schools were opened in Poland by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and ORT to provide service to Jewish communities. Some Jewish cultural institutions were established including the
6967:
communities tended to rely more on commerce and small-scale businesses, the confiscations of property affected them to a greater degree than the general populace. The Soviet rule resulted in near collapse of the local economy, characterized by insufficient wages and general shortage of goods and materials. The Jews, like other inhabitants of the region, saw a fall in their living standards.
7882:
5069:
16811:
8336:
properties; and completing the restitution process, given that most properties were already occupied, required additional, lengthy processes. The majority of Jewish claimants could not afford the restitution process without financial help, due to the filing costs, legal fees, and inheritance tax. While it is hard to determine the total number of successful reclamations,
8228:
Jewish schools were created in the few towns containing a relatively large Jewish population, many Jewish children were enrolled in Polish state schools. Some state schools, as in the town of Otwock, forbade Jewish children to enroll. In the state schools that did allow Jewish children, there were numerous accounts of beatings and persecution targeting these children.
7874:
Jews who continued living in the ruined ghetto. Many of them survived thanks to the contacts they managed to establish with Poles outside the ghetto. The
Uprising inspired Jews throughout Poland. Many Jewish leaders who survived the liquidation continued underground work outside the ghetto. They hid other Jews, forged necessary documents and were active in the
8127:
Soviet war dead. For decades to come, the Soviet authorities refused to accept the fact that thousands of Jews who remained in the USSR opted consciously and unambiguously for Polish nationality. At the end of 1944, the number of Polish Jews in the Soviet and the Soviet-controlled territories has been estimated at 250,000–300,000 people. Jews who escaped to
7032:. As a result of these factors they found it easy after 1939 to participate in the Soviet occupation administration in Eastern Poland, and briefly occupied prominent positions in industry, schools, local government, police and other Soviet-installed institutions. The concept of "Judeo-communism" was reinforced during the period of the Soviet occupation (see
6182:
Yiddish as their first language, and only 12% listed Polish, with the remaining 9% being Hebrew. In contrast, the overwhelming majority of German-born Jews of this period spoke German as their first language. During the school year of 1937–1938 there were 226 elementary schools and twelve high schools as well as fourteen vocational schools with either
6664:) introduced in 1937 in some universities, halved the number of Jews in Polish universities between independence (1918) and the late 1930s. The restrictions were so inclusive that – while the Jews made up 20.4% of the student body in 1928 – by 1937 their share was down to only 7.5%, out of the total population of 9.75% Jews in the country according to
6554:. Economic instability was mirrored by anti-Jewish sentiment in the press; discrimination, exclusion, and violence at the universities; and the appearance of "anti-Jewish squads" associated with some of the right-wing political parties. These developments contributed to a greater support among the Jewish community for Zionist and socialist ideas.
8478:(PPS) and gained its first and only parliamentary seat in its Polish history, plus several seats in municipal councils. Under pressure from Soviet-installed communist authorities, the Bund's leaders 'voluntarily' disbanded the party in 1948–1949 against the opposition of many activists. Stalinist Poland was basically governed by the Soviet
8322:, the 1945 and 1946 laws governing restitution were enacted with the intention of restricting Jewish restitution claims as one of their main goals. The 1946 law carried a deadline of 31 December 1947 (later extended to 31 December 1948), after which unclaimed property devolved to the Polish state; many survivors residing in the USSR or in
8681:. The campaign damaged Poland's reputation abroad, particularly in the U.S. Many Polish intellectuals, however, were disgusted at the promotion of official antisemitism and opposed the campaign. Some of the people who emigrated to the West at this time founded organizations that encouraged anti-Communist opposition inside Poland.
4146:
Christians would be subordinated to them, and forbade them from building more than one prayer house in each town. However, those church decrees required the cooperation of the Polish princes for enforcement, which was generally not forthcoming, due to the profits which the Jews' economic activity yielded to the princes.
14023:. Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005): 711–746. "Because of a lack of interest on the part of the Nazi leadership, there was no basis for state collaboration. On the contrary, overtures even by Polish fascists and other staunch anti-Semites were rebuffed by the occupiers." For the follow-up see: abstract of John Connelly
4090:(or Magdeburg Law), a charter given to Jews, among others, that specifically outlined the rights and privileges that Jews had in Poland. For example, they could maintain communal autonomy, and live according to their own laws. This made it very attractive for Jewish communities to pick up and move to Poland.
7320:' views of Polish behavior during the War span a wide range, depending on their personal experiences. Some are very negative, based on the view of Christian Poles as passive witnesses who failed to act and aid the Jews as they were being persecuted or liquidated by the Nazis. Poles, who were also victims of
14031:, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005). Quote: John Connelly "suggests that even those cases that Friedrich documents do not make Poland into a collaborationist country. In fact, the Nazis were disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate." The American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, 2005.
8247:. The exact number of Jewish victims is a subject of debate with 327 documented cases, and range, estimated by different writers, from 400 to 2,000. Jews constituted between 2% and 3% of the total number of victims of postwar violence in the country, including the Polish Jews who managed to escape the
4443:, or autonomous Jewish community. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". According to some sources, about three-quarters of all Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. In the 16h and 17th centuries, Poland welcomed Jewish immigrants from
15287:
The most intense battles took place in the east but the fighting was not limited to this region; all over the country, partisans clashed with communist security forces. Repressions increased in the winter of 1945/46 and spring of 1946, when entire villages were burnt. The fighting lasted with varying
9920:
There were people everywhere who were prepared, for whatever motives, to do the Nazis' work for them. And if there was more anti-Semitism in Poland than in many other countries, there was also less collaboration.... The Nazis generally preferred not to count on outbursts of 'emotional anti-Semitism',
9242:
give a larger number of Jews living in contemporary Poland. In the 2011 Polish census, 7,353 Polish citizens declared their nationality as "Jewish," a big increase from just 1,055 during the previous 2002 census. There are likely more people of Jewish ancestry living in Poland but who do not actively
8821:
although not many of them are still active in their original religious role. Stara
Synagoga ("Old Synagogue") in Kraków, which hosts a Jewish museum, was built in the early 15th century and is the oldest synagogue in Poland. Before the war, the Yeshiva Chachmei in Lublin was Europe's largest. In 2007
8335:
Many of the properties that were previously owned or by Jews were taken over by others during the war. Attempting to reclaim an occupied property often put the claimant at a risk of physical harm and even death. Many who proceeded with the process were only granted possession, not ownership, of their
7873:
A group of fighters escaped from the ghetto through the sewers and reached the
Lomianki forest. About 50 ghetto fighters were saved by the Polish "People's Guard" and later formed their own partisan group, named after Anielewicz. Even after the end of the uprising there were still several hundreds of
6783:
and other international venues, proposing increased emigration quotas and opposing the
Partition Plan of Palestine on behalf of Zionist activists. As Jabotinsky envisioned in his "Evacuation Plan" the settlement of 1.5 million East European Jews within 10 years in Palestine, including 750,000 Polish
6716:
enjoyed considerable prominence also, with 90% of small businesses in the city owned and operated by the Jews including tinsmiths, locksmiths, jewellers, tailors, hat makers, hairdressers, carpenters, house painters and wallpaper installers, shoemakers, as well as most of the artisan bakers and clock
6675:
Although many Jews were educated, they were almost completely excluded from government jobs; as a result, the proportion of unemployed Jewish salary earners was approximately four times as great in 1929 as the proportion of unemployed non-Jewish salary earners, a situation compounded by the fact that
6107:
began, Poland had the largest concentration of Jews in Europe although many Polish Jews had a separate culture and ethnic identity from
Catholic Poles. Some authors have stated that only about 10% of Polish Jews during the interwar period could be considered "assimilated" while more than 80% could be
6007:
that allegations of pogroms were exaggerated. It identified eight incidents in the years 1918–1919 out of 37 mostly empty claims for damages, and estimated the number of victims at 280. Four of these were attributed to the actions of deserters and undisciplined individual soldiers; none was blamed on
4735:
The environment of the Polish
Commonwealth, according to Hundert, profoundly affected Jews due to genuinely positive encounter with the Christian culture across the many cities and towns owned by the Polish aristocracy. There was no isolation. The Jewish dress resembled that of their Polish neighbor.
4731:
As soon as the disturbances had ceased, the Jews began to return and to rebuild their destroyed homes; and while it is true that the Jewish population of Poland had decreased, it still was more numerous than that of the Jewish colonies in
Western Europe. Poland continued to be the spiritual center of
4104:
on the one hand, and by the neighboring German states on the other. There were, however, among the reigning princes some determined protectors of the Jewish inhabitants, who considered the presence of the latter most desirable as far as the economic development of the country was concerned. Prominent
7782:, rose up in a first Warsaw uprising. Both organizations resisted, with arms, German attempts for additional deportations to Auschwitz and Treblinka. The final destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto came four months later after the crushing of one of the most heroic and tragic battles of the war, the 1943
7542:
Since the Nazi terror reigned throughout the Aryan districts, the chances of remaining successfully hidden depended on a fluent knowledge of the language and on having close ties with the community. Many Poles were not willing to hide Jews who might have escaped the ghettos or who might have been in
7487:
During the occupation of Poland, the
Germans used various laws to separate ethnic Poles from Jewish ones. In the ghettos, the population was separated by putting the Poles into the "Aryan Side" and the Polish Jews into the "Jewish Side". Any Pole found giving any help to a Jewish Pole was subject to
7011:
estimated that 30% of them identified with the communists whilst engaging in provocations; they prepared lists of Polish "class enemies". Other historians have indicated that the level of Jewish collaboration could well have been less than suggested. Historian Martin Dean has written that "few local
6994:
While most eastern Poles consolidated themselves around the anti-Soviet sentiments, a portion of the Jewish population, along with the ethnic Belarusian and Ukrainian activists had welcomed invading Soviet forces as their protectors. The general feeling among the Polish Jews was a sense of temporary
6966:
Synagogues and churches were not yet closed but heavily taxed. The Soviet ruble of little value was immediately equalized to the much higher Polish zloty and by the end of 1939, zloty was abolished. Most economic activity became subject to central planning and the NKVD restrictions. Since the Jewish
6958:
Jewish refugees under the Soviet occupation had little knowledge about what was going on under the Germans since the Soviet media did not report on the goings-on in territories occupied by their Nazi ally. Many people from Western Poland registered for repatriation back to the German zone, including
6756:
of Poles and Polish Jews alike to the extent that by the end of the 1930s, a substantial portion of Polish Jews lived in grinding poverty. As a result, on the eve of the Second World War, the Jewish community in Poland was large and vibrant internally, yet (with the exception of a few professionals)
5162:
the following year, when the Poles tried to again achieve independence, but were brutally put down. Following the revolt, the third and final partition of Poland took place in 1795. The territories which included the great bulk of the Jewish population was transferred to Russia, and thus they became
4271:
including freedom of religion and commerce on equal terms with the Christians. Under the rule of Władysław II, Polish Jews had increased in numbers and attained prosperity. However, religious persecution gradually increased, as the dogmatic clergy pushed for less official tolerance, pressured by the
8386:
For a variety of reasons, the vast majority of returning Jewish survivors left Poland soon after the war ended. Many left for the West because they did not want to live under a Communist regime. Some left because of the persecution they faced in postwar Poland, and because they did not want to live
7843:). The German forces, which included 2,842 Nazi soldiers and 7,000 security personnel, were not capable of crushing the Jewish resistance in open street combat and after several days, decided to switch strategy by setting buildings on fire in which the Jewish fighters hid. The commander of the ŻOB,
7756:
The population of the ghetto reached 380,000 people by the end of 1940, about 30% of the population of Warsaw. However, the size of the Ghetto was only about 2.4% of the size of the city. The Germans closed off the Ghetto from the outside world, building a wall around it by 16 November 1940. During
7304:
Some Jewish historians have written of the negative attitudes of some Poles towards persecuted Jews during the Holocaust. While members of Catholic clergy risked their lives to assist Jews, their efforts were sometimes made in the face of antisemitic attitudes from the church hierarchy. Anti-Jewish
7015:
The issue of Jewish collaboration with the Soviet occupation remains controversial. Some scholars note that while not pro-Communist, many Jews saw the Soviets as the lesser threat compared to the German Nazis. They stress that stories of Jews welcoming the Soviets on the streets, vividly remembered
6819:
wrote, "The fact that our relations with the Reich are worsening does not in the least deactivate our program in the Jewish question—there is not and cannot be any common ground between our internal Jewish problem and Poland's relations with the Hitlerite Reich." Escalating hostility towards Polish
6115:
there were 3,130,581 Polish Jews measured by the declaration of their religion. Estimating the population increase and the emigration from Poland between 1931 and 1939, there were probably 3,474,000 Jews in Poland as of 1 September 1939 (approximately 10% of the total population) primarily centered
5170:
Under foreign rule many Jews inhabiting formerly Polish lands were indifferent to Polish aspirations for independence. However, most Polonized Jews supported the revolutionary activities of Polish patriots and participated in national uprisings. Polish Jews took part in the November Insurrection of
4988:
The decade from the Khmelnytsky Uprising until after the Deluge (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish–Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to
9629:
Although traditional narrative holds that as a consequence, the predicament of the Commonwealth’s Jewry worsened, declining to the level of other European countries by the end of the eighteenth century, recent scholarship by Gershon Hundert, Moshe Rosman, Edward Fram, and Magda Teter, suggest that
8131:
from areas occupied by Germany in 1939 were numbering at around 198,000. Over 150,000 of them were repatriated or expelled back to new communist Poland along with the Jewish men conscripted to the Red Army from Kresy in 1940–1941. Their families were murdered in the Holocaust. Some of the soldiers
7546:
While the German policy towards Jews was ruthless and criminal, their policy towards Christian Poles who helped Jews was very much the same. The Germans would often murder non-Jewish Poles for small misdemeanors. Execution for help rendered to Jews, even the most basic kinds, was automatic. In any
6181:
were entering the mainstream of Polish society, though many thought of themselves as a separate nationality within Poland. Most children were enrolled in Jewish religious schools, which used to limit their ability to speak Polish. As a result, according to the 1931 census, 79% of the Jews declared
4324:
and Szania of Belz in the 15th century. For example, Wolczko of Drohobycz, King Ladislaus Jagiełło's broker, was the owner of several villages in the Ruthenian voivodship and the soltys (administrator) of the village of Werbiz. Also, Jews from Grodno were in this period owners of villages, manors,
8363:
Decades later, reclaiming pre-war property would lead to a number of controversies, and the matter is still debated by media and scholars as of late 2010s. Dariusz Stola notes that the issues of property in Poland are incredibly complex, and need to take into consideration unprecedented losses of
8282:
In a number of other instances, returning Jews still met with threats, violence, and murder from their Polish neighbors, occasionally in a deliberate and organized manner. People of the community frequently had knowledge of these murders and turned a blind eye or held no sympathy for the victims.
8031:
In August 1943, the Germans mounted an operation to destroy the Białystok ghetto. German forces and local police auxiliaries surrounded the ghetto and began to round up Jews systematically for deportation to the Treblinka extermination camp. Approximately 7,600 Jews were held in a central transit
7558:
Hiding in a Christian society to which the Jews were only partially assimilated was a daunting task. They needed to quickly acquire not only a new identity, but a new body of knowledge. Many Jews spoke Polish with a distinct Yiddish or Hebrew accent, used a different nonverbal language, different
6812:
By the time of the German invasion in 1939, antisemitism was escalating, and hostility towards Jews was a mainstay of the right-wing political forces post-Piłsudski regime and also the Catholic Church. Discrimination and violence against Jews had rendered the Polish Jewish population increasingly
6671:
While the average per capita income of Polish Jews in 1929 was 40% above the national average – which was very low compared to England or Germany – they were a very heterogeneous community, some poor, some wealthy. Many Jews worked as shoemakers and tailors, as well as in the liberal professions;
6066:
increased sevenfold between 1816 and 1921, from around 213,000 to roughly 1,500,000. According to the Polish national census of 1921, there were 2,845,364 Jews living in the Second Polish Republic; but, by late 1938 that number had grown by over 16% to approximately 3,310,000. The average rate of
5234:
issued a "Statute Concerning Jews", meant to accelerate the process of assimilation of the Empire's new Jewish population. The Polish Jews were allowed to establish schools with Russian, German or Polish curricula. However, they were also restricted from leasing property, teaching in Yiddish, and
4654:
massacred tens of thousands of Jews as well as Catholic and Uniate population in the eastern and southern areas of Polish-occupied Ukraine. The precise number of dead is not known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during this period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes
4300:. Traders and artisans jealous of Jewish prosperity, and fearing their rivalry, supported the harassment. In 1423, the statute of Warka forbade Jews the granting of loans against letters of credit or mortgage and limited their operations exclusively to loans made on security of moveable property.
3743:
of the Jews"). Poland became a shelter for Jews persecuted and expelled from various European countries and the home to the world's largest Jewish community of the time. According to some sources, about three-quarters of the world's Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. With the
8729:
With the fall of communism in Poland, Jewish cultural, social, and religious life has been undergoing a revival. Many historical issues, especially related to World War II and the 1944–89 period, suppressed by Communist censorship, have been re-evaluated and publicly discussed (like the Jedwabne
8644:
The vast majority of the 40,000 Jews in Poland by the late 1960s were completely assimilated into the broader society. However, this did not prevent them from becoming victims of a campaign, centrally organized by the Polish Communist Party, with Soviet backing, which equated Jewish origins with
8640:
states, Poland's Communist government, following the Soviet lead, broke off diplomatic relations with Israel and launched an antisemitic campaign under the guise of "anti-Zionism". However, the campaign did not resonate well with the Polish public, as most Poles saw similarities between Israel's
8227:
Some returning Jews were met with antisemitic bias in Polish employment and education administrations. Post-war labor certificates contained markings distinguishing Jews from non-Jews. The Jewish community in Szczecin reported a lengthy report of complaints regarding job discrimination. Although
8126:
Following the Soviet annexation of over half of Poland at the onset of World War II, all Polish nationals including Jews were declared by Moscow to have become Soviet nationals regardless of birth. Also, all Polish Jews who perished in the Holocaust east of the Curzon Line were included with the
8122:
The number of Polish Jews who survived the Holocaust is difficult to ascertain. The majority of Polish Jewish survivors were individuals who were able to find refuge in the territories of Soviet Union that were not overrun by Germans and thus safe from the Holocaust. It is estimated that between
7612:
for anybody found sheltering and helping Jews. The penalty applied not only to the person who did the helping, but also extended to his or her family, neighbors and sometimes to entire villages. In this way Germans applied the principle of collective responsibility whose purpose was to encourage
7020:
are impressionistic and not reliable indicators of the level of Jewish support for the Soviets. Additionally, it has been noted that some ethnic Poles were as prominent as Jews in filling civil and police positions in the occupation administration, and that Jews, both civilians and in the Polish
5258:
the Second", hundreds of new anti-Jewish measures were enacted. The 1827 decree by Nicolas – while lifting the traditional double taxation on Jews in lieu of army service – made Jews subject to general military recruitment laws that required Jewish communities to provide 7 recruits per each 1000
5112:
The permanent council established at the instance of the Russian government (1773–1788) served as the highest administrative tribunal, and occupied itself with the elaboration of a plan that would make practicable the reorganization of Poland on a more rational basis. The progressive elements in
4893:
in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. The
4471:
the first official Rabbi of Poland. By 1551, Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials. Some power was shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in
4382:
and banished Jews from Lithuania. For several years they took shelter in Poland until he reversed his decision eight years later in 1503 after becoming King of Poland and allowed them back to Lithuania. The next year he issued a proclamation in which he stated that a policy of tolerance befitted
7745:
Judenrat. Sometimes the Judenrat refused to collaborate in which case its members were consequently executed and replaced by the new group of people. Adam Czerniakow who was the head of the Warsaw Judenrat committed suicide when he was forced to collect daily lists of Jews to be deported to the
6924:
on 23 August 1939 containing a protocol about partition of Poland. The German army attacked Poland on 1 September 1939. The Soviet Union followed suit by invading eastern Poland on 17 September 1939. The days between the retreat of the Polish army and the entry of the Red Army, September 18–21,
6491:
an increasing percentage of Jews were pushed to live a life separate from the non-Jewish majority. The antisemitic rejection of Jews, whether for religious or racial reasons, caused estrangement and growing tensions between Jews and Poles. It is significant in this regard that in 1921, 74.2% of
5140:
9040:
and other Polish sources, however, this may represent an undercount of the actual number of Jews living in Poland, since many are not religious. There are also people with Jewish roots who do not possess adequate documentation to confirm it, due to various historical and family complications.
8866:
Former extermination camps of Auschwitz-Birkenau, Majdanek and Treblinka are open to visitors. At Auschwitz the Oświęcim State Museum currently houses exhibitions on Nazi crimes with a special section (Block Number 27) specifically focused on Jewish victims and martyrs. At Treblinka there is a
7992:
began in 1942, with the opening of the extermination camps of Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, followed by Auschwitz-Birkenau where people were killed in gas chambers and mass executions (death wall). Many died from hunger, starvation, disease, torture or by pseudo-medical experiments. The mass
8663:
and from teaching positions in schools and universities. In 1967–1971 under economic, political and secret police pressure, over 14,000 Polish Jews chose to leave Poland and relinquish their Polish citizenship. Officially, it was said that they chose to go to Israel. However, only about 4,000
7744:
which would be responsible for maintaining order within the Ghetto walls. A number of Jewish policemen were corrupt and immoral. Soon the Nazis demanded even more from the Judenrat and the demands were much crueler. Death was the punishment for the slightest indication of noncompliance by the
6970:
Under the Soviet policy, ethnic Poles were dismissed and denied access to positions in the civil service. Former senior officials and notable members of the Polish community were arrested and exiled together with their families. At the same time the Soviet authorities encouraged young Jewish
6792:
his support for the creation of a Jewish state and for an international conference to enable Jewish emigration. The common goals of the Polish state and of the Zionist movement, of increased Jewish population flow to Palestine, resulted in their overt and covert cooperation. Poland helped by
6046:
The historians Anna Cichopek-Gajraj and Glenn Dynner state that 130 pogroms of Jews occurred on Polish territories from 1918 to 1921, resulting in as many as 300 deaths, with many attacks conceived as reprisals against supposed Jewish economic power and their supposed “Judeo-Bolshevism” The
6012:
a commander of Polish infantry regiment accused a group of Jewish men of plotting against the Poles and ordered the execution of thirty-five Jewish men and youth. The Morgenthau Report found the charge to be "devoid of foundation" even though their meeting was illegal to the extent of being
4145:
During the next hundred years, the Church pushed for the persecution of Jews while the rulers of Poland usually protected them. The Councils of Wrocław (1267), Buda (1279), and Łęczyca (1285) each segregated Jews, ordered them to wear a special emblem, banned them from holding offices where
8326:
were repatriated only after the deadline had passed. All other properties that had been confiscated by the Nazi regime were deemed "abandoned"; however, as Yechiel Weizman notes, the fact most of Poland's Jewry had died, in conjunction with the fact that only Jewish property was officially
8346:"Movable" property such as housewares, that was either given by Jews for safekeeping or taken during the war, was rarely returned willfully; oftentimes the only resort for a returnee looking for reappropriation was the courts. Most such property was probably never returned. According to
8290:(11 August 1945) and in Kielce followed accusations of ritual murder. Another cause was the gentile Polish hostility to the Communist takeover. Even though very few Jews lived in postwar Poland, many Poles believed they dominated the Communist authorities, a belief expressed in the term
4325:
meadows, fish ponds and mills. However, until the end of the 15th century, agriculture as a source of income played only a minor role among Jewish families. More important were crafts for the needs of both their fellow Jews and the Christian population (fur making, tanning, tailoring).
4665:). The Jewish community suffered greatly during the 1648 Ukrainian Cossack uprising which had been directed primarily against the wealthy nobility and landlords. The Jews, perceived as allies of the Poles, were also victims of the revolt, during which about 20% of them were killed.
7839:) was the better supplied in arms. The ŻOB had more than 750 fighters, but lacked weapons; they had only 9 rifles, 59 pistols and several grenades. A developed network of bunkers and fortifications were formed. The Jewish fighters also received support from the Polish Underground (
6161:
Jewish youth and religious groups, diverse political parties and Zionist organizations, newspapers and theatre flourished. Jews owned land and real estate, participated in retail and manufacturing and in the export industry. Their religious beliefs spanned the range from Orthodox
4972:
7213:
were blown up or burned by the Germans, who sometimes forced the Jews to do it themselves. In many cases, the Germans turned the synagogues into factories, places of entertainment, swimming pools, or prisons. By war's end, almost all the synagogues in Poland had been destroyed.
8641:
fight for survival and Poland's past struggles for independence. Many Poles also felt pride in the success of the Israeli military, which was dominated by Polish Jews. The slogan "our Jews beat the Soviet Arabs" (Nasi Żydzi pobili sowieckich Arabów) became popular in Poland.
8331:
states that "the new economic tendency of the Polish government... is against, or at least makes difficulties in, getting back the Jewish property robbed by the German authorities." Later laws, while more generous, remained mainly on paper, with an "uneven" implementation.
6654:) party growing, antisemitism gathered new momentum in Poland and was most felt in smaller towns and in spheres in which Jews came into direct contact with Poles, such as in Polish schools or on the sports field. Further academic harassment, such as the introduction of
5968:) founded by German Jewish activists, which promoted the idea of Jews in the east becoming "spearhead of German expansionism" serving as "Germany's reliable vassals" against other ethnic groups in the region and serving as "living wall against Poles separatists aims".
8278:
commander was found guilty of inaction. Nine alleged participants of the pogrom were sentenced to death; three were given lengthy prison sentences. The debate in Poland continues about the involvement of regular troops in the killings, and possible Soviet influences.
6059:), protecting the rights of minorities in new Poland including Jews and Germans. This in turn resulted in Poland's 1921 March Constitution granting Jews the same legal rights as other citizens and guaranteed them religious tolerance and freedom of religious holidays.
8208:). Jewish survivors returning to their homes in Poland found it practically impossible to reconstruct their pre-war lives. Due to the border shifts, some Polish Jews found that their homes were now in the Soviet Union; in other cases, the returning survivors were
5697:, pushed for assimilation and integration into Russian culture. At the same time, there was another school of Jewish thought that emphasized traditional study and a Jewish response to the ethical problems of antisemitism and persecution, one form of which was the
8786:. There are two rabbis serving the Polish Jewish community, several Jewish schools and associated summer camps as well as several periodical and book series sponsored by the above foundations. Jewish studies programs are offered at major universities, such as
7382:(Oświęcim) – were located near the rail network so that the victims could be easily transported. The system of the camps was expanded over the course of the German occupation of Poland and their purposes were diversified; some served as transit camps, some as
5454:) in a series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers between 1791 and 1835, and lasted until the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917. It comprised about 20% of the territory of European Russia and mostly corresponded to historical borders of the former
6592:
with the 'state assimilation' policy: citizens were judged by their loyalty to the state, not by their nationality. The years 1926–1935 were favourably viewed by many Polish Jews, whose situation improved especially under the cabinet of Pilsudski's appointee
4945:(1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed a wide reputation among his co-religionists; and the authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. At the same time, the
3731:
5239:. The harshest measures designed to compel Jews to merge into society at large called for their expulsion from small villages, forcing them to move into towns. Once the resettlement began, thousands of Jews lost their only source of income and turned to
4303:
In the 14th and 15th centuries, rich Jewish merchants and moneylenders leased the royal mint, salt mines and the collecting of customs and tolls. The most famous of them were Jordan and his son Lewko of Kraków in the 14th century and Jakub Slomkowicz of
11593:, (original document, 1,522 KB), including "Rozporządzenie Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej z dnia 9 marca 1927 r. w sprawie utworzenia gmin wyznaniowych żydowskich na obszarze powiatów: białostockiego, bielskiego i sokólskiego województwa białostockiego."
6888:, putting their differences aside. Polish Jews later served in almost all Polish formations during the entire World War II, many were killed or wounded and very many were decorated for their combat skills and exceptional service. Jews fought with the
4141:
against the Jews, by stating: "Accusing Jews of drinking Christian blood is expressly prohibited. If despite this a Jew should be accused of murdering a Christian child, such charge must be sustained by testimony of three Christians and three Jews."
6704:. Between 1935 and 1937 seventy-nine Jews were killed and 500 injured in anti-Jewish incidents. National policy was such that the Jews who largely worked at home and in small shops were excluded from welfare benefits. In the provincial capital of
3822:). One-fifth of the Polish population perished during World War II; the 3,000,000 Polish Jews murdered in the Holocaust, who constituted 90% of Polish Jewry, made up half of all Poles killed during the war. While the Holocaust occurred largely in
6804:
In 1938, the Polish government revoked Polish citizenship from tens-of-thousands Polish Jews who had lived outside the country for an extended period of time. It was feared that many Polish Jews living in Germany and Austria would want to return
7620:
prices of necessary goods were high, factors which made it difficult to hide people and almost impossible to hide entire families, especially in the cities. Despite these draconian measures imposed by the Nazis, Poland has the highest number of
5749:
and the debates it caused created a growing number of political movements within the Jewish community itself, covering a wide range of views and vying for votes in local and regional elections. Zionism became very popular with the advent of the
8036:
camp. In Majdanek, after another screening for ability to work, they were transported to the Poniatowa, Blizyn, or Auschwitz camps. Those deemed too weak to work were murdered at Majdanek. More than 1,000 Jewish children were sent first to the
7773:
train station. They were spared from the deportations until September 1942 in return for their cooperation, but afterwards shared their fate with families and relatives. On 18 January 1943, a group of Ghetto militants led by the right-leaning
5227:, restricting Jews to the western parts of the empire, which would eventually include much of Poland, although it excluded some areas in which Jews had previously lived. By the late 19th century, over four million Jews would live in the Pale.
4566:
in 1573 and signed a document in which representatives of all major religions pledged mutual support and tolerance. The following eight or nine decades of material prosperity and relative security experienced by Polish Jews – wrote Professor
12184:, and uniformed and armed Betar members marched and performed at Polish public ceremonies alongside Polish scouts and Polish soldiers, with their weapons training organised by Polish state institutions and provided by Polish army officers.
4736:"Reports of romances, of drinking together in taverns, and of intellectual conversations are quite abundant." Wealthy Jews had Polish noblemen at their table, and served meals on silver plates. By 1764, there were about 750,000 Jews in the
6116:
in large and smaller cities: 77% lived in cities and 23% in the villages. They made up about 50%, and in some cases even 70% of the population of smaller towns, especially in Eastern Poland. Prior to World War II, the Jewish population of
8901:
was unveiled on 19 April 1948—the fifth anniversary of the outbreak of the Warsaw ghetto Uprising. It was constructed out of bronze and granite that the Nazis used for a monument honoring German victory over Poland and it was designed by
8283:
Jewish communities responded to this violence by reporting the violence to the Ministry of Public Administration, but were granted little assistance. As many as 1500 Jewish heirs were often murdered when attempting to reclaim property.
5823:. Many Jewish political parties were active, representing a wide ideological spectrum, from the Zionists, to the socialists to the anti-Zionists. One of the largest of these parties was the Bund, which was strongest in Warsaw and Lodz.
8132:
married women with the Soviet citizenship, others agreed to paper marriages. Those who survived the Holocaust in Poland included Jews who were saved by the Poles (most families with children), and those who joined the Polish or Soviet
9247:, there are 100,000 Jews living in Poland who don't actively practice Judaism and do not list "Jewish" as their nationality. The Jewish Renewal in Poland organization estimates that there are 200,000 "potential Jews" in Poland. The
8867:
monument built out of many shards of broken stone, as well as a mausoleum dedicated to those who perished there. A small mound of human ashes commemorates the 350,000 victims of the Majdanek camp who were killed there by the Nazis.
7386:
and the majority as death camps. While in the death camps, the victims were usually killed shortly after arrival, in the other camps able-bodied Jews were worked and beaten to death. The operation of concentration camps depended on
8317:
enacted legislation on "abandoned property", placing severe limitations on inheritance that were not present in prewar inheritance law, for example limiting restitution to the original owners or their immediate heirs. According to
5600:
of Russian Poland, in which at least 75 Jews were murdered by marauding soldiers and many more Jews were wounded. According to Jewish survivors, ethnic Poles did not participate in the pogrom and instead sheltered Jewish families.
4894:
learned rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of
4732:
Judaism. Through 1698, the Polish kings generally remained supportive of the Jews. Although Jewish losses in those events were high, the Commonwealth lost one-third of its population – approximately three million of its citizens.
8913:
A memorial to the victims of the Kielce Pogrom of 1946, where a mob murdered more than 40 Jews who returned to the city after the Holocaust, was unveiled in 2006. The funds for the memorial came from the city itself and from the
4355:, who accused Jews of profaning the Christian religion. As a result, Jews were banished from Lower Silesia. Zbigniew Olesnicki then invited John to conduct a similar campaign in Kraków and several other cities, to lesser effect.
16495:
8021:. Most Jews in the Białystok ghetto worked in forced-labor projects, primarily in large textile factories located within the ghetto boundaries. The Germans also sometimes used Jews in forced-labor projects outside the ghetto.
8350:, "there was no social norm mandating the return of Jewish property, no detectable social pressure defining such behavior as the right thing to do, no informal social control mechanism imposing censure for doing otherwise."
5567:, blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on Jewish movements. Pogroms continued until 1884, with at least tacit government approval. They proved a turning point in the history of the Jews in
8482:
which was against the renewal of Jewish religious and cultural life. In the years 1948–49, all remaining Jewish schools were nationalized by the communists and Yiddish was replaced with Polish as a language of teaching.
7337:
is concerned, the number of Poles aiding Jews far outnumbered those who sold out their Jewish neighbors to the Nazis. During the Nazi occupation of Warsaw 70,000–90,000 Polish gentiles aided Jews, while 3,000–4,000 were
6779:, and pursued a policy of supporting the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. The Polish government hoped Palestine would provide an outlet for its Jewish population and lobbied for creation of a Jewish state in the
8212:
whose homes were now under Polish jurisdiction. Jewish communities and Jewish life as it had existed was gone, and Jews who somehow survived the Holocaust often discovered that their homes had been looted or destroyed.
7761:) and starvation kept the inhabitants at about the same number. Average food rations in 1941 for Jews in Warsaw were limited to 253 kcal, and 669 kcal for Poles, as opposed to 2,613 kcal for Germans. On 22 July 1942,
6605:, 34% of medical sciences, 29.2% of philosophy, 24.9% of chemistry and 22.1% of law (26% by 1929) at all Polish universities. It is speculated that such disproportionate numbers were the probable cause of a backlash.
8659:, used the situation as a pretext to launch an antisemitic press campaign (although the expression "Zionist" was officially used). The state-sponsored "anti-Zionist" campaign resulted in the removal of Jews from the
8360:, "unlike the restitution of Church property, the idea of returning property to former Jewish owners has been met with a decided lack of enthusiasm from both the general Polish population as well as the government".
7648:
who was the only person to volunteer for imprisonment in Auschwitz and who organized a resistance movement inside the camp itself. One of the Jewish members of the National Council of the Polish government in exile,
4472:
power, to use it for tax collection purposes. Only 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate served Jewish causes, the rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for
9044:
Poland is currently easing the way for Jews who left Poland during the Communist organized massive expulsion of 1968 to re-obtain their citizenship. Some 15,000 Polish Jews were deprived of their citizenship in the
5214:
Official Russian policy would eventually prove to be substantially harsher to the Jews than that under independent Polish rule. The lands that had once been Poland were to remain the home of many Jews, as, in 1772,
5096:
against Russian influence and the pro-Russian king, the outlying provinces of Poland were overrun from all sides by different military forces and divided for the first time by the three neighboring empires, Russia,
7309:
wrote a dramatic letter to Pope Pius XII, begging him for a public defense of both murdered Poles and Jews. In spite of the introduction of death penalty extending to the entire families of rescuers, the number of
8847:
in Kraków has sponsored a wide range of cultural and educational programs on Jewish themes for a predominantly Polish audience. With funds from the city of Warsaw and the Polish government ($ 26 million total) a
7731:
on 16 October 1940. Initially, almost 140,000 Jews were moved into the ghetto from all parts of Warsaw. At the same time, approximately 110,000 Poles had been forcibly evicted from the area. The Germans selected
12130:. Wrocław: Wydział Prawa, Administracji i Ekonomii. Instytut Historii Państwa i Prawa (Faculty of Law, Administration and Economy). pp. 65–66 (20/38 in PDF) – via direct download from BibliotekaCyfrowa.pl.
6684:
Poles. In a similar manner, the Jewish trade unions excluded non-Jewish professionals from their ranks after 1918. The bulk of Jewish workers were organized in the Jewish trade unions under the influence of the
5963:
from the Jews of Lwów and the 1,500 cans of food donated by the Blumenfeld factory among similar others. A Jewish organization during the war that was opposed to Polish aspirations was the Komitee für den Osten
8889:
was excavated after testimony by a Holocaust survivor suggested that many Jewish relics and ritual objects had been buried there, just before Nazis took over the town. Candelabras, chandeliers, a menorah and a
8312:
After the war ended, Poland's Communist government enacted a broad program of nationalization and land reform, taking over large numbers of properties, both Polish- and Jewish-owned. As part of the reform the
6721:, 53.6% of the town's population were Jewish also along with most of its economy. In a town of Luboml, 3,807 Jews lived among its 4,169 inhabitants, constituting the essence of its social and political life.
9495:"By the end of the war, 3 million Polish Jews—90 percent of the prewar population—had been murdered by the Germans and their collaborators of various nationalities, one of the highest percentages in Europe."
5119:("Commission of National Education"), the first ministry of education in the world, was established in 1773 and founded numerous new schools and remodeled the old ones. One of the members of the commission,
7907:
when the Poles themselves rose up against the Germans. Some of the survivors of 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, still held in camps at or near Warsaw, were freed during 1944 Warsaw Uprising, led by the Polish
8123:
250,000 and 800,000 Polish Jews survived the war, out of which between 50,000 and 100,000 were survivors from occupied Poland, and the remainder, survivors who made it abroad (mostly to the Soviet Union).
7332:
stated that Polish citizens of Warsaw managed to support and hide the same percentage of Jews as did the citizens of cities in Western European countries. Paulsson's research shows that at least as far as
6813:
destitute. Despite the impending threat to the Polish Republic from Nazi Germany, there was little effort seen in the way of reconciliation with Poland's Jewish population. In July 1939 the pro-government
12692:
Personal Narratives, Peripheral Theatres: Essays on the Great War (1914–18), Anthony Barker / Maria Eugénia Pereira / Maria Teresa Cortez / Paulo Alexandre Pereira / Otília Martins (Eds.), Cham: Springer
8467:, in which the Soviet Union supported the Arab side, the Polish communist party adopted an anti-Jewish course of action which in the years 1968–1969 provoked the last mass migration of Jews from Poland.
5559:;) throughout 1881–1884. In the 1881 outbreak, pogroms were primarily limited to Russia, although in a riot in Warsaw two Jews were killed, 24 others were wounded, women were raped and over two million
4616:
4073:. Jews enjoyed undisturbed peace and prosperity in the many principalities into which the country was then divided; they formed the middle class in a country where the general population consisted of
3838:
by non-Jewish Polish citizens in the Holocaust was sporadic, but incidents of hostility against Jews are well documented and have been a subject of renewed scholarly interest during the 21st century.
17674:
7993:
deportation of Jews from ghettos to these camps, such as happened at the Warsaw Ghetto, soon followed, and more than 1.7 million Jews were killed at the Aktion Reinhard camps by October 1943 alone.
8372:, "the question of restitution is in many ways connected to the question of Polish–Jewish relations, their history and remembrance, but particularly to the attitude of the Poles to the Holocaust."
15978:
14816:
5995:. Just after the end of World War I, the West became alarmed by reports about alleged massive pogroms in Poland against Jews. Pressure for government action reached the point where U.S. President
15410:
14648:
14504:
13990:
13777:
11803:
11781:
9812:
7765:
of the Warsaw Ghetto inhabitants began. During the next fifty-two days (until 12 September 1942) about 300,000 people were transported by freight train to the Treblinka extermination camp. The
7613:
neighbors to inform on each other in order to avoid punishment. The nature of these policies was widely known and visibly publicized by the Nazis who sought to terrorize the Polish population.
4612:
16002:
12787:"The Polish government was committed to the Zionist option in its own Jewish policy and maintained good relations with Jabotinsky's Revisionist Zionist, rather than with the Majority Zionists.
6784:
Jews, he and Beck shared a common goal. Ultimately this proved impossible and illusory, as it lacked both general Jewish and international support. In 1937 Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs
6033:
assaulted Jews in the streets, but were punished by military authorities. Many other events in Poland were later found to have been exaggerated, especially by contemporary newspapers such as
4775:
The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as
6708:
Jews constituted 48.5% of the diverse multiethnic population of 35,550 Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and others. Łuck had the largest Jewish community in the voivodeship. In the capital of
4426:, Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from Western Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of Polish Jewry made it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish people.
5485:
From 1791 to 1835, and until 1917, there were differing reconfigurations of the boundaries of the Pale, such that certain areas were variously open or shut to Jewish residency, such as the
11875:
6672:
doctors (56% of all doctors in Poland), teachers (43%), journalists (22%) and lawyers (33%). In 1929, about a third of artisans and home workers and a majority of shopkeepers were Jewish.
6418:(Jidiszer Wissenszaftlecher Institute) Scientific Institute was based in Wilno before transferring to New York during the war. In Warsaw, important centers of Judaic scholarship, such the
4708:
of the Ruthenian and Jewish population. He defeated the Swedes in 1660 and was equally successful in his battles against the Russians. Meanwhile, the horrors of the war were aggravated by
11598:
11464:
8915:
7570:
provided a standard prize to those who informed on Jews hidden on the 'Aryan' side, consisting of cash, liquor, sugar, and cigarettes. Jews were robbed and handed over to the Germans by "
15781:
8843:
and "Sztendlach" for young children. Active institutions include the Jewish Historical Institute, the E.R. Kaminska State Yiddish Theater in Warsaw, and the Jewish Cultural Center. The
7604:
To discourage Poles from giving shelter to Jews, the Germans often searched houses and introduced ruthless penalties. Poland was the only occupied country during World War II where the
7328:, a Polish–Jewish historian of the Warsaw Ghetto, wrote critically of the indifferent and sometimes joyful responses in Warsaw to the destruction of Polish Jews in the Ghetto. However,
8616:, a former Stalinist prosecutor who emigrated to England in the late 1960s, fought being extradited to Poland on charges related to the execution of a Second World War resistance hero
6573:
interests; however, the Galician Zionists had little to show for their compromise because the Polish government later refused to honor many aspects of the agreement. During the 1930s,
6422:
and the Institute of Judaic Studies were located, along with numerous Talmudic Schools (Jeszybots), religious centers and synagogues, many of which were of high architectural quality.
6067:
permanent settlement was about 30,000 per annum. At the same time, every year around 100,000 Jews were passing through Poland in unofficial emigration overseas. Between the end of the
16493:
6221:
The Jewish cultural scene was particularly vibrant in pre–World War II Poland, with numerous Jewish publications and more than one hundred periodicals. Yiddish authors, most notably
5136:
of tolerance and broadmindedness in dealing with the Jewish question. But all these reforms were too late: a Russian army soon invaded Poland, and soon after a Prussian one followed.
7547:
apartment block or area where Jews were found to be harboured, everybody in the house would be immediately shot by the Germans. For this thousands of non-Jewish Poles were executed.
17699:
4619:
were introduced to limit Jews living in the Christian cities, which intensified their migration to the Eastern parts of the country where they were invited by the magnates to their
4611:
alone mass attacks of Jews started in 1572 and then repeated in 1592, 1613, 1618, and from 1638 every year with Jesuit students being responsible for many of them. At the same time
17669:
13301:
9630:
the reality was much more complex. See for example, the following works, which discuss Jewish life and culture, as well as Jewish-Christian relations during that period: M. Rosman
5259:"souls" every 4 years. Unlike the general population that had to provide recruits between the ages of 18 and 35, Jews had to provide recruits between the ages of 12 and 25, at the
4587:
agreement, it did not last for long due to beginning of Counter-Reformation in the Commonwealth and growing influence of the Jesuits. By 1590s there were anti-Semitic outbreaks in
11391:
Controversial Reports on the Situation of Jews in Poland in the Aftermath of World War I: The Conflict between the US Ambassador in Warsaw Hugh Gibson and American Jewish Leaders.
7277:, which massacred Jews, especially in 1941. Some of these German-inspired massacres were carried out with help from, or active participation of Poles themselves: for example, the
6639:
marched and performed at Polish public ceremonies alongside Polish scouts and military, with their weapons training provided by Polish institutions and Polish military officers;
3881:. The contemporary Polish Jewish community is estimated to have between 10,000 and 20,000 members. The number of people with Jewish heritage of any sort is several times larger.
7324:, were often afraid for their own and their family's lives and this fear prevented many of them from giving aid and assistance, even if some of them felt sympathy for the Jews.
6561:
capitalized on governmental support for Zionism by negotiating an agreement with the government known as the Ugoda. The Ugoda was an agreement between the Polish prime minister
17262:
14084:
9921:
when what was needed to realize their plans was 'rational antisemitism', as Hitler himself put it. For that, they neither received or requested significant help from the Poles.
17102:
A Marriage of Convenience: The New Zionist Organization and the Polish Government 1936-1939 Laurence Weinbaum, East European Monographs; dist. Columbia University Press, 1993
15793:
14296:
9698:.11 He also supported the idea of an international conference and campaign for organising and facilitating Jewish emigration.12 Talks were held with British Foreign Secretary
6725:
13733:
12219:
15717:(Lublin: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, 2005), 203; Adam Kopciowski, "Anti-Jewish Incidents in the Lublin Region in the Early Years after World War II,"
6051:
had a profound impact on the foreign perception of the re-emerging Polish state. Concerns over the fate of Poland's Jews led the Western powers to pressure Polish President
8298:(Judeo-Communist), a popular anti-Jewish stereotype. Yet another reason for Polish violence towards Jews stemmed from the fear that survivors would recover their property.
4217:. Nevertheless, while the Jews of Poland enjoyed tranquility for the greater part of Casimir's reign, toward its close they were subjected to persecution on account of the
10876:
8256:
8205:
7870:
had the Great Synagogue on Tłomackie Square (outside the ghetto) destroyed as a celebration of German victory and a symbol that the Jewish Ghetto in Warsaw was no longer.
4529:
13793:
7582:, Yiddish and Polish for 'grease'). In extreme cases, the Jews informed on other Jews to alleviate hunger with the awarded prize. The extortionists were condemned by the
4898:. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue.
4374:(1501–1506). In 1495, Jews were ordered out of the center of Kraków and allowed to settle in the "Jewish town" of Kazimierz. In the same year, Alexander, when he was the
10005:
8944:. Recent scholarship has primarily focused on three topics: post-war anti-Semitism; emigration and the creation of the State of Israel, and the restitution of property.
2310:
10796:
10386:
7636:
was the first (in November 1942) to reveal the existence of Nazi-run concentration camps and the systematic extermination of the Jews by the Nazis, through its courier
14245:
9443:
8709:(KOR). By the time of the fall of Communism in Poland in 1989, only 5,000–10,000 Jews remained in the country, many of them preferring to conceal their Jewish origin.
8080:
and bottles filled with acid. The fighting in isolated pockets of resistance lasted for several days, but the defence was broken almost instantly. As with the earlier
7518:....According to this decree, those knowingly helping these Jews by providing shelter, supplying food, or selling them foodstuffs are also subject to the death penalty
7458:
among others. Ghettos were also established in hundreds of smaller settlements and villages around the country. The overcrowding, dirt, lice, lethal epidemics such as
5769:
5738:
15768:
Alina Skibińska, "Problemy rewindykacji żydowskich nieruchomości w latach 1944–1950: Zagadnienia ogólne i szczegółowe (na przykładzie Szczebrzeszyna)," p. 493-573 in
8136:. Some 20,000–40,000 Jews were repatriated from Germany and other countries. At its postwar peak, up to 240,000 returning Jews might have resided in Poland mostly in
7160:. Some six million Polish citizens perished in the war – half of those (three million Polish Jews, all but some 300,000 of the Jewish population) being killed at the
11902:
6577:
viewed the Polish government as an ally and promoted cooperation between Polish Zionists and Polish nationalists, despite the antisemitism of the Polish government.
5163:
subjects of that empire, although in the first half of the 19th century some semblance of a vastly smaller Polish state was preserved, especially in the form of the
4437:(1548–1572), mainly followed his father's tolerant policy and also granted communal-administration autonomy to the Jews and laid the foundation for the power of the
1102:
12814:, and the Polish government hoped it would provide an outlet for Jewish population moving out of Poland. Poland supported creation of a Jewish national home in the
4195:
was especially friendly to the Jews, and his reign is regarded as an era of great prosperity for Polish Jewry, and was nicknamed by his contemporaries "King of the
14188:
Klaus-Peter Friedrich. Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II.
9758:
8387:
where their family members had been murdered, and instead have arranged to live with relatives or friends in different western democracies. Others wanted to go to
8356:
Following the fall of the Soviet Union, a law was passed that allowed the Catholic Church to reclaim its properties, which it did with great success. According to
7252:
5965:
5501:, excluded from residency at a number of cities within the Pale. Settlers from outside the pale were forced to move to small towns, thus fostering the rise of the
5347:
5132:
and intellectuals proposed a national system of government, of the civil and political equality of the Jews. This was the only example in modern Europe before the
18985:
19027:
12505:
12089:
11157:
11037:
9694:
as the right place for manifesting its support for the cause of developing a Jewish state in Palestine. This had been declared at the League by Foreign Minister
8017:
in Białystok. About 50,000 Jews from the city and the surrounding region were confined in a small area of Białystok. The ghetto had two sections, divided by the
7202:
Poland was where the German program of extermination of Jews, the "Final Solution", was implemented, since this was where most of Europe's Jews (excluding the
6658:, which forced Jewish students to sit in sections of the lecture halls reserved exclusively for them, anti-Jewish riots, and semi-official or unofficial quotas (
13464:"Revolution from abroad : the Soviet conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia" Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 1988
10144:
4927:
which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. Shachna's son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna's pupil
13453:
2888:
13417:
6947:
was accompanied by the widespread arrests of government officials, police, military personnel, border guards, teachers, priests, judges etc., followed by the
5586:
An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, at least some of them believed to have been organized by the Tsarist Russian secret police, the
15609:
Weizman, Yechiel (2 January 2017). "Unsettled possession: the question of ownership of Jewish sites in Poland after the Holocaust from a local perspective".
9273:
6332:
3975:
and then to the Slavic countries. The first actual mention of Jews in Polish chronicles occurs in the 11th century, where it appears that Jews then lived in
3896:
2543:
2238:
206:
10895:, "Divre ̄ David Ture ̄ Zahav" (1689) in Hebrew. Published in: Bi-defus Y. Goldman, Warsaw: 1882. Quoted by the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe.
7903:
in many smaller towns and cities across German-occupied Poland. Many Jews were found alive in the ruins of the former Warsaw Ghetto during the 1944 general
5230:
Tsarist policy towards the Jews of Poland alternated between harsh rules, and inducements meant to break the resistance to large-scale conversion. In 1804,
18425:
17326:
11959:, "Psychological Distance Between Poles and Jews in Nazi-Occupied Warsaw", in Joshue Zimmerman, ed., "Contested memories", Rutgers University Press, 2003,
9985:
9519:
9513:
12615:
11000:
6426:
also flourished; Poland had fifteen Yiddish theatres and theatrical groups. Warsaw was home to the most important Yiddish theater troupe of the time, the
2430:
12902:
10074:
9879:
9723:
6771:
As the Polish government sought to lower the numbers of the Jewish population in Poland through mass emigration, it embraced close and good contact with
6062:
The number of Jews immigrating to Poland from Ukraine and Soviet Russia during the interwar period grew rapidly. Jewish population in the area of former
967:
13994:
12188:, one of its leaders, called upon members of the organisation to defend Poland in case of war, and both Polish and Zionist flags were raised by Betar."
10349:
10025:
6860:
The number of Jews in Poland on 1 September 1939, amounted to about 3,474,000 people. One hundred thirty thousand soldiers of Jewish descent, including
6177:, was increasingly used by the young Warsaw Jews who did not have a problem in identifying themselves fully as Jews, Varsovians and Poles. Jews such as
5979:
In the aftermath of the Great War localized conflicts engulfed Eastern Europe between 1917 and 1919. Many attacks were launched against Jews during the
5084:. Further disorder and anarchy reigned supreme in Poland during the second half of the 18th century, from the accession to the throne of its last king,
19052:
12771:
that Poland had room for 500,000 Jews. The other 3 million had to go. He later spoke of 80,000 to 100,000 leaving per year for the next thirty years."
12140:
9618:
In accordance with its tradition of religious tolerance, Poland refrained from participating in the excesses of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation
5267:
schools, where they were pressured to convert. "Many children were smuggled to Poland, where the conscription of Jews did not take effect until 1844."
3638:
783:
13849:
13460:. "Białoruskie Zeszyty Historyczne" (НА СТАРОНКАХ КАМУНІКАТУ, Biełaruski histaryczny zbornik) 20 (2003), p. 186–188. Retrieved 16 July 2007. see also
9764:
8244:
18830:
17732:
16298:
15999:
15974:
14812:
12933:
8357:
8353:
Facing violence and a difficult and expensive legal process, many returnees eventually decided to leave the country rather than attempt reclamation.
8252:
8240:
8189:
7064:
6933:
4242:
1402:
17142:
17131:
16140:
Kunicki, Mikolaj (1 May 2015). "The Red and the Brown: Bolesław Piasecki, the Polish Communists, and the Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland, 1967-68".
15406:
13774:
12220:"Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, drugi powszechny spis ludności z dn. 9.XII 1931 r. – Mieszkania i gospodarstwa domowe ludność"
11777:
9808:
4881:
existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530 a
4700:, at the head of his victorious army, overran the cities of Kraków and Warsaw. The amount of destruction, pillage and methodical plunder during the
19007:
14967:
12898:
12848:
9719:
8539:
7939:. Some 166,000 people lost their lives in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, including perhaps as many as 17,000 Polish Jews who had either fought with the
4624:
4117:. With the consent of the class representatives and higher officials, in 1264 he issued a General Charter of Jewish Liberties (commonly called the
2425:
852:
10716:
10686:
12819:
9658:
8795:
6527:
4634:
in 1595-1596, Orthodox church was outlawed in Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth and that caused massive religious, social and political tensions in
4467:
also migrated to Poland during this time. Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi
2673:
1291:
788:
15042:
Same liczby były całkowicie wiarygodne, ale pozbawione komentarza, sprytnie ukrywały fakt, że ofiary w przeważającej liczbie nie były Rosjanami.
14019:
Klaus-Peter Friedrich, "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II.
7954:). Warsaw was razed to the ground by the Germans and more than 150,000 Poles were sent to labor or concentration camps. On 17 January 1945, the
7590:(the Underground State's military arm), with the death sentence being meted out on a scale unknown in the occupied countries of Western Europe.
6712:
in 1936 Jews constituted 41.3% of general population and some 80.3% of private enterprises were owned by Jews. The 32% of Jewish inhabitants of
5931:
While most Polish Jews were neutral to the idea of a Polish state, many played a significant role in the fight for Poland's independence during
4121:), which granted all Jews the freedom to worship, trade, and travel. Similar privileges were granted to the Silesian Jews by the local princes,
17454:
16124:
14880:
12657:
9255:
estimate that there are between 25,000 and 100,000 Jews living in Poland, a similar number to that estimated by Jonathan Ornstein, head of the
8935:
8337:
6269:, born of a Jewish mother and Polish father, was one of the most popular artists of that era, and pre-war songs of Jewish composers, including
5642:
5308:
5194:
3835:
13194:
8343:
In general, restitution was easier for larger organizations or well connected individuals, and the process was also abused by criminal gangs.
7114:. General Anders decided not to prosecute the deserters and emphasized that the Jewish soldiers who remained in the Force fought bravely. The
6876:
by the Germans; the majority did not survive. The soldiers and non-commissioned officers who were released ultimately found themselves in the
17384:
8783:
8463:
A second wave of Jewish emigration (50,000) took place during the liberalization of the Communist regime between 1957 and 1959. After 1967's
8222:
5092:
for 2.5 million rubles, with the Russian army stationing only 5 kilometres (3 mi) away from Warsaw. Eight years later, triggered by the
3858:
2927:
17277:
15898:
13382:
11594:
11460:
8499:, CKŻP) which provided legal, educational, social care, cultural, and propaganda services. A countrywide Jewish Religious Community, led by
7919:, described them as some of the best fighters, always at the front line. It is estimated that over 2,000 Polish Jews, some as well known as
7508:....There is a need for a reminder, that in accordance with paragraph 3 of the decree of 15 October 1941, on the Limitation of Residence in
4688:. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth which had already suffered from the Khmelnytsky Uprising and from the recurring invasions of the Russians,
3877:
in 1989, the situation of Polish Jews became normalized and those who were Polish citizens before World War II were allowed to renew Polish
18956:
16051:
11586:
9938:
9248:
8460:, Poland. The camp trained 7,000 soldiers who then traveled to Palestine to fight for Israel. The boot-camp existed until the end of 1948.
8328:
7798:
7563:
7559:
gestures and facial expressions. People with physical characteristics such as dark curly hair and brown eyes were particularly vulnerable.
6760:
The main strain of antisemitism in Poland during this time was motivated by Catholic religious beliefs and centuries-old myths such as the
5846:
5792:
Many Jews took part in the Polish insurrections, particularly against Russia (since the Tsars discriminated heavily against the Jews). The
4280:
by the priests, and new riots against the Jews in Poznań in 1399. Accusations of blood libel by another fanatic priest led to the riots in
3827:
1228:
793:
226:
13514:
4963:
devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the [Khmelnytsky Uprising and The Deluge.
3830:, and passive refusal to inform on them, to indifference, blackmail, and in extreme cases, committing premeditated murders such as in the
19150:
18908:
17192:
17170:
13305:
8930:
8068:) started an armed struggle against the German troops who were carrying out the planned liquidation and deportation of the ghetto to the
7383:
6643:, one of its leaders, called for its members to defend Poland in case of war, and the organisation raised both Polish and Zionist flags.
6261:, were less well known internationally, but made important contributions to Polish literature. Some Polish writers had Jewish roots e.g.
3890:
3787:
was a growing problem throughout Europe in those years, from both the political establishment and the general population. Throughout the
1912:
1875:
1167:
18847:
16324:
8655:) gave Gomułka's government an excuse to try and channel public anti-government sentiment into another avenue. Thus his security chief,
17153:
17120:
16869:
12957:"'From Nazi Inferno to Soviet Hell': Polish–Jewish children and youth and their trajectories of survival during and after World War II"
12339:
12312:
12245:
11859:
Rozenbaum, Włodzimierz (1989). "The Status of the Jews in Poland between the Wars: 1918-1939: An Overview". In Timothy J. Wiles (ed.).
9288:
9283:
9278:
9057:
6897:
5887:
5190:
5109:, and even more of its peoples. Jews were most numerous in the territories that fell under the military control of Austria and Russia.
4533:
3907:
221:
216:
211:
61:
9053:
in Warsaw launched a bilingual Polish-English website called "The Virtual Shtetl", providing information about Jewish life in Poland.
8798:
was founded in 1993. Its purpose is the promotion and organization of Jewish religious and cultural activities in Polish communities.
3861:, and the hostility of the Communist Party to both religion and private enterprise, but also because in 1946–1947 Poland was the only
18592:
18314:
17591:
17404:
16840:
16465:
14900:
7724:
represents what is likely the most known episode of the wartime history of the Polish Jews. The ghetto was established by the German
5171:
1830–1831, the January Insurrection of 1863, as well as in the revolutionary movement of 1905. Many Polish Jews were enlisted in the
3764:
2851:
17:
11654:
Nechama Tec, "When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland", Oxford University Press US, 1987,
10659:
9856:
9579:
8407:
to Israel, without visas or exit permits. Britain demanded Poland to halt the exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful.
7240:
printed in Polish routinely ran antisemitic articles that urged local people to adopt an attitude of indifference towards the Jews.
6768:
declared that Poland could house 500,000 Jews, and hoped that over the next 30 years 80,000-100,000 Jews a year would leave Poland.
4014:
was commerce and trade, including the export and import of goods such as cloth, linen, furs, hides, wax, metal objects, and slaves.
1001:
667:
17429:
17319:
14113:
12227:
11747:
11485:
8718:
8523:, an academic institution specializing in the research of the history and culture of the Jews in Poland, and the Yiddish newspaper
7466:
7391:, the collaborator-prisoners. Some of them were Jewish themselves, and their prosecution after the war created an ethical dilemma.
6937:
6550:
had also become increasingly hostile to the Jews, who in the 1920s and 1930s were increasingly seen as agents of evil, that is, of
2874:
16725:
15455:
7055:
There were also Jews who assisted Poles during the Soviet occupation. Among the thousands of Polish officers killed by the Soviet
17601:
17259:
15437:
13860:
13729:
12532:
12097:
11300:
9478:
8491:
For those Polish Jews who remained, the rebuilding of Jewish life in Poland was carried out between October 1944 and 1950 by the
8092:. Several dozen guerrillas managed to break through to the forests surrounding Białystok where they joined the partisan units of
7080:
6884:. In 1939, Jews constituted 30% of Warsaw's population. With the coming of the war, Jewish and Polish citizens of Warsaw jointly
2224:
1062:
17202:
14839:
14491:
10873:
9778:
8172:
7958:
entered a destroyed and nearly uninhabited Warsaw. Some 300 Jews were found hiding in the ruins in the Polish part of the city (
7757:
the next year and a half, Jews from smaller cities and villages were brought into the Warsaw Ghetto, while diseases (especially
6868:
at the outbreak of the Second World War, thus being among the first to launch armed resistance against Nazi Germany. During the
6635:
paramilitary movement, whose members admired the Polish nationalist camp and imitated some of its aspects. Uniformed members of
6197:(The Bund), as well as parties of the Zionist right and left wing and religious conservative movements, were represented in the
4175:. Under his reign, streams of Jewish immigrants headed east to Poland and Jewish settlements are first mentioned as existing in
52:
17689:
17641:
17516:
17511:
13703:
11998:
10757:
8871:
is one of the largest Jewish burial grounds in Europe, and preserved historic sites include those located in Góra Kalwaria and
8822:
it was renovated, dedicated and reopened thanks to the efforts and endowments by Polish Jewry. Warsaw has an active synagogue,
7550:
6979:
6339:
3631:
2801:
2736:
2618:
454:
16220:"The Jews in Poland after the Second World War. Most Recent Contributions of Polish Historiography :: Quest CDEC journal"
11459:"Traktat między Głównemi Mocarstwami sprzymierzonemi i stowarzyszonemi a Polską, podpisany w Wersalu dnia 28 czerwca 1919 r."
10106:
8688:
countries to restore diplomatic relations with Israel after these have been broken off right after the Six-Day's War. In 1986
7866:
in his report stated that his troops had killed 6,065 Jewish fighters during the battle. After the uprising was already over,
4869:
were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as
3783:, it was still the center of the European Jewish world, with one of the world's largest Jewish communities of over 3 million.
622:
18410:
17725:
17085:
17069:
17038:
17022:
17006:
16865:
16402:
16192:
15850:
15820:
15672:
15583:
15506:
15368:
15201:
15066:
14977:
14666:
14383:
14067:
13797:
12585:
12571:
12349:
12322:
12282:
12255:
12222:[Central Statistical Office the Polish Republic, the second census dated 9.XII 1931 – Abodes and household populace]
11941:
11885:
11414:
10965:
10818:
10780:
10253:
10113:
The American Jewish Committee research grant. See: D. Stola, Fighting against the Shadows (reprint), in Robert Blobaum, ed.;
9964:
9511:, University of Chicago Press 1992, page 51. Quote: "Poland, at that time, was the most tolerant country in Europe." Also in
9303:
8695:
During the late 1970s some Jewish activists were engaged in the anti-Communist opposition groups. Most prominent among them,
8605:
7980:
The fate of the Warsaw Ghetto was similar to that of the other ghettos in which Jews were concentrated. With the decision of
6297:, are still widely known in Poland today. Painters became known as well for their depictions of Jewish life. Among them were
1922:
17213:
16484:
North American Jewish Data Bank. (See Table 1: Jewish Population by Country, 1920s–1930s; PDF file, direct download 52.4 KB)
16340:
14420:
11518:
10269:
9455:
7566:, and took advantage of their desperation by collecting money, or worse, turning them over to the Germans for a reward. The
7297:, resentment over alleged cooperation with the Soviet invaders in the Polish–Soviet War and during the 1939 invasion of the
6530:
of 1934, the antisemitic tropes of Nazi propaganda had become more common in Polish politics, where they were echoed by the
5175:, which fought for the Polish independence, achieved in 1918 when the occupying forces disintegrated following World War I.
4137:
of Legnica and Wrocław in 1295. Article 31 of the Statute of Kalisz tried to rein in the Catholic Church from disseminating
4037:(1102–1139), Jews, encouraged by the tolerant regime of this ruler, settled throughout Poland, including over the border in
18808:
17646:
17476:
16208:
15038:
The Soviet methods were particularly misleading. The numbers were correct, but the victims were overwhelmingly not Russian.
14253:
12513:
11667:
10727:
9050:
8959:
8849:
8724:
8588:, were prosecuted and sentenced to prison terms for "power abuses" including the torture of Polish anti-fascists including
7471:
7406:
was the largest in all of World War II, with 380,000 people crammed into an area of 1.3 sq mi (3.4 km). The
7305:
attitudes also existed in the London-based Polish Government in Exile, although on 18 December 1942 the President in exile
6686:
6194:
6140:'s Jewish population numbered over 60,000, or about 25% of the city's total population. In 1939 there were 375,000 Jews in
4542:
3712:
2360:
413:
373:
17207:
16658:, "Before the 'Final Solution': Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland",
15925:
13107:
13091:
13060:
9018:
8994:
is an annual event in April held since 1988 to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust. It takes place from Auschwitz to
7616:
Food rations for the Poles were small (669 kcal per day in 1941) compared to other occupied nations throughout Europe and
4233:, however, Polish Jews did not fare badly; and Jewish refugees from Germany fled to the more hospitable cities in Poland.
4083:, the unique Polish nobility) and peasants, and they were instrumental in promoting the commercial interests of the land.
778:
18915:
17651:
17312:
17287:
14615:
14235:
The project which describes the Poles killed along with their families for helping Jews. Retrieved from Internet Archive.
13414:
12501:
11550:
Kapiszewski, Andrzej (2004). "Controversial Reports on the situation of Jews in Poland in the aftermath of World War I".
11289:
In: Ideology, Politics and Diplomacy in East Central Europe, ed. M. B. B. Biskupski. University of Rochester Press, 2003.
9532:
Engel, David. "On Reconciling the Histories of Two Chosen Peoples." The American Historical Review 114.4 (2009): 914-929.
9451:
8951:
6865:
4704:
was so enormous that parts the city never again recovered. Which was later followed by the massacres of the Crown hetman
2628:
2445:
2435:
1675:
1284:
249:
12670:
9677:, Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland,
6820:
Jews and an official Polish government desire to remove Jews from Poland continued until the German invasion of Poland.
5959:
Samuel Herschthal, Dr. Zygmunt Leser, Henryk Orlean, Wiktor Chajes and others. The donations poured in including 50,000
498:
473:
17576:
16696:
15378:
15280:
15025:
13524:
13175:
13024:. Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Antisemitism in Interwar Germany and Poland.
11501:
11167:
8057:
7311:
5455:
5198:
4737:
3823:
3723:
3024:
2974:
2939:
2633:
2498:
2365:
1233:
1182:
493:
15216:
12101:
11551:
11390:
8921:
Polish authors and scholars have published many works about the history of Jews in Poland. Notable among them are the
7410:
was the second largest, holding about 160,000 prisoners. Other large Jewish ghettos in leading Polish cities included
7301:
regions, greed for the possessions of the Jews, and of course coercion by the Nazis to participate in such massacres.
4919:(c. 1500–1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. He lived and died in
4823:(" dwell"). The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of
18360:
17546:
17506:
17486:
17466:
17369:
16987:
16957:
16885:
16797:
16783:
16769:
16747:
16721:
16677:
16648:
16629:
16249:
16059:
15955:
15467:
15338:
15245:
15130:
14913:
14741:
14720:
14553:
14529:
14407:
14283:
13962:
13933:
13887:
13845:
13725:
13638:
13631:
Poland's holocaust: ethnic strife, collaboration with occupying forces and genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947
13586:
13469:
13392:
13365:
13338:
13162:
13135:
13127:
Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947
12907:
12748:
12447:
12038:
12008:
11912:
11846:
11824:
11441:
11083:
11049:
11010:
10919:
10541:
10396:
10084:
10035:
9913:
9728:
9293:
9073:
8979:
8967:
8941:
8560:, Berman and Minc formed a triumvirate of the Stalinist leaders in postwar Poland. After 1956, during the process of
8471:
8105:
8038:
7685:
7476:
7282:
7115:
5881:
5872:, soon proved unpopular with both German officials and Bodenheimer's colleagues, and was dead by the following year.
5835:
5668:
5334:
5184:
3980:
3719:
3624:
2716:
2678:
2653:
2573:
2558:
2405:
2345:
2300:
552:
503:
186:
16082:
13448:
9411:
8286:
Several causes led to the anti-Jewish violence of 1944–1947. One cause was traditional Christian anti-semitism; the
5650:
5316:
3869:
to Israel, without visas or exit permits. Most of the remaining Jews left Poland in late 1968 as the result of the
18949:
18430:
17718:
17679:
17481:
13568:
13485:
11703:
8534:
Some Polish Communists of Jewish descent actively participated in the establishment of the communist regime in the
8492:
8018:
7862:
It took the Germans twenty-seven days to put down the uprising, after some very heavy fighting. The German general
6741:
4835:
that Poland was a place where "most of the time the gentiles do no harm; on the contrary they do right by Israel" (
4070:
3842:
3009:
2991:
2897:
2791:
2643:
2638:
2563:
2528:
2395:
1194:
768:
239:
16353:
14727:
Note: Chariton and Lazar were never co-authors of Wdowiński's memoir. Wdowiński is considered the "single author."
5450:
With its large Catholic and Jewish populations, the Pale was acquired by the Russian Empire (which was a majority
508:
488:
478:
463:
18894:
18546:
17684:
17631:
17606:
17561:
17556:
17531:
17389:
14972:. Pitt Series in Russian and East European Studies. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 124, 165, 172, 255.
12604:
Encyclopedia of Jewish Communities in Poland, Volume VII. Translation of "Radom" chapter published by Yad Vashem.
10419:
8660:
6889:
6877:
6829:
6608:
4248:
3527:
3426:
2981:
2964:
2917:
2816:
2726:
2663:
2613:
2593:
2588:
2508:
2482:
2457:
2335:
2325:
2315:
2295:
2290:
395:
16440:
15869:
Denburg, Stephen A. (1998). "Reclaiming Their Past: A Survey of Jewish Efforts to Restitute European Property".
15782:
Searching for Justice After the Holocaust: Fulfilling the Terezin Declaration and Immovable Property Restitution
15740:"Restitution of Private Property in Postwar Poland: The Unfinished Legacy of the Second World War and Communism"
15088:
15056:
14456:
13224:
10303:
7915:, and immediately joined Polish fighters. Only a few of them survived. The Polish commander of one Jewish unit,
7480:
5415:
was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent residency was generally prohibited. It extended from the eastern
5085:
19145:
17596:
17586:
17536:
17496:
17449:
17444:
17434:
17419:
17414:
17409:
17394:
17379:
17374:
17364:
17359:
17354:
17349:
17241:
17219:
15314:
15171:
15118:
Sovietization of educational system in the eastern part of Lesser Poland under the Soviet occupation, 1939-1941
14997:
14950:
14466:
14176:
13497:
12627:
12402:
12378:
11534:
11310:
11224:
9313:
9308:
8535:
8274:
of 4 July 1946, in which thirty-seven Jews and two Poles were murdered. Following the investigation, the local
7775:
5869:
5646:
5312:
4126:
3000:
2986:
2954:
2934:
2902:
2846:
2821:
2796:
2776:
2766:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2721:
2711:
2706:
2683:
2598:
2583:
2503:
2462:
2415:
2410:
2330:
2275:
1277:
989:
152:
13651:
11816:
9360:
This number essentially entails the amount of Israelis with at least one Polish great-grandparent, as of 2007.
9080:
Historical core Jewish population (using current borders) with Jews as a % of the total Polish population
8399:
signed a decree allowing Jews to leave Poland without visas or exit permits. In 1946–1947 Poland was the only
7779:
1189:
927:
697:
567:
19124:
19012:
18307:
18234:
18012:
17694:
17636:
17581:
17571:
17551:
17541:
17521:
17501:
17471:
17439:
17424:
17399:
17335:
16762:
The Lord's Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth During the Eighteenth Century
16660:
15772:, ed. by Jan Grabowski & Dariusz Libionka (Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów, Warszawa 2014)
15770:
Klucze i kasa: O mieniu żydowskim w Polsce pod okupacją niemiecką i we wczesnych latach powojennych 1939–1950
15701:
Klucze i kasa: O mieniu żydowskim w Polsce pod okupacją niemiecką i we wczesnych latach powojennych 1939–1950
15492:
15031:
12539:
Historia-Polski.com. Wykaz miast RP z populacją żydowską powyżej 12 tysięcy. Łuck: 17.366 czyli 48% ludności.
12177:
10353:
9678:
9542:
9318:
8706:
8236:
8156:(where there was a significant Jewish community initially consisting of local concentration camp survivors),
7770:
7689:
7218:
were forced to dance and sing in public with their beards shorn off. Some rabbis were set on fire or hanged.
6995:
relief in having escaped the Nazi occupation in the first weeks of war. The Polish poet and former communist
6815:
6468:
5937:
5527:
5172:
4656:
3421:
2959:
2944:
2907:
2869:
2841:
2831:
2826:
2806:
2786:
2771:
2756:
2731:
2697:
2668:
2568:
2553:
2477:
2467:
2385:
2355:
2280:
2266:
523:
483:
57:
15288:
intensity until 1948 and ended with thousands killed, wounded, arrested, or transported to the Soviet Union.
14101:(Politics of the Third Reich in Occupied Poland, Part Two), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1970, pp. 169–170
12893:
in Poland took pains to thank Beck for furthering the cause of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine.13"
11765:
Religion and Native Language (total). Section Jewish: 3,113,933 with Yiddish: 2,489,034 and Hebrew: 243,539.
8868:
7554:
Announcement of death penalty for Jews captured outside the Ghetto and for Poles helping Jews, November 1941
7188:
7184:
4422:, thus stimulating Jewish immigration to the much more accessible Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the
1067:
19057:
19047:
17611:
17566:
17491:
17461:
15813:
The post-socialist city: urban form and space transformations in Central and Eastern Europe after socialism
9046:
8651:
8452:, and Poland, totaling 250,000 survivors. In 1947, a military training camp for young Jewish volunteers to
8069:
8046:
8025:
7746:
7221:
7172:
7168:
7007:
claimed that among the informers and collaborators, the percentage of Jews was striking; likewise, General
5722:
5045:
4423:
4379:
3870:
3846:
3029:
2949:
2912:
2836:
2781:
2648:
2623:
2548:
2523:
2513:
2452:
2375:
2370:
2350:
2340:
2320:
2305:
2198:
1902:
1666:
1661:
1087:
1011:
977:
597:
331:
276:
16295:
16026:
15116:
13328:
10367:
9714:
in Poland took pains to thank Beck for furthering the cause of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine."
8053:
8028:. During the deportations, hundreds of Jews, mainly those deemed too weak or sick to travel, were killed.
8008:
7947:
4901:
In the first half of the 16th century the seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from
4134:
3826:, it was orchestrated and perpetrated by the Nazis. Polish attitudes to the Holocaust varied widely, from
1177:
18942:
18901:
18617:
18276:
18129:
17741:
17150:
17139:
17128:
17117:
15304:
15058:
Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, Analysis
14966:
Marina Sorokina; Tarik Cyril Amar (2014). Michael David-Fox; Peter Holquist; Alexander M. Martin (eds.).
14232:
13001:
Edward D. Wynot, Jr., 'A Necessary Cruelty': The Emergence of Official Anti-Semitism in Poland, 1936–39.
12905:, "Linking the Vistula and the Jordan: The Genesis of Relations between Poland and the State of Israel",
10638:
9726:, "Linking the Vistula and the Jordan: The Genesis of Relations between Poland and the State of Israel",
9632:
Lords' Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Eighteenth Century
9323:
8689:
8565:
8520:
8314:
8185:
8084:
of April 1943, the Białystok uprising had no chances for military success, but it was the second-largest
7850:
7622:
7024:
A number of younger Jews, often through the pro-Marxist Bund or some Zionist groups, were sympathetic to
6917:
6737:
6651:
6569:. The agreement granted certain cultural and religious rights to Jews in exchange for Jewish support for
6531:
6056:
5687:, began to take hold in Poland during the 19th century, stressing secular ideas and values. Champions of
5511:
4260:
3874:
3819:
3700:
3692:
3019:
3014:
2969:
2922:
2608:
2578:
2538:
2533:
2390:
1696:
1092:
1072:
1036:
1026:
1016:
982:
803:
15188:
12717:
Ezra Mendelsohn. The Jews of East Central Europe Between the World Wars. Indiana University Press, 1983.
11972:
10590:
10499:
5975:
Percentage of Jewish (by religion) population in each voivodeship of Poland according to the 1931 census
652:
627:
537:
18510:
18349:
18054:
14762:
12577:
11685:
10978:
8922:
8907:
8906:. The Memorial is located where the Warsaw Ghetto used to be, at the site of one command bunker of the
8684:
First attempts to improve Polish–Israeli relations began in the mid-1970s. Poland was the first of the
7633:
7367:
7359:
7306:
7247:
7237:
5950:
5805:
5115:
5113:
Polish society recognized the urgency of popular education as the first step toward reform. The famous
5057:
3493:
3338:
3046:
2440:
1636:
1626:
1362:
1211:
1142:
1082:
1031:
547:
348:
16929:
Weaponizing the Past: Collective Memory and Jews, Poles, and Communists in Twenty-First Century Poland
15845:. A Random House trade paperback (Random House trade paperback ed.). New York, NY: Random House.
14983:
14337:
9655:
8974:
In September 2000, dignitaries from Poland, Israel, the United States, and other countries (including
8410:
Between 1945 and 1948, 100,000–120,000 Jews left Poland. Their departure was largely organized by the
8115:
The estimates of Polish Jews before the war vary from slightly under 3 million to almost 3.5 million (
7063:
there were 500–600 Jews. From 1939 to 1941 between 100,000 and 300,000 Polish Jews were deported from
6213:(Polish: Izaak Zynger), achieved international acclaim as a classic Jewish writer and was awarded the
5927:(1933), reading roll call of the fallen, organized by Union of Jewish Fighters for Polish Independence
5915:
5793:
5032:. The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of
907:
587:
572:
19037:
18980:
18813:
18803:
18459:
18365:
18114:
17801:
16357:
15394:
14598:
13745:
13276:
13077:
11138:
9024:
In 2006, Poland's Jewish population was estimated to be approximately 20,000; most living in Warsaw,
8999:
8548:
8307:
7762:
7750:
7388:
7363:
7180:
6987:
6944:
6690:
6547:
6226:
6214:
5834:
party became the most prominent Jewish party in the interwar period and in the 1919 elections to the
5783:(People's Party) advocated, for its part, cultural autonomy and resistance to assimilation. In 1912,
5106:
5037:
4983:
4429:
The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of
3607:
3300:
3151:
3092:
1983:
1077:
1041:
1021:
286:
271:
18124:
17918:
16122:
14349:
10698:
10558:
10469:
10058:
Suggested reading: Arieh J. Kochavi, "Britain and the Jewish Exodus...," Polin 7 (1992): pp. 161–175
8569:
8508:
7402:
Between October 1939 and July 1942 a system of ghettos was imposed for the confinement of Jews. The
7243:
4701:
647:
18990:
18798:
18694:
18612:
18300:
18102:
18097:
15143:
15115:(1998) . Włodzimierz Bonusiak; Stanisław Jan Ciesielski; Zygmunt Mańkowski; Mikołaj Iwanow (eds.).
14569:
13704:
The Soviet Occupation of Poland, 1939–41, and the Stereotype of the Anti-Polish and Pro-Soviet Jew.
11526:
9252:
8779:
7583:
7094:
6411:
6093:
6018:
5984:
5924:
5631:
5297:
4668:
4222:
4130:
3927:
The first Jews to visit Polish territory were traders, while permanent settlement began during the
3780:
3310:
3290:
2400:
1880:
1421:
1127:
717:
557:
468:
15889:
15536:
15333:(Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 2003), 212-213.
15101:. Vol. VII. Polska 1944/45–1989. Studia i Materiały. pp. 25–26 (pp. 2–3 in current document).
13202:
8239:. It occurred amid a period of violence and anarchy across the country, caused by lawlessness and
8180:
after the war; created by a local Jewish Committee in 1945. Most remained for only a brief period.
7661:
in Poland. The Polish government in exile was also the only government to set up an organization (
7089:. Small numbers of Polish Jews (about 6,000) were able to leave the Soviet Union in 1942 with the
6736:
The national boycott of Jewish businesses and advocacy for their confiscation was promoted by the
6039:, although serious abuses against the Jews, including pogroms, continued elsewhere, especially in
4149:
3912:
19119:
19032:
18249:
17923:
17274:
16916:
16878:
After the Holocaust: Polish–Jewish Conflict in the Wake of World War II, East European Monographs
16836:
16825:
15270:
14831:
14130:
13724:(Jews in the authorities of the Polish Secret Security. Stereotype or Reality?), Bulletin of the
12392:
11286:
10739:
10576:
9328:
9256:
9003:
8983:
8975:
8823:
8791:
8772:
7962:
7447:
7149:
7139:
7119:
7008:
6948:
6893:
6522:, the strengthening of antisemitism in Polish society was also a consequence of the influence of
5635:
5564:
5451:
5301:
5049:
4885:
was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the century the Jewish printing houses of that city and
4375:
4034:
3704:
3451:
3441:
3406:
3285:
3275:
3058:
2229:
2171:
2005:
1684:
1641:
1356:
1132:
947:
842:
813:
657:
336:
291:
281:
18172:
17292:
16974:
16184:
16067:
15112:
14041:
13355:
12688:"The Pogrom of Jews During and After World War I: The Destruction of the Jewish Idea of Galicia"
12601:
12226:(in Polish). Central Statistical office of the Polish Republic. 1938. p. 15. Archived from
11583:
9935:
8613:
7512:(page 595 of the GG Register) Jews leaving the Jewish Quarter without permission will incur the
7491:
6370:
contributed to the world of science. Other Polish Jews who gained international recognition are
6144:
or one-third of the city's population. Only New York City had more Jewish residents than Warsaw.
4721:
3763:, Polish Jews became subject to the laws of the partitioning powers, including the increasingly
1112:
577:
19088:
19022:
19017:
18167:
18085:
17187:
16731:
16635:
16617:
16207:
AP Online, "Some Jewish exiles to have Polish citizenship restored this week", 3 October 1998,
14799:
13678:
Who Will Write Our History: Emmanuel Ringelblum, the Warsaw Ghetto and the Oyneg Shabes Archive
12369:
11356:
9620:"Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends" by Lonnie R. Johnson Oxford University Press 1996
9605:
9334:
9021:, which is one of the biggest festivals of Jewish culture in the world, takes place in Kraków.
8898:
8852:
is being built in Warsaw. The building was designed by the Finnish architect Rainer Mahlamäki.
8475:
8089:
8081:
7973:
7783:
7721:
7680:
7654:
7355:
7029:
6885:
6562:
6100:
5812:
5515:
5068:
3745:
3570:
3305:
3219:
2285:
1837:
1456:
1426:
1206:
1199:
707:
672:
617:
562:
16937:
16512:
16392:
15524:
15351:
14557:
14533:
14375:
14368:
14161:
13879:
13873:
13690:
13677:
13665:
Collaboration in the Holocaust: Crimes of the Local Police in Belorussia and Ukraine, 1941–44.
12726:
12705:
12439:
12041:
11374:
11206:
11193:
11107:
10533:
10206:
10127:
9905:
9899:
9036:, though there are no census figures that would give an exact number. According to the Polish
8829:
There are also several Jewish publications although most of them are in Polish. These include
8581:
6538:
was obsessed with an international conspiracy of freemasons and Jews, and in his works linked
6286:
5489:. At times, Jews were forbidden to live in agricultural communities, or certain cities, as in
5159:
4066:
677:
106:
1,250,000 (ancestry, passport eligible); 202,300 (born in Poland or with a Polish-born father)
18873:
18842:
18727:
18447:
18027:
17758:
16843:
in this source. The encyclopedia was published when sovereign Poland did not exist following
14940:
14442:
14057:
13950:
13915:
13664:
13630:
13617:
13602:
13578:
13572:
13540:
13154:
12509:
12467:
11836:
11655:
11267:
Elusive Alliance: The German Occupation of Poland in World War I page 176 Jesse Kauffman 2015
10909:
10444:
9841:
9703:
9393:
9340:
8978:) gathered in the city of Oświęcim (Auschwitz) to commemorate the opening of the refurbished
8876:
8193:
8116:
7090:
6955:
where, as a result of the inhuman conditions, about half of them died before the end of war.
6901:
6872:
some 20,000 Jewish civilians and 32,216 Jewish soldiers were killed, while 61,000 were taken
6665:
6482:
6317:
6250:
6222:
6210:
6068:
6048:
6000:
5988:
5826:
In addition to the socialists, Zionist parties were also popular, in particular, the Marxist
5797:
5231:
5053:
4855:
4572:
4551:
4434:
4395:
4168:
4101:
4050:
3841:
In the post-war period, many of the approximately 200,000 Jewish survivors registered at the
3749:
3461:
3456:
3401:
3189:
2104:
1832:
1819:
1714:
1431:
1216:
773:
737:
732:
722:
607:
296:
16419:
16105:
13246:
12922:
The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II
12866:
The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II
12837:
The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II
8966:
There have been a number of Holocaust remembrance activities in Poland in recent years. The
8593:
8032:
camp in the city before deportation to Treblinka. Those deemed fit to work were sent to the
7419:
6014:
5263:'s discretion. Thus between 1827 and 1857 over 30,000 children were placed in the so-called
4106:
877:
19114:
19002:
18469:
18197:
18069:
17793:
16844:
16832:
13925:
13919:
10053:
9425:
9061:
8998:
and is attended by many people from Israel, Poland and other countries. The marchers honor
7935:
concentration camp in Warsaw, men and women, took part in combat against Nazis during 1944
7855:
7844:
7766:
7741:
7264:
6694:
6581:
6437:
6230:
6025:– the report concluded – 64 Jews had been killed (other accounts put the number at 72). In
5942:
5909:
5854:
5801:
5251:
5151:
5093:
4764:
4639:
4584:
4537:
4359:
4332:
4225:
accusation against Jews in Poland was recorded, and in 1367 the first pogrom took place in
3756:
3676:
3532:
3484:
3224:
3082:
1895:
1760:
1749:
1707:
1147:
18742:
18732:
17849:
16245:
14919:
14681:
14586:
9753:. Weapons were provided for 10,000 men, and Polish officers trained Irgun fighters in the
8656:
7951:
7293:
similar to Jedwabne. The reasons for these massacres are still debated, but they included
7108:, 67% (2,972) of the Jewish soldiers deserted to settle in Palestine, and many joined the
6809:
to Poland to escape anti-Jewish measures. Their property was claimed by the Polish state.
6475:, won several medals in the table-tennis tournaments. Many of these clubs belonged to the
6225:, went on to achieve international acclaim as classic Jewish writers; Singer won the 1978
4935:) (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the co-author of the
4061:. Jews worked on commission for the mints of other contemporary Polish princes, including
1137:
727:
592:
8:
18922:
18852:
18825:
18793:
18788:
18763:
18722:
18607:
18187:
18182:
18162:
16063:
15300:
15011:
14162:"Antisemitism, Anti-Judaism, and the Polish Catholic Clergy during the Second World War."
13838:
Resplendent Synagogue: Architecture and Worship in an Eighteenth-century Polish Community
13718:
12811:
12553:
10744:
10703:
10642:
10244:
Friedman, Jonathan C (2012) . "Jewish Communities of Europe on the Eve of World War II".
9750:
9583:
9244:
9037:
8991:
8860:
8388:
8275:
8133:
7909:
7725:
7317:
7105:
6952:
6881:
6776:
6772:
6574:
6476:
6419:
6347:
5576:
5216:
5203:
5089:
4824:
4759:, led to ferocious murders of Polish noblemen, Catholic priests and thousands of Jews by
4697:
4430:
4399:
4371:
4363:
3967:. In the summer of 965 or 966, Jacob made a trade and diplomatic journey from his native
3964:
3752:
3585:
3280:
1958:
1825:
1728:
1721:
1651:
1539:
1414:
542:
196:
18737:
18292:
16563:
15490:
14752:"The Stroop Report – The Jewish Quarter of Warsaw is No More", Secker & Warburg 1980
14110:
12119:
10308:
Beit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project, The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot
9644:
Jews and Heretics in Pre-modern Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era
9060:
opened. It is one of the world's largest Jewish museums. As of 2019 another museum, the
8002:
7411:
7407:
6929:, in which 25 Jews were killed (the Soviets later put some of the pogromists on trial).
6854:
6729:
6456:
5593:
5543:
4172:
912:
867:
19098:
19093:
18966:
18868:
18706:
18520:
18281:
18207:
18157:
17776:
16790:
Jews and Heretics in Premodern Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era
16177:
16157:
16047:
15634:
15471:
14874:
14787:
14363:
13552:
12984:
12789:
12651:
12364:
11743:
10892:
8844:
8767:
7875:
7509:
7451:
7351:
7329:
7325:
7164:
6869:
6850:
6840:
6757:
also substantially poorer and less integrated than the Jews in most of Western Europe.
6753:
6570:
6391:
6274:
6246:
6112:
6063:
6035:
6030:
5816:
5597:
5583:
movement. The pogroms prompted a great wave of Jewish emigration to the United States.
5568:
5519:
5420:
5361:
5352:
5244:
5224:
5018:
and Poland in particular. His disciples taught and encouraged the new fervent brand of
4870:
4832:
4748:
4709:
4651:
4352:
4256:
4097:
dates from 1237, in Kalisz from 1287 and a Żydowska (Jewish) street in Kraków in 1304.
3792:
3791:, Poland supported Jewish emigration from Poland and the creation of a Jewish state in
3772:
3436:
3386:
3333:
3328:
3242:
3112:
2380:
2209:
1968:
1888:
1742:
1308:
1221:
1051:
662:
17247:
15547:
Under these limitations, restitution seemed to proceed well, at least for a time (see
15434:
13819:
13574:
Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide...
13277:"YIVO | Poland: Poland since 1939, in the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe"
12529:
11108:
When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland
10687:
Categorically Jewish, Distinctly Polish. Polish Jewish History Reflected and Refracted
10455:
8557:
8538:
between 1944 and 1956. Hand-picked by Joseph Stalin, prominent Jews held posts in the
7847:, died fighting on 8 May 1943 at the organization's command centre on 18 Mila Street.
6306:
6128:) had the third-largest Jewish population in Poland, numbering 110,000 in 1939 (42%).
4889:
issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The growth of
4847:
4273:
3707:, new study programs at Polish secondary schools and universities, and the opening of
642:
170:
18818:
18679:
18664:
18649:
18644:
18464:
18405:
18244:
18224:
18202:
17869:
17091:
17081:
17065:
17061:
Barricades and Banners: The Revolution of 1905 and the Transformation of Warsaw Jewry
17034:
17018:
17002:
16983:
16963:
16953:
16881:
16848:
16793:
16779:
16765:
16743:
16717:
16709:
16692:
16673:
16644:
16625:
16398:
16188:
16161:
15951:
15944:
15846:
15816:
15668:
15638:
15626:
15579:
15502:
15374:
15334:
15310:
15276:
15251:
15241:
15197:
15167:
15126:
15125:]. Kielce: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna im. Jana Kochanowskiego. pp. 43, 294.
15062:
15021:
14973:
14946:
14909:
14843:
14737:
14716:
14549:
14525:
14483:
14462:
14403:
14379:
14279:
14172:
14063:
13958:
13929:
13883:
13841:
13634:
13582:
13520:
13493:
13465:
13388:
13361:
13334:
13158:
13131:
13125:
12988:
12976:
12878:
12815:
12744:
12639:
12581:
12517:
12483:
12443:
12422:
12398:
12374:
12345:
12318:
12278:
12251:
12034:
12004:
11956:
11937:
11908:
11881:
11842:
11820:
11619:
11530:
11497:
11493:
11437:
11410:
11340:
11306:
11287:'This Troublesome Question': The United States and the 'Polish Pogroms' of 1918–1919.
11163:
11079:
11045:
11006:
10961:
10915:
10776:
10717:
Krwawa zemsta Stefana Czarnieckiego na Kozakach. Nie oszczędzał nawet kobiet i dzieci
10537:
10526:
10495:
10392:
10249:
10219:
10080:
10031:
9960:
9909:
9853:
9833:
9786:
9691:
8926:
8787:
8750:
8731:
8677:
8609:
8597:
8396:
8323:
7101:
7043:
6789:
6780:
6617:
6322:
6084:
6052:
6004:
5980:
5820:
5718:
5133:
4874:
4705:
4555:
4252:
4154:
4118:
3972:
3960:
3580:
3522:
3502:
3319:
2879:
2518:
1978:
1849:
1779:
1656:
1569:
1436:
902:
742:
712:
532:
423:
16083:"Helena Wolinska-Brus: 1919–2008. Controversial communist prosecutor dies in the UK"
15946:
Post-Holocaust Politics: Britain, the United States & Jewish Refugees, 1945–1948
15843:
Fear: anti-semitism in Poland after Auschwitz; an essay in historical interpretation
15000:
was the result of conscious and purposeful falsification by Stalinist propagandists.
14687:
13758:""JEWISH MILITARY CASUALTIES IN THE POLISH ARMIES IN WORLD WAR II" - VOL. V: Photos"
13516:
Shared History, Divided Memory: Jews and Others in Soviet-occupied Poland, 1939–1941
11618:, Vol. 2. Yivo Institute for Jewish Research Yale University Press. 2008. p. 1393.
11403:
Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna; Dynner, Glenn (2021). "Pogroms in Modern Poland, 1918-1946".
9009:
8955:
7060:
6880:
and labor camps and suffered the same fate as other Jewish civilians in the ensuing
6359:
6136:) had a Jewish community of nearly 100,000, about 45% of the city's total. In 1938,
5945:, more than all other minorities combined. Prominent Jews were among the members of
5815:
period, there were several prominent Jewish politicians in the Polish Sejm, such as
3987:. Among the first Jews to arrive in Poland in 1097 or 1098 were those banished from
19042:
18773:
18758:
18701:
18689:
18654:
18597:
18551:
18505:
18500:
18495:
18490:
18474:
18454:
18442:
18437:
18415:
18400:
18395:
18355:
18192:
18177:
18119:
18017:
17908:
16932:
16739:
16655:
16328:
16321:
Beit Kraków » Wstęp do Judaizmu (Introduction to Judaism): "Korzenie" (Roots).
16219:
16149:
15618:
15219:
13021:
13006:
12968:
11863:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Polish Studies Center. pp. 161–169.
10800:
10493:
10103:
9884:
University Press of Kentucky 1989 – 201 pages. Page 13; also in Richard C. Lukas,
9875:
9837:
9674:
8855:
8692:
were restored, and full relations were restored in 1990 as soon as communism fell.
8561:
8419:
8260:
8153:
8077:
7924:
7867:
7650:
7394:
7314:
testifies to the fact that Poles were willing to take risks in order to save Jews.
6978:
Yiddish election notice for Soviet local government to the People's council of the
6951:
and massive deportation of 320,000 Polish nationals to the Soviet interior and the
6861:
6749:
6701:
6700:
Anti-Jewish sentiment in Poland had reached its zenith in the years leading to the
6598:
6594:
6519:
6395:
6387:
6298:
5920:
5868:
that would free Jews in the region from Russian oppression. The plan, known as the
5831:
5761:
5710:
5380:
5366:
5236:
5155:
5143:
5125:
5004:
and overly formal Rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the
4952:
4685:
4647:
4200:
4122:
4087:
4062:
3550:
3431:
3391:
3355:
3053:
2603:
2114:
1870:
1774:
1689:
1579:
1371:
1152:
942:
823:
178:
16378:
15739:
15622:
14766:
14664:
14203:
In the Shadow of Auschwitz: The Polish Government-In-Exile and the Jews, 1939–1942
13896:
11246:
9033:
8818:
8287:
7863:
7819:
7427:
6452:
6206:
6047:
atrocities committed by the young Polish army and its allies in 1919 during their
1157:
952:
922:
897:
862:
19072:
19067:
18674:
18669:
18659:
18602:
18571:
18556:
18530:
18525:
18515:
18323:
18271:
18266:
18134:
17950:
17877:
17281:
17266:
17146:
17135:
17075:
17045:
16993:
16895:
16705:
16499:
16302:
16128:
16006:
15929:
15441:
14779:
14670:
14424:
14117:
14001:
13971:
13781:
13457:
13095:
13064:
12894:
12536:
12274:
Poland, 1918-1945: An Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic
12272:
12181:
12156:
11960:
11904:
In the shadow of Hitler: personalities of the right in Central and Eastern Europe
11602:
11590:
11468:
11404:
11073:
10880:
10770:
10110:
9942:
9860:
9754:
9715:
9662:
8903:
8760:
8739:
8701:
8577:
8512:
8085:
8061:
7989:
7936:
7904:
7900:
7733:
7693:
7278:
6999:
has stated that Jews were more inclined to cooperate with the Soviets. Following
6960:
6728:
Demonstration of Polish students demanding implementation of "ghetto benches" at
6660:
6497:
6488:
6423:
6383:
6375:
6327:
6302:
6290:
6187:
6163:
5901:
5842:
5776:
5714:
5428:
5394:
5164:
5029:
4831:, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life. Many agreed with Rabbi
4788:
4784:
4689:
4568:
4513:
4419:
4411:
4407:
4284:
in 1407, although the royal guard hastened to the rescue. Hysteria caused by the
4276:. In 1349 pogroms took place in many towns in Silesia. There were accusations of
4268:
4160:
4058:
4011:
3992:
3850:
3831:
3788:
3768:
3760:
3755:), Poland's traditional tolerance began to wane from the 17th century. After the
3729:, Poland was the most tolerant country in Europe. Historians have used the label
3726:
3512:
3471:
3466:
3446:
3368:
3362:
3295:
3247:
3087:
3068:
2219:
1948:
1860:
1843:
1387:
1122:
882:
702:
692:
687:
682:
632:
612:
582:
301:
128:
120:
116:
18934:
17304:
16950:
Economic Origins of Antisemitism: Poland and Its Jews in the Early Modern Period
16588:
15703:(in Polish). Warsaw: Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą. pp. 605–607.
11671:
10728:
The Jews in a Polish Private Town – The Case of Opatów in the Eighteenth Century
8556:
responsible for establishing a Communist-style economy. Together with hardliner
8516:
7740:
made up of 24 Jewish men ordered to organize Jewish labor battalions as well as
6403:
6120:
numbered about 233,000, roughly one-third of the city's population. The city of
6071:
and late 1938, the Jewish population of the Republic had grown by over 464,000.
4187:
near Kraków (1386). Casimir, who according to a legend had a Jewish lover named
3991:. The first permanent Jewish community is mentioned in 1085 by a Jewish scholar
18783:
18768:
18576:
18566:
18561:
18217:
17996:
17903:
16896:
Agency and Displacement of Ethnic Polish and Jewish Families after World War II
16820:
16238:
15922:
15161:
13432:
13088:
13057:
12623:
12567:
12463:
12419:
The Emergence of Modern Jewish Politics: Bundism and Zionism in Eastern Europe.
12189:
12185:
12026:
11189:
10494:
Kayserling, Meyer; Gotthard Deutsch; M. Seligsohn; Peter Wiernik; N.T. London;
9636:
The Jews in a Polish Private Town: The Case of Opatów in the Eighteenth Century
8947:
8589:
8445:
7985:
7641:
7597:
7273:
7257:
7097:
6996:
6655:
6640:
6472:
6445:
6441:
6407:
6355:
6310:
6258:
6167:
6151:
6080:
6009:
5996:
5992:
5960:
5757:
5698:
5412:
5408:
5033:
5015:
4956:
4937:
4928:
4916:
4693:
4681:
4662:
4631:
4485:
4456:
4452:
4415:
4391:
4230:
4026:
4007:
4003:
3664:
3612:
3411:
3266:
3146:
3125:
3102:
3097:
3075:
3063:
2658:
2139:
2073:
2038:
2016:
1953:
1791:
1769:
1631:
1610:
1586:
1352:
1334:
1256:
1252:
937:
887:
872:
602:
435:
385:
264:
17129:
Jewish Communities in Poland and Lithuania under the Council of the Four Lands
12972:
11641:
End note 20: 44–29, memo 1/30/39 , The Jewish Publication Society of America,
8600:
the interrogation methods used the UB which led to its restructuring in 1954.
8231:
The anti-Jewish violence in Poland refers to a series of violent incidents in
7593:
7439:
6974:
6464:
6089:
5999:
sent an official commission to investigate the matter. The commission, led by
4203:, he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced
19139:
18997:
18327:
18254:
17816:
17749:
17297:
17197:
17157:
17124:
16905:
16815:
16153:
15630:
15538:
Polish nationalists protest at law on restitution of Jewish property 12.05.19
15255:
15123:
Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschodniej pod radziecką okupacją 1939-1941
15007:
14316:
14028:
13421:
13201:. Chatham House, The Royal Institute of International Affairs. Archived from
12980:
12885:, and in the US, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Jewish members of the
12643:
12548:
12031:
The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999
11332:
10099:
10076:
The Unwanted: European Refugees from the First World War Through the Cold War
9298:
8886:
8735:
8669:
8617:
8601:
8585:
8528:
8365:
8319:
8271:
8177:
8149:
8093:
7940:
7928:
7920:
7916:
7912:
7891:
7886:
7840:
7823:
7794:
7789:
7717:
7709:
7674:
7658:
7609:
7587:
7513:
7435:
7423:
7403:
7226:
7157:
7123:
7048:
7004:
6823:
6752:
that had been very severe on agricultural countries like Poland, reduced the
6745:
6535:
6507:
6363:
6022:
5971:
5865:
5785:
5705:, rather focusing on a strong continuation of their religious lives based on
5560:
5424:
5255:
5006:
4990:
4942:
4828:
4791:
into Hebrew, these names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because
4744:
4740:. The worldwide Jewish population at that time was estimated at 1.2 million.
4677:
4473:
4448:
4367:
4335:
confirmed and extended Jewish charters in the second half of the 15th century
4030:
3984:
3968:
3776:
3660:
3560:
3555:
2761:
2688:
2214:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2043:
2021:
1973:
1735:
1574:
1479:
1441:
1392:
1267:
1263:
1117:
1006:
957:
917:
892:
818:
18835:
17945:
17095:
16967:
16687:
Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2014) . Rohde, Aleksandra Miesak (ed.).
16670:
Jews in Poland–Lithuania in the Eighteenth Century: A Genealogy of Modernity
13757:
13179:
13010:
12764:
11721:
11276:
A Deadly Legacy: German Jews and the Great War Timothy L. Grady page 82 2017
9695:
8293:
7035:
6793:
organizing passports and facilitating illegal immigration, and supplied the
6785:
6765:
5808:
all saw significant Jewish involvement in the cause of Polish independence.
5442:
4770:
4321:
18622:
18229:
18139:
16714:
The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland
14936:
14636:
14298:
The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland
13461:
13111:
12890:
12882:
11755:(in Polish). ]Warszawa: Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej
11642:
11634:
11560:
11519:"Lwów, 1918: The Transmutation of a Symbol and its Legacy in the Holocaust"
11298:
11120:
10670:
10382:
10332:
10286:
9711:
9699:
8995:
8879:
8696:
8685:
8543:
8500:
8415:
8400:
8369:
8024:
In February 1943, approximately 10,000 Białystok Jews were deported to the
7981:
7617:
7455:
7342:, or blackmailers who collaborated with the Nazis in persecuting the Jews.
7294:
7286:
7203:
7076:
7068:
6971:
communists to fill in the newly emptied government and civil service jobs.
6921:
6913:
6589:
6523:
6427:
6371:
6343:
6262:
6242:
6238:
6234:
6178:
6104:
5861:
5580:
5549:
The assassination prompted a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots, called
4906:
4620:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4204:
4114:
3862:
3815:
3811:
3784:
3703:, there has been a renewed interest in Jewish culture, featuring an annual
3688:
3680:
3590:
3416:
3257:
3252:
3210:
3163:
2257:
2124:
2109:
2068:
2033:
1646:
1488:
994:
932:
363:
259:
17834:
17710:
16852:
14782:
in World War II is believed to have occurred in 1942 in the small town of
14207:
Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-in-Exile and the Jews, 1943–1945
13603:
Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath.
13541:
Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath.
12487:
12426:
11880:. Liverpool University Press, Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–49.
11623:
11582:"Ustawa z dnia 17 marca 1921 r. – Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej."
11344:
10769:
Nagielski, Mirosław (1995). "Stefan Czarniecki (1604–1655) hetman polny".
10027:
Immigrants in turmoil: mass immigration to Israel and its repercussions...
8141:
7968:
7415:
6983:
6483:
Between antisemitism and support for Zionism and Jewish state in Palestine
6117:
5905:
4053:
employed Jews in his mint as engravers and technical supervisors, and the
3857:. Their departure was hastened by the destruction of Jewish institutions,
418:
18684:
18259:
18107:
17978:
17859:
17288:
The Catholic Zionist Who Helped Steer Israeli Independence through the UN
16090:
15667:. New studies in European history. New York: Cambridge University Press.
14942:
From peace to war: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the world, 1939–1941
14312:
13155:
Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath
12772:
12566:
12122:[The legal status of the Jewish minority in the Second Republic]
12066:
11523:
Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath
11429:
11376:
Poland's Threatening Other: The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present
9990:
Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath
9013:"Shalom in Szeroka Street", the final concert of the 15th Jewish Festival
8802:
8629:
8553:
8504:
8464:
8209:
8176:
Page from a register of several hundred Jewish survivors who returned to
8073:
7955:
7571:
7339:
7321:
7268:
6761:
6709:
6677:
6602:
6503:
6460:
6294:
6282:
6270:
6266:
5953:
of re-emerging sovereign Poland including Herman Feldstein, Henryk Eile,
5932:
5897:
5892:
5780:
5772:
4994:
4975:
4960:
4859:
4852:
4288:
led to additional 14th-century outbreaks of violence against the Jews in
4285:
4277:
4218:
4138:
3920:
3878:
3795:. The Polish state also supported Jewish paramilitary groups such as the
3575:
3517:
3182:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2048:
637:
428:
17214:
A Complicated Coexistence: Polish–Jewish relations through the centuries
16814: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
16537:
13512:
12480:
Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39.
12440:
The path of the righteous: gentile rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust
12370:
Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39.
12092:[The Jews in Poland's history of the 19th and the 20th century]
11639:
A History of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 1929–1939.
11358:
Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39.
9834:
The Path of the Righteous: Gentile Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust
7699:
6959:
wealthier Jews, as well as some political and social activists from the
6718:
6451:
There also were several Jewish sports clubs, with some of them, such as
5733:
4546:
Number of Jews in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth per voivodeship in 1764
4508:, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy. He is considered the "
4045:. Bolesław III recognized the utility of Jews in the development of the
3996:
18032:
17960:
17913:
17898:
17811:
17175:
15491:Łukasz Kamiński; Leszek Bukowski; Andrzej Jankowski; Jan Żaryn (2008).
15331:
After the Holocaust: Polish–Jewish Conflict in the Wake of World War II
14652:
14602:
14508:
14043:
God's Playground: God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes.
13089:
B. Meirtchak: "Jewish Military Casualties In The Polish Armies In Wwii"
11490:
Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870–1933/39
10819:"Zrodla do badan przemian przestrzennych zachodnich przedmiesc Krakowa"
10674:
9414:. Polish-jewish-heritage.org (8 January 2005). Retrieved on 2010-08-22.
8449:
8381:
7728:
7637:
7626:
7521:....This is a categorical warning to the non-Jewish population against:
7192:
7144:
7000:
6681:
6566:
6551:
6436:
in 1920 at the Elyseum Theatre. Some future Israeli leaders studied at
6432:
6278:
6254:
5827:
5752:
5523:
5494:
5178:
4627:
in the Commonwealth had pressed the king to grant them that privilege.
4509:
4328:
4214:
4180:
4054:
3963:, was the first chronicler to mention the Polish state ruled by Prince
3956:
3940:
3744:
weakening of the Commonwealth and growing religious strife (due to the
3668:
3233:
2247:
2176:
2134:
1963:
1943:
1502:
1409:
1329:
368:
17783:
17193:
Judaism in the Baltic: Vilna as the Spiritual Center of Eastern Europe
16806:, in: Ethnos-Nation: eine europäische Zeitschrift, 1999, pp. 8–25
15166:(in Polish). Warsaw: Żydowski Instytut Historyczny. pp. 107–111.
15149:
14458:
Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces
12706:
On the Edge of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars.
12207:
In the Shadow of the Polish Eagle: The Poles, the Holocaust and Beyond
11749:
Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności z dn. 9.XII.1931 r. Seria C. Zeszyt 94a
9025:
8872:
8810:
8145:
5522:
and subject to restrictions on ownership and profession. The existing
5447:, a stake, extended to mean the area enclosed by a fence or boundary.
4344:
4049:
of his country. Jews came to form the backbone of the Polish economy.
3810:
In 1939, at the start of World War II, Poland was partitioned between
18420:
18037:
17988:
17854:
17844:
17826:
17806:
17771:
17766:
16441:"Plans for Warsaw Ghetto Museum unveiled - Diaspora - Jerusalem Post"
15571:
14317:"Gunnar S. Paulsson Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw 1940–1945"
14059:
The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and Its Aftermath
13820:"Avalon Project - Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry - Appendix III"
13108:
Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation
13039:
On the Edge Of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars
12727:
On the Edge of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars
12636:
Dni życia, dni śmierci. Ludność żydowska w Radomiu w latach 1918–1950
12573:
Economic Change and the National Question in Twentieth-century Europe
10311:
10180:
9886:
The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939–1944
9084:(Source: YIVO Encyclopedia & the North American Jewish Data Bank)
8891:
8347:
8248:
7704:
7379:
7371:
7210:
7072:
7025:
6845:
6379:
6367:
6191:
6155:
6147:
6133:
5955:
5765:
5459:
5271:
5264:
5001:
4317:
4309:
4229:. Compared with the pitiless destruction of their co-religionists in
4184:
4038:
4017:
3696:
3396:
3381:
2471:
2419:
2181:
2129:
2119:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1701:
1461:
316:
17078:
Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories
17076:
Weiner, Miriam; Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) (1997).
15576:
Robbery and restitution: the conflict over Jewish property in Europe
15572:"The polish debate on the holocaust and the restitution of property"
14494:
from the original on 27 September 2011 – via Internet Archive.
14340:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org (19 April 1943). Retrieved on 2010-08-22.
14024:
13691:
The Fate of the European Jews, 1939–1945: Continuity Or Contingency?
13652:
Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947.
13435:. Polandsholocaust.org (17 September 1939). Retrieved on 2010-08-22.
12956:
12687:
10958:
Narodowa demokracja wobec problematyki żydowskiej w latach 1918–1929
9260:
9029:
8457:
7662:
7431:
6137:
5620:
5286:
4717:
4596:
4588:
4497:
4293:
4281:
4226:
2149:
18342:
18239:
18090:
17242:
Chronicles of the Vilna Ghetto: wartime photographs & documents
17208:
Polish–Jewish Relations section of the Polish Embassy in Washington
16755:
A People Apart: A Political History of the Jews in Europe 1789–1939
16640:
Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947
16052:"Jakub Berman's Papers Received at the Hoover Institution Archives"
14490:. London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association.
13955:
From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939–1941
12807:
12120:"Sytuacja prawna mniejszosci żydowskiej w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej"
10660:
Cossack Rebellions. Social Turmoil in the Sixteenth-century Ukraine
10391:. Translated by Israel Friedlaender. Avotaynu Inc. pp. 22–24.
9746:
8531:'s death, in this 1958–59 period, 50,000 Jews emigrated to Israel.
8033:
7932:
7737:
7543:
hiding due to fear for their own lives and that of their families.
7375:
7176:
6625:
6399:
5693:
5683:
5610:
5538:
5486:
5270:
Further information on the Garrison schools for male children:
5139:
5121:
5024:
4947:
4760:
4756:
4643:
4635:
4559:
4505:
4171:(1303–1370) amplified and expanded Bolesław's old charter with the
4079:
4074:
4046:
3928:
3854:
3740:
3684:
3565:
3175:
3107:
1938:
1446:
1397:
380:
17198:
The Jews in Poland. Saving from oblivion – Teaching for the future
16686:
16320:
14969:
The Holocaust in the East: Local Perpetrators and Soviet Responses
14840:"Auschwitz-Birkenau Concentration Camp – Advice from a Tour Guide"
14693:
14361:
14007:
13977:
13902:
13078:
The Fate of Jewish Prisoners of War in the September 1939 Campaign
12056:, Binghamton Journal of History, Fall 2002. Retrieved 2 June 2006.
11936:. Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. pp. 80–84.
10758:
Lekcje tolerancji Pakiet edukacyjny dla nauczycielek i nauczycieli
10181:"The Polish Jews Heritage – Genealogy Research Photos Translation"
8192:
annexed to the Union, and its western borders expanded to include
7927:, and several dozen Greek, Hungarian or even German Jews freed by
6620:, with rectangular "ghetto benches" ("odd-numbered-benches") stamp
6190:
as the instructional language. Jewish political parties, both the
4094:
18059:
17973:
17893:
16420:"The POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw—Part 1"
15665:
Beyond violence: Jewish survivors in Poland and Slovakia, 1944-48
15501:]. Vol. 2. Foreword by Jan Żaryn. IPN. pp. 166–71.
15272:
Beyond Violence: Jewish Survivors in Poland and Slovakia, 1944–48
13951:"Poland Under German Occupation, 1939–1941: A Comparative Survey"
8916:
U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad
8831:
8806:
8801:
A large number of cities with synagogues include Warsaw, Kraków,
8756:
8441:
8437:
8424:
8411:
8161:
8157:
8042:
7758:
7567:
7459:
7196:
7127:
6794:
6724:
6629:
6585:
6543:
6539:
6493:
6183:
6174:
6125:
6040:
5706:
5588:
5572:
5475:
5471:
5463:
5102:
5098:
5081:
5036:
all over the world, with a continuous influence through its many
5019:
4941:, (the "Code of Jewish Law"). His contemporary and correspondent
4902:
4895:
4866:
4752:
4600:
4501:
4493:
4478:
4348:
4340:
4297:
4207:
4192:
4188:
3976:
3952:
3944:
3936:
3845:
or CKŻP (of whom 136,000 arrived from the Soviet Union) left the
3796:
3541:
3507:
3376:
3170:
2159:
2154:
2026:
1917:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1553:
1548:
1525:
1507:
1382:
1377:
1367:
1345:
1320:
321:
140:
124:
17229:
16919:(1998). "Patterns of Anti-Jewish Violence in Poland 1944–1946".
16776:
Ideals Face Reality: Jewish Life and Culture in Poland 1550–1655
13384:
Soviet Foreign Policy 1917-1991: Classic and Contemporary Issues
12810:
had always been supportive towards the national aims of Jews in
12616:"Radomski rynek rzemiosła i usług według danych z lat 1926–1929"
11232:
9957:
Hunt for the Jews: betrayal and murder in German-occupied Poland
9854:"I know this Jew!" Blackmailing of the Jews in Warsaw 1939–1945.
7267:, many Jews in what was then Eastern Poland fell victim to Nazi
6705:
6676:
almost no Jews were on government support. In 1937 the Catholic
6500:
as their native language; by 1931, the number had risen to 87%.
6121:
4608:
4523:
18047:
18042:
18022:
17937:
17839:
17253:
17224:
14965:
14783:
14246:"Holocaust Survivors: Encyclopedia - "Polish–Jewish Relations""
13486:"The Situation of the Jews on Territories Occupied by the USSR"
13058:
Extermination of the Polish Jews in the Years 1939–1945. Part I
11481:
8894:
were found and can now be seen at the Auschwitz Jewish Center.
8814:
8745:
8665:
8633:
8453:
8433:
8404:
8392:
8264:
8232:
8201:
8137:
8014:
7605:
7334:
7290:
7232:
The Germans ordered that all Jews be registered, and the word "
7161:
6926:
6896:
as well as in several underground organizations and as part of
6487:
In contrast to the prevailing trends in Europe at the time, in
6233:
was also a writer. Other Jewish authors of the period, such as
6141:
6026:
5551:
5503:
5479:
5467:
5208:
5041:
4920:
4911:
4890:
4886:
4725:
4713:
4592:
4563:
4489:
4289:
4211:
4110:
3988:
3866:
3708:
3656:
3201:
3196:
3156:
3141:
2252:
2144:
1564:
1530:
1516:
1451:
390:
101:
91:
65:
16390:
15744:
Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review
14867:
Ruch oporu w getcie białostockim. Samoobrona-zagłada-powstanie
14546:'My Brother's Keeper?': Recent Polish Debates on the Holocaust
11156:
Sara Bender (2008). "Introduction: "Bialystock-upon-Tiktin"".
9763:
Between Hitler and Stalin: The Quick Life and Secret Death of
6907:
6680:
of Polish doctors and lawyers restricted their new members to
5510:
Although the Jews were accorded slightly more rights with the
5419:, or demarcation line, to the western Russian border with the
4971:
18064:
17968:
17046:
Jewish Intellectuals, National Suffering, Contemporary Poland
16379:"The Virtual Shtetl", information about Jewish life in Poland
15923:
The Chief Rabbi's View on Jews and Poland – Michael Schudrich
15698:
13450:
Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką (1939–1941)
12826:, Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam, Mouton Publishers, p. 395.
12173:
11874:
Latawski, Paul (2008). "The Dmowski-Namier Feud, 1915-1918".
9742:
9640:
Ideals Face Reality: Jewish Law and Life in Poland, 1550–1655
8826:, affiliated with the Liberal-Progressive stream of Judaism.
8128:
7298:
7215:
7110:
7085:
7017:
6798:
6713:
6636:
6632:
6510:, the founder and chief ideologue of the National Democracy (
6203:(the Polish Parliament) as well as in the regional councils.
6129:
6021:
of independence a day after the Poles captured Lviv from the
5946:
5498:
5436:
5260:
5240:
4882:
4444:
4439:
4358:
The decline in the status of the Jews was briefly checked by
4305:
3948:
3804:
3800:
3736:
3672:
2164:
1593:
1497:
1466:
358:
311:
306:
17225:
Foundation for the Preservation of Jewish Heritage in Poland
16496:
Charakterystyka mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych w Polsce
16179:
The Crooked Mirror: A Memoir of Polish–Jewish Reconciliation
15574:. In Martin Dean; Constantin Goschler; Philipp Ther (eds.).
15162:
Grzegorz Berendt; August Grabski; Albert Stankowski (2000).
13794:"Death tolls in the Holocaust, from the US Holocaust Museum"
13555:
Yizkor Book Project, JewishGen: The Home of Jewish Genealogy
12341:
Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919-1939
12314:
Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919-1939
12247:
Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919-1939
11235:, 1939, digitized at Forum Żydów Polskich. Internet Archive.
10427:
9690:"In 1937, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs viewed the
9407:
9405:
9403:
8778:
Jewish religious life has been revived with the help of the
8623:
8206:
Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II
6797:
with weapons. Poland also provided extensive support to the
6008:
official government policy. Among the incidents, during the
5154:
was made on 17 July 1793. Jews, in a Jewish regiment led by
17230:
Foundation for Documentation of Jewish Cemeteries in Poland
15054:
14505:
Poland, Execution of Poles by a German Police Firing Squad.
12886:
12768:
11976:
11577:
11454:
11159:
The Jews of Białystok During World War II and the Holocaust
11075:
Jews in the Russian Army, 1827–1917: Drafted Into Modernity
10845:
10843:
10816:
9707:
9239:
8637:
8479:
8197:
8013:
In August 1941, the Germans ordered the establishment of a
7881:
7443:
7398:
Jewish Ghettos in German-occupied Poland and Eastern Europe
7056:
6597:. However, a combination of various factors, including the
6558:
6514:) in Poland, often ostentatiously demonstrated antisemitism
6415:
6199:
5490:
4604:
4433:(1506–1548), who protected the Jews in his realm. His son,
4362:(1447–1492), but soon the nobility forced him to issue the
4313:
4196:
4176:
4042:
3932:
3691:
and its collaborators of various nationalities, during the
1316:
326:
17220:
Jewish organisations in Poland before the Second World War
17080:. Secaucus, NJ: Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation.
16910:
Men of Silk: The Hasidic Conquest of Polish Jewish Society
16271:
15890:"Poland's reclaimed properties create scars across Warsaw"
13330:
The Devils' Alliance: Hitler's Pact with Stalin, 1939-1941
12618:[The Radom business environment in late 1926–29].
12054:
Poles and Jews: The Quest For Self-Determination 1919–1934
11071:
10145:
Kalina Gawlas, kuratorka galerii Pierwsze Spotkania w MHŻP
8216:
8167:
8056:
began, and several hundred Polish Jews and members of the
7976:
of 1943 saw the destruction of what remained of the Ghetto
6824:
World War II and the destruction of Polish Jewry (1939–45)
5014:, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of
4680:
since 1587, the embattled Commonwealth was invaded by the
4086:
Another factor for the Jews to emigrate to Poland was the
18388:
18322:
16530:
15275:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 26, 47, 114, 143.
15095:
Emigracja ludnosci zydowskiej z Polski w latach 1945–1967
14939:, ed. (1997). "The period of Soviet-German partnership".
14793:
14205:. University of North Carolina Press. 1987; David Engel.
14056:
Deák, István; Gross, Jan T.; Judt, Tony (16 April 2000).
12824:
Social and Political History of Jews in Poland, 1919-1939
12777:
The Holocaust: Europe, the World, and the Jews, 1918–1945
12613:
11471:(original document, 1,369 KB). Retrieved 16 October 2011.
10072:
9400:
9064:, is under construction and is intended to open in 2023.
7028:
and Soviet Russia, both of which had been enemies of the
6873:
4808:
4771:
The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth
4402:'s tolerant policy and also granted autonomy to the Jews.
3663:
community in the world. Poland was a principal center of
17250:
from the US Holocaust Museum. From the same source see:
17182:
14802:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
14352:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
13618:
Poland's holocaust: ethnic strife ... – Internet Archive
11302:
Ideology, Politics, and Diplomacy in East Central Europe
10855:
10840:
10498:; Henry Malter; Herman Rosenthal; Joseph Jacobs (1906).
9986:"Jewish Responses to Antisemitism in Poland, 1944–1947."
9608:. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
8612:, fled Poland for Israel in 1992 to escape prosecution.
7996:
7895:
fighters after the liberation of the camp in August 1944
7253:
The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland
7126:. A number of Jewish soldiers died also when liberating
6346:, born in Poland as Szymon Perski, served as the ninth
5853:) within the Jewish Pale of Settlement, composed of the
4530:
History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)
4386:
3884:
16942:
Poland and the Jews: Reflections of a Polish Polish Jew
16394:
The Routledge Companion to Intangible Cultural Heritage
15950:. The University of North Carolina Press. pp. xi.
14623:
12743:. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press. p. 133.
10528:
Finding Italian Roots: The Complete Guide for Americans
10270:"Origins of Polish Jewry (This Week in Jewish History)"
9067:
7810:
7653:, committed suicide to protest the indifference of the
4210:. He inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of
17160:(All maps from Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice)
15962:
Britain exerted pressure on the governments of Poland.
15370:
Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-Creation of World War II
15190:
Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939-1950)
13722:Żydzi w kierownictwie UB. Stereotyp czy rzeczywistość?
13244:
12172:"The largest right Zionist paramilitary organisation,
11605:(original document, 67 KB). Retrieved 16 October 2011.
11299:
Mieczysław B. Biskupski; Piotr Stefan Wandycz (2003).
11040:
The Cantonists: the Jewish children's army of the Tsar
11002:
The Cantonists: the Jewish children's army of the Tsar
10420:"Homework Help and Textbook Solutions | bartleby"
10030:
Syracuse University Press, 2003 – 325 pages. Page 70.
8596:, after escaping to the West in 1953, exposed through
5893:
Polish Jews and the struggle for Poland's independence
4623:. By the end of the XVIIIth century two-thirds of the
15694:
15692:
15690:
15688:
15686:
15684:
15395:
Patterns Of Anti-Jewish Violence In Poland, 1944–1946
14421:"Jewish History in Poland during the years 1939–1945"
13513:
Elazar Barkan; Elizabeth A. Cole; Kai Struve (2007).
12936:, "The Irgun and the Destruction of European Jewry",
12087:
11877:
Jews and the Emerging Polish State (Polin Volume Two)
11402:
11337:
White Eagle, Red Star: the Polish–Soviet War, 1919–20
10935:
10620:
10608:
9634:(Harvard University Press, new ed. 1993), G. Hundert
9274:
History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century
8375:
7769:
were ordered to escort the ghetto inhabitants to the
7668:
7012:
Jews obtained positions of power under Soviet rule."
6103:
had a large and vibrant Jewish minority. By the time
5838:
since the partitions, gained 50% of the Jewish vote.
5388:
5374:
4236:
3897:
History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century
16831:
New York: Funk and Wagnalls. Considerable amount of
16391:
Michelle L. Stefano; Peter Davis (8 December 2016).
15454:
Jankowski, Andrzej; Bukowski, Leszek (4 July 2008).
15090:
Emigration of Jewish people from Poland in 1945–1967
14131:"Poland's Jewish Secret Unearthed - DW - 05.11.2002"
13707:
Jewish Social Studies: History, Culture, and Society
13563:
13561:
12506:
Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności. Woj.wołyńskie, 1931.
10591:"Remuh Synagogue. A relic of Kazimierz's Golden Age"
10577:"Jewish Virtual Library - Moses ben Israel Isserles"
10073:
Marrus, Michael Robert; Aristide R. Zolberg (2002).
8648:
In March 1968 student-led demonstrations in Warsaw (
7665:) specifically aimed at helping the Jews in Poland.
6932:
Within weeks, 61.2% of Polish Jews found themselves
6864:, Chief Rabbi of the Polish Military, served in the
6628:
Polish government provided military training to the
5402:
5179:
Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire (1795–1918)
4100:
The tolerant situation was gradually altered by the
4021:
Early-medieval Polish coins with Hebrew inscriptions
3828:
actively risking death in order to save Jewish lives
3180:
3161:
1584:
16804:
The De-Assimilation of the Jewish Remnant in Poland
16468:
at the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe.
15525:
The Plunder of Jewish Property during the Holocaust
15238:
Fear : Anti-Semitism in Poland After Auschwitz
14445:. Holocaust Survivors. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
14149:
Unequal Victims: Poles and Jews During World War II
11369:
11367:
10907:
10104:"The Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland of 1967–1968."
9566:(2nd ed.) Oxford: The Scarecrow Press, 2003. p. 79.
8742:, and Polish-Jewish wartime relations in general).
8527:("People's Voice"). Following liberalization after
8204:rivers. This forced millions to relocate (see also
7878:in other parts of Warsaw and the surrounding area.
7586:. The fight against informers was organized by the
6398:, just to name a few from the long list. The term "
5105:. The Commonwealth lost 30% of its land during the
19053:Baptist Christian Church of the Republic of Poland
17030:The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 3: 1914-2008
17014:The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 2: 1881–1914
16998:The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 1: 1350–1881
16176:
16046:
15943:
15888:
15681:
15435:Poland's Century: War, Communism and Anti-Semitism
14454:
14367:
14295:Antony Polonsky & Joanna B. Michlic, editors.
13613:
13611:
13567:
13483:
12920:Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry,
12864:Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry,
12853:In the Shadow of Zion Promised Lands before Israel
12835:Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry,
12741:No Way Out, The Politics of Polish Jewry 1935-1939
12560:
10525:
10388:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland, Volume 1
10175:
10173:
9959:. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
8263:. The incidents ranged from individual attacks to
6534:movement. One of its founders and chief ideologue
6316:Many Jews were film producers and directors, e.g.
18964:
17334:
17235:
16952:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
16384:
15453:
15323:
15240:. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 60–68.
13558:
13053:
13051:
13049:
13047:
12673:The Taube Foundation for Jewish Life and Culture.
12671:Lubartow during the Holocaust in occupied Poland.
12212:
12194:Black Earth: The Holocaust as History and Warning
12161:Living with Antisemitism: Modern Jewish Responses
10171:
10169:
10167:
10165:
10163:
10161:
10159:
10157:
10155:
10153:
9992:. Rutgers University Press, 2003. Pages 249; 256.
9901:Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw, 1940–1945
9412:The Canadian Foundation of Polish–Jewish Heritage
8839:(which is bilingual), as well as a youth journal
8253:territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union
7538:Dr. Franke – Town Commander – Częstochowa 9/24/42
7079:), moved voluntarily; however, most of them were
4243:History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty
19137:
19008:Polish-Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland
17118:The Cossack Uprising and its Aftermath in Poland
17032:(Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2011)
16977:, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliūnas (editors).
16246:"Poland, International Religious Freedom Report"
15864:
15862:
15737:
15086:
14715:. New York: Philosophical Library. p. 222.
13957:. Providence, R.I.: Berghahn Books. p. 51.
13775:Estimated Casualties During WWII -Including Jews
13746:Jews in General Anders’ Army In the Soviet Union
13620:. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
12877:"Poland made many appeals on this matter in the
11804:The Bund Council in August 1937, Warsaw, Poland.
11704:"Vilnius (Vilna), Lithuania Jewish History Tour"
11393:Studia Judaica 7: 2004 nr 2(14) s. 257–304 (pdf)
11364:
11244:
9888:, University Press of Kentucky 1986 – 300 pages.
9881:Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust
8645:"Zionism" and disloyalty to a Socialist Poland.
8486:
8117:the last nationwide census was conducted in 1931
8110:
7807:When we invaded the Ghetto for the first time –
5849:, with the goal of establishing a buffer state (
5701:. Polish Jews generally were less influenced by
5533:
5235:from entering Russia. They were banned from the
3947:. One of them, a diplomat and merchant from the
3931:. Travelling along trade routes leading east to
3655:dates back at least 1,000 years. For centuries,
17016:(Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2009)
17000:(Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2009)
16174:
15762:
15662:
15268:
15210:
14710:
14169:Antisemitism and Its Opponents in Modern Poland
14099:Polityka III Rzeszy w okupowanej Polsce, Tom II
13608:
11616:The YIVO encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
10655:
10653:
10651:
10115:Antisemitism and Its Opponents in Modern Poland
9638:(Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), E.Fram
9509:From Counter-Reformation to Glorious Revolution
9479:"The Truth About Poland's Role in the Holocaus"
8796:Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland
7156:Poland's Jewish community suffered the most in
5830:and the orthodox religious Polish Mizrahi. The
5728:
5563:worth of property was destroyed. The new czar,
5530:in 1881 – an act falsely blamed upon the Jews.
4767:had begun between Russia, Prussia and Austria.
4500:. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and
16476:
16474:
16316:
16314:
15836:
15834:
15832:
15810:
15565:
15563:
15561:
15559:
15557:
15269:Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna (2014). "Introduction".
14639:. PolishJews.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
14589:. .yadvashem.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
14481:
13304:. AFP / Expatica. 30 July 2009. Archived from
13240:
13238:
13044:
11668:"Jews in Poland – Polish Jews in World War II"
11486:"Ethnic Diversity in Twentieth Century Poland"
10994:
10992:
10903:
10901:
10150:
10047:
10045:
10043:
10008:". In: David S. Wyman, Charles H. Rosenzveig.
9948:
8784:Taube Foundation for Jewish Life & Culture
8096:and other organisations and survived the war.
7899:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, was followed by other
6580:Matters improved for a time under the rule of
5195:History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union
4951:had become entrenched under the protection of
3687:destruction of the Polish Jewish community by
18950:
18308:
17726:
17320:
16458:
16168:
15859:
15456:"The Kielce pogrom as told by the eyewitness"
15164:Studia z historii Żydów w Polsce po 1945 roku
15006:
14706:
14704:
14702:
14684:. Diapozytyw.pl. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
14448:
14055:
13993:. Yad Vashem. 21 January 2008. Archived from
13942:
13709:. Spring/Summer 2007, Vol. 13, No. 3:135–176.
13519:. Leipziger Universitätsverlag. p. 211.
13067:. Ess.uwe.ac.uk. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
12557:(Polish edition), Second volume, pp. 512–513.
12508:PDF file, 21.21 MB. The complete text of the
12390:
12000:History Of Zionism: A Handbook And Dictionary
11292:
11127:, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 2, p. 282.
11031:
11029:
10248:. Abingdon; New York: [Routledge. p. 9.
8664:actually went there; most settled throughout
8540:Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party
7778:, including some members of the left-leaning
7462:and hunger all resulted in countless deaths.
6849:Graves of Jewish–Polish soldiers who died in
6616:) of Jewish medical student Marek Szapiro at
6265:(a favorite poet of Polish children). Singer
5571:and throughout the world. In 1884, 36 Jewish
5542:Caricature of Russian Army assailant in 1906
4524:The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795
3659:was home to the largest and most significant
3632:
1285:
16875:
16672:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
15967:
15918:
15916:
15806:
15804:
15802:
15738:Bazyler, Michael; Gostynski, Szymon (2018).
15430:
15428:
15366:
14935:
14484:"The Polish Underground State and Home Army"
14392:
13948:
13357:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin
13186:
12497:
12495:
12237:
12117:
11770:
10648:
10381:
10339:, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 1, p. 42.
10293:, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 1, p. 44.
9904:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p.
9601:
9599:
9597:
9595:
9593:
9249:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee
8474:on a common ticket with the (non-communist)
8291:
8099:
7799:International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg
7736:to take charge of the Jewish Council called
7033:
6834:
6565:and Zionist leaders of Et Liwnot, including
6406:(1900–1959), a Polish–Jewish legal scholar.
6074:
6055:to sign the Minority Protection Treaty (the
5847:German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews
4795:can be broken down into three Hebrew words:
4696:, became the scene of even more atrocities.
3807:, providing them with weapons and training.
3779:). When Poland regained independence in the
40:
17740:
16823:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Russia".
16819:
16471:
16311:
16074:
15935:
15829:
15815:. GeoJournal Library. Dordrecht: Springer.
15733:
15731:
15729:
15727:
15707:
15658:
15656:
15654:
15652:
15650:
15648:
15604:
15602:
15554:
15458:[Pogrom kielecki – oczami świadka]
15111:
15082:
15080:
15078:
14278:, Hippocrene Books, 2nd revised ed., 2001,
14209:. University of North Carolina Press. 1993.
14154:
14111:Summary of IPN's final findings on Jedwabne
14013:
13878:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.
13235:
12397:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 352.
12046:
11737:
11735:
11549:
11155:
11143:YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
10989:
10960:, Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, page 16.
10898:
10874:"Timeline: Jewish life in Poland from 1098"
10563:YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
10377:
10375:
10040:
10012:. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
9931:
9929:
9801:
9517:by S. Groenveld, Michael J. Wintle; and in
8592:among others. Yet another Jewish official,
8422:, under the umbrella of a semi-clandestine
6908:Territories annexed by the USSR (1939–1941)
5649:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
5440:
5315:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
5063:
4520:(רמ״א) is the Hebrew acronym for his name.
4482:achieved fame from the early 16th century.
3891:History of European Jews in the Middle Ages
3759:in 1795 and the destruction of Poland as a
1876:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire
18957:
18943:
18315:
18301:
17733:
17719:
17327:
17313:
17254:Non-Jewish Polish Victims of the Holocaust
17151:Jewish Revolts against the Nazis in Poland
16870:Bibliography of Poland during World War II
16042:
16040:
15541:
15444:. Fathom.com. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
15299:
15293:
15020:]. Otwarte (publishing). p. 956.
14959:
14929:
14879:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
14699:
14682:Dia-Pozytyw: People, Biographical Profiles
14438:
14436:
14434:
14338:History of the Holocaust – An Introduction
14091:
14062:. Princeton University Press. p. 25.
13854:
13546:
13123:
12794:The Third Reich and the Palestine Question
12685:
12656:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
12633:
12088:Włodzimierz Mędrzecki (25 November 2013).
12022:
12020:
11900:
11746:. Table 10, page 30 in current document".
11026:
10983:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews
10828:. Politechnika Krakowska. pp. 143–145
9649:
9558:
9556:
9547:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews
9289:History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland
9284:History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland
9279:History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland
9058:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews
8245:Soviet-backed communist takeover of Poland
8072:. The guerrillas were armed with only one
7345:
5888:History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland
5789:, a religious party, came into existence.
5191:History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland
4763:. Four years later, in 1772, the military
4534:History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland
4025:The first extensive Jewish migration from
3908:History of Poland during the Piast dynasty
3901:
3667:, because of the long period of statutory
3639:
3625:
1292:
1278:
62:POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews
17275:Chronology of German Anti-Jewish Measures
17216:, Central Europe Review, 28 January 2000.
17164:
15913:
15799:
15520:
15518:
15425:
15262:
15186:
14996:Some of the information published by the
14898:
14538:
14076:
14034:
13991:"Photo of Armband from the Warsaw Ghetto"
13983:
13438:
13326:
13253:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
13098:. Zchor.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
12924:, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 57.
12868:, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 53.
12839:, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 79.
12492:
11858:
11570:
11111:, Oxford University Press (2000), p. 162.
10797:Szwedzi w Krakowie (The Swedes in Kraków)
10768:
10342:
10068:
10066:
9954:
9891:
9590:
9476:
8958:, at the groundbreaking ceremony for the
8624:The March 1968 events and their aftermath
8223:Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946
7988:, the destruction of the Jews of Europe,
5855:former Polish provinces annexed by Russia
5756:socialist party as well as the religious
5669:Learn how and when to remove this message
5335:Learn how and when to remove this message
4617:Privilegium de non tolerandis Christianis
16325:pl:Szkoła rabinacka Beit Meir w Krakowie
16103:
16056:Library and Archives Recent Acquisitions
15932:. Jcpa.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010.
15775:
15724:
15699:Jan Grabowski; Dariusz Libionka (2014).
15645:
15599:
15447:
15075:
14902:Political Migrations in Poland 1939-1948
14837:
14800:The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Warsaw
14514:
14192:. Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005):711–746.
13908:
13865:
13149:
13147:
12607:
12570:; Herbert Matis; Jaroslav Pátek (2000).
12270:
12145:The Road to Power: Herut Party in Israel
12090:"Żydzi w historii Polski XIX i XX wieku"
11996:
11927:
11873:
11732:
11447:
11409:. Oxford University Press. p. 193.
11339:, St. Martin's Press, 1972, Page 47-48.
11326:
11305:. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 65–74.
11209:Transaction Publishers, 1997, p. 233 ff.
11149:
11136:
11125:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland
11035:
10998:
10804:monthly, 8 June 2007, Internet Archive.
10789:
10645:(1906) by Herman Rosenthal, S. M. Dubnow
10523:
10439:
10437:
10372:
10360:
10350:"Official portal of the city of Opoczno"
10337:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland
10326:
10291:History of the Jews in Russia and Poland
10280:
10243:
10207:The Cambridge Economic History of Europe
10079:. Temple University Press. p. 336.
9926:
9897:
9871:
9869:
9606:The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Poland
9526:
9008:
8946:
8854:
8766:
8755:
8744:
8690:partial diplomatic relations with Israel
8620:. Wolińska-Brus died in London in 2008.
8171:
7967:
7880:
7849:
7788:
7698:
7684:
7592:
7549:
7490:
7470:
7467:Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland
7393:
7242:
7220:
7143:
7042:
6973:
6938:Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union
6844:
6723:
6607:
6502:
6430:, which staged the first performance of
6338:
6205:
6146:
6088:
5970:
5914:
5896:
5875:
5732:
5537:
5346:
5243:for support. Their living conditions in
5202:
5138:
5067:
4970:
4846:
4712:. Many Jews along with the townsfolk of
4667:
4541:
4406:Poland became more tolerant just as the
4390:
4351:cities, inspired by a Franciscan friar,
4327:
4148:
4093:The first mention of Jewish settlers in
4016:
3911:
18909:Polish population transfers (1944–1946)
16691:. Washington, D.C.: Dale Street Books.
16667:
16397:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 359–.
16139:
16037:
16021:
16019:
16017:
16015:
15941:
15868:
15608:
15387:
15105:
14894:
14892:
14890:
14864:
14842:. culture.polishsite.us. Archived from
14755:
14694:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014
14431:
14311:
14147:Yisrael Gutman & Shmuel Krakowski,
14085:Poles and the Jews: How Deep the Guilt?
14049:
14008:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014
13978:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014
13914:
13903:Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014
13871:
13712:
13415:Lost Jewish Worlds – Grodno, Yad Vashem
13410:
13408:
13406:
13404:
13245:Holocaust Encyclopedia (20 June 2014).
12954:
12542:
12098:Ministry of National Education (Poland)
12017:
11997:Edelheit, Hershel (19 September 2019).
11907:. London: I.B. Tauris. pp. 97–99.
10941:
10861:
10849:
10772:Hetmani Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów
10626:
10614:
9668:
9611:
9553:
8940:as well as other publications from the
8432:was also responsible for the organized
8340:estimates that it was extremely small.
8217:Anti-Jewish violence and discrimination
8184:Following World War II Poland became a
8168:The Jewish community in post-war Poland
6557:In 1925, Polish Zionist members of the
5604:
4966:
4339:In 1454 anti-Jewish riots flared up in
14:
19138:
16947:
16664:, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun. 1996), 351–381.
16561:
16513:"THE HISTORY FROM THE JEWS POPULATION"
15515:
15367:Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007).
15360:
15231:
15229:
15227:
15196:. Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences.
15055:Piotr Eberhardt; Jan Owsinski (2003).
14520:Donald L. Niewyk, Francis R. Nicosia,
14268:
14025:"Why the Poles Collaborated So Little"
13506:
13479:
13477:
13380:
13353:
13270:
13268:
12950:
12948:
12946:
12738:
12681:
12679:
12664:
12594:
12384:
12337:
12310:
12243:
11901:Haynes, Rebecca; Rady, Martyn (2011).
11819:, Northwestern University Press, 1988
11580:RP. Internetowy System Aktow Prawnych.
11480:
11457:RP. Internetowy System Aktow Prawnych.
11229:Żydzi Bojownicy o Niepodleglość Polski
10810:
10556:
10467:
10443:Bernard Dov Weinryb "Jews of Poland",
10128:"THE HISTORY FROM THE JEWS POPULATION"
10063:
10020:
10018:
10000:
9998:
9980:
9978:
9976:
9681:, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun. 1996), 351–381.
9574:
9572:
9423:
9388:
9386:
6980:Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
6518:Besides the persistent effects of the
4672:A Polish Jew in an engraving from 1703
4029:to Poland occurred at the time of the
18938:
18296:
17714:
17308:
17188:Virtual Jewish History Tour of Poland
16979:The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews
16915:
16866:Bibliography of the history of Poland
16736:Jews in Poland. A Documentary History
16354:"Poland reaches out to expelled Jews"
16341:"Poland reaches out to expelled Jews"
16080:
15901:from the original on 10 December 2022
15840:
15569:
15344:
15235:
15048:
14994:– via direct download 13.6 MB.
14570:"Referenced Material - Isurvived.org"
14374:. Columbia University Press. p.
13144:
13041:. Wayne State University Press, 1993.
12889:who protested against the heightened
12729:. Wayne State University Press, 1993.
12686:Wierzejska, Jagoda (1 January 2018).
12301:, Hippocrene Books (1993), pp. 27–28.
12299:Jews in Poland: A Documentary History
12250:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 41–43.
11815:Aleksander Hertz, Lucjan Dobroszycki
11516:
11423:
11245:Marek Gałęzowski (10 November 2012).
11225:Żydzi w Legionach Józefa Piłsudskiego
11219:
11217:
11215:
10952:
10950:
10775:. Wydawn. Bellona. pp. 206–213.
10583:
10434:
10199:
9866:
9710:who protested against the heightened
9304:Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
9243:identify as Jewish. According to the
8606:Ministry of Public Security of Poland
7997:The Białystok Ghetto and its uprising
7564:Jews and non-Jewish Poles hiding them
7003:'s report written in 1940, historian
6467:, scored the first ever goal for the
6049:Kiev operation against the Bolsheviks
5775:which supported assimilation and the
5709:("rabbis's law") following primarily
5355:, showing Jewish population densities
5276:
4655:emigration, deaths from diseases and
4613:Privilegium de non tolerandis Judaeis
4492:of the 16th century, established his
4387:Center of the Jewish world: 1505–1572
3885:Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572
3722:in 1025 until the early years of the
789:Union of Jewish Religious Communities
17171:Museum of the History of Polish Jews
16792:, Cambridge University Press, 2006,
16142:East European Politics and Societies
16027:"Poland Virtual Jewish History Tour"
16012:
15413:from the original on 21 January 2008
14887:
14819:from the original on 21 January 2008
14475:
14289:
14171:. Cornell University Press, p. 277.
14151:, New York: Holocaust Library, 1986.
13426:
13401:
13327:Moorhouse, Roger (14 October 2014).
13294:
13192:
12516:, page 59 (select, drop-down menu).
12460:The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust
11838:National identity and foreign policy
11543:
11510:
11488:. In Strauss, Herbert Arthur (ed.).
11207:Germany, Turkey, Zionism, 1897–1918.
10557:Reiner, Elchanan (11 October 2010).
10532:. Genealogical Publishing. pp.
10051:
9863:Polish Center for Holocaust Research
9847:
9623:
9444:"Jews, by Country of Origin and Age"
9068:Numbers of Jews in Poland since 1920
9051:Museum of the History of Polish Jews
8960:Museum of the History of Polish Jews
8850:Museum of the History of Polish Jews
8719:Jewish Polish history (1989–present)
8608:and commandant of the Stalinist era
7692:in Warsaw built in 1948 by sculptor
6017:, which occurred in 1918 during the
5725:movement later in the 19th century.
5647:adding citations to reliable sources
5614:
5518:, they were still restricted to the
5407:) was the term given to a region of
5313:adding citations to reliable sources
5280:
5088:in 1764. His election was bought by
5080:In 1742 most of Silesia was lost to
4728:fell victim to recurring epidemics.
4267:, broad privileges were extended to
4057:minted during that period even bear
4010:, the principal activity of Jews in
3713:Museum of the History of Polish Jews
86:Regions with significant populations
17063:, Stanford University Press, 2012.
16716:, Princeton University Press, 2003
16445:The Jerusalem Post | Jpost.com
16175:Louise Steinman (5 November 2013).
15881:
15796:, Harvard University Press, page 52
15784:, Oxford University Press, page 325
15224:
15180:
14736:"The Stroop report", Pantheon 1986
14524:, Columbia University Press, 2000,
14522:The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust
14370:The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust
14233:Zycie za Zycie (A Life For A Life).
14231:Institute of National Remembrance,
13924:. New York: HarperCollins. p.
13875:History of the Jews in Modern Times
13492:. McFarland, 1998. pp. 52–53.
13474:
13433:World War II Timeline – Poland 1940
13265:
12943:
12763:In January 1937, "Foreign Minister
12708:Wayne State University Press, 1993.
12676:
12502:Central Statistical Office (Poland)
12111:
12081:
11741:
11722:"Jewish Krakow: The Jews of Krakow"
11474:
11380:University of Nebraska Press, 2006.
11072:Ĭokhanan Petrovskiĭ-Shtern (2009).
10826:Architektura, Czasopismo techniczne
10015:
9995:
9973:
9646:(Cambridge University Press, 2006).
9580:"European Jewish Congress - Poland"
9569:
9501:
9477:Friedberg, Edna (6 February 2018).
9454:. 26 September 2011. Archived from
9452:Israel Central Bureau of Statistics
9417:
9383:
8952:President of the Republic of Poland
8675:There were several outcomes of the
8546:, head of state security apparatus
8470:The Bund took part in the post-war
8186:satellite state of the Soviet Union
8066:Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa
7285:'s Final Findings) and 1,600 Jews (
6748:, combined with the effects of the
5398:
5384:
24:
19151:History of ethnic groups in Poland
16912:NY: Oxford University Press, 2006.
16859:
16764:, Harvard University Press, 1990,
16624:, East European Monographs, 2003,
16305:Homepage. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
16296:Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków.
14443:Encyclopedia – entry "Hidden Jews"
13577:McFarland & Company. pp.
13354:Snyder, Timothy (2 October 2012).
12961:Journal of Modern European History
12482:Walter de Gruyter, pp. 1081–1083.
12344:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 228.
12338:Marcus, Joseph (18 October 2011).
12311:Marcus, Joseph (18 October 2011).
12244:Marcus, Joseph (18 October 2011).
11861:Poland between the Wars: 1918—1939
11841:, Cambridge University Press 1998
11686:"Lodz, Poland Jewish History Tour"
11584:PDF scan of the March Constitution
11559:. pp. 257–304. Archived from
11238:
11212:
10947:
10246:Routledge History of the Holocaust
9785:. 22 November 2015. Archived from
9582:. 11 December 2008. Archived from
8376:Emigration to Palestine and Israel
8301:
8058:Anti-Fascist Military Organisation
7943:or had been discovered in hiding (
7669:The Warsaw Ghetto and its uprising
7312:Polish Righteous among the Nations
7071:. Some of them, especially Polish
6936:, while 38.8% were trapped in the
5199:Antisemitism in the Russian Empire
5086:Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski
4905:, particularly from the school of
4842:
4676:Ruled by the elected kings of the
4237:The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505
3979:, at that time the capital of the
3695:between 1939 and 1945, called the
1183:Anti-Fascist Military Organisation
25:
19162:
18361:Polish occupation zone in Germany
17293:Poland's Jews:A light flickers on
17203:Historical Sites of Jewish Warsaw
17106:
16417:
16250:United States Department of State
16060:Leland Stanford Junior University
16000:Hagana's training camp in Bolkow.
15468:Institute of National Remembrance
14302:Princeton University Press, 2003.
13726:Institute of National Remembrance
13302:"Polish nation's WWII death toll"
13274:
13157:, Rutgers University Press, 2003
12908:Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs
12818:and other international forums."
12614:Gedeon Kubiszyn; Marta Kubiszyn.
12317:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 24.
12100:. pp. 3, 5–6. Archived from
11521:. In Zimmerman, Joshua D. (ed.).
11005:. Devora Publishing. p. 11.
10817:Mgr inz. arch. Krzysztof Petrus.
10366:American Jewish Committee, 1957,
10117:. Cornell University Press, 2005.
10010:The World Reacts to the Holocaust
9749:' military arm, for the fight in
9729:Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs
9543:"Paradisus Iudaeorum (1569–1648)"
9294:Timeline of Jewish-Polish history
9238:However, most sources other than
9074:Historical demographics of Poland
8980:Chevra Lomdei Mishnayot synagogue
8968:United States Department of State
8942:Institute of National Remembrance
8931:Zagłada Żydów. Studia i Materiały
8705:) was one of the founders of the
7350:The German Nazis established six
7283:Institute of National Remembrance
6584:(1926–1935). Piłsudski countered
6528:German-Polish non-aggression pact
6173:The Polish language, rather than
5458:; it covered much of present-day
5207:Jewish merchants in 19th-century
4261:united with the kingdom of Poland
1667:Historical population comparisons
1195:Resistance movements in Auschwitz
779:Jewish Community Centre of Kraków
16876:Chodakiewicz, Marek Jan (2003).
16829:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
16809:
16757:, Oxford University Press, 2001.
16581:
16555:
16505:
16487:
16433:
16411:
16372:
16346:
16334:
16289:
16264:
16212:
16201:
16133:
16116:
16104:Kamiński, Łukasz (9 June 2002).
16097:
16081:Hodge, Nick (31 December 2008).
15993:
15981:from the original on 30 May 2008
15787:
15719:Holocaust: Studies and Materials
15530:
15399:
15155:
14945:. Berghahn Books. pp. 74–.
14858:
14805:
14772:
14746:
14730:
14675:
14658:
14642:
14630:
14608:
14592:
14580:
14562:
14498:
14413:
14355:
14343:
14331:
14305:
14238:
14225:
14212:
14195:
14182:
14141:
14123:
14104:
13830:
13812:
13786:
13768:
13750:
13738:
13696:
13683:
13670:
13657:
13644:
13623:
13595:
13533:
13374:
13347:
13320:
13217:
13168:
13117:
13101:
13082:
13070:
13031:
13015:
13005:, no. 4, October 19711035-1058.
12995:
12927:
12914:
12871:
12858:
12842:
12829:
12800:
12781:
12757:
12732:
12720:
12711:
12698:
12523:
12472:
12453:
12432:
12421:University of Pittsburgh Press.
12411:
12373:Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin.
12358:
12331:
12304:
12291:
12264:
12199:
12166:
12150:
12134:
12128:Chapter 3: Szkolnictwo żydowskie
12059:
11990:
11965:
11950:
11921:
11894:
11867:
11852:
11829:
11809:
11796:
11784:from the original on 30 May 2008
11714:
11696:
11678:
11660:
11648:
11628:
11608:
11249:(in Polish). Uważam Rze Historia
10979:"Jew, Pole, Legionary 1914-1920"
10738:Herman Rosenthal, J. G. Lipman,
10368:1367 pogrom Poznan. Google Books
9815:from the original on 30 May 2008
9702:, and in the US, with President
9426:"דרכון פולני בזכות הסבתא מוורשה"
8725:History of Poland (1989–present)
8515:founded in 1950 and directed by
8497:Centralny Komitet Żydów Polskich
8493:Central Committee of Polish Jews
7133:
7065:Soviet-occupied Polish territory
5619:
5411:in which permanent residency by
5285:
4873:, and their rabbi principals as
4684:in 1655 in what became known as
3843:Central Committee of Polish Jews
2311:Democratic Republic of the Congo
2225:Historical population by country
1262:
1251:
769:Central Committee of Polish Jews
177:
169:
51:
18916:Repatriation of Poles (1955–59)
18895:Colonization attempts by Poland
16668:Hundert, Gershon David (2004).
16611:
16502: (archived 17 October 2015)
14587:The Righteous Among the Nations
14088:, New York Times, 17 March 2001
13949:Fleischhauer, Ingeborg (1997).
13680:Indiana University Press, 2007.
13605:Rutgers University Press, 2003.
13543:Rutgers University Press, 2003.
12478:Herbert Arthur Strauss (1993).
12067:"DavidGorodok – Section IV – a"
11396:
11383:
11349:
11279:
11270:
11261:
11199:
11183:
11130:
11114:
11099:
11065:
10971:
10886:
10867:
10762:
10751:
10732:
10721:
10710:
10691:
10680:
10664:
10632:
10569:
10550:
10524:Colletta, John Phillip (2003).
10517:
10487:
10461:
10449:
10412:
10296:
10262:
10237:
10212:
10138:
10120:
10093:
9827:
9771:
9741:"Rydz Smigły agreed to support
9735:
9684:
9642:(HUC Press, 1996), and M. Teter
9564:Historical Dictionary of Poland
9535:
7503:the Sheltering of Escaping Jews
7081:forcibly deported or imprisoned
7047:Jewish–Polish soldier's grave,
6890:Polish Armed Forces in the West
5760:, and the increasingly popular
5717:, and also adapting to the new
4923:, where he was the head of the
4504:, Isserles was also learned in
4247:As a result of the marriage of
396:Zionist Socialist Workers Party
18986:Ukrainian Catholic Archdiocese
17336:History of the Jews in Europe
17236:World War II and the Holocaust
15663:Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna (2014).
15373:. Da Capo Press. p. 285.
14998:Extraordinary State Commission
14046:Oxford University Press, 2005.
13693:Oxford University Press, 1998.
12442:, KTAV Publishing House, 1993
11444:, ex. pp. 4, 7, 10, 26, 33, 84
11406:Pogroms: A Documentary History
11078:. Cambridge University Press.
10883:, Jewish Journal, 7 June 2007.
10565:. Translated by Jeffrey Green.
9945:H-Net Review: John Radzilowski
9470:
9448:Statistical Abstract of Israel
9436:
9424:סיקולר, נעמה (16 March 2007).
9363:
9354:
9314:History of the Jews in Germany
9309:History of the Jews in Austria
9263:(between 20,000 and 100,000).
8235:that immediately followed the
7640:and through the activities of
7574:" (the 'shmalts' people: from
7256:, 1942, addressed to Poland's
7122:includes headstones bearing a
6689:who split in 1923 to join the
6463:. A Polish–Jewish footballer,
5870:League of East European States
5806:Revolutionary Movement of 1905
5456:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
5247:began to dramatically worsen.
4738:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
4380:1492 example of Spanish rulers
3724:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
13:
1:
19125:Slavic Native Faith in Poland
19043:Old Catholic Mariavite Church
19013:Old Catholic Church in Poland
17284:during World War II in Poland
17140:The Spread of Hasidic Judaism
16880:. Columbia University Press.
16661:The Journal of Modern History
16562:Henoch, Vivian (2 May 2015).
15623:10.1080/1462169X.2016.1267853
15549:The American Jewish Year Book
15357:Published by McFarland, 1998.
15306:Civil War in Poland 1942–1948
15032:Polish edition, second volume
13861:Lost Jewish World, Yad Vashem
13195:"The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact"
13193:Benn, David Wedgwood (2011).
12938:Perspectives on the Holocaust
12626:. page 2 of 6. Archived from
12277:. Routledge. pp. 84–85.
11973:"Zionism and Zionist Parties"
11930:The Jews in Poland and Russia
11196:Tauris Parke, 2003 pp. 173–4.
11095:– via Books.google.com.
9988:In: Joshua D. Zimmerman, ed.
9757:located in southern Poland."
9679:The Journal of Modern History
9376:
9319:History of the Jews in Russia
9049:. On 17 June 2009 the future
8712:
8572:, some Jewish officials from
8487:Rebuilding Jewish communities
8403:country to allow free Jewish
8259:imposed by the Allies at the
8237:end of World War II in Europe
8111:Number of Holocaust survivors
8106:History of Poland (1945–1989)
7831:The Uprising was led by ŻOB (
7562:Some individuals blackmailed
7525:1) Providing shelter to Jews,
7450:also in present-day Ukraine,
6469:Poland national football team
5935:; around 650 Jews joined the
5882:History of Poland (1918–1939)
5534:Pogroms in the Russian Empire
5185:History of Poland (1795–1918)
4550:After the childless death of
4408:Jews were expelled from Spain
3939:, Jewish merchants, known as
3865:country to allow free Jewish
3859:post-war anti-Jewish violence
3653:history of the Jews in Poland
1882:Christianity and Judaism
58:Monument to the Ghetto Heroes
19058:Pentecostal Church in Poland
19048:Seventh-day Adventist Church
16894:Cichopek-Gajraj, A. (2021).
16589:"Q+A with Jonathan Ornstein"
16466:Population since World War I
16343:at www.americangathering.com
16031:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
15811:Kiril Stanilov, ed. (2007).
15144:Wrocławskie Studia Wschodnie
15061:. M.E. Sharpe. p. 229.
13124:Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1998).
11708:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
11690:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
10908:Bartłomiej Szyndler (2009).
10699:"Chmielnicki, Bogdan Zinovi"
10675:Dzielnica żydowska we Lwowie
9047:1968 Polish political crisis
8661:Polish United Workers' Party
8652:Polish 1968 political crisis
8391:soon to be the new state of
8389:British Mandate of Palestine
8070:Treblinka extermination camp
8026:Treblinka extermination camp
7747:Treblinka extermination camp
7530:2) Supplying them with Food,
7454:in present-day Belarus, and
7106:British Mandate of Palestine
7093:army, among them the future
6461:Polish First Football League
6309:, with younger artists like
6108:readily recognized as Jews.
5841:In 1914, the German Zionist
5729:Politics in Polish territory
3959:, known by his Arabic name,
3875:fall of the Communist regime
3683:there was a nearly complete
3679:in the 18th century. During
7:
19028:Evangelical-Augsburg Church
18902:Ethnic minorities in Poland
16944:, Kraków: Austeria P, 2005.
16689:German Occupation of Poland
16058:. The Board of Trustees of
14455:Tadeusz Piotrowski (1998).
13484:Tadeusz Piotrowski (1940).
12955:Friedla, Katharina (2021).
12620:The Jewish history of Radom
12514:Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–39)
12271:Stachura, Peter D. (2004).
11753:(PDF file, direct download)
10914:. Bellona. pp. 64–65.
10559:"Pollak, Ya'akov ben Yosef"
9898:Paulsson, Gunnar S (2002).
9779:"The Hidden Jews of Poland"
9514:Britain and the Netherlands
9507:Hugh Redwald Trevor-Roper,
9266:
8536:People's Republic of Poland
8521:Jewish Historical Institute
8395:, especially after General
8270:The best-known case is the
8194:formerly German territories
7657:governments in the face of
7623:Righteous Among The Nations
7535:3) Selling them Foodstuffs.
7358:by 1942. All of these – at
7116:Cemetery of Polish soldiers
7100:. During the Polish army's
7018:eastern part of the country
6934:under the German occupation
6830:History of Poland (1939–45)
6742:Felicjan Sławoj-Składkowski
6459:, winning promotion to the
6057:Little Treaty of Versailles
5512:Emancipation reform of 1861
5431:. The archaic English term
5403:
5389:
5375:
4516:was built for him in 1557.
4133:of Legnica in 1290–95, and
4071:Władysław III Spindleshanks
3917:Reception of Jews in Poland
3701:fall of communism in Poland
3693:German occupation of Poland
3181:
3162:
2889:Latin America and Caribbean
1585:
1234:Righteous Among the Nations
1190:Częstochowa Ghetto uprising
10:
19167:
18389:Central and Eastern Europe
17044:Prokop-Janiec, E. (2019).
16863:
16726:The introduction is online
16538:"Jewish Renewal in Poland"
15942:Kochavi, Arieh J. (2001).
15841:Gross, Jan Tomasz (2007).
15611:Jewish Culture and History
14616:"Onet – Jesteś na bieżąco"
14250:www.holocaustsurvivors.org
13953:. In Wegner, Bernd (ed.).
13872:Gartner, Lloyd P. (2001).
13381:Fleron, Jr (5 July 2017).
13003:American Historical Review
12855:, NYU Press, 2014, p. 133.
12578:Cambridge University Press
12003:. Routledge. p. 116.
11817:The Jews in Polish culture
11044:. Devora. pp. 12–15.
10205:Postan, Miller, Habakkuk.
9523:(Walburg Instituut, 1994).
9071:
9019:festival of Jewish culture
8923:Polish Academy of Sciences
8908:Jewish Combat Organization
8722:
8716:
8707:Workers' Defence Committee
8379:
8305:
8220:
8103:
8049:, where they were killed.
8006:
8000:
7833:Jewish Combat Organization
7678:
7672:
7634:Polish Government in Exile
7464:
7248:Polish Government-in-Exile
7225:Starving Jewish children,
7137:
6902:Jewish partisan formations
6838:
6827:
6646:With the influence of the
6195:General Jewish Labour Bund
6078:
5885:
5879:
5745:By the late 19th century,
5681:The Jewish Enlightenment,
5608:
5528:assassination of Alexander
5269:
5223:of Russia, instituted the
5188:
5182:
5116:Komisja Edukacji Narodowej
4981:
4578:
4527:
4240:
3905:
3894:
3888:
3765:antisemitic Russian Empire
3494:Jewish political movements
3191:Conversion to Judaism
1212:Jewish Combat Organization
1143:Operation Harvest Festival
19107:
19081:
19038:Catholic Mariavite Church
18981:Catholic Church in Poland
18973:
18886:
18861:
18751:
18715:
18637:
18585:
18539:
18483:
18381:
18374:
18366:Poles in the Soviet Union
18334:
18150:
18078:
18005:
17987:
17959:
17936:
17886:
17868:
17825:
17792:
17757:
17748:
17660:
17622:
17342:
17183:The Polish Jews Home Page
17145:15 September 2009 at the
17134:15 September 2009 at the
16847:by neighbouring empires.
16845:the century of Partitions
16642:, Lexington Books, 2004,
16358:Jewish Telegraphic Agency
16331:. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
16323:31 August 2009. See also
15551:, vol. 49, 1947, p. 390).
15499:Wokół pogromu kieleckiego
15187:Eberhardt, Piotr (2011).
15087:Grzegorz Berendt (2006).
14899:Eberhardt, Piotr (2006).
14637:The Polish Jews Home Page
14461:. McFarland. p. 66.
13397:– via Google Books.
13370:– via Google Books.
13343:– via Google Books.
13251:German Invasion of Poland
13026:Journal of Modern History
12973:10.1177/16118944211017748
12911:, 8:1, 2014, pp. 103-114.
12600:Pinkas Hakehillot Polin,
12209:, Palgrave (2000), p. 60.
12069:. Davidhorodok.tripod.com
12033:, Yale University Press,
11928:Polonsky, Antony (2012).
11726:kehilalinks.jewishgen.org
10132:kehilalinks.jewishgen.org
9936:Unveiling the Secret City
9732:, 8:1, 2014, pp. 103-114.
9450:(in English and Hebrew).
9127:
9089:
9000:Holocaust Remembrance Day
8428:("Flight") organization.
8308:Nationalization in Poland
8255:, and returned after the
8241:anti-communist resistance
8100:Communist rule: 1945–1989
8076:, several dozen pistols,
8054:Białystok Ghetto Uprising
8009:Białystok Ghetto Uprising
7948:Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński
6835:Polish September Campaign
6740:party and Prime Minister
6691:Communist Party of Poland
6227:Nobel Prize in Literature
6215:Nobel Prize in Literature
6075:Jewish and Polish culture
5556:
5370:
4984:Hasidic Judaism in Poland
4455:migrating there from the
4410:in 1492, as well as from
3718:From the founding of the
1897:Hinduism and Judaism
1178:Białystok Ghetto uprising
139:
134:
115:
110:
100:
90:
85:
77:
72:
50:
35:
18:History of Jews in Poland
18350:Polish-Lithuanian people
16542:Jewish Renewal in Poland
16482:World Jewish Population.
16224:www.quest-cdecjournal.it
16183:. Beacon Press. p.
16154:10.1177/0888325404270673
16005:27 February 2021 at the
15715:Zagłada Żydów w Zamościu
15494:Around the Kielce pogrom
15464:Niezalezna Gazeta Polska
15329:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz,
15309:. Springer. p. 11.
14769:Jürgen Stroop, May 1943.
14711:David Wdowiński (1963).
14651:Film and Photo Archive,
14507:Film and Photo Archive,
13650:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz.
13037:Celia Stopnicka Heller.
12739:Melzer, Emanuel (1997).
12704:Celia Stopnicka Heller.
12417:Zvi Y. Gitelman (2002),
12297:Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski,
12176:, was modeled after the
11527:Rutgers University Press
11361:Walter de Gruyter, 1993.
11355:Herbert Arthur Strauss.
11036:Domnitch, Larry (2003).
10999:Domnitch, Larry (2003).
10893:David ben Samuel Ha-Levi
10468:Singer, Isidore (1906).
10224:www.yivoencyclopedia.org
9706:. Jewish members of the
9661:20 February 2011 at the
9396:. World Jewish Congress.
9347:
9253:Jewish Agency for Israel
8780:Ronald Lauder Foundation
8749:Chief Rabbi of Poland –
8436:emigration of Jews from
8315:Polish People's Republic
7835:) and the ŻZW. The ŻZW (
7690:Ghetto fighters memorial
7584:Polish Underground State
7281:, in which between 300 (
7209:In 1939 several hundred
7095:Prime Minister of Israel
6412:Nobel Prize in Economics
6313:coming up in the ranks.
5845:founded the short-lived
5254:, known by the Jews as "
5064:The Partitions of Poland
4488:(1520–1572), an eminent
3847:Polish People’s Republic
3781:aftermath of World War I
1723:Temple in Jerusalem
1416:Bar and bat mitzvah
653:Old Synagogue (Przemyśl)
628:New Synagogue (Przemyśl)
19120:Protestantism in Poland
19033:United Methodist Church
17742:Ethnic groups in Poland
17265:8 December 2012 at the
17260:Polish Jewish Relations
17111:
16948:Levine, Hillel (1991).
16931:(Berghahn Books, 2023)
16900:Polish American Studies
16826:The Jewish Encyclopedia
15871:Third World Law Journal
15570:Stola, Dariusz (2008).
14669:27 October 2005 at the
14488:PolishResistance-AK.org
14160:Bożena Szaynok (2005),
13247:"Jewish Refugees, 1939"
12634:Piątkowski, S. (2006).
11806:Film and Photo Archive.
11614:Gershon David Hundert.
11601:19 January 2012 at the
11467:26 January 2012 at the
11137:Stanislawski, Michael.
10004:Michael C. Steinlauf. "
9955:Grabowski, Jan (2013).
9329:Jewish ethnic divisions
9324:Israel–Poland relations
9257:Jewish Community Center
9004:Israel Independence Day
8984:Auschwitz Jewish Center
8976:Prince Hassan of Jordan
8885:The Great Synagogue in
8877:Elimelech's of Lizhensk
8792:Jagiellonian University
8773:Beit Warszawa Synagogue
8628:In 1967, following the
8324:displaced-persons camps
8052:On 15 August 1943, the
7813:commander Jürgen Stroop
7346:Ghettos and death camps
7152:under German occupation
7150:the Holocaust in Poland
7140:The Holocaust in Poland
7120:Battle of Monte Cassino
7016:by many Poles from the
6953:Gulag slave labor camps
6949:NKVD prisoner massacres
6918:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
6892:, in the Soviet-formed
6851:1939 September Campaign
5794:Kościuszko Insurrection
5526:was shattered with the
5478:, and parts of western
4955:; and such scholars as
4554:, the last king of the
4376:Grand Duke of Lithuania
4125:of Wrocław in 1273–90,
3971:in Muslim Spain to the
3902:Early history: 966–1385
3871:"anti-Zionist" campaign
3820:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
3705:Jewish Culture Festival
1685:Twelve Tribes of Israel
1229:Rescue of Jews by Poles
814:Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva
19023:Polish Reformed Church
19018:Polish Orthodox Church
18547:Bosnia and Herzegovina
17385:Bosnia and Herzegovina
17248:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
17165:History of Polish Jews
16732:Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski
16636:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz
16618:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz
14838:Urban-Klaehn, Jagoda.
13654:Lexington Books, 2004.
13094:5 October 2007 at the
13063:25 August 2007 at the
12391:Joan Campbell (1992).
11461:PDF scan of the Treaty
11223:Zygmunt Zygmuntowicz,
10956:Olaf Bergmann (2015),
9859:7 October 2007 at the
9759:Archibald L. Patterson
9335:Jewish Roots in Poland
9014:
8988:
8963:
8899:Warsaw Ghetto Memorial
8863:
8775:
8764:
8753:
8476:Polish Socialist Party
8292:
8181:
8090:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
8082:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
8065:
7977:
7974:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
7896:
7859:
7858:Street, Warsaw, Poland
7829:
7802:
7784:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
7713:
7696:
7681:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
7601:
7555:
7539:
7484:
7399:
7260:
7229:
7153:
7052:
7034:
7030:Polish Second Republic
6991:
6925:witnessed a pogrom in
6857:
6733:
6621:
6546:. The position of the
6515:
6351:
6218:
6158:
6101:Second Polish Republic
6099:The newly independent
6096:
6094:Warsaw Great Synagogue
5976:
5966:Committee for the East
5928:
5925:Warsaw Great Synagogue
5912:
5813:Second Polish Republic
5742:
5546:
5441:
5356:
5211:
5147:
5077:
4979:
4863:
4702:Siege of Kraków (1657)
4673:
4625:royal towns and cities
4547:
4512:of Polish Jewry." The
4403:
4336:
4164:
4135:Bolko III the Generous
4105:among such rulers was
4022:
3924:
3824:German-occupied Poland
3746:Protestant Reformation
3675:which ended after the
1207:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
1200:Auschwitz Combat Group
648:Old Synagogue (Kraków)
623:New Synagogue (Ostrów)
568:Great Synagogue (Łódź)
41:
19146:Jewish Polish history
17759:Greater Poland people
16975:Nikžentaitis, Alvydas
16517:JewishGen KehilaLinks
15470:: 1–8. Archived from
15217:USHMM: The Survivors.
15113:Trela-Mazur, Elżbieta
14908:. Warsaw: Didactica.
14222:Warszawa. 1996, s. 10
13921:A History of the Jews
13728:(11/2005), p. 37-42,
13601:Joshua D. Zimmerman.
13539:Joshua D. Zimmerman.
13011:10.1086/ahr/76.4.1035
12622:(in Polish). Poland:
12535:23 March 2012 at the
12530:Wydarzenia 1931 roku.
12510:Polish census of 1931
12394:European Labor Unions
12118:Anna Jaskóła (2010).
11517:Engel, David (2003).
11389:Andrzej Kapiszewski,
11194:A History of Zionism.
10639:Council of Four Lands
9842:KTAV Publishing House
9704:Franklin D. Roosevelt
9520:The exchange of ideas
9341:List of Polish rabbis
9012:
8972:
8950:
8869:Jewish Cemetery, Łódź
8858:
8770:
8759:
8748:
8723:Further information:
8513:Yiddish State Theater
8175:
8007:Further information:
7971:
7884:
7853:
7837:Jewish Military Union
7804:
7792:
7702:
7688:
7679:Further information:
7608:formally imposed the
7596:
7553:
7494:
7474:
7465:Further information:
7397:
7307:Władysław Raczkiewicz
7246:
7224:
7147:
7046:
6977:
6898:Polish partisan units
6848:
6727:
6611:
6506:
6410:was awarded the 2007
6350:between 2007 and 2014
6342:
6223:Isaac Bashevis Singer
6211:Isaac Bashevis Singer
6209:
6150:
6092:
6001:Henry Morgenthau, Sr.
5974:
5949:, the nucleus of the
5918:
5900:
5886:Further information:
5876:Interbellum (1918–39)
5798:November Insurrection
5736:
5541:
5350:
5232:Alexander I of Russia
5206:
5142:
5072:Jewish dress in 17th
5071:
4974:
4915:("sharp reasoning").
4850:
4671:
4573:Council of Four Lands
4552:Sigismund II Augustus
4545:
4435:Sigismund II Augustus
4396:Sigismund II Augustus
4394:
4343:'s ethnically-German
4331:
4249:Władysław II Jagiełło
4221:. In 1348, the first
4169:Casimir III the Great
4152:
4102:Roman Catholic Church
4020:
3915:
3895:Further information:
3775:(later a part of the
2431:São Tomé and Príncipe
2426:Republic of the Congo
1820:Second Temple Judaism
1691:Kingdom of Judah
1662:Modern historiography
1217:Jewish Military Union
1054:and mass murder sites
774:Council of Four Lands
19115:Irreligion in Poland
19082:Not state-recognised
19003:Native Polish Church
18848:United Arab Emirates
17794:Lesser Poland people
16938:Krajewski, Stanisław
16381:at www.sztetl.org.pl
16301:22 July 2009 at the
16070:on 30 November 2010.
15975:"îéãò ðåñó òì äôøéè"
15928:3 March 2016 at the
15578:. pp. 240–255.
15527:, Palgrave, page 101
15440:7 March 2009 at the
15407:"מידע נוסף על הפריט"
15355:, page 130, (ibidem)
15350:Tadeusz Piotrowski,
15301:Prazmowska, Anita J.
14869:(in Polish). Warsaw.
14813:"מידע נוסף על הפריט"
14713:And we are not saved
14482:Marek Ney-Krwawicz.
14402:, Hippocrene, 1998.
14116:3 March 2016 at the
13553:The Death of Chaimke
13456:23 June 2008 at the
13281:yivoencyclopedia.org
13182:on 18 December 2011.
13153:Joshua D. Zimmerman
12796:, 1985, pp. 261-262.
12580:. pp. 342–344.
11778:"מידע נוסף על הפריט"
11589:5 March 2016 at the
11162:. UPNE. p. 16.
10740:"CZARNIECKI, STEFAN"
10430:on 28 February 2008.
10304:"The Jews of Poland"
9941:12 June 2007 at the
9809:"מידע נוסף על הפריט"
9586:on 11 December 2008.
9062:Warsaw Ghetto Museum
8614:Helena Wolińska-Brus
8574:Urząd Bezpieczeństwa
8549:Urząd Bezpieczeństwa
8414:activists including
7856:Mordechaj Anielewicz
7845:Mordechai Anielewicz
7767:Jewish Ghetto Police
7763:the mass deportation
7742:Jewish Ghetto Police
7483:on the "Aryan side")
7481:Marszałkowska Street
7477:Świętokrzyska Street
7265:Operation Barbarossa
7118:who died during the
6894:Polish People's Army
6695:Second International
6575:Revisionist Zionists
6438:University of Warsaw
6231:Israel Joshua Singer
6113:1931 National Census
6019:Polish–Ukrainian War
6013:treasonable. In the
5985:Polish–Ukrainian War
5802:January Insurrection
5764:. Jews also took up
5643:improve this section
5605:Haskalah and Halakha
5592:. They included the
5435:is derived from the
5309:improve this section
5250:During the reign of
5094:Confederation of Bar
4967:The rise of Hasidism
4891:Talmudic scholarship
4765:Partitions of Poland
4640:Khmelnytsky Uprising
4585:Warsaw Confederation
4538:Warsaw Confederation
4383:"kings and rulers".
4360:Casimir IV Jagiellon
4333:Casimir IV Jagiellon
4127:Henryk III of Głogów
4047:commercial interests
4041:territory as far as
3757:Partitions of Poland
3677:Partitions of Poland
3533:World Agudath Israel
2674:United Arab Emirates
1761:Second Temple period
1751:Babylonian captivity
794:Vaad Rosh Hashochtim
19089:Jehovah's Witnesses
18967:religions of Poland
18923:Polish Diaspora Day
17623:States with limited
17280:2 July 2010 at the
17212:Joanna Rohozinska,
17156:9 December 2012 at
17123:9 December 2012 at
16839:originate from the
16835:paragraphs lacking
16802:Laurence Weinbaum,
16778:, HUC Press, 1996,
16622:After the Holocaust
16564:"The JCC of Krakow"
16127:2 June 2009 at the
15721:vol. 1 (2008), 188.
15409:. 21 January 2008.
15236:Gross, Jan (2007).
14815:. 21 January 2008.
14548:, Routledge, 1990,
14276:Forgotten Holocaust
14256:on 29 December 2022
14097:Czesław Madajczyk,
13997:on 21 January 2008.
13824:avalon.law.yale.edu
13780:30 May 2008 at the
13719:Krzysztof Szwagrzyk
13629:Tadeusz Piotrowski
12052:Feigue Cieplinski,
11373:Joanna B. Michlic.
11247:"Żydzi w Legionach"
10985:. 25 November 2014.
10879:29 May 2016 at the
10745:Jewish Encyclopedia
10704:Jewish Encyclopedia
10643:Jewish Encyclopedia
10504:Jewish Encyclopedia
10474:Jewish Encyclopedia
10458:- YIVO Encyclopedia
10356:on 5 December 2008.
10109:7 June 2020 at the
10052:Aleksiun, Natalia.
9458:on 13 November 2011
9245:Moses Schorr Centre
9086:
9038:Moses Schorr Centre
8992:March of the Living
8861:March of the Living
8509:Polish Armed Forces
8456:was established in
8134:resistance movement
7910:resistance movement
7885:Freed prisoners of
7352:extermination camps
7318:Holocaust survivors
7165:extermination camps
6882:Holocaust in Poland
6777:Revisionist Zionism
6532:National Democratic
6477:Maccabi World Union
6471:. Another athlete,
6420:Main Judaic Library
6348:President of Israel
6333:Children Must Laugh
6287:Zygmunt Białostocki
6003:, concluded in its
5908:, c. 1910s, during
5741:demonstration, 1917
5160:Kościuszko Uprising
5158:, took part in the
5152:partition of Poland
5107:annexations of 1772
5090:Catherine the Great
5040:including those of
4825:Sigismund I the Old
4815:into two words of:
4698:Charles X of Sweden
4431:Sigismund I the Old
4372:Alexander Jagiellon
4364:Statute of Nieszawa
4067:Bolesław I the Tall
3753:Counter-Reformation
3732:paradisus iudaeorum
3669:religious tolerance
1826:Hellenistic Judaism
1404:Land of Israel
1363:Principles of faith
968:Concentration camps
187:Historical Timeline
161:History of Jews and
47:
17777:Kuyavian Borowiaks
17301:, 20 December 2005
17028:Polonsky, Antony.
17012:Polonsky, Antony.
16933:online book review
16921:Yad Vashem Studies
16480:Berman Institute,
16360:. 28 February 2008
16050:(11 August 2008).
16048:Hoover Institution
15353:Poland's Holocaust
15141:Trela-Mazur 1997,
14986:on 14 October 2017
14788:Polesie Voivodship
14364:Francis R. Nicosia
14362:Donald L. Niewyk;
14220:Diaries 1939 -1945
13800:on 8 December 2012
13689:Jonathan Frankel.
13676:Samuel D. Kassow.
13633:, McFarland, 1998
13569:Tadeusz Piotrowski
13490:Poland's Holocaust
13447:Marek Wierzbicki,
13205:on 8 December 2015
13076:Shmuel Krakowski,
12790:Francis R. Nicosia
12630:on 22 August 2010.
12365:Herbert A. Strauss
11744:1931 Polish census
11674:on 6 October 2008.
11566:on 6 October 2007.
11529:. pp. 33–34.
11227:excerpt from book
10795:Dariusz Milewski,
10697:Herman Rosenthal,
10500:"Katzenellenbogen"
10276:. 5 December 2013.
9984:Natalia Aleksiun.
9078:
9015:
8964:
8864:
8845:Judaica Foundation
8776:
8765:
8754:
8368:, director of the
8182:
8047:Auschwitz-Birkenau
7978:
7963:Władysław Szpilman
7897:
7876:Polish underground
7860:
7803:
7793:The cover page of
7751:Grossaktion Warsaw
7714:
7697:
7602:
7556:
7540:
7510:General Government
7485:
7448:Stanisławów Ghetto
7420:Częstochowa Ghetto
7400:
7384:forced labor camps
7330:Gunnar S. Paulsson
7326:Emanuel Ringelblum
7261:
7230:
7154:
7053:
7009:Władysław Sikorski
6992:
6870:September Campaign
6858:
6841:Invasion of Poland
6754:standard of living
6738:National Democracy
6734:
6652:National Democracy
6622:
6571:Polish nationalist
6516:
6492:Polish Jews spoke
6392:Emanuel Ringelblum
6352:
6275:Jerzy Petersburski
6247:Emanuel Schlechter
6219:
6159:
6097:
6064:Congress of Poland
6036:The New York Times
6015:Lwów (Lviv) pogrom
5977:
5951:interim government
5929:
5913:
5904:schoolchildren in
5817:Apolinary Hartglas
5743:
5598:Grodno Governorate
5569:partitioned Poland
5547:
5520:Pale of Settlement
5421:Kingdom of Prussia
5362:Pale of Settlement
5357:
5353:Pale of Settlement
5277:Pale of Settlement
5225:Pale of Settlement
5212:
5148:
5078:
5076:and 18th centuries
4980:
4864:
4833:David HaLevi Segal
4749:Right-bank Ukraine
4674:
4661:(captivity in the
4652:Bohdan Khmelnytsky
4548:
4459:. Arabic-speaking
4404:
4353:John of Capistrano
4337:
4274:Synod of Constance
4257:Louis I of Hungary
4165:
4129:in 1274 and 1299,
4107:Bolesław the Pious
4023:
3925:
3773:Kingdom of Prussia
3387:Jewish Koine Greek
2929:Dominican Republic
2210:Judaism by country
1889:Jews and Christmas
1744:Assyrian captivity
1063:Auschwitz-Birkenau
784:Judaica Foundation
598:Kowea Itim le-Tora
32:
19133:
19132:
18932:
18931:
18882:
18881:
18633:
18632:
18328:Polish minorities
18290:
18289:
17932:
17931:
17919:Tuchola Borowians
17870:Borderlands Poles
17850:Międzyrzec Boyars
17708:
17707:
17087:978-0-96-565080-9
17070:978-0-804763-83-7
17050:The Polish Review
17039:978-1-904113-48-5
17023:978-1-904113-83-6
17007:978-1-874774-64-8
16841:Chapter: "Russia"
16710:Joanna B. Michlic
16568:My Jewish Detroit
16404:978-1-317-50689-8
16272:"ABOUT THE MARCH"
16194:978-0-8070-5056-9
16164:– via SAGE.
16106:"Wojna zastępcza"
15897:. 24 April 2018.
15852:978-0-8129-6746-3
15822:978-1-4020-6053-3
15713:Adam Kopciowski.
15674:978-1-107-03666-6
15585:978-1-306-54603-4
15508:978-83-60464-87-8
15477:on 26 August 2016
15203:978-83-61590-46-0
15068:978-0-7656-0665-5
14979:978-0-8229-6293-9
14778:The first Jewish
14696:, pp. 10–14.
14544:Antony Polonsky,
14385:978-0-231-11200-0
14218:Zofia Nałkowska.
14069:978-0-691-00954-4
13836:Thomas C. Hubka,
12903:Laurence Weinbaum
12879:League of Nations
12816:League of Nations
12767:announced to the
12587:978-0-521-63037-5
12518:Wikimedia Commons
12438:Mordecai Paldiel
12351:978-3-11-083868-8
12324:978-3-11-083868-8
12284:978-0-415-34358-9
12257:978-3-11-083868-8
12233:on 17 March 2014.
12107:on 20 April 2015.
11957:Barbara Engelking
11943:978-1-904113-48-5
11932:. Vol. III.
11887:978-1-909821-53-8
11494:Walter de Gruyter
11416:978-0-19-006011-4
11205:Isaiah Friedman.
10966:978-83-7976-222-4
10864:, pp. 17–18.
10852:, pp. 51–52.
10782:978-83-11-08275-5
10496:Solomon Schechter
10314:on 13 August 2019
10255:978-0-415-52087-4
10147:, historia.wp.pl.
10024:Devorah Hakohen,
9966:978-0-253-01074-2
9724:Laurence Weinbaum
9692:League of Nations
9665:Online exposition
9236:
9235:
9232:
9223:
9214:
9205:
9196:
9187:
9178:
9169:
9160:
9151:
9135:
9085:
8927:Holocaust studies
8837:Dos Jidische Wort
8788:Warsaw University
8751:Michael Schudrich
8732:Koniuchy massacre
8678:March 1968 events
8657:Mieczysław Moczar
8610:Zgoda labour camp
8598:Radio Free Europe
8570:Władysław Gomułka
8566:People's Republic
8472:elections of 1947
8397:Marian Spychalski
8078:Molotov cocktails
7952:Stanisław Aronson
7827:
7795:The Stroop Report
7360:Chełmno (Kulmhof)
6945:Soviet annexation
6886:defended the city
6790:League of Nations
6781:League of Nations
6775:, the founder of
6687:Jewish socialists
6618:Warsaw University
6563:Władysław Grabski
6111:According to the
6085:Culture of Poland
6069:Polish–Soviet War
6005:Morgenthau Report
5989:Polish–Soviet War
5981:Russian Civil War
5836:first Polish Sejm
5821:Yitzhak Gruenbaum
5719:Religious Zionism
5679:
5678:
5671:
5399:תְּחוּם הַמּוֹשָב
5371:Черта́ осе́длости
5345:
5344:
5337:
5134:French Revolution
5038:Hasidic dynasties
4993:was succeeded by
4909:, the creator of
4862:, Poland, 1610–20
4747:, a rebellion in
4706:Stefan Czarniecki
4556:Jagiellon dynasty
4199:and Jews." Under
4155:Casimir the Great
4119:Statute of Kalisz
4077:(developing into
3973:Holy Roman Empire
3961:Ibrahim ibn Yaqub
3720:Kingdom of Poland
3649:
3648:
3598:
3597:
3346:
3345:
3093:Reconstructionist
3037:
3036:
2189:
2188:
1996:
1995:
1833:Jewish–Roman wars
1781:Hasmonean dynasty
1697:Kingdom of Israel
1601:
1600:
1302:
1301:
1244:
1243:
832:
831:
444:
443:
424:Jewish Autonomism
260:Polish-Ashkenazim
163:Judaism in Poland
146:
145:
44:
16:(Redirected from
19158:
18974:State-recognised
18959:
18952:
18945:
18936:
18935:
18386:
18385:
18379:
18378:
18356:Great Emigration
18317:
18310:
18303:
18294:
18293:
18178:Crimean Karaites
18120:Galician Germans
17909:Polish Uplanders
17755:
17754:
17735:
17728:
17721:
17712:
17711:
17661:Dependencies and
17602:Northern Ireland
17343:Sovereign states
17329:
17322:
17315:
17306:
17305:
17258:Bibliography of
17099:
17072:
17041:
17025:
17009:
16994:Polonsky, Antony
16990:
16981:. Rodopi, 2004,
16971:
16924:
16891:
16837:inline citations
16830:
16813:
16812:
16740:Hippocrene Books
16702:
16683:
16656:William W. Hagen
16651:
16605:
16604:
16602:
16600:
16585:
16579:
16578:
16576:
16574:
16559:
16553:
16552:
16550:
16548:
16534:
16528:
16527:
16525:
16523:
16509:
16503:
16491:
16485:
16478:
16469:
16462:
16456:
16455:
16453:
16451:
16437:
16431:
16430:
16428:
16426:
16415:
16409:
16408:
16388:
16382:
16376:
16370:
16369:
16367:
16365:
16350:
16344:
16338:
16332:
16329:Polish Knowledge
16318:
16309:
16308:
16293:
16287:
16286:
16284:
16282:
16268:
16262:
16261:
16259:
16257:
16242:
16236:
16235:
16233:
16231:
16216:
16210:
16205:
16199:
16198:
16182:
16172:
16166:
16165:
16137:
16131:
16120:
16114:
16113:
16101:
16095:
16094:
16093:on 13 July 2011.
16089:. Archived from
16078:
16072:
16071:
16066:. Archived from
16044:
16035:
16034:
16023:
16010:
15997:
15991:
15990:
15988:
15986:
15971:
15965:
15964:
15949:
15939:
15933:
15920:
15911:
15910:
15908:
15906:
15892:
15885:
15879:
15878:
15866:
15857:
15856:
15838:
15827:
15826:
15808:
15797:
15794:Shattered Spaces
15791:
15785:
15779:
15773:
15766:
15760:
15759:
15757:
15755:
15735:
15722:
15711:
15705:
15704:
15696:
15679:
15678:
15660:
15643:
15642:
15606:
15597:
15596:
15594:
15592:
15567:
15552:
15545:
15539:
15534:
15528:
15522:
15513:
15512:
15486:
15484:
15482:
15476:
15461:
15451:
15445:
15432:
15423:
15422:
15420:
15418:
15403:
15397:
15391:
15385:
15384:
15364:
15358:
15348:
15342:
15327:
15321:
15320:
15297:
15291:
15290:
15266:
15260:
15259:
15233:
15222:
15220:Internet Archive
15214:
15208:
15207:
15195:
15184:
15178:
15177:
15159:
15153:
15136:
15109:
15103:
15102:
15100:
15084:
15073:
15072:
15052:
15046:
15045:
15013:God's Playground
15002:
14993:
14991:
14982:. Archived from
14963:
14957:
14956:
14933:
14927:
14926:
14925:on 23 June 2015.
14924:
14918:. Archived from
14907:
14896:
14885:
14884:
14878:
14870:
14865:Mark, B (1952).
14862:
14856:
14855:
14853:
14851:
14835:
14829:
14828:
14826:
14824:
14809:
14803:
14797:
14791:
14776:
14770:
14759:
14753:
14750:
14744:
14734:
14728:
14726:
14708:
14697:
14691:
14685:
14679:
14673:
14662:
14656:
14649:Adam Czerniakow.
14646:
14640:
14634:
14628:
14627:
14622:. Archived from
14612:
14606:
14596:
14590:
14584:
14578:
14577:
14566:
14560:
14542:
14536:
14518:
14512:
14502:
14496:
14495:
14479:
14473:
14472:
14452:
14446:
14440:
14429:
14428:
14423:. Archived from
14417:
14411:
14398:Iwo Pogonowski,
14396:
14390:
14389:
14373:
14359:
14353:
14347:
14341:
14335:
14329:
14328:
14326:
14324:
14309:
14303:
14293:
14287:
14272:
14266:
14265:
14263:
14261:
14252:. Archived from
14242:
14236:
14229:
14223:
14216:
14210:
14199:
14193:
14186:
14180:
14167:Robert Blobaum,
14158:
14152:
14145:
14139:
14138:
14127:
14121:
14108:
14102:
14095:
14089:
14080:
14074:
14073:
14053:
14047:
14038:
14032:
14017:
14011:
14005:
13999:
13998:
13987:
13981:
13975:
13969:
13968:
13946:
13940:
13939:
13912:
13906:
13900:
13894:
13893:
13869:
13863:
13858:
13852:
13834:
13828:
13827:
13816:
13810:
13809:
13807:
13805:
13796:. Archived from
13790:
13784:
13772:
13766:
13765:
13754:
13748:
13742:
13736:
13716:
13710:
13702:Joanna Michlic.
13700:
13694:
13687:
13681:
13674:
13668:
13667:Macmillan, 1999.
13661:
13655:
13648:
13642:
13627:
13621:
13615:
13606:
13599:
13593:
13592:
13565:
13556:
13550:
13544:
13537:
13531:
13530:
13510:
13504:
13503:
13481:
13472:
13446:
13442:
13436:
13430:
13424:
13420:19 July 2009 at
13412:
13399:
13398:
13378:
13372:
13371:
13351:
13345:
13344:
13324:
13318:
13317:
13315:
13313:
13298:
13292:
13291:
13289:
13287:
13272:
13263:
13262:
13260:
13258:
13242:
13233:
13232:
13221:
13215:
13214:
13212:
13210:
13190:
13184:
13183:
13178:. Archived from
13176:"Jews in Poland"
13172:
13166:
13151:
13142:
13141:
13121:
13115:
13105:
13099:
13086:
13080:
13074:
13068:
13055:
13042:
13035:
13029:
13028:July 1996: 1–31.
13022:William W. Hagen
13019:
13013:
12999:
12993:
12992:
12952:
12941:
12931:
12925:
12918:
12912:
12875:
12869:
12862:
12856:
12846:
12840:
12833:
12827:
12804:
12798:
12785:
12779:
12761:
12755:
12754:
12736:
12730:
12724:
12718:
12715:
12709:
12702:
12696:
12695:
12683:
12674:
12668:
12662:
12661:
12655:
12647:
12631:
12611:
12605:
12598:
12592:
12591:
12564:
12558:
12554:God's Playground
12546:
12540:
12527:
12521:
12499:
12490:
12476:
12470:
12457:
12451:
12436:
12430:
12415:
12409:
12408:
12388:
12382:
12362:
12356:
12355:
12335:
12329:
12328:
12308:
12302:
12295:
12289:
12288:
12268:
12262:
12261:
12241:
12235:
12234:
12232:
12225:
12216:
12210:
12203:
12197:
12170:
12164:
12154:
12148:
12141:Yonathan Shapiro
12138:
12132:
12131:
12125:
12115:
12109:
12108:
12106:
12095:
12085:
12079:
12078:
12076:
12074:
12063:
12057:
12050:
12044:
12024:
12015:
12014:
11994:
11988:
11987:
11985:
11983:
11969:
11963:
11954:
11948:
11947:
11925:
11919:
11918:
11898:
11892:
11891:
11871:
11865:
11864:
11856:
11850:
11833:
11827:
11813:
11807:
11800:
11794:
11793:
11791:
11789:
11774:
11768:
11767:
11762:
11760:
11754:
11739:
11730:
11729:
11718:
11712:
11711:
11700:
11694:
11693:
11682:
11676:
11675:
11670:. Archived from
11664:
11658:
11652:
11646:
11632:
11626:
11612:
11606:
11574:
11568:
11567:
11565:
11558:
11547:
11541:
11540:
11514:
11508:
11507:
11478:
11472:
11451:
11445:
11427:
11421:
11420:
11400:
11394:
11387:
11381:
11371:
11362:
11353:
11347:
11330:
11324:
11323:
11321:
11319:
11296:
11290:
11283:
11277:
11274:
11268:
11265:
11259:
11258:
11256:
11254:
11242:
11236:
11221:
11210:
11203:
11197:
11187:
11181:
11180:
11178:
11176:
11153:
11147:
11146:
11139:"Russian Empire"
11134:
11128:
11118:
11112:
11103:
11097:
11096:
11094:
11092:
11069:
11063:
11062:
11060:
11058:
11033:
11024:
11023:
11021:
11019:
10996:
10987:
10986:
10975:
10969:
10954:
10945:
10939:
10933:
10932:
10930:
10928:
10905:
10896:
10890:
10884:
10871:
10865:
10859:
10853:
10847:
10838:
10837:
10835:
10833:
10823:
10814:
10808:
10807:
10793:
10787:
10786:
10766:
10760:
10755:
10749:
10736:
10730:
10725:
10719:
10714:
10708:
10695:
10689:
10684:
10678:
10668:
10662:
10657:
10646:
10636:
10630:
10624:
10618:
10612:
10606:
10605:
10603:
10601:
10587:
10581:
10580:
10573:
10567:
10566:
10554:
10548:
10547:
10531:
10521:
10515:
10514:
10512:
10510:
10491:
10485:
10484:
10482:
10480:
10465:
10459:
10453:
10447:
10441:
10432:
10431:
10426:. Archived from
10424:www.bartleby.com
10416:
10410:
10409:
10407:
10405:
10379:
10370:
10364:
10358:
10357:
10352:. Archived from
10346:
10340:
10330:
10324:
10323:
10321:
10319:
10310:. Archived from
10300:
10294:
10284:
10278:
10277:
10266:
10260:
10259:
10241:
10235:
10234:
10232:
10230:
10216:
10210:
10203:
10197:
10196:
10194:
10192:
10177:
10148:
10142:
10136:
10135:
10124:
10118:
10097:
10091:
10090:
10070:
10061:
10060:
10049:
10038:
10022:
10013:
10002:
9993:
9982:
9971:
9970:
9952:
9946:
9933:
9924:
9923:
9895:
9889:
9876:Richard C. Lukas
9873:
9864:
9851:
9845:
9838:Mordecai Paldiel
9831:
9825:
9824:
9822:
9820:
9805:
9799:
9798:
9796:
9794:
9775:
9769:
9739:
9733:
9688:
9682:
9675:William W. Hagen
9672:
9666:
9653:
9647:
9627:
9621:
9615:
9609:
9603:
9588:
9587:
9576:
9567:
9562:George Sanford,
9560:
9551:
9550:
9539:
9533:
9530:
9524:
9505:
9499:
9498:
9491:
9489:
9474:
9468:
9467:
9465:
9463:
9440:
9434:
9433:
9421:
9415:
9409:
9398:
9397:
9390:
9370:
9367:
9361:
9358:
9228:
9219:
9210:
9201:
9192:
9183:
9174:
9165:
9156:
9140:
9133:
9087:
9083:
9081:
9077:
8970:documents that:
8939:
8604:a member of the
8562:de-Stalinisation
8503:, who served as
8420:Icchak Cukierman
8297:
8288:pogrom in Cracow
8261:Yalta Conference
8003:Białystok Ghetto
7925:Icchak Cukierman
7901:Ghetto uprisings
7868:Heinrich Himmler
7817:
7749:at the onset of
7726:Governor-General
7651:Szmul Zygielbojm
7629:Museum (6,339).
7412:Białystok Ghetto
7193:starved to death
7091:Władysław Anders
7039:
6862:Boruch Steinberg
6855:Powązki Cemetery
6788:declared in the
6773:Ze'ev Jabotinsky
6750:Great Depression
6730:Lwów Polytechnic
6702:Second World War
6612:Student's book (
6599:Great Depression
6595:Kazimierz Bartel
6526:. Following the
6520:Great Depression
6457:Jutrzenka Kraków
6402:" was coined by
6396:Artur Rubinstein
6388:Samuel Eilenberg
6378:(the creator of
6366:, and professor
6358:, mathematician
6318:Michał Waszyński
6299:Maurycy Gottlieb
6251:Bolesław Leśmian
6010:battle for Pińsk
5991:ending with the
5921:Baruch Steinberg
5762:General Zionists
5711:Orthodox Judaism
5674:
5667:
5663:
5660:
5654:
5623:
5615:
5594:Białystok pogrom
5558:
5544:Białystok pogrom
5452:Russian Orthodox
5446:
5406:
5400:
5392:
5390:tkhum-ha-moyshəv
5386:
5378:
5376:chertá osédlosti
5372:
5340:
5333:
5329:
5326:
5320:
5289:
5281:
5237:brewing industry
5156:Berek Joselewicz
5144:Berek Joselewicz
5126:Andrzej Zamoyski
5060:, among others.
5000:In this time of
4978:, 1895 depiction
4856:Zamość Synagogue
4648:Zaporozhian Host
4370:(1492–1501) and
4266:
4259:, Lithuania was
4201:penalty of death
4173:Wiślicki Statute
4131:Henryk V the Fat
4123:Henryk IV Probus
4088:Magdeburg rights
4063:Casimir the Just
4059:Hebraic markings
4002:As elsewhere in
3849:for the nascent
3661:Ashkenazi Jewish
3641:
3634:
3627:
3490:
3489:
3371:
3192:
3186:
3167:
3131:
3130:
3078:
3025:New Zealand
2977:
2940:El Salvador
2930:
2862:Northern America
2854:
2448:
2204:
2203:
2115:Crimean Karaites
2011:
2010:
1989:
1987:
1908:
1906:
1898:
1892:
1883:
1871:Rabbinic Judaism
1852:
1846:
1840:
1828:
1816:
1782:
1775:Maccabean Revolt
1752:
1745:
1739:
1731:
1724:
1718:
1710:
1692:
1616:
1615:
1590:
1485:
1484:
1417:
1405:
1304:
1303:
1294:
1287:
1280:
1266:
1261:
1255:
849:
848:
824:Novardok Yeshiva
762:
761:
548:Chabad-Lubavitch
246:
245:
195:
191:
181:
176:
173:
148:
147:
73:Total population
55:
48:
46:
42:
37:
31:
21:
19166:
19165:
19161:
19160:
19159:
19157:
19156:
19155:
19136:
19135:
19134:
19129:
19103:
19077:
18969:
18963:
18933:
18928:
18878:
18857:
18747:
18711:
18629:
18581:
18540:Southern Europe
18535:
18484:Northern Europe
18479:
18370:
18330:
18324:Polish diaspora
18321:
18291:
18286:
18146:
18135:Vistula Germans
18074:
18001:
17983:
17955:
17951:Silesian Gorals
17928:
17882:
17878:Bug River Poles
17864:
17821:
17788:
17744:
17739:
17709:
17704:
17662:
17656:
17642:Northern Cyprus
17624:
17618:
17517:North Macedonia
17338:
17333:
17282:Wayback Machine
17267:Wayback Machine
17244:vilnaghetto.com
17238:
17167:
17147:Wayback Machine
17136:Wayback Machine
17114:
17109:
17088:
17064:
17033:
17017:
17001:
16982:
16960:
16927:Korycki, Kate.
16902:, 78(1), 60–82.
16888:
16872:
16864:Main articles:
16862:
16860:Further reading
16821:Singer, Isidore
16810:
16706:Antony Polonsky
16699:
16680:
16643:
16614:
16609:
16608:
16598:
16596:
16587:
16586:
16582:
16572:
16570:
16560:
16556:
16546:
16544:
16536:
16535:
16531:
16521:
16519:
16511:
16510:
16506:
16500:Wayback Machine
16492:
16488:
16479:
16472:
16463:
16459:
16449:
16447:
16439:
16438:
16434:
16424:
16422:
16416:
16412:
16405:
16389:
16385:
16377:
16373:
16363:
16361:
16352:
16351:
16347:
16339:
16335:
16319:
16312:
16306:
16303:Wayback Machine
16294:
16290:
16280:
16278:
16270:
16269:
16265:
16255:
16253:
16244:
16243:
16239:
16229:
16227:
16218:
16217:
16213:
16206:
16202:
16195:
16173:
16169:
16138:
16134:
16129:Wayback Machine
16121:
16117:
16102:
16098:
16079:
16075:
16045:
16038:
16025:
16024:
16013:
16007:Wayback Machine
15998:
15994:
15984:
15982:
15977:. 30 May 2008.
15973:
15972:
15968:
15958:
15940:
15936:
15930:Wayback Machine
15921:
15914:
15904:
15902:
15895:Financial Times
15887:
15886:
15882:
15867:
15860:
15853:
15839:
15830:
15823:
15809:
15800:
15792:
15788:
15780:
15776:
15767:
15763:
15753:
15751:
15736:
15725:
15712:
15708:
15697:
15682:
15675:
15661:
15646:
15607:
15600:
15590:
15588:
15586:
15568:
15555:
15546:
15542:
15535:
15531:
15523:
15516:
15509:
15480:
15478:
15474:
15459:
15452:
15448:
15442:Wayback Machine
15433:
15426:
15416:
15414:
15405:
15404:
15400:
15392:
15388:
15381:
15365:
15361:
15349:
15345:
15328:
15324:
15317:
15298:
15294:
15283:
15267:
15263:
15248:
15234:
15225:
15215:
15211:
15204:
15193:
15185:
15181:
15174:
15160:
15156:
15133:
15110:
15106:
15098:
15085:
15076:
15069:
15053:
15049:
15028:
14989:
14987:
14980:
14964:
14960:
14953:
14934:
14930:
14922:
14916:
14905:
14897:
14888:
14872:
14871:
14863:
14859:
14849:
14847:
14846:on 17 July 2009
14836:
14832:
14822:
14820:
14811:
14810:
14806:
14798:
14794:
14780:ghetto uprising
14777:
14773:
14760:
14756:
14751:
14747:
14735:
14731:
14723:
14709:
14700:
14692:
14688:
14680:
14676:
14671:Wayback Machine
14663:
14659:
14647:
14643:
14635:
14631:
14626:on 15 May 2011.
14614:
14613:
14609:
14597:
14593:
14585:
14581:
14568:
14567:
14563:
14543:
14539:
14519:
14515:
14503:
14499:
14480:
14476:
14469:
14453:
14449:
14441:
14432:
14427:on 9 June 2009.
14419:
14418:
14414:
14397:
14393:
14386:
14360:
14356:
14348:
14344:
14336:
14332:
14322:
14320:
14310:
14306:
14294:
14290:
14273:
14269:
14259:
14257:
14244:
14243:
14239:
14230:
14226:
14217:
14213:
14200:
14196:
14187:
14183:
14159:
14155:
14146:
14142:
14129:
14128:
14124:
14118:Wayback Machine
14109:
14105:
14096:
14092:
14081:
14077:
14070:
14054:
14050:
14040:Norman Davies.
14039:
14035:
14018:
14014:
14006:
14002:
13989:
13988:
13984:
13976:
13972:
13965:
13947:
13943:
13936:
13913:
13909:
13901:
13897:
13890:
13870:
13866:
13859:
13855:
13835:
13831:
13818:
13817:
13813:
13803:
13801:
13792:
13791:
13787:
13782:Wayback Machine
13773:
13769:
13756:
13755:
13751:
13744:Yisrael Gutman
13743:
13739:
13717:
13713:
13701:
13697:
13688:
13684:
13675:
13671:
13662:
13658:
13649:
13645:
13628:
13624:
13616:
13609:
13600:
13596:
13589:
13566:
13559:
13551:
13547:
13538:
13534:
13527:
13511:
13507:
13500:
13482:
13475:
13458:Wayback Machine
13444:
13443:
13439:
13431:
13427:
13413:
13402:
13395:
13379:
13375:
13368:
13360:. Basic Books.
13352:
13348:
13341:
13333:. Basic Books.
13325:
13321:
13311:
13309:
13308:on 6 April 2012
13300:
13299:
13295:
13285:
13283:
13273:
13266:
13256:
13254:
13243:
13236:
13223:
13222:
13218:
13208:
13206:
13191:
13187:
13174:
13173:
13169:
13152:
13145:
13138:
13122:
13118:
13106:
13102:
13096:Wayback Machine
13087:
13083:
13075:
13071:
13065:Wayback Machine
13056:
13045:
13036:
13032:
13020:
13016:
13000:
12996:
12953:
12944:
12934:Yitshaq Ben-Ami
12932:
12928:
12919:
12915:
12895:Szymon Rudnicki
12876:
12872:
12863:
12859:
12847:
12843:
12834:
12830:
12805:
12801:
12786:
12782:
12762:
12758:
12751:
12737:
12733:
12725:
12721:
12716:
12712:
12703:
12699:
12684:
12677:
12669:
12665:
12649:
12648:
12612:
12608:
12599:
12595:
12588:
12565:
12561:
12547:
12543:
12537:Wayback Machine
12528:
12524:
12500:
12493:
12477:
12473:
12458:
12454:
12437:
12433:
12416:
12412:
12405:
12389:
12385:
12363:
12359:
12352:
12336:
12332:
12325:
12309:
12305:
12296:
12292:
12285:
12269:
12265:
12258:
12242:
12238:
12230:
12223:
12218:
12217:
12213:
12204:
12200:
12182:First World War
12171:
12167:
12157:Jehuda Reinharz
12155:
12151:
12139:
12135:
12123:
12116:
12112:
12104:
12093:
12086:
12082:
12072:
12070:
12065:
12064:
12060:
12051:
12047:
12025:
12018:
12011:
11995:
11991:
11981:
11979:
11971:
11970:
11966:
11955:
11951:
11944:
11926:
11922:
11915:
11899:
11895:
11888:
11872:
11868:
11857:
11853:
11834:
11830:
11814:
11810:
11801:
11797:
11787:
11785:
11780:. 30 May 2008.
11776:
11775:
11771:
11758:
11756:
11752:
11740:
11733:
11720:
11719:
11715:
11702:
11701:
11697:
11684:
11683:
11679:
11666:
11665:
11661:
11653:
11649:
11633:
11629:
11613:
11609:
11603:Wayback Machine
11591:Wayback Machine
11575:
11571:
11563:
11556:
11548:
11544:
11537:
11515:
11511:
11504:
11479:
11475:
11469:Wayback Machine
11452:
11448:
11428:
11424:
11417:
11401:
11397:
11388:
11384:
11372:
11365:
11354:
11350:
11331:
11327:
11317:
11315:
11313:
11297:
11293:
11284:
11280:
11275:
11271:
11266:
11262:
11252:
11250:
11243:
11239:
11222:
11213:
11204:
11200:
11188:
11184:
11174:
11172:
11170:
11154:
11150:
11135:
11131:
11119:
11115:
11104:
11100:
11090:
11088:
11086:
11070:
11066:
11056:
11054:
11052:
11034:
11027:
11017:
11015:
11013:
10997:
10990:
10977:
10976:
10972:
10955:
10948:
10940:
10936:
10926:
10924:
10922:
10906:
10899:
10891:
10887:
10881:Wayback Machine
10872:
10868:
10860:
10856:
10848:
10841:
10831:
10829:
10821:
10815:
10811:
10805:
10794:
10790:
10783:
10767:
10763:
10756:
10752:
10737:
10733:
10726:
10722:
10715:
10711:
10696:
10692:
10685:
10681:
10669:
10665:
10658:
10649:
10641:article in the
10637:
10633:
10625:
10621:
10613:
10609:
10599:
10597:
10595:Cracow-life.com
10589:
10588:
10584:
10575:
10574:
10570:
10555:
10551:
10544:
10522:
10518:
10508:
10506:
10492:
10488:
10478:
10476:
10466:
10462:
10454:
10450:
10442:
10435:
10418:
10417:
10413:
10403:
10401:
10399:
10380:
10373:
10365:
10361:
10348:
10347:
10343:
10331:
10327:
10317:
10315:
10302:
10301:
10297:
10285:
10281:
10268:
10267:
10263:
10256:
10242:
10238:
10228:
10226:
10218:
10217:
10213:
10204:
10200:
10190:
10188:
10179:
10178:
10151:
10143:
10139:
10126:
10125:
10121:
10111:Wayback Machine
10098:
10094:
10087:
10071:
10064:
10050:
10041:
10023:
10016:
10003:
9996:
9983:
9974:
9967:
9953:
9949:
9943:Wayback Machine
9934:
9927:
9916:
9896:
9892:
9874:
9867:
9861:Wayback Machine
9852:
9848:
9844:, pages 176-236
9832:
9828:
9818:
9816:
9811:. 30 May 2008.
9807:
9806:
9802:
9792:
9790:
9777:
9776:
9772:
9755:Tatra Mountains
9740:
9736:
9716:Szymon Rudnicki
9689:
9685:
9673:
9669:
9663:Wayback Machine
9656:Beyond the Pale
9654:
9650:
9628:
9624:
9616:
9612:
9604:
9591:
9578:
9577:
9570:
9561:
9554:
9541:
9540:
9536:
9531:
9527:
9506:
9502:
9487:
9485:
9475:
9471:
9461:
9459:
9442:
9441:
9437:
9422:
9418:
9410:
9401:
9392:
9391:
9384:
9379:
9374:
9373:
9368:
9364:
9359:
9355:
9350:
9345:
9269:
9230:
9227:
9221:
9218:
9212:
9209:
9203:
9200:
9194:
9191:
9185:
9182:
9176:
9173:
9167:
9164:
9158:
9155:
9146:
9139:
9132:
9082:
9079:
9076:
9070:
8933:
8904:Nathan Rapoport
8761:Lesko Synagogue
8740:Auschwitz cross
8727:
8721:
8715:
8702:Gazeta Wyborcza
8626:
8578:Roman Romkowski
8558:Bolesław Bierut
8489:
8384:
8378:
8358:Stephen Denburg
8310:
8304:
8302:Jewish property
8225:
8219:
8190:eastern regions
8170:
8113:
8108:
8102:
8086:ghetto uprising
8011:
8005:
7999:
7990:Aktion Reinhard
7937:Warsaw Uprising
7905:Warsaw Uprising
7734:Adam Czerniakow
7703:Deportation to
7694:Nathan Rapoport
7683:
7677:
7671:
7537:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7520:
7519:
7517:
7507:
7501:
7497:
7469:
7442:in present-day
7356:occupied Poland
7348:
7279:Jedwabne pogrom
7142:
7136:
6988:occupied Poland
6961:interwar period
6910:
6843:
6837:
6832:
6826:
6661:Numerus clausus
6582:Józef Piłsudski
6548:Catholic Church
6489:interwar Poland
6485:
6424:Yiddish theatre
6384:Georges Charpak
6376:Ludwik Zamenhof
6328:Aleksander Ford
6307:Maurycy Trębacz
6303:Artur Markowicz
6291:Szymon Kataszek
6168:Liberal Judaism
6164:Hasidic Judaism
6087:
6079:Main articles:
6077:
5961:Austrian kronen
5943:Józef Piłsudski
5938:Legiony Polskie
5895:
5890:
5884:
5878:
5843:Max Bodenheimer
5832:General Zionist
5777:rights of labor
5731:
5715:Hasidic Judaism
5675:
5664:
5658:
5655:
5640:
5624:
5613:
5607:
5596:of 1906 in the
5577:met in Katowice
5536:
5429:Austria-Hungary
5409:Imperial Russia
5341:
5330:
5324:
5321:
5306:
5290:
5279:
5274:
5201:
5187:
5181:
5165:Congress Poland
5066:
4986:
4969:
4845:
4843:Jewish learning
4773:
4642:, in which the
4581:
4569:Gershon Hundert
4540:
4526:
4514:Remuh Synagogue
4474:Ashkenazi Jewry
4424:Jews from Spain
4389:
4378:, followed the
4269:Lithuanian Jews
4264:
4245:
4239:
4161:Wojciech Gerson
4033:in 1098. Under
4012:medieval Poland
3995:in the city of
3993:Jehuda ha-Kohen
3910:
3904:
3899:
3893:
3887:
3851:State of Israel
3832:Jedwabne pogrom
3789:interwar period
3769:Austria-Hungary
3761:sovereign state
3727:created in 1569
3673:social autonomy
3645:
3600:
3599:
3487:
3477:
3476:
3467:Judeo-Malayalam
3447:Judaeo-Georgian
3367:
3358:
3348:
3347:
3248:Yiddish theatre
3190:
3128:
3118:
3117:
3076:
3049:
3039:
3038:
2975:
2928:
2852:
2446:
2230:Genetic studies
2201:
2191:
2190:
2008:
1998:
1997:
1985:
1984:
1904:
1903:
1896:
1886:
1881:
1863:and Middle Ages
1861:Rabbinic period
1848:
1842:
1835:
1823:
1794:
1780:
1750:
1743:
1734:
1726:
1722:
1713:
1708:in Judaism
1705:
1690:
1613:
1603:
1602:
1482:
1472:
1471:
1415:
1403:
1348:
1298:
1259:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1162:
1128:Kielce Cemetery
1097:
1093:Valley of Death
1046:
962:
846:
845:
834:
833:
828:
798:
759:
758:
749:
748:
747:
553:Chachmei Lublin
527:
526:
515:
514:
513:
458:
457:
446:
445:
440:
400:
343:
302:Izhbitza-Radzin
243:
242:
231:
193:
189:
174:
162:
68:
39:
34:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
19164:
19154:
19153:
19148:
19131:
19130:
19128:
19127:
19122:
19117:
19111:
19109:
19105:
19104:
19102:
19101:
19096:
19091:
19085:
19083:
19079:
19078:
19076:
19075:
19070:
19065:
19060:
19055:
19050:
19045:
19040:
19035:
19030:
19025:
19020:
19015:
19010:
19005:
19000:
18995:
18994:
18993:
18988:
18977:
18975:
18971:
18970:
18962:
18961:
18954:
18947:
18939:
18930:
18929:
18927:
18926:
18919:
18912:
18905:
18898:
18890:
18888:
18884:
18883:
18880:
18879:
18877:
18876:
18871:
18865:
18863:
18859:
18858:
18856:
18855:
18850:
18845:
18840:
18839:
18838:
18828:
18823:
18822:
18821:
18811:
18806:
18801:
18796:
18791:
18786:
18781:
18776:
18771:
18766:
18761:
18755:
18753:
18749:
18748:
18746:
18745:
18740:
18735:
18730:
18725:
18719:
18717:
18713:
18712:
18710:
18709:
18704:
18699:
18698:
18697:
18687:
18682:
18677:
18672:
18667:
18662:
18657:
18652:
18647:
18641:
18639:
18635:
18634:
18631:
18630:
18628:
18627:
18626:
18625:
18618:United Kingdom
18615:
18610:
18605:
18600:
18595:
18589:
18587:
18586:Western Europe
18583:
18582:
18580:
18579:
18574:
18569:
18564:
18559:
18554:
18549:
18543:
18541:
18537:
18536:
18534:
18533:
18528:
18523:
18518:
18513:
18508:
18503:
18498:
18493:
18487:
18485:
18481:
18480:
18478:
18477:
18472:
18467:
18462:
18457:
18452:
18451:
18450:
18440:
18435:
18434:
18433:
18428:
18423:
18413:
18411:Czech Republic
18408:
18403:
18398:
18392:
18390:
18383:
18376:
18372:
18371:
18369:
18368:
18363:
18358:
18353:
18346:
18338:
18336:
18332:
18331:
18320:
18319:
18312:
18305:
18297:
18288:
18287:
18285:
18284:
18279:
18274:
18269:
18264:
18263:
18262:
18257:
18247:
18242:
18237:
18232:
18227:
18222:
18221:
18220:
18218:Ashkenazi Jews
18210:
18205:
18200:
18195:
18190:
18185:
18180:
18175:
18170:
18165:
18160:
18154:
18152:
18148:
18147:
18145:
18144:
18143:
18142:
18137:
18132:
18127:
18122:
18112:
18111:
18110:
18100:
18095:
18094:
18093:
18082:
18080:
18076:
18075:
18073:
18072:
18067:
18062:
18057:
18052:
18051:
18050:
18040:
18035:
18030:
18025:
18020:
18015:
18009:
18007:
18003:
18002:
18000:
17999:
17997:Cieszyn Vlachs
17993:
17991:
17985:
17984:
17982:
17981:
17976:
17971:
17965:
17963:
17957:
17956:
17954:
17953:
17948:
17942:
17940:
17934:
17933:
17930:
17929:
17927:
17926:
17921:
17916:
17911:
17906:
17901:
17896:
17890:
17888:
17884:
17883:
17881:
17880:
17874:
17872:
17866:
17865:
17863:
17862:
17857:
17852:
17847:
17842:
17837:
17831:
17829:
17823:
17822:
17820:
17819:
17814:
17809:
17804:
17798:
17796:
17790:
17789:
17787:
17786:
17781:
17780:
17779:
17769:
17763:
17761:
17752:
17746:
17745:
17738:
17737:
17730:
17723:
17715:
17706:
17705:
17703:
17702:
17697:
17692:
17687:
17682:
17677:
17672:
17666:
17664:
17663:other entities
17658:
17657:
17655:
17654:
17649:
17644:
17639:
17634:
17628:
17626:
17620:
17619:
17617:
17616:
17615:
17614:
17609:
17604:
17599:
17592:United Kingdom
17589:
17584:
17579:
17574:
17569:
17564:
17559:
17554:
17549:
17544:
17539:
17534:
17529:
17524:
17519:
17514:
17509:
17504:
17499:
17494:
17489:
17484:
17479:
17474:
17469:
17464:
17459:
17457:
17452:
17447:
17442:
17437:
17432:
17427:
17422:
17417:
17412:
17407:
17405:Czech Republic
17402:
17397:
17392:
17387:
17382:
17377:
17372:
17367:
17362:
17357:
17352:
17346:
17344:
17340:
17339:
17332:
17331:
17324:
17317:
17309:
17303:
17302:
17290:
17285:
17272:
17271:
17270:
17269:during the War
17256:
17245:
17237:
17234:
17233:
17232:
17227:
17222:
17217:
17210:
17205:
17200:
17195:
17190:
17185:
17180:
17179:
17178:
17176:Virtual Shtetl
17166:
17163:
17162:
17161:
17113:
17110:
17108:
17107:External links
17105:
17104:
17103:
17100:
17086:
17073:
17057:
17042:
17026:
17010:
16991:
16972:
16958:
16945:
16935:
16925:
16913:
16903:
16892:
16886:
16861:
16858:
16857:
16856:
16807:
16800:
16786:
16772:
16760:M. J. Rosman,
16758:
16751:
16742:, Inc., 1998,
16729:
16703:
16698:978-1941656105
16697:
16684:
16678:
16665:
16653:
16633:
16613:
16610:
16607:
16606:
16595:. 6 April 2016
16580:
16554:
16529:
16504:
16486:
16470:
16457:
16432:
16418:Weiss, Clara.
16410:
16403:
16383:
16371:
16345:
16333:
16310:
16288:
16263:
16237:
16226:. 3 April 2010
16211:
16200:
16193:
16167:
16148:(2): 185–225.
16132:
16115:
16096:
16073:
16036:
16011:
16009:Sztetl.org.pl.
15992:
15966:
15956:
15934:
15912:
15880:
15858:
15851:
15828:
15821:
15798:
15786:
15774:
15761:
15723:
15706:
15680:
15673:
15644:
15598:
15584:
15553:
15540:
15529:
15514:
15507:
15446:
15424:
15398:
15386:
15380:978-0306816505
15379:
15359:
15343:
15322:
15315:
15292:
15282:978-1107036666
15281:
15261:
15246:
15223:
15209:
15202:
15179:
15172:
15154:
15131:
15104:
15074:
15067:
15047:
15027:978-8324015566
15026:
14978:
14958:
14951:
14928:
14914:
14886:
14857:
14830:
14804:
14792:
14771:
14754:
14745:
14729:
14721:
14698:
14686:
14674:
14657:
14641:
14629:
14607:
14591:
14579:
14561:
14537:
14513:
14497:
14474:
14467:
14447:
14430:
14412:
14400:Jews in Poland
14391:
14384:
14354:
14342:
14330:
14304:
14288:
14274:Richard Lukas
14267:
14237:
14224:
14211:
14194:
14181:
14153:
14140:
14122:
14103:
14090:
14082:Adam Michnik,
14075:
14068:
14048:
14033:
14012:
14000:
13982:
13970:
13963:
13941:
13934:
13907:
13905:, p. 150.
13895:
13888:
13864:
13853:
13840:, UPNE, 2003,
13829:
13811:
13785:
13767:
13749:
13737:
13730:online article
13711:
13695:
13682:
13669:
13656:
13643:
13622:
13607:
13594:
13587:
13557:
13545:
13532:
13526:978-3865832405
13525:
13505:
13498:
13473:
13437:
13425:
13400:
13393:
13373:
13366:
13346:
13339:
13319:
13293:
13275:Engel, David.
13264:
13234:
13216:
13185:
13167:
13143:
13136:
13116:
13100:
13081:
13069:
13043:
13030:
13014:
12994:
12967:(3): 277–280.
12942:
12926:
12913:
12899:Marek Karliner
12870:
12857:
12849:Adam L. Rovner
12841:
12828:
12799:
12780:
12756:
12749:
12731:
12719:
12710:
12697:
12675:
12663:
12624:Virtual Shtetl
12606:
12593:
12586:
12568:Alice Teichova
12559:
12541:
12522:
12491:
12471:
12464:Martin Gilbert
12452:
12431:
12410:
12403:
12383:
12357:
12350:
12330:
12323:
12303:
12290:
12283:
12263:
12256:
12236:
12211:
12198:
12190:Timothy Snyder
12186:Menachem Begin
12178:Polish Legions
12165:
12149:
12133:
12110:
12080:
12058:
12045:
12027:Timothy Snyder
12016:
12009:
11989:
11964:
11949:
11942:
11920:
11913:
11893:
11886:
11866:
11851:
11828:
11808:
11795:
11769:
11731:
11713:
11695:
11677:
11659:
11647:
11627:
11607:
11569:
11553:Studia Judaica
11542:
11535:
11509:
11503:978-3110137156
11502:
11482:Davies, Norman
11473:
11446:
11436:, Yale, 2002,
11422:
11415:
11395:
11382:
11363:
11348:
11333:Davies, Norman
11325:
11311:
11291:
11278:
11269:
11260:
11237:
11211:
11198:
11190:Walter Laqueur
11182:
11169:978-1584657293
11168:
11148:
11129:
11113:
11105:Brian Porter,
11098:
11084:
11064:
11050:
11025:
11011:
10988:
10970:
10946:
10934:
10920:
10911:Racławice 1794
10897:
10885:
10866:
10854:
10839:
10809:
10788:
10781:
10761:
10750:
10731:
10720:
10709:
10690:
10679:
10663:
10647:
10631:
10619:
10607:
10582:
10568:
10549:
10542:
10516:
10486:
10460:
10448:
10433:
10411:
10397:
10371:
10359:
10341:
10325:
10295:
10279:
10274:Henry Abramson
10261:
10254:
10236:
10220:"YIVO | Trade"
10211:
10198:
10185:polishjews.org
10149:
10137:
10119:
10092:
10085:
10062:
10039:
10014:
9994:
9972:
9965:
9947:
9925:
9914:
9890:
9865:
9846:
9826:
9800:
9789:on 16 May 2018
9770:
9734:
9720:Marek Karliner
9683:
9667:
9648:
9622:
9610:
9589:
9568:
9552:
9549:. 13 May 2013.
9534:
9525:
9500:
9469:
9435:
9416:
9399:
9381:
9380:
9378:
9375:
9372:
9371:
9362:
9352:
9351:
9349:
9346:
9344:
9343:
9338:
9331:
9326:
9321:
9316:
9311:
9306:
9301:
9296:
9291:
9286:
9281:
9276:
9270:
9268:
9265:
9234:
9233:
9224:
9215:
9206:
9197:
9188:
9179:
9170:
9161:
9152:
9136:
9129:
9125:
9124:
9121:
9118:
9115:
9112:
9109:
9106:
9103:
9100:
9097:
9094:
9091:
9069:
9066:
8962:, 26 June 2007
8956:Lech Kaczyński
8717:Main article:
8714:
8711:
8625:
8622:
8590:Witold Pilecki
8582:Jacek Różański
8488:
8485:
8446:Czechoslovakia
8380:Main article:
8377:
8374:
8306:Main article:
8303:
8300:
8257:border changes
8221:Main article:
8218:
8215:
8169:
8166:
8129:eastern Poland
8112:
8109:
8104:Main article:
8101:
8098:
8045:, and then to
8039:Theresienstadt
8001:Main article:
7998:
7995:
7986:Final Solution
7673:Main article:
7670:
7667:
7644:, a member of
7642:Witold Pilecki
7625:awards at the
7598:Janusz Korczak
7347:
7344:
7274:Einsatzgruppen
7258:western Allies
7138:Main article:
7135:
7132:
7104:' stay in the
7098:Menachem Begin
7061:Katyń massacre
6997:Aleksander Wat
6909:
6906:
6839:Main article:
6836:
6833:
6825:
6822:
6717:repairers. In
6656:ghetto benches
6641:Menachem Begin
6484:
6481:
6473:Alojzy Ehrlich
6446:Yitzhak Shamir
6442:Menachem Begin
6408:Leonid Hurwicz
6360:Stanisław Ulam
6356:Leopold Infeld
6311:Chaim Goldberg
6259:Jerzy Jurandot
6229:. His brother
6152:L. L. Zamenhof
6081:Jewish culture
6076:
6073:
6029:, soldiers of
5997:Woodrow Wilson
5993:Treaty of Riga
5894:
5891:
5880:Main article:
5877:
5874:
5768:, forming the
5758:Polish Mizrahi
5730:
5727:
5699:Musar movement
5677:
5676:
5627:
5625:
5618:
5609:Main article:
5606:
5603:
5579:, forming the
5535:
5532:
5404:tḥùm ha-mosháv
5343:
5342:
5293:
5291:
5284:
5278:
5275:
5252:Tsar Nicolas I
5183:Main article:
5180:
5177:
5173:Polish Legions
5065:
5062:
5034:Haredi Judaism
5016:Eastern Europe
4982:Main article:
4968:
4965:
4957:Mordecai Jaffe
4938:Shulkhan Arukh
4931:(known as the
4929:Moses Isserles
4917:Shalom Shachna
4844:
4841:
4789:transliterated
4772:
4769:
4690:Crimean Tatars
4682:Swedish Empire
4663:Ottoman Empire
4632:Union of Brest
4580:
4577:
4562:) gathered at
4525:
4522:
4486:Moses Isserles
4457:Ottoman Empire
4453:Romaniote Jews
4388:
4385:
4255:, daughter of
4241:Main article:
4238:
4235:
4231:Western Europe
4167:In 1332, King
4027:Western Europe
4008:Eastern Europe
3981:Polish kingdom
3906:Main article:
3903:
3900:
3889:Main article:
3886:
3883:
3665:Jewish culture
3647:
3646:
3644:
3643:
3636:
3629:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3610:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3595:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3545:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3528:Territorialism
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3497:
3496:
3488:
3483:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3475:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3412:Judaeo-Spanish
3409:
3407:Judaeo-Iranian
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3373:
3372:
3359:
3354:
3353:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3323:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3270:
3269:
3263:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3237:
3236:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3222:
3214:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3187:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3136:
3135:
3129:
3124:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3050:
3045:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3004:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2892:
2891:
2885:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2853:United Kingdom
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2701:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2493:
2492:
2488:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2286:Bilad-el-Sudan
2283:
2278:
2270:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2242:
2241:
2239:Land of Israel
2235:
2234:
2233:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2202:
2197:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2168:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2099:
2098:
2097:Related groups
2094:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2009:
2004:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1954:Jewish atheism
1951:
1946:
1941:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:Islamic–Jewish
1900:
1893:
1878:
1873:
1865:
1864:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1830:
1817:
1789:
1784:
1777:
1772:
1770:Yehud Medinata
1764:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1754:
1747:
1740:
1732:
1719:
1711:
1699:
1694:
1687:
1679:
1678:
1676:Ancient Israel
1672:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1632:Land of Israel
1629:
1621:
1620:
1614:
1609:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1587:Shulchan Aruch
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1556:
1551:
1543:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1528:
1520:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1492:
1491:
1483:
1478:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1412:
1407:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1365:
1360:
1353:God in Judaism
1349:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1332:
1324:
1323:
1313:
1312:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1289:
1282:
1274:
1271:
1270:
1257:Judaism portal
1248:
1247:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1238:
1237:
1236:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1204:
1203:
1202:
1192:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1174:
1171:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1161:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1109:
1106:
1105:
1099:
1098:
1096:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
1002:Kraków-Płaszów
999:
998:
997:
987:
986:
985:
974:
971:
970:
964:
963:
961:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
870:
865:
859:
856:
855:
847:
841:
840:
839:
836:
835:
830:
829:
827:
826:
821:
816:
810:
807:
806:
800:
799:
797:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
765:
760:
756:
755:
754:
751:
750:
746:
745:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
575:
573:High Synagogue
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
540:
535:
529:
528:
522:
521:
520:
517:
516:
512:
511:
506:
501:
496:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
460:
459:
453:
452:
451:
448:
447:
442:
441:
439:
438:
436:Reform Judaism
433:
432:
431:
421:
416:
410:
407:
406:
402:
401:
399:
398:
393:
388:
386:Lovers of Zion
383:
378:
377:
376:
366:
361:
355:
352:
351:
345:
344:
342:
341:
340:
339:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
269:
268:
267:
265:Musar movement
256:
253:
252:
244:
238:
237:
236:
233:
232:
230:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
203:
200:
199:
183:
182:
166:
165:
157:
156:
144:
143:
137:
136:
132:
131:
113:
112:
108:
107:
104:
98:
97:
94:
88:
87:
83:
82:
75:
74:
70:
69:
56:
28:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
19163:
19152:
19149:
19147:
19144:
19143:
19141:
19126:
19123:
19121:
19118:
19116:
19113:
19112:
19110:
19106:
19100:
19097:
19095:
19092:
19090:
19087:
19086:
19084:
19080:
19074:
19071:
19069:
19066:
19064:
19061:
19059:
19056:
19054:
19051:
19049:
19046:
19044:
19041:
19039:
19036:
19034:
19031:
19029:
19026:
19024:
19021:
19019:
19016:
19014:
19011:
19009:
19006:
19004:
19001:
18999:
18998:Rodzima Wiara
18996:
18992:
18989:
18987:
18984:
18983:
18982:
18979:
18978:
18976:
18972:
18968:
18960:
18955:
18953:
18948:
18946:
18941:
18940:
18937:
18925:
18924:
18920:
18918:
18917:
18913:
18911:
18910:
18906:
18904:
18903:
18899:
18897:
18896:
18892:
18891:
18889:
18885:
18875:
18872:
18870:
18867:
18866:
18864:
18860:
18854:
18851:
18849:
18846:
18844:
18841:
18837:
18834:
18833:
18832:
18829:
18827:
18824:
18820:
18817:
18816:
18815:
18812:
18810:
18807:
18805:
18802:
18800:
18797:
18795:
18792:
18790:
18787:
18785:
18782:
18780:
18777:
18775:
18772:
18770:
18767:
18765:
18762:
18760:
18757:
18756:
18754:
18750:
18744:
18741:
18739:
18736:
18734:
18731:
18729:
18726:
18724:
18721:
18720:
18718:
18714:
18708:
18705:
18703:
18700:
18696:
18693:
18692:
18691:
18690:United States
18688:
18686:
18683:
18681:
18678:
18676:
18673:
18671:
18668:
18666:
18663:
18661:
18658:
18656:
18653:
18651:
18648:
18646:
18643:
18642:
18640:
18636:
18624:
18621:
18620:
18619:
18616:
18614:
18611:
18609:
18606:
18604:
18601:
18599:
18596:
18594:
18591:
18590:
18588:
18584:
18578:
18575:
18573:
18570:
18568:
18565:
18563:
18560:
18558:
18555:
18553:
18550:
18548:
18545:
18544:
18542:
18538:
18532:
18529:
18527:
18524:
18522:
18519:
18517:
18514:
18512:
18509:
18507:
18504:
18502:
18499:
18497:
18494:
18492:
18489:
18488:
18486:
18482:
18476:
18473:
18471:
18468:
18466:
18463:
18461:
18458:
18456:
18453:
18449:
18446:
18445:
18444:
18441:
18439:
18436:
18432:
18429:
18427:
18424:
18422:
18419:
18418:
18417:
18414:
18412:
18409:
18407:
18404:
18402:
18399:
18397:
18394:
18393:
18391:
18387:
18384:
18380:
18377:
18373:
18367:
18364:
18362:
18359:
18357:
18354:
18352:
18351:
18347:
18345:
18344:
18340:
18339:
18337:
18333:
18329:
18325:
18318:
18313:
18311:
18306:
18304:
18299:
18298:
18295:
18283:
18280:
18278:
18275:
18273:
18270:
18268:
18265:
18261:
18258:
18256:
18255:Bergitka Roma
18253:
18252:
18251:
18248:
18246:
18243:
18241:
18238:
18236:
18233:
18231:
18228:
18226:
18223:
18219:
18216:
18215:
18214:
18211:
18209:
18206:
18204:
18201:
18199:
18196:
18194:
18191:
18189:
18186:
18184:
18181:
18179:
18176:
18174:
18171:
18169:
18166:
18164:
18161:
18159:
18156:
18155:
18153:
18149:
18141:
18138:
18136:
18133:
18131:
18128:
18126:
18123:
18121:
18118:
18117:
18116:
18113:
18109:
18106:
18105:
18104:
18101:
18099:
18096:
18092:
18089:
18088:
18087:
18084:
18083:
18081:
18077:
18071:
18068:
18066:
18063:
18061:
18058:
18056:
18053:
18049:
18046:
18045:
18044:
18041:
18039:
18036:
18034:
18031:
18029:
18026:
18024:
18021:
18019:
18016:
18014:
18011:
18010:
18008:
18004:
17998:
17995:
17994:
17992:
17990:
17986:
17980:
17977:
17975:
17972:
17970:
17967:
17966:
17964:
17962:
17958:
17952:
17949:
17947:
17944:
17943:
17941:
17939:
17935:
17925:
17922:
17920:
17917:
17915:
17912:
17910:
17907:
17905:
17902:
17900:
17897:
17895:
17892:
17891:
17889:
17885:
17879:
17876:
17875:
17873:
17871:
17867:
17861:
17858:
17856:
17853:
17851:
17848:
17846:
17843:
17841:
17838:
17836:
17833:
17832:
17830:
17828:
17824:
17818:
17817:Sandomierzans
17815:
17813:
17810:
17808:
17805:
17803:
17800:
17799:
17797:
17795:
17791:
17785:
17782:
17778:
17775:
17774:
17773:
17770:
17768:
17765:
17764:
17762:
17760:
17756:
17753:
17751:
17747:
17743:
17736:
17731:
17729:
17724:
17722:
17717:
17716:
17713:
17701:
17698:
17696:
17693:
17691:
17688:
17686:
17683:
17681:
17678:
17676:
17675:Faroe Islands
17673:
17671:
17668:
17667:
17665:
17659:
17653:
17650:
17648:
17647:South Ossetia
17645:
17643:
17640:
17638:
17635:
17633:
17630:
17629:
17627:
17621:
17613:
17610:
17608:
17605:
17603:
17600:
17598:
17595:
17594:
17593:
17590:
17588:
17585:
17583:
17580:
17578:
17575:
17573:
17570:
17568:
17565:
17563:
17560:
17558:
17555:
17553:
17550:
17548:
17545:
17543:
17540:
17538:
17535:
17533:
17530:
17528:
17525:
17523:
17520:
17518:
17515:
17513:
17510:
17508:
17505:
17503:
17500:
17498:
17495:
17493:
17490:
17488:
17485:
17483:
17480:
17478:
17477:Liechtenstein
17475:
17473:
17470:
17468:
17465:
17463:
17460:
17458:
17456:
17453:
17451:
17448:
17446:
17443:
17441:
17438:
17436:
17433:
17431:
17428:
17426:
17423:
17421:
17418:
17416:
17413:
17411:
17408:
17406:
17403:
17401:
17398:
17396:
17393:
17391:
17388:
17386:
17383:
17381:
17378:
17376:
17373:
17371:
17368:
17366:
17363:
17361:
17358:
17356:
17353:
17351:
17348:
17347:
17345:
17341:
17337:
17330:
17325:
17323:
17318:
17316:
17311:
17310:
17307:
17300:
17299:
17298:The Economist
17294:
17291:
17289:
17286:
17283:
17279:
17276:
17273:
17268:
17264:
17261:
17257:
17255:
17252:
17251:
17249:
17246:
17243:
17240:
17239:
17231:
17228:
17226:
17223:
17221:
17218:
17215:
17211:
17209:
17206:
17204:
17201:
17199:
17196:
17194:
17191:
17189:
17186:
17184:
17181:
17177:
17174:
17173:
17172:
17169:
17168:
17159:
17158:archive.today
17155:
17152:
17148:
17144:
17141:
17137:
17133:
17130:
17126:
17125:archive.today
17122:
17119:
17116:
17115:
17101:
17097:
17093:
17089:
17083:
17079:
17074:
17071:
17067:
17062:
17058:
17055:
17051:
17047:
17043:
17040:
17036:
17031:
17027:
17024:
17020:
17015:
17011:
17008:
17004:
16999:
16995:
16992:
16989:
16988:90-420-0850-4
16985:
16980:
16976:
16973:
16969:
16965:
16961:
16959:9780300049879
16955:
16951:
16946:
16943:
16939:
16936:
16934:
16930:
16926:
16922:
16918:
16914:
16911:
16907:
16906:Dynner, Glenn
16904:
16901:
16897:
16893:
16889:
16887:0-88033-511-4
16883:
16879:
16874:
16873:
16871:
16867:
16854:
16850:
16846:
16842:
16838:
16834:
16828:
16827:
16822:
16817:
16816:public domain
16808:
16805:
16801:
16799:
16798:0-521-85673-6
16795:
16791:
16788:Magda Teter,
16787:
16785:
16784:0-8143-2906-3
16781:
16777:
16774:Edward Fram,
16773:
16771:
16770:0-916458-18-0
16767:
16763:
16759:
16756:
16753:David Vital,
16752:
16749:
16748:0-7818-0604-6
16745:
16741:
16737:
16733:
16730:
16727:
16723:
16722:0-691-11306-8
16719:
16715:
16711:
16707:
16704:
16700:
16694:
16690:
16685:
16681:
16679:0-520-23844-3
16675:
16671:
16666:
16663:
16662:
16657:
16654:
16650:
16649:0-7391-0484-5
16646:
16641:
16637:
16634:
16631:
16630:0-88033-511-4
16627:
16623:
16619:
16616:
16615:
16594:
16590:
16584:
16569:
16565:
16558:
16543:
16539:
16533:
16518:
16514:
16508:
16501:
16497:
16494:
16490:
16483:
16477:
16475:
16467:
16461:
16446:
16442:
16436:
16421:
16414:
16406:
16400:
16396:
16395:
16387:
16380:
16375:
16359:
16355:
16349:
16342:
16337:
16330:
16326:
16322:
16317:
16315:
16304:
16300:
16297:
16292:
16277:
16273:
16267:
16251:
16247:
16241:
16225:
16221:
16215:
16209:
16204:
16196:
16190:
16186:
16181:
16180:
16171:
16163:
16159:
16155:
16151:
16147:
16143:
16136:
16130:
16126:
16123:
16119:
16111:
16107:
16100:
16092:
16088:
16084:
16077:
16069:
16065:
16061:
16057:
16053:
16049:
16043:
16041:
16032:
16028:
16022:
16020:
16018:
16016:
16008:
16004:
16001:
15996:
15980:
15976:
15970:
15963:
15959:
15957:0-8078-2620-0
15953:
15948:
15947:
15938:
15931:
15927:
15924:
15919:
15917:
15900:
15896:
15891:
15884:
15876:
15872:
15865:
15863:
15854:
15848:
15844:
15837:
15835:
15833:
15824:
15818:
15814:
15807:
15805:
15803:
15795:
15790:
15783:
15778:
15771:
15765:
15749:
15745:
15741:
15734:
15732:
15730:
15728:
15720:
15716:
15710:
15702:
15695:
15693:
15691:
15689:
15687:
15685:
15676:
15670:
15666:
15659:
15657:
15655:
15653:
15651:
15649:
15640:
15636:
15632:
15628:
15624:
15620:
15616:
15612:
15605:
15603:
15587:
15581:
15577:
15573:
15566:
15564:
15562:
15560:
15558:
15550:
15544:
15537:
15533:
15526:
15521:
15519:
15510:
15504:
15500:
15496:
15495:
15489:
15473:
15469:
15465:
15457:
15450:
15443:
15439:
15436:
15431:
15429:
15412:
15408:
15402:
15396:
15393:David Engel,
15390:
15382:
15376:
15372:
15371:
15363:
15356:
15354:
15347:
15340:
15339:0-88033-511-4
15336:
15332:
15326:
15318:
15312:
15308:
15307:
15302:
15296:
15289:
15284:
15278:
15274:
15273:
15265:
15257:
15253:
15249:
15247:9780307430960
15243:
15239:
15232:
15230:
15228:
15221:
15218:
15213:
15205:
15199:
15192:
15191:
15183:
15175:
15169:
15165:
15158:
15151:
15147:
15145:
15140:
15134:
15132:83-7133-100-2
15128:
15124:
15120:
15119:
15114:
15108:
15096:
15092:
15091:
15083:
15081:
15079:
15070:
15064:
15060:
15059:
15051:
15044:
15043:
15039:
15036:Translation:
15033:
15029:
15023:
15019:
15018:Boże igrzysko
15015:
15014:
15009:
15008:Norman Davies
15005:
15001:
14999:
14985:
14981:
14975:
14971:
14970:
14962:
14954:
14948:
14944:
14943:
14938:
14932:
14921:
14917:
14915:9781536110357
14911:
14904:
14903:
14895:
14893:
14891:
14882:
14876:
14868:
14861:
14845:
14841:
14834:
14818:
14814:
14808:
14801:
14796:
14789:
14785:
14781:
14775:
14768:
14767:Gruppenführer
14764:
14763:Stroop Report
14758:
14749:
14743:
14742:0-394-73817-9
14739:
14733:
14724:
14722:0-8022-2486-5
14718:
14714:
14707:
14705:
14703:
14695:
14690:
14683:
14678:
14672:
14668:
14665:
14661:
14654:
14650:
14645:
14638:
14633:
14625:
14621:
14617:
14611:
14604:
14600:
14595:
14588:
14583:
14575:
14574:isurvived.org
14571:
14565:
14559:
14555:
14554:0-415-04232-1
14551:
14547:
14541:
14535:
14531:
14530:0-231-11200-9
14527:
14523:
14517:
14510:
14506:
14501:
14493:
14489:
14485:
14478:
14470:
14464:
14460:
14459:
14451:
14444:
14439:
14437:
14435:
14426:
14422:
14416:
14409:
14408:0-7818-0604-6
14405:
14401:
14395:
14387:
14381:
14377:
14372:
14371:
14365:
14358:
14351:
14346:
14339:
14334:
14318:
14314:
14308:
14301:
14299:
14292:
14285:
14284:0-7818-0901-0
14281:
14277:
14271:
14255:
14251:
14247:
14241:
14234:
14228:
14221:
14215:
14208:
14204:
14201:David Engel.
14198:
14191:
14190:Slavic Review
14185:
14178:
14174:
14170:
14166:
14163:
14157:
14150:
14144:
14136:
14132:
14126:
14119:
14115:
14112:
14107:
14100:
14094:
14087:
14086:
14079:
14071:
14065:
14061:
14060:
14052:
14045:
14044:
14037:
14030:
14029:Slavic Review
14026:
14022:
14021:Slavic Review
14016:
14010:, p. 31.
14009:
14004:
13996:
13992:
13986:
13980:, p. 21.
13979:
13974:
13966:
13964:1-57181-882-0
13960:
13956:
13952:
13945:
13937:
13935:0-06-091533-1
13931:
13927:
13923:
13922:
13917:
13916:Johnson, Paul
13911:
13904:
13899:
13891:
13889:0-19-289259-2
13885:
13881:
13877:
13876:
13868:
13862:
13857:
13851:
13847:
13846:1-58465-216-0
13843:
13839:
13833:
13825:
13821:
13815:
13799:
13795:
13789:
13783:
13779:
13776:
13771:
13763:
13762:www.zchor.org
13759:
13753:
13747:
13741:
13735:
13731:
13727:
13723:
13720:
13715:
13708:
13705:
13699:
13692:
13686:
13679:
13673:
13666:
13663:Martin Dean,
13660:
13653:
13647:
13640:
13639:0-7864-0371-3
13636:
13632:
13626:
13619:
13614:
13612:
13604:
13598:
13590:
13588:0-7864-0371-3
13584:
13580:
13576:
13575:
13570:
13564:
13562:
13554:
13549:
13542:
13536:
13528:
13522:
13518:
13517:
13509:
13501:
13495:
13491:
13487:
13480:
13478:
13471:
13470:0-691-09433-0
13467:
13463:
13459:
13455:
13452:
13451:
13441:
13434:
13429:
13423:
13422:archive.today
13419:
13416:
13411:
13409:
13407:
13405:
13396:
13394:9781351488594
13390:
13387:. Routledge.
13386:
13385:
13377:
13369:
13367:9780465032976
13363:
13359:
13358:
13350:
13342:
13340:9780465054923
13336:
13332:
13331:
13323:
13307:
13303:
13297:
13282:
13278:
13271:
13269:
13252:
13248:
13241:
13239:
13230:
13226:
13220:
13204:
13200:
13199:Chatham House
13196:
13189:
13181:
13177:
13171:
13164:
13163:0-8135-3158-6
13160:
13156:
13150:
13148:
13139:
13137:9780786403714
13133:
13130:. McFarland.
13129:
13128:
13120:
13113:
13109:
13104:
13097:
13093:
13090:
13085:
13079:
13073:
13066:
13062:
13059:
13054:
13052:
13050:
13048:
13040:
13034:
13027:
13023:
13018:
13012:
13008:
13004:
12998:
12990:
12986:
12982:
12978:
12974:
12970:
12966:
12962:
12958:
12951:
12949:
12947:
12939:
12935:
12930:
12923:
12917:
12910:
12909:
12904:
12900:
12896:
12892:
12888:
12884:
12880:
12874:
12867:
12861:
12854:
12850:
12845:
12838:
12832:
12825:
12821:
12820:Joseph Marcus
12817:
12813:
12809:
12803:
12797:
12793:
12791:
12784:
12778:
12774:
12770:
12766:
12760:
12752:
12750:0-87820-418-0
12746:
12742:
12735:
12728:
12723:
12714:
12707:
12701:
12693:
12689:
12682:
12680:
12672:
12667:
12659:
12653:
12645:
12641:
12637:
12629:
12625:
12621:
12617:
12610:
12603:
12597:
12589:
12583:
12579:
12575:
12574:
12569:
12563:
12556:
12555:
12550:
12549:Norman Davies
12545:
12538:
12534:
12531:
12526:
12519:
12515:
12511:
12507:
12503:
12498:
12496:
12489:
12485:
12481:
12475:
12469:
12465:
12461:
12456:
12449:
12448:0-88125-376-6
12445:
12441:
12435:
12428:
12424:
12420:
12414:
12406:
12400:
12396:
12395:
12387:
12380:
12376:
12372:
12371:
12366:
12361:
12353:
12347:
12343:
12342:
12334:
12326:
12320:
12316:
12315:
12307:
12300:
12294:
12286:
12280:
12276:
12275:
12267:
12259:
12253:
12249:
12248:
12240:
12229:
12221:
12215:
12208:
12202:
12195:
12191:
12187:
12183:
12179:
12175:
12169:
12162:
12158:
12153:
12146:
12142:
12137:
12129:
12121:
12114:
12103:
12099:
12096:(in Polish).
12091:
12084:
12068:
12062:
12055:
12049:
12043:
12040:
12039:0-300-10586-X
12036:
12032:
12028:
12023:
12021:
12012:
12010:9780429721045
12006:
12002:
12001:
11993:
11978:
11974:
11968:
11962:
11958:
11953:
11945:
11939:
11935:
11931:
11924:
11916:
11914:9781845116972
11910:
11906:
11905:
11897:
11889:
11883:
11879:
11878:
11870:
11862:
11855:
11848:
11847:0-521-57697-0
11844:
11840:
11839:
11835:Ilya Prizel,
11832:
11826:
11825:0-8101-0758-9
11822:
11818:
11812:
11805:
11799:
11783:
11779:
11773:
11766:
11751:
11750:
11745:
11742:GUS (1938). "
11738:
11736:
11727:
11723:
11717:
11709:
11705:
11699:
11691:
11687:
11681:
11673:
11669:
11663:
11657:
11651:
11644:
11640:
11636:
11631:
11625:
11621:
11617:
11611:
11604:
11600:
11596:
11592:
11588:
11585:
11581:
11579:
11573:
11562:
11555:
11554:
11546:
11538:
11532:
11528:
11524:
11520:
11513:
11505:
11499:
11495:
11491:
11487:
11483:
11477:
11470:
11466:
11462:
11458:
11456:
11450:
11443:
11442:0-300-09313-6
11439:
11435:
11431:
11426:
11418:
11412:
11408:
11407:
11399:
11392:
11386:
11379:
11377:
11370:
11368:
11360:
11359:
11352:
11346:
11342:
11338:
11334:
11329:
11314:
11308:
11304:
11303:
11295:
11288:
11282:
11273:
11264:
11248:
11241:
11234:
11230:
11226:
11220:
11218:
11216:
11208:
11202:
11195:
11191:
11186:
11171:
11165:
11161:
11160:
11152:
11144:
11140:
11133:
11126:
11122:
11117:
11110:
11109:
11102:
11087:
11085:9780521515733
11081:
11077:
11076:
11068:
11053:
11051:9781930143852
11047:
11043:
11042:
11039:
11032:
11030:
11014:
11012:1-930143-85-0
11008:
11004:
11003:
10995:
10993:
10984:
10980:
10974:
10967:
10963:
10959:
10953:
10951:
10944:, p. 18.
10943:
10938:
10923:
10921:9788311116061
10917:
10913:
10912:
10904:
10902:
10894:
10889:
10882:
10878:
10875:
10870:
10863:
10858:
10851:
10846:
10844:
10827:
10820:
10813:
10803:
10802:
10798:
10792:
10784:
10778:
10774:
10773:
10765:
10759:
10754:
10747:
10746:
10741:
10735:
10729:
10724:
10718:
10713:
10706:
10705:
10700:
10694:
10688:
10683:
10676:
10672:
10671:Majer Bałaban
10667:
10661:
10656:
10654:
10652:
10644:
10640:
10635:
10629:, p. 19.
10628:
10623:
10617:, p. 11.
10616:
10611:
10596:
10592:
10586:
10578:
10572:
10564:
10560:
10553:
10545:
10543:0-8063-1741-8
10539:
10535:
10530:
10529:
10520:
10505:
10501:
10497:
10490:
10475:
10471:
10464:
10457:
10452:
10446:
10440:
10438:
10429:
10425:
10421:
10415:
10400:
10398:1-886223-11-4
10394:
10390:
10389:
10384:
10378:
10376:
10369:
10363:
10355:
10351:
10345:
10338:
10334:
10329:
10313:
10309:
10305:
10299:
10292:
10288:
10283:
10275:
10271:
10265:
10257:
10251:
10247:
10240:
10225:
10221:
10215:
10208:
10202:
10186:
10182:
10176:
10174:
10172:
10170:
10168:
10166:
10164:
10162:
10160:
10158:
10156:
10154:
10146:
10141:
10133:
10129:
10123:
10116:
10112:
10108:
10105:
10101:
10100:Dariusz Stola
10096:
10088:
10086:1-56639-955-6
10082:
10078:
10077:
10069:
10067:
10059:
10055:
10048:
10046:
10044:
10037:
10036:0-8156-2969-9
10033:
10029:
10028:
10021:
10019:
10011:
10007:
10001:
9999:
9991:
9987:
9981:
9979:
9977:
9968:
9962:
9958:
9951:
9944:
9940:
9937:
9932:
9930:
9922:
9917:
9915:0-300-09546-5
9911:
9907:
9903:
9902:
9894:
9887:
9883:
9882:
9877:
9872:
9870:
9862:
9858:
9855:
9850:
9843:
9839:
9835:
9830:
9814:
9810:
9804:
9788:
9784:
9783:Shavei Israel
9780:
9774:
9767:
9766:
9765:Edward Smigły
9760:
9756:
9752:
9748:
9744:
9738:
9731:
9730:
9725:
9721:
9717:
9713:
9709:
9705:
9701:
9697:
9693:
9687:
9680:
9676:
9671:
9664:
9660:
9657:
9652:
9645:
9641:
9637:
9633:
9626:
9619:
9614:
9607:
9602:
9600:
9598:
9596:
9594:
9585:
9581:
9575:
9573:
9565:
9559:
9557:
9548:
9544:
9538:
9529:
9522:
9521:
9516:
9515:
9510:
9504:
9497:
9496:
9484:
9480:
9473:
9457:
9453:
9449:
9445:
9439:
9431:
9427:
9420:
9413:
9408:
9406:
9404:
9395:
9389:
9387:
9382:
9366:
9357:
9353:
9342:
9339:
9337:
9336:
9332:
9330:
9327:
9325:
9322:
9320:
9317:
9315:
9312:
9310:
9307:
9305:
9302:
9300:
9299:Galician Jews
9297:
9295:
9292:
9290:
9287:
9285:
9282:
9280:
9277:
9275:
9272:
9271:
9264:
9262:
9258:
9254:
9250:
9246:
9241:
9225:
9216:
9207:
9198:
9189:
9180:
9171:
9162:
9153:
9149:
9144:
9137:
9130:
9126:
9122:
9119:
9116:
9113:
9110:
9107:
9104:
9101:
9098:
9095:
9092:
9088:
9075:
9065:
9063:
9059:
9054:
9052:
9048:
9042:
9039:
9035:
9034:Bielsko-Biała
9031:
9027:
9022:
9020:
9011:
9007:
9005:
9001:
8997:
8993:
8987:
8985:
8981:
8977:
8971:
8969:
8961:
8957:
8953:
8949:
8945:
8943:
8937:
8932:
8928:
8924:
8919:
8917:
8911:
8909:
8905:
8900:
8895:
8893:
8888:
8883:
8881:
8878:
8874:
8870:
8862:
8857:
8853:
8851:
8846:
8842:
8838:
8834:
8833:
8827:
8825:
8824:Beit Warszawa
8820:
8819:Góra Kalwaria
8816:
8812:
8808:
8804:
8799:
8797:
8793:
8789:
8785:
8781:
8774:
8769:
8762:
8758:
8752:
8747:
8743:
8741:
8737:
8736:Kielce pogrom
8733:
8726:
8720:
8710:
8708:
8704:
8703:
8698:
8693:
8691:
8687:
8682:
8680:
8679:
8673:
8671:
8670:United States
8667:
8662:
8658:
8654:
8653:
8646:
8642:
8639:
8635:
8631:
8621:
8619:
8618:Emil Fieldorf
8615:
8611:
8607:
8603:
8602:Solomon Morel
8599:
8595:
8594:Józef Światło
8591:
8587:
8586:Anatol Fejgin
8583:
8579:
8575:
8571:
8567:
8563:
8559:
8555:
8551:
8550:
8545:
8541:
8537:
8532:
8530:
8529:Joseph Stalin
8526:
8522:
8518:
8514:
8510:
8506:
8502:
8498:
8494:
8484:
8481:
8477:
8473:
8468:
8466:
8461:
8459:
8455:
8451:
8447:
8443:
8439:
8435:
8431:
8427:
8426:
8421:
8417:
8413:
8408:
8406:
8402:
8398:
8394:
8390:
8383:
8373:
8371:
8367:
8366:Dariusz Stola
8361:
8359:
8354:
8351:
8349:
8344:
8341:
8339:
8333:
8330:
8325:
8321:
8320:Dariusz Stola
8316:
8309:
8299:
8296:
8295:
8289:
8284:
8280:
8277:
8273:
8272:Kielce pogrom
8268:
8266:
8262:
8258:
8254:
8250:
8246:
8242:
8238:
8234:
8229:
8224:
8214:
8211:
8207:
8203:
8199:
8195:
8191:
8187:
8179:
8174:
8165:
8163:
8159:
8155:
8151:
8150:Lower Silesia
8147:
8143:
8139:
8135:
8130:
8124:
8120:
8118:
8107:
8097:
8095:
8094:Armia Krajowa
8091:
8087:
8083:
8079:
8075:
8071:
8067:
8063:
8059:
8055:
8050:
8048:
8044:
8040:
8035:
8029:
8027:
8022:
8020:
8016:
8010:
8004:
7994:
7991:
7987:
7984:to begin the
7983:
7975:
7970:
7966:
7964:
7961:
7957:
7953:
7949:
7946:
7942:
7938:
7934:
7930:
7929:Armia Krajowa
7926:
7922:
7921:Marek Edelman
7918:
7917:Waclaw Micuta
7914:
7913:Armia Krajowa
7911:
7906:
7902:
7894:
7893:
7892:Szare Szeregi
7888:
7883:
7879:
7877:
7871:
7869:
7865:
7864:Jürgen Stroop
7857:
7852:
7848:
7846:
7842:
7841:Armia Krajowa
7838:
7834:
7828:
7825:
7824:Stroop Report
7821:
7820:Jürgen Stroop
7816:
7812:
7808:
7800:
7796:
7791:
7787:
7785:
7781:
7777:
7772:
7771:Umschlagplatz
7768:
7764:
7760:
7754:
7752:
7748:
7743:
7739:
7735:
7730:
7727:
7723:
7722:1943 Uprising
7719:
7718:Warsaw Ghetto
7712:
7711:
7710:Umschlagplatz
7706:
7701:
7695:
7691:
7687:
7682:
7676:
7675:Warsaw Ghetto
7666:
7664:
7660:
7659:the Holocaust
7656:
7652:
7647:
7646:Armia Krajowa
7643:
7639:
7635:
7630:
7628:
7624:
7619:
7614:
7611:
7610:death penalty
7607:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7589:
7588:Armia Krajowa
7585:
7581:
7577:
7573:
7569:
7565:
7560:
7552:
7548:
7544:
7536:
7531:
7526:
7515:
7514:death penalty
7511:
7506:
7504:
7500:
7493:
7489:
7482:
7478:
7473:
7468:
7463:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7452:Brześć Ghetto
7449:
7445:
7441:
7437:
7436:Lublin Ghetto
7433:
7429:
7428:Kraków Ghetto
7425:
7424:Kielce Ghetto
7421:
7417:
7413:
7409:
7405:
7404:Warsaw Ghetto
7396:
7392:
7390:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7373:
7369:
7365:
7361:
7357:
7353:
7343:
7341:
7336:
7331:
7327:
7323:
7319:
7315:
7313:
7308:
7302:
7300:
7296:
7292:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7276:
7275:
7270:
7266:
7259:
7255:
7254:
7249:
7245:
7241:
7239:
7235:
7228:
7227:Warsaw Ghetto
7223:
7219:
7217:
7212:
7207:
7205:
7200:
7198:
7194:
7190:
7186:
7182:
7178:
7174:
7170:
7166:
7163:
7159:
7158:the Holocaust
7151:
7146:
7141:
7134:The Holocaust
7131:
7129:
7125:
7124:Star of David
7121:
7117:
7113:
7112:
7107:
7103:
7099:
7096:
7092:
7088:
7087:
7082:
7078:
7074:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7050:
7049:Monte Cassino
7045:
7041:
7038:
7037:
7031:
7027:
7022:
7019:
7013:
7010:
7006:
7005:Norman Davies
7002:
6998:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6976:
6972:
6968:
6964:
6962:
6956:
6954:
6950:
6946:
6941:
6939:
6935:
6930:
6928:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6905:
6903:
6899:
6895:
6891:
6887:
6883:
6879:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6856:
6852:
6847:
6842:
6831:
6821:
6818:
6817:
6816:Gazeta Polska
6810:
6808:
6802:
6800:
6796:
6791:
6787:
6782:
6778:
6774:
6769:
6767:
6763:
6758:
6755:
6751:
6747:
6743:
6739:
6731:
6726:
6722:
6720:
6715:
6711:
6707:
6703:
6698:
6696:
6692:
6688:
6683:
6679:
6673:
6669:
6667:
6663:
6662:
6657:
6653:
6649:
6644:
6642:
6638:
6634:
6631:
6627:
6619:
6615:
6610:
6606:
6604:
6600:
6596:
6591:
6587:
6583:
6578:
6576:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6560:
6555:
6553:
6549:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6536:Roman Dmowski
6533:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6513:
6509:
6508:Roman Dmowski
6505:
6501:
6499:
6495:
6490:
6480:
6478:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6453:Hasmonea Lwów
6449:
6447:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6434:
6429:
6425:
6421:
6417:
6413:
6409:
6405:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6365:
6364:Alfred Tarski
6361:
6357:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6337:
6335:
6334:
6329:
6325:
6324:
6319:
6314:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6264:
6260:
6256:
6253:, as well as
6252:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6202:
6201:
6196:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6180:
6176:
6171:
6169:
6165:
6157:
6154:, creator of
6153:
6149:
6145:
6143:
6139:
6135:
6131:
6127:
6123:
6119:
6114:
6109:
6106:
6102:
6095:
6091:
6086:
6082:
6072:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6044:
6042:
6038:
6037:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6023:Sich Riflemen
6020:
6016:
6011:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5973:
5969:
5967:
5962:
5958:
5957:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5939:
5934:
5926:
5922:
5917:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5899:
5889:
5883:
5873:
5871:
5867:
5866:German Empire
5863:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5839:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5824:
5822:
5818:
5814:
5809:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5790:
5788:
5787:
5786:Agudat Israel
5782:
5778:
5774:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5754:
5748:
5740:
5735:
5726:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5695:
5690:
5686:
5685:
5673:
5670:
5662:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5638:
5637:
5633:
5628:This section
5626:
5622:
5617:
5616:
5612:
5602:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5590:
5584:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5565:Alexander III
5562:
5554:
5553:
5545:
5540:
5531:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5508:
5506:
5505:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5483:
5481:
5477:
5473:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5448:
5445:
5444:
5438:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5425:German Empire
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5405:
5396:
5391:
5382:
5377:
5368:
5364:
5363:
5354:
5349:
5339:
5336:
5328:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5304:
5303:
5299:
5294:This section
5292:
5288:
5283:
5282:
5273:
5268:
5266:
5262:
5257:
5253:
5248:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5186:
5176:
5174:
5168:
5167:(1815–1831).
5166:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5124:
5123:
5118:
5117:
5110:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5075:
5070:
5061:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5026:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5009:
5008:
5007:Baal Shem Tov
5003:
4998:
4996:
4992:
4985:
4977:
4973:
4964:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4949:
4944:
4943:Solomon Luria
4940:
4939:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4913:
4908:
4904:
4899:
4897:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4861:
4857:
4854:
4849:
4840:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4829:the Holocaust
4826:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4768:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4745:Koliivshchyna
4743:In 1768, the
4741:
4739:
4733:
4729:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4678:House of Vasa
4670:
4666:
4664:
4660:
4659:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4621:private towns
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4576:
4574:
4570:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4544:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4521:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4502:legal scholar
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4481:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4449:Sephardi Jews
4447:, as well as
4446:
4442:
4441:
4436:
4432:
4427:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4401:
4398:followed his
4397:
4393:
4384:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4368:John I Albert
4365:
4361:
4356:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4308:, Wolczko of
4307:
4301:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4270:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4244:
4234:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4213:
4209:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4162:
4158:
4156:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4096:
4091:
4089:
4084:
4082:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4031:First Crusade
4028:
4019:
4015:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4000:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3985:Piast dynasty
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3909:
3898:
3892:
3882:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3839:
3837:
3836:Collaboration
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3808:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3777:German Empire
3774:
3770:
3767:, as well as
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3733:
3728:
3725:
3721:
3716:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3642:
3637:
3635:
3630:
3628:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3619:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3604:
3603:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3480:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3452:Judeo-Aramaic
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3442:Judeo-Italian
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3422:Ghardaïa Sign
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3370:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3361:
3360:
3357:
3352:
3351:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3324:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3231:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3133:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3121:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3074:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3048:
3047:Denominations
3043:
3042:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2893:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2875:United States
2873:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2489:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2361:Guinea-Bissau
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2215:Lists of Jews
2213:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2194:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2002:
2001:
1990:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1974:The Holocaust
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1901:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1884:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1851:
1845:
1839:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1622:
1618:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1606:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1575:Mishneh Torah
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1522:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1475:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1347:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1335:Who is a Jew?
1333:
1331:
1328:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1295:
1290:
1288:
1283:
1281:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1269:
1268:Poland portal
1265:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1249:
1235:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1222:Oyneg Shabbos
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1118:Easter Pogrom
1116:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
996:
993:
992:
991:
988:
984:
981:
980:
979:
976:
975:
973:
972:
969:
966:
965:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
860:
858:
857:
854:
851:
850:
844:
843:The Holocaust
838:
837:
825:
822:
820:
819:Lomza Yeshiva
817:
815:
812:
811:
809:
808:
805:
802:
801:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
766:
764:
763:
757:Organizations
753:
752:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
530:
525:
519:
518:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
461:
456:
450:
449:
437:
434:
430:
427:
426:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
411:
409:
408:
404:
403:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
375:
372:
371:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
356:
354:
353:
350:
347:
346:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
274:
273:
270:
266:
263:
262:
261:
258:
257:
255:
254:
251:
248:
247:
241:
235:
234:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
207:Early history
205:
204:
202:
201:
198:
188:
185:
184:
180:
172:
168:
167:
164:
159:
158:
154:
150:
149:
142:
138:
133:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
109:
105:
103:
99:
96:10,000–20,000
95:
93:
89:
84:
81:
76:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
49:
45:
27:
19:
19062:
18921:
18914:
18907:
18900:
18893:
18843:Turkmenistan
18778:
18728:South Africa
18623:White Polish
18448:Transnistria
18348:
18341:
18230:Lipka Tatars
18212:
18168:Bangladeshis
18140:Walddeutsche
18006:Other Slavic
17652:Transnistria
17526:
17296:
17077:
17060:
17059:Ury, Scott.
17053:
17049:
17029:
17013:
16997:
16978:
16949:
16941:
16928:
16920:
16917:Engel, David
16909:
16899:
16877:
16824:
16803:
16789:
16775:
16761:
16754:
16735:
16713:
16688:
16669:
16659:
16639:
16621:
16612:Bibliography
16597:. Retrieved
16592:
16583:
16571:. Retrieved
16567:
16557:
16545:. Retrieved
16541:
16532:
16520:. Retrieved
16516:
16507:
16489:
16460:
16448:. Retrieved
16444:
16435:
16423:. Retrieved
16413:
16393:
16386:
16374:
16362:. Retrieved
16348:
16336:
16291:
16279:. Retrieved
16275:
16266:
16254:. Retrieved
16240:
16228:. Retrieved
16223:
16214:
16203:
16178:
16170:
16145:
16141:
16135:
16118:
16109:
16099:
16091:the original
16086:
16076:
16068:the original
16055:
16030:
15995:
15983:. Retrieved
15969:
15961:
15945:
15937:
15903:. Retrieved
15894:
15883:
15874:
15870:
15842:
15812:
15789:
15777:
15769:
15764:
15752:. Retrieved
15747:
15743:
15718:
15714:
15709:
15700:
15664:
15617:(1): 34–53.
15614:
15610:
15589:. Retrieved
15575:
15548:
15543:
15532:
15498:
15493:
15487:
15479:. Retrieved
15472:the original
15463:
15449:
15415:. Retrieved
15401:
15389:
15369:
15362:
15352:
15346:
15330:
15325:
15305:
15295:
15286:
15271:
15264:
15237:
15212:
15189:
15182:
15163:
15157:
15148:pp. 87–104,
15142:
15138:
15122:
15117:
15107:
15094:
15089:
15057:
15050:
15041:
15037:
15035:
15017:
15012:
15004:
14995:
14988:. Retrieved
14984:the original
14968:
14961:
14941:
14937:Bernd Wegner
14931:
14920:the original
14901:
14866:
14860:
14848:. Retrieved
14844:the original
14833:
14821:. Retrieved
14807:
14795:
14774:
14757:
14748:
14732:
14712:
14689:
14677:
14660:
14644:
14632:
14624:the original
14619:
14610:
14594:
14582:
14573:
14564:
14545:
14540:
14521:
14516:
14500:
14487:
14477:
14457:
14450:
14425:the original
14415:
14399:
14394:
14369:
14357:
14345:
14333:
14321:. Retrieved
14307:
14297:
14291:
14275:
14270:
14258:. Retrieved
14254:the original
14249:
14240:
14227:
14219:
14214:
14206:
14202:
14197:
14189:
14184:
14168:
14164:
14156:
14148:
14143:
14134:
14125:
14106:
14098:
14093:
14083:
14078:
14058:
14051:
14042:
14036:
14020:
14015:
14003:
13995:the original
13985:
13973:
13954:
13944:
13920:
13910:
13898:
13874:
13867:
13856:
13837:
13832:
13823:
13814:
13802:. Retrieved
13798:the original
13788:
13770:
13761:
13752:
13740:
13734:entire issue
13721:
13714:
13706:
13698:
13685:
13672:
13659:
13646:
13625:
13597:
13573:
13548:
13535:
13515:
13508:
13489:
13462:Jan T. Gross
13449:
13440:
13428:
13383:
13376:
13356:
13349:
13329:
13322:
13310:. Retrieved
13306:the original
13296:
13284:. Retrieved
13280:
13255:. Retrieved
13250:
13228:
13219:
13207:. Retrieved
13203:the original
13198:
13188:
13180:the original
13170:
13126:
13119:
13112:Isaiah Trunk
13103:
13084:
13072:
13038:
13033:
13025:
13017:
13002:
12997:
12964:
12960:
12940:, pp. 75-76.
12937:
12929:
12921:
12916:
12906:
12891:antisemitism
12883:Anthony Eden
12873:
12865:
12860:
12852:
12844:
12836:
12831:
12823:
12802:
12795:
12788:
12783:
12776:
12759:
12740:
12734:
12722:
12713:
12700:
12691:
12666:
12638:. Warszawa.
12635:
12628:the original
12619:
12609:
12596:
12572:
12562:
12552:
12544:
12525:
12479:
12474:
12459:
12455:
12434:
12418:
12413:
12393:
12386:
12368:
12360:
12340:
12333:
12313:
12306:
12298:
12293:
12273:
12266:
12246:
12239:
12228:the original
12214:
12206:
12205:Leo Cooper,
12201:
12193:
12168:
12160:
12152:
12144:
12136:
12127:
12113:
12102:the original
12083:
12071:. Retrieved
12061:
12053:
12048:
12030:
11999:
11992:
11980:. Retrieved
11967:
11952:
11934:1914 to 2000
11933:
11929:
11923:
11903:
11896:
11876:
11869:
11860:
11854:
11837:
11831:
11811:
11802:Yad Vashem,
11798:
11786:. Retrieved
11772:
11764:
11757:. Retrieved
11748:
11725:
11716:
11707:
11698:
11689:
11680:
11672:the original
11662:
11650:
11643:Philadelphia
11638:
11635:Yehuda Bauer
11630:
11615:
11610:
11576:
11572:
11561:the original
11552:
11545:
11522:
11512:
11489:
11476:
11453:
11449:
11433:
11425:
11405:
11398:
11385:
11375:
11357:
11351:
11336:
11328:
11316:. Retrieved
11301:
11294:
11285:Neal Pease.
11281:
11272:
11263:
11251:. Retrieved
11240:
11228:
11201:
11185:
11173:. Retrieved
11158:
11151:
11142:
11132:
11124:
11121:Simon Dubnow
11116:
11106:
11101:
11089:. Retrieved
11074:
11067:
11055:. Retrieved
11041:
11038:
11016:. Retrieved
11001:
10982:
10973:
10957:
10942:Hundert 2004
10937:
10927:26 September
10925:. Retrieved
10910:
10888:
10869:
10862:Hundert 2004
10857:
10850:Hundert 2004
10830:. Retrieved
10825:
10812:
10799:
10791:
10771:
10764:
10753:
10743:
10734:
10723:
10712:
10702:
10693:
10682:
10666:
10634:
10627:Hundert 2004
10622:
10615:Hundert 2004
10610:
10598:. Retrieved
10594:
10585:
10571:
10562:
10552:
10527:
10519:
10509:16 September
10507:. Retrieved
10503:
10489:
10479:16 September
10477:. Retrieved
10473:
10463:
10451:
10428:the original
10423:
10414:
10402:. Retrieved
10387:
10383:S. M. Dubnow
10362:
10354:the original
10344:
10336:
10333:Simon Dubnow
10328:
10316:. Retrieved
10312:the original
10307:
10298:
10290:
10287:Simon Dubnow
10282:
10273:
10264:
10245:
10239:
10227:. Retrieved
10223:
10214:
10201:
10191:30 September
10189:. Retrieved
10184:
10140:
10131:
10122:
10114:
10095:
10075:
10057:
10026:
10009:
9989:
9956:
9950:
9919:
9900:
9893:
9885:
9880:
9849:
9829:
9817:. Retrieved
9803:
9791:. Retrieved
9787:the original
9782:
9773:
9762:
9737:
9727:
9712:antisemitism
9700:Anthony Eden
9686:
9670:
9651:
9643:
9639:
9635:
9631:
9625:
9617:
9613:
9584:the original
9563:
9546:
9537:
9528:
9518:
9512:
9508:
9503:
9494:
9493:
9486:. Retrieved
9483:The Atlantic
9482:
9472:
9460:. Retrieved
9456:the original
9447:
9438:
9429:
9419:
9365:
9356:
9333:
9237:
9150:of the total
9147:
9142:
9055:
9043:
9023:
9016:
8989:
8973:
8965:
8920:
8912:
8896:
8884:
8865:
8840:
8836:
8830:
8828:
8800:
8777:
8730:pogrom, the
8728:
8700:
8699:(founder of
8697:Adam Michnik
8694:
8686:Eastern Bloc
8683:
8676:
8674:
8649:
8647:
8643:
8627:
8573:
8547:
8544:Jakub Berman
8533:
8525:Folks-Shtime
8524:
8517:Ida Kamińska
8501:Dawid Kahane
8496:
8490:
8469:
8462:
8429:
8423:
8416:Adolf Berman
8409:
8401:Eastern Bloc
8385:
8370:POLIN Museum
8362:
8355:
8352:
8345:
8342:
8338:Michael Meng
8334:
8311:
8285:
8281:
8269:
8243:against the
8230:
8226:
8196:east of the
8183:
8125:
8121:
8114:
8088:, after the
8051:
8030:
8023:
8012:
7982:Nazi Germany
7979:
7959:
7944:
7898:
7890:
7872:
7861:
7836:
7832:
7830:
7814:
7806:
7805:
7755:
7715:
7708:
7645:
7631:
7618:black market
7615:
7603:
7600:'s orphanage
7579:
7575:
7572:szmalcowniks
7561:
7557:
7545:
7541:
7534:
7529:
7524:
7502:
7498:
7495:
7486:
7475:Walling-off
7456:Radom Ghetto
7401:
7349:
7340:szmalcowniks
7316:
7303:
7295:antisemitism
7287:Jan T. Gross
7272:
7269:death squads
7262:
7251:
7233:
7231:
7208:
7204:Soviet Union
7201:
7155:
7109:
7084:
7077:Jakub Berman
7069:Soviet Union
7054:
7023:
7014:
6993:
6969:
6965:
6957:
6942:
6931:
6922:Nazi Germany
6914:Soviet Union
6911:
6878:Nazi ghettos
6859:
6814:
6811:
6806:
6803:
6770:
6759:
6735:
6699:
6678:trade unions
6674:
6670:
6659:
6647:
6645:
6623:
6613:
6590:Polonization
6579:
6556:
6524:Nazi Germany
6517:
6511:
6486:
6450:
6440:, including
6431:
6428:Vilna Troupe
6404:Rafał Lemkin
6372:Moses Schorr
6353:
6344:Shimon Peres
6331:
6321:
6315:
6263:Jan Brzechwa
6243:Marian Hemar
6239:Julian Tuwim
6235:Bruno Schulz
6220:
6198:
6179:Bruno Schulz
6172:
6160:
6110:
6105:World War II
6098:
6061:
6045:
6034:
5978:
5954:
5936:
5930:
5862:protectorate
5858:
5850:
5840:
5825:
5810:
5791:
5784:
5751:
5746:
5744:
5702:
5692:
5688:
5682:
5680:
5665:
5656:
5641:Please help
5629:
5587:
5585:
5581:Hovevei Zion
5550:
5548:
5516:Alexander II
5509:
5502:
5484:
5449:
5432:
5416:
5385:תּחום-המושבֿ
5360:
5358:
5331:
5322:
5307:Please help
5295:
5249:
5229:
5220:
5217:Catherine II
5213:
5169:
5149:
5129:
5120:
5114:
5111:
5079:
5073:
5023:
5011:
5005:
4999:
4991:Sabbatianism
4987:
4946:
4936:
4932:
4924:
4910:
4907:Jacob Pollak
4900:
4878:
4877:. Important
4865:
4837:Divre David;
4836:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4804:
4803:("dwells"),
4800:
4796:
4792:
4780:
4776:
4774:
4751:west of the
4742:
4734:
4730:
4675:
4657:
4629:
4582:
4549:
4517:
4484:
4477:
4469:Jacob Pollak
4465:Persian Jews
4461:Mizrahi Jews
4438:
4428:
4405:
4357:
4338:
4316:, Samson of
4302:
4246:
4183:(1367), and
4166:
4157:and the Jews
4153:
4144:
4139:blood libels
4115:Great Poland
4113:, Prince of
4099:
4092:
4085:
4078:
4035:Bolesław III
4024:
4001:
3926:
3916:
3873:. After the
3863:Eastern Bloc
3840:
3816:Soviet Union
3812:Nazi Germany
3809:
3785:Antisemitism
3730:
3717:
3699:. Since the
3689:Nazi Germany
3681:World War II
3652:
3650:
3591:Post-Zionism
3462:Judeo-Berber
3457:Judeo-Arabic
3417:Judeo-Gascon
3164:Pidyon haben
3083:Conservative
2811:
2629:Saudi Arabia
2447:South Africa
2436:Sierra Leone
2258:Israeli Jews
2172:Mosaic Arabs
2125:Kaifeng Jews
1986:Arab–Israeli
1959:Emancipation
1838:Great Revolt
1647:Anti-Judaism
1642:Antisemitism
1637:Name "Judea"
1432:Baal teshuva
995:Mittelsteine
563:Ezras Israel
364:Brit HaHayal
227:1989–present
222:20th century
217:19th century
212:18th century
197:List of Jews
160:
79:
43:Polscy Żydzi
29:Ethnic group
26:
18874:New Zealand
18809:Philippines
18613:Netherlands
18470:Switzerland
18260:Polska Roma
18235:Lithuanians
18173:Circassians
18130:Pomeranians
18125:Kosznajders
18108:Vilamovians
18028:Macedonians
18013:Belarusians
17979:Slovincians
17860:Podlachians
17690:Isle of Man
17625:recognition
17577:Switzerland
17512:Netherlands
17056:(2), 24–36.
16833:copy-pasted
16599:20 February
16573:20 February
16547:20 February
16522:20 February
16307:(in Polish)
16230:11 December
16087:Kraków Post
15481:27 December
14620:www.onet.pl
14599:Karski, Jan
14323:17 February
14313:Marci Shore
13804:28 December
13445:(in Polish)
13312:12 December
13286:26 November
13209:13 December
12773:Norman Goda
11430:Isaac Babel
11253:26 December
10806:(in Polish)
10801:Mówią Wieki
9793:20 February
9462:11 February
9369:As of 2010.
9002:as well as
8934: [
8668:and in the
8630:Six-Day War
8554:Hilary Minc
8505:chief rabbi
8465:Six-Day War
8210:German Jews
8188:, with its
8154:Dzierżoniów
8074:machine gun
8019:Biala River
7956:Soviet Army
7499:Concerning:
7479:(seen from
7440:Lwów Ghetto
7408:Łódź Ghetto
7354:throughout
7322:Nazi crimes
7206:'s) lived.
6916:signed the
6866:Polish Army
6762:blood libel
6666:1931 census
6603:stomatology
6465:Józef Klotz
6323:The Dybbuk)
6295:Jakub Kagan
6283:Henryk Gold
6271:Henryk Wars
6267:Jan Kiepura
5933:World War I
5851:Pufferstaat
5811:During the
5804:(1863) and
5800:(1830–31),
5781:Folkspartei
5773:labor union
5427:) and with
5423:(later the
5146:(1764–1809)
4976:Jacob Frank
4961:Yoel Sirkis
4853:Renaissance
4320:, Josko of
4312:, Natko of
4286:Black Death
4278:blood libel
4223:blood libel
4219:Black Death
4051:Mieszko III
3955:in Spanish
3921:Jan Matejko
3879:citizenship
3586:Revisionist
3576:Neo-Zionism
3183:Zeved habat
2976:Puerto Rico
2802:Netherlands
2634:South Korea
2619:Philippines
2499:Afghanistan
2366:Ivory Coast
2140:Crypto-Jews
2105:Bnei Anusim
2084:Bene Israel
2049:Beta Israel
2006:Communities
1913:Middle Ages
1652:Persecution
1427:Bereavement
1113:Częstochowa
1052:Death camps
990:Gross-Rosen
948:Stanisławów
878:Częstochowa
733:Wolf Popper
723:White Stork
638:Nomer Tamid
429:Folkspartei
60:beside the
36:יהודי פולין
33:Polish Jews
19140:Categories
18965:Principal
18853:Uzbekistan
18836:Polonezköy
18826:Tajikistan
18794:Kyrgyzstan
18789:Kazakhstan
18764:Azerbaijan
18608:Luxembourg
18593:after 2004
18426:after WWII
18335:Historical
18277:Vietnamese
18198:Hungarians
18070:Ukrainians
18033:Podlashuks
17961:Kashubians
17946:Sącz Lachs
17914:Sieradzans
17899:Kocievians
17812:Lublinians
17802:Cracovians
17547:San Marino
17507:Montenegro
17487:Luxembourg
17467:Kazakhstan
17370:Azerbaijan
15466:. Warsaw:
15316:0230504884
15173:8385888365
15040:Original:
14990:15 January
14952:1571818820
14653:Yad Vashem
14605:'s website
14603:Yad Vashem
14509:Yad Vashem
14468:0786403713
14410:. Page 99.
14177:0801443474
13499:0786403713
13229:Yad Vashem
13114:, page 115
12765:Józef Beck
12404:031326371X
12379:3110137151
11595:Amendments
11536:0813531586
11434:1920 Diary
11312:1580461379
10470:"Rapoport"
9696:Józef Beck
9377:References
9138:3,250,000
9131:2,845,000
9128:Population
9072:See also:
9017:An annual
8713:Since 1989
8576:including
8552:(UB), and
8542:including
8450:Yugoslavia
8382:Aliyah Bet
8294:Żydokomuna
8144:, Kraków,
8041:ghetto in
7729:Hans Frank
7638:Jan Karski
7627:Yad Vashem
7263:Following
7211:synagogues
7073:Communists
7036:Żydokomuna
7001:Jan Karski
6828:See also:
6786:Józef Beck
6766:Józef Beck
6567:Leon Reich
6552:Bolshevism
6433:The Dybbuk
6354:Scientist
6279:Artur Gold
6255:Konrad Tom
6053:Paderewski
5987:, and the
5941:formed by
5910:Partitions
5828:Poale Zion
5753:Poale Zion
5575:delegates
5555:(Russian:
5524:status quo
5495:Sevastopol
5189:See also:
5046:Aleksander
4896:Jewish law
4799:("here"),
4716:, Kraków,
4710:pestilence
4686:the Deluge
4558:, nobles (
4528:See also:
4510:Maimonides
4347:and other
4322:Hrubieszów
4215:cemeteries
4181:Sandomierz
4039:Lithuanian
3957:Al-Andalus
3943:, crossed
3941:Radhanites
3571:Maximalism
3523:Secularism
3503:Autonomism
3320:Literature
3113:Humanistic
2717:Azerbaijan
2679:Uzbekistan
2654:Tajikistan
2574:Kyrgyzstan
2559:Kazakhstan
2406:Mozambique
2381:Madagascar
2301:Cape Verde
2253:New Yishuv
2248:Old Yishuv
2199:Population
2177:Subbotniks
2135:Samaritans
2074:Romanyotim
2017:Ashkenazim
1964:Old Yishuv
1944:Sabbateans
1931:Modern era
1923:Golden Age
1850:Bar Kokhba
1570:Beit Yosef
1437:Philosophy
1168:Resistance
578:Inowrocław
524:Synagogues
374:Komverband
369:Poale Zion
332:Sochatchov
277:Aleksander
80:1,300,000+
18869:Australia
18707:Venezuela
18645:Argentina
18521:Lithuania
18421:Ruhrpolen
18188:Georgians
18183:Filipinos
18163:Armenians
18038:Poleshuks
17989:Silesians
17904:Łęczycans
17855:Poborzans
17845:Masurians
17835:Łowiczans
17827:Masovians
17807:Lasovians
17772:Kuyavians
17767:Kaliszans
17680:Gibraltar
17482:Lithuania
16853:632370258
16162:145804324
16110:WPROST.pl
15877:(2): 233.
15639:151471207
15631:1462-169X
15256:841327982
14875:cite book
14761:From the
14120:(English)
14027:, JSTOR:
12989:236898673
12981:1611-8944
12812:Palestine
12652:cite book
12644:176630823
12488:490035434
12427:795425570
12163:, p. 306.
11982:22 August
11624:837032828
11345:715788575
10456:Sephardim
10318:13 August
10054:"Beriḥah"
9768:, p. 101.
9751:Palestine
9488:15 August
9166:(+130.0%)
9056:In 2013,
8892:ner tamid
8348:Jan Gross
8249:Holocaust
7801:markings.
7705:Treblinka
7533:.........
7528:.........
7523:.........
7416:Białystok
7380:Auschwitz
7372:Treblinka
7173:Treblinka
7169:Auschwitz
7067:into the
7026:Communism
6984:Białystok
6682:Christian
6380:Esperanto
6368:Adam Ulam
6192:Socialist
6156:Esperanto
6134:Lithuania
6031:Blue Army
5956:Porucznik
5766:socialism
5659:July 2018
5630:does not
5460:Lithuania
5325:July 2018
5296:does not
5272:Cantonist
5265:Cantonist
5150:A second
5028:known as
5022:based on
5002:mysticism
4953:Rabbinism
4851:The Late
4819:("here")
4787:, and as
4761:haydamaks
4490:Talmudist
4310:Drohobycz
4265:1388–1389
4205:Christian
4185:Kazimierz
4075:landlords
3965:Mieszko I
3793:Palestine
3697:Holocaust
3685:genocidal
3581:Religious
3437:Zarphatic
3427:Bukharian
3397:Judeo-Tat
3382:Yeshivish
3356:Languages
3311:Sephardic
3301:Israelite
3291:Ethiopian
3281:Ashkenazi
3220:Religious
3010:Australia
2992:Venezuela
2898:Argentina
2880:Greenland
2792:Lithuania
2644:Sri Lanka
2639:Singapore
2564:Kurdistan
2529:Indonesia
2519:Hong Kong
2472:Abayudaya
2396:Mauritius
2130:Igbo Jews
2120:Krymchaks
2039:Sephardim
1907:relations
1801:Sadducees
1797:Pharisees
1787:Sanhedrin
1702:Jerusalem
1462:Synagogue
1330:Etymology
1153:Szczuczyn
1103:Massacres
1088:Treblinka
1012:Poniatowa
978:Auschwitz
943:Sosnowiec
913:Nowy Sącz
868:Białystok
678:Przedbórz
663:Piaskower
543:Bydgoszcz
474:Białystok
317:Peshischa
111:Languages
19108:See also
19099:Hinduism
19094:Buddhism
18991:Armenian
18887:See also
18819:Buryatia
18804:Pakistan
18743:Zimbabwe
18733:Tanzania
18680:Paraguay
18665:Colombia
18638:Americas
18465:Slovakia
18406:Bulgaria
18375:Diaspora
18343:Lechites
18282:Walloons
18208:Italians
18158:Africans
18103:Flemings
18091:Olenders
18079:Germanic
18055:Russians
17924:Warmians
17700:Svalbard
17685:Guernsey
17632:Abkhazia
17607:Scotland
17562:Slovenia
17557:Slovakia
17532:Portugal
17390:Bulgaria
17278:Archived
17263:Archived
17154:Archived
17143:Archived
17132:Archived
17121:Archived
17096:38756480
16968:22908198
16299:Archived
16276:motl.org
16125:Archived
16064:Stanford
16003:Archived
15979:Archived
15926:Archived
15899:Archived
15750:(3): 273
15438:Archived
15411:Archived
15303:(2004).
15139:Also in:
15010:(2012).
14817:Archived
14667:Archived
14492:Archived
14366:(2000).
14114:Archived
13918:(1987).
13778:Archived
13571:(1997).
13454:Archived
13418:Archived
13257:21 March
13225:"Grodno"
13092:Archived
13061:Archived
12808:Sanation
12632:Source:
12533:Archived
12512:for the
12450:, p. 181
12367:(1993),
12073:26 March
11782:Archived
11599:Archived
11587:Archived
11484:(1993).
11465:Archived
11091:26 March
11057:11 March
11018:11 March
10877:Archived
10600:24 March
10385:(2000).
10107:Archived
10056:. YIVO.
9939:Archived
9857:Archived
9813:Archived
9747:Zionists
9659:Archived
9394:"Poland"
9267:See also
9211:(−24.0%)
9202:(−44.4%)
9193:(−71.0%)
9184:(−55.7%)
9175:(−69.6%)
9163:230,000
9157:(−96.9%)
9154:100,000
9134:(+14.2%)
8996:Birkenau
8982:and the
8929:journal
8887:Oświęcim
8790:and the
8782:and the
8763:, Poland
8636:and the
8632:between
8178:Oświęcim
8152:, e.g.,
8034:Majdanek
7933:Gesiowka
7889:and the
7887:Gęsiówka
7738:Judenrat
7720:and its
7376:Majdanek
7238:tabloids
7177:Majdanek
7102:II Corps
6874:prisoner
6807:en masse
6719:Lubartów
6693:and the
6626:interwar
6400:genocide
6132:(now in
6124:(now in
5859:de facto
5857:, being
5796:(1794),
5747:Haskalah
5723:Mizrachi
5703:Haskalah
5694:Maskilim
5689:Haskalah
5684:Haskalah
5611:Haskalah
5487:Caucasus
5245:the Pale
5130:szlachta
5122:kanclerz
5058:Nadvorna
5030:Hasidism
5025:Kabbalah
4995:Frankism
4948:Kabbalah
4925:yeshivah
4879:yeshivot
4871:gymnasia
4867:Yeshivot
4811:"), and
4757:Volhynia
4722:Piotrków
4694:Ottomans
4644:Cossacks
4636:Ruthenia
4583:Despite
4560:szlachta
4506:Kabbalah
4479:yeshivot
4476:and its
4349:Silesian
4318:Zydaczow
4179:(1356),
4080:szlachta
3997:Przemyśl
3951:town of
3929:Crusades
3855:Americas
3814:and the
3750:Catholic
3741:Paradise
3608:Category
3566:Kahanism
3513:Feminism
3485:Politics
3369:Biblical
3339:American
3286:Bukharan
3276:American
3176:Shidduch
3152:Clothing
3108:Haymanot
3054:Orthodox
2982:Suriname
2965:Paraguay
2918:Colombia
2817:Portugal
2727:Bulgaria
2664:Thailand
2614:Pakistan
2594:Mongolia
2589:Malaysia
2509:Cambodia
2483:Zimbabwe
2458:Tanzania
2336:Eswatini
2326:Ethiopia
2316:Djibouti
2296:Cameroon
2291:Botswana
2220:Diaspora
2182:Noahides
2155:Marranos
2079:Cochinim
2064:Bukharim
2054:Gruzinim
2044:Teimanim
2034:Mizrahim
2022:Galician
1988:conflict
1949:Hasidism
1939:Haskalah
1844:Diaspora
1715:timeline
1627:Timeline
1540:Rabbinic
1447:Kabbalah
1422:Marriage
1398:Tzedakah
1388:Holidays
1346:Religion
1309:a series
1307:Part of
1148:Radziłów
1123:Jedwabne
1073:Majdanek
1037:Trawniki
1027:Stutthof
1017:Potulice
1007:Lipowa 7
983:Monowitz
928:Piotrków
883:Frysztak
804:Yeshivas
668:Piotrków
658:Oświęcim
419:Haskalah
381:HeHalutz
250:Orthodox
153:a series
151:Part of
135:Religion
19063:Judaism
18862:Oceania
18799:Lebanon
18774:Georgia
18759:Armenia
18723:Senegal
18702:Uruguay
18598:Belgium
18552:Croatia
18511:Ireland
18506:Iceland
18501:Finland
18496:Estonia
18491:Denmark
18475:Ukraine
18455:Romania
18443:Moldova
18438:Hungary
18416:Germany
18401:Belarus
18396:Austria
18245:Nepalis
18225:Koreans
18203:Indians
18115:Germans
18098:English
18060:Slovaks
17974:Krubans
17894:Bambers
17840:Kurpies
17784:Taśtaks
17597:England
17587:Ukraine
17537:Romania
17497:Moldova
17455:Ireland
17450:Iceland
17445:Hungary
17435:Germany
17430:Georgia
17420:Finland
17415:Estonia
17410:Denmark
17395:Croatia
17380:Belgium
17375:Belarus
17365:Austria
17360:Armenia
17355:Andorra
17350:Albania
16818::
16498:at the
15985:3 April
15488:Also in
15150:Wrocław
14786:in the
12196:, 2015.
12180:of the
12147:, p. 36
11788:3 April
11759:3 March
10404:11 June
10006:Poland.
9819:3 April
9229:(−8.6%)
9220:(−7.9%)
9181:31,000
9172:70,000
9026:Wrocław
8873:Leżajsk
8832:Midrasz
8811:Rzeszów
8807:Tykocin
8771:Reform
8564:in the
8507:of the
8442:Hungary
8438:Romania
8430:Berihah
8425:Berihah
8412:Zionist
8265:pogroms
8162:Bielawa
8158:Legnica
8146:Wrocław
8043:Bohemia
7826:, 1943.
7759:typhoid
7707:at the
7580:szmalec
7576:shmalts
7568:Gestapo
7460:typhoid
7368:Sobibór
7291:pogroms
7271:called
7197:ghettos
7195:in the
7189:Chełmno
7185:Sobibór
7148:Map of
7128:Bologna
7059:in the
7051:, Italy
6795:Haganah
6732:(1937).
6648:Endecja
6630:Zionist
6586:Endecja
6544:Judaism
6540:Marxism
6512:Endecja
6494:Yiddish
6217:in 1978
6184:Yiddish
6175:Yiddish
6126:Ukraine
6041:Ukraine
5964:(Kfdo)(
5923:before
5902:Hasidic
5864:of the
5739:Bundist
5721:of the
5707:Halakha
5651:removed
5636:sources
5589:Okhrana
5573:Zionist
5557:погро́м
5552:pogroms
5504:shtetls
5476:Ukraine
5472:Moldova
5464:Belarus
5381:Yiddish
5367:Russian
5351:Map of
5317:removed
5302:sources
5221:Tzarina
5103:Prussia
5099:Austria
5082:Prussia
5020:Judaism
4903:Bohemia
4875:rectors
4839:1689).
4793:Polania
4777:Polania
4753:Dnieper
4646:of the
4601:Vilnius
4579:Decline
4494:yeshiva
4420:Germany
4416:Hungary
4412:Austria
4345:Wrocław
4341:Bohemia
4298:Bochnia
4253:Jadwiga
4208:baptism
4193:Opoczno
4189:Esterka
4004:Central
3983:of the
3977:Gniezno
3953:Tortosa
3949:Moorish
3945:Silesia
3937:Bukhara
3853:or the
3797:Haganah
3551:General
3542:Zionism
3518:Leftism
3508:Bundism
3432:Knaanic
3392:Yevanic
3377:Yiddish
3334:Yiddish
3329:Israeli
3306:Mizrahi
3296:Israeli
3267:Cuisine
3243:Ancient
3225:Secular
3171:Kashrut
3147:Wedding
3134:Customs
3126:Culture
3103:Science
3098:Renewal
3088:Karaite
3069:Hasidic
3001:Oceania
2987:Uruguay
2955:Jamaica
2935:Ecuador
2903:Bolivia
2847:Ukraine
2822:Romania
2797:Moldova
2777:Hungary
2767:Germany
2762:Georgia
2752:Finland
2747:Estonia
2742:Denmark
2737:Czechia
2722:Belarus
2712:Austria
2707:Armenia
2684:Vietnam
2599:Myanmar
2584:Lebanon
2504:Bahrain
2463:Tunisia
2441:Somalia
2416:Nigeria
2411:Namibia
2401:Morocco
2331:Eritrea
2276:Algeria
2160:Neofiti
2069:Italkim
2059:Juhurim
1969:Zionism
1918:Khazars
1813:Sicarii
1809:Zealots
1805:Essenes
1792:Schisms
1657:Leaders
1619:General
1611:History
1554:Tosefta
1549:Midrash
1526:Mishnah
1508:Ketuvim
1503:Nevi'im
1452:Customs
1383:Shabbat
1378:Halakha
1370: (
1368:Mitzvot
1355: (
1321:Judaism
1133:Tykocin
1083:Sobibor
1068:Chełmno
1032:Szebnie
938:Siedlce
888:Gorlice
873:Brzesko
853:Ghettos
743:Zasanie
728:Włodawa
713:Tykocin
708:Szydłów
673:Pińczów
618:Maharam
593:Końskie
533:Bielsko
469:Beuthen
414:Bundism
349:Zionist
322:Radomsk
287:Bluzhev
272:Hasidim
192:•
141:Judaism
125:Yiddish
38:
19073:Karaim
18831:Turkey
18814:Russia
18779:Israel
18738:Uganda
18716:Africa
18675:Mexico
18655:Canada
18650:Brazil
18603:France
18572:Serbia
18557:Greece
18531:Sweden
18526:Norway
18516:Latvia
18460:Russia
18382:Europe
18250:Romani
18240:Locals
18193:Greeks
18151:Others
18048:Boykos
18043:Rusyns
18023:Lemkos
18018:Czechs
17938:Gorals
17887:Others
17695:Jersey
17637:Kosovo
17582:Turkey
17572:Sweden
17552:Serbia
17542:Russia
17527:Poland
17522:Norway
17502:Monaco
17472:Latvia
17440:Greece
17425:France
17400:Cyprus
17094:
17084:
17068:
17037:
17021:
17005:
16986:
16966:
16956:
16884:
16851:
16796:
16782:
16768:
16746:
16720:
16695:
16676:
16647:
16628:
16593:J-Wire
16464:YIVO,
16425:3 July
16401:
16364:4 July
16256:25 May
16252:. 2001
16191:
16160:
15954:
15905:10 May
15849:
15819:
15754:12 May
15671:
15637:
15629:
15591:14 May
15582:
15505:
15417:20 May
15377:
15337:
15313:
15279:
15254:
15244:
15200:
15170:
15129:
15097:]
15065:
15024:
14976:
14949:
14912:
14850:22 May
14823:20 May
14784:Łachwa
14765:by SS
14740:
14719:
14552:
14534:p. 114
14528:
14465:
14406:
14382:
14282:
14260:16 May
14175:
14135:DW.COM
14066:
13961:
13932:
13886:
13844:
13637:
13585:
13523:
13496:
13468:
13391:
13364:
13337:
13161:
13134:
12987:
12979:
12901:&
12747:
12694:: 182.
12642:
12602:Radom.
12584:
12486:
12446:
12425:
12401:
12377:
12348:
12321:
12281:
12254:
12037:
12007:
11940:
11911:
11884:
11849:p. 65.
11845:
11823:
11645:, 1974
11622:
11533:
11500:
11440:
11413:
11343:
11318:4 June
11309:
11175:6 June
11166:
11082:
11048:
11009:
10964:
10918:
10779:
10540:
10536:–148.
10395:
10252:
10229:2 July
10209:. 1948
10187:. 2009
10083:
10034:
9963:
9912:
9745:, The
9722:&
9261:Kraków
9217:3,500
9208:3,800
9199:5,000
9190:9,000
9032:, and
9030:Kraków
8841:Jidele
8815:Kielce
8803:Zamość
8794:. The
8738:, the
8734:, the
8666:Europe
8634:Israel
8584:, and
8568:under
8519:, the
8458:Bolków
8454:Hagana
8434:Aliyah
8405:aliyah
8393:Israel
8276:police
8233:Poland
8202:Neisse
8160:, and
8138:Warsaw
8062:Polish
8015:ghetto
7809:wrote
7663:Żegota
7655:Allied
7496:NOTICE
7432:Kraków
7364:Bełżec
7335:Warsaw
7216:Rabbis
7187:, and
7181:Belzec
7162:German
7075:(e.g.
6927:Grodno
6710:Brześć
6614:indeks
6498:Hebrew
6414:. The
6394:, and
6305:, and
6188:Hebrew
6142:Warsaw
6138:Kraków
6027:Warsaw
5983:, the
5919:Rabbi
5779:. The
5691:, the
5561:rubles
5480:Russia
5468:Poland
5395:Hebrew
5219:, the
5209:Warsaw
5197:, and
5101:, and
5042:Chabad
4921:Lublin
4912:Pilpul
4887:Lublin
4860:Zamość
4827:until
4785:Hebrew
4726:Lublin
4718:Poznań
4714:Kalisz
4650:under
4630:After
4597:Kraków
4593:Lublin
4589:Poznań
4564:Warsaw
4536:, and
4498:Kraków
4400:father
4294:Kraków
4290:Kalisz
4282:Kraków
4227:Poznań
4212:Jewish
4163:, 1874
4111:Kalisz
3989:Prague
3969:Toledo
3923:, 1889
3867:aliyah
3803:, and
3709:Warsaw
3657:Poland
3613:Portal
3472:Domari
3402:Shassi
3363:Hebrew
3258:Humour
3202:Hiloni
3197:Aliyah
3157:Niddah
3142:Minyan
3077:Reform
3064:Haredi
3059:Modern
2960:Mexico
2945:Guyana
2908:Brazil
2870:Canada
2842:Sweden
2832:Serbia
2827:Russia
2812:Poland
2807:Norway
2787:Latvia
2772:Greece
2757:France
2732:Cyprus
2698:Europe
2669:Turkey
2659:Taiwan
2569:Kuwait
2554:Jordan
2544:Israel
2478:Zambia
2468:Uganda
2386:Malawi
2356:Guinea
2346:Gambia
2281:Angola
2267:Africa
2150:Dönmeh
2145:Anusim
2089:Berber
2027:Litvak
1979:Israel
1885:
1822:
1736:Second
1704:
1565:Targum
1531:Gemara
1517:Talmud
1489:Tanakh
1442:Ethics
1393:Prayer
1260:
1158:Wąsosz
1078:Belzec
1042:Warsaw
1022:Soldau
958:Warsaw
953:Tarnów
923:Opatów
918:Olkusz
898:Kraków
893:Kielce
863:Będzin
738:Zamość
718:Warsaw
608:Łańcut
558:Danzig
509:Wieluń
494:Łęczna
489:Kraków
484:Kalisz
479:Gdańsk
464:Adamów
455:Cities
391:Tarbut
240:Groups
194:
190:
175:
155:on the
129:German
121:Hebrew
117:Polish
102:Israel
92:Poland
66:Warsaw
19068:Islam
18784:Japan
18769:China
18670:Haiti
18660:Chile
18577:Spain
18567:Malta
18562:Italy
18272:Turks
18267:Scots
18086:Dutch
18065:Sorbs
17969:Gochs
17750:Poles
17670:Åland
17612:Wales
17567:Spain
17492:Malta
17462:Italy
16450:9 May
16281:9 May
16158:S2CID
15635:S2CID
15497:[
15475:(PDF)
15460:(PDF)
15194:(PDF)
15121:[
15099:(PDF)
15093:[
15016:[
14923:(PDF)
14906:(PDF)
14558:p.149
14350:Kapos
13850:p. 57
13641:p. 49
13579:49–65
13165:p. 47
12985:S2CID
12231:(PDF)
12224:(PDF)
12174:Betar
12124:(PDF)
12105:(PDF)
12094:(PDF)
12042:p.144
11961:p. 47
11656:p. 12
11564:(PDF)
11557:(PDF)
10832:5 May
10822:(PDF)
10748:1901.
10707:1901.
10445:p. 50
9743:Irgun
9348:Notes
9231:0.01%
9226:3,200
9222:0.01%
9213:0.01%
9204:0.01%
9195:0.03%
9186:0.10%
9177:0.28%
9168:0.97%
9159:0.43%
9148:9.14%
8938:]
8859:2005
8817:, or
8329:Joint
7931:from
7797:with
7606:Nazis
7389:Kapos
7299:Kresy
7111:Irgun
7086:Gulag
7083:in a
6920:with
6799:Irgun
6746:riots
6714:Radom
6637:Betar
6633:Betar
6542:with
6130:Wilno
5947:KTSSN
5499:Yalta
5443:palus
5439:word
5437:Latin
5261:qahal
5256:Haman
5241:Qahal
5074:(top)
5050:Bobov
5012:BeShT
5010:, or
4883:Torah
4813:Polin
4781:Polin
4658:jasyr
4607:. In
4445:Italy
4440:Qahal
4263:. In
4197:serfs
4191:from
4159:, by
4095:Płock
4055:coins
3919:, by
3818:(see
3805:Irgun
3801:Betar
3739:for "
3737:Latin
3561:Labor
3556:Green
3253:Dance
3211:Music
3030:Palau
2950:Haiti
2913:Chile
2837:Spain
2782:Italy
2689:Yemen
2649:Syria
2624:Qatar
2604:Nepal
2549:Japan
2524:India
2514:China
2453:Sudan
2376:Libya
2371:Kenya
2351:Ghana
2341:Gabon
2321:Egypt
2306:Benin
2165:Xueta
2110:Lemba
1729:First
1594:Zohar
1498:Torah
1480:Texts
1467:Rabbi
1457:Rites
1357:names
1138:Dynów
933:Radom
908:Mińsk
903:Łomża
703:Stolp
698:Stara
693:Sejny
683:Radom
643:Nożyk
633:Nisko
613:Lesko
588:Jasło
583:Izaak
538:Bobov
504:Łuków
405:Other
359:Betar
337:Vurka
312:Lelov
307:Kotzk
292:Bobov
282:Biala
78:est.
18752:Asia
18695:list
18685:Peru
18431:list
18326:and
18213:Jews
17112:Maps
17092:OCLC
17082:ISBN
17066:ISBN
17035:ISBN
17019:ISBN
17003:ISBN
16984:ISBN
16964:OCLC
16954:ISBN
16882:ISBN
16868:and
16849:OCLC
16794:ISBN
16780:ISBN
16766:ISBN
16744:ISBN
16718:ISBN
16708:and
16693:ISBN
16674:ISBN
16645:ISBN
16626:ISBN
16601:2018
16575:2018
16549:2018
16524:2018
16452:2019
16427:2018
16399:ISBN
16366:2018
16283:2019
16258:2009
16232:2018
16189:ISBN
15987:2017
15952:ISBN
15907:2019
15847:ISBN
15817:ISBN
15756:2019
15669:ISBN
15627:ISSN
15593:2019
15580:ISBN
15503:ISBN
15483:2017
15419:2017
15375:ISBN
15335:ISBN
15311:ISBN
15277:ISBN
15252:OCLC
15242:ISBN
15198:ISBN
15168:ISBN
15127:ISBN
15063:ISBN
15022:ISBN
14992:2020
14974:ISBN
14947:ISBN
14910:ISBN
14881:link
14852:2009
14825:2017
14738:ISBN
14717:ISBN
14550:ISBN
14526:ISBN
14463:ISBN
14404:ISBN
14380:ISBN
14376:114–
14325:2014
14280:ISBN
14262:2009
14173:ISBN
14064:ISBN
13959:ISBN
13930:ISBN
13884:ISBN
13842:ISBN
13806:2021
13635:ISBN
13583:ISBN
13521:ISBN
13494:ISBN
13466:ISBN
13389:ISBN
13362:ISBN
13335:ISBN
13314:2015
13288:2023
13259:2015
13211:2015
13159:ISBN
13132:ISBN
12977:ISSN
12887:Sejm
12769:Sejm
12745:ISBN
12658:link
12640:OCLC
12582:ISBN
12484:OCLC
12468:p.21
12444:ISBN
12423:OCLC
12399:ISBN
12375:ISBN
12346:ISBN
12319:ISBN
12279:ISBN
12252:ISBN
12075:2013
12035:ISBN
12005:ISBN
11984:2022
11977:YIVO
11938:ISBN
11909:ISBN
11882:ISBN
11843:ISBN
11821:ISBN
11790:2017
11761:2015
11620:OCLC
11578:Sejm
11531:ISBN
11498:ISBN
11455:Sejm
11438:ISBN
11411:ISBN
11341:OCLC
11320:2015
11307:ISBN
11255:2015
11233:Lwów
11177:2015
11164:ISBN
11093:2013
11080:ISBN
11059:2012
11046:ISBN
11020:2012
11007:ISBN
10962:ISBN
10929:2014
10916:ISBN
10834:2014
10777:ISBN
10602:2013
10538:ISBN
10511:2007
10481:2007
10406:2011
10393:ISBN
10320:2019
10250:ISBN
10231:2018
10193:2015
10081:ISBN
10032:ISBN
9961:ISBN
9910:ISBN
9821:2017
9795:2018
9708:Sejm
9490:2021
9464:2012
9430:ynet
9251:and
9240:YIVO
9143:100%
9123:2010
9120:2000
9117:1990
9114:1980
9111:1970
9108:1960
9105:1951
9102:1946
9099:1945
9096:1939
9093:1921
9090:Year
8990:The
8897:The
8880:ohel
8650:see
8638:Arab
8480:NKVD
8418:and
8200:and
8198:Oder
8148:and
8142:Łódź
7972:The
7960:see:
7950:and
7945:see:
7716:The
7632:The
7444:Lviv
7378:and
7234:Jude
7057:NKVD
6943:The
6912:The
6706:Łuck
6624:The
6559:Sejm
6455:and
6444:and
6416:YIVO
6293:and
6257:and
6249:and
6200:Sejm
6122:Lwów
6118:Łódź
6083:and
5906:Łódź
5819:and
5770:Bund
5634:any
5632:cite
5497:and
5491:Kyiv
5433:pale
5417:pale
5413:Jews
5359:The
5300:any
5298:cite
4959:and
4933:ReMA
4724:and
4692:and
4615:and
4609:Lwów
4605:Kyiv
4603:and
4518:Rema
4463:and
4451:and
4418:and
4314:Lviv
4306:Łuck
4296:and
4177:Lvov
4069:and
4043:Kyiv
4006:and
3935:and
3933:Kyiv
3771:and
3748:and
3671:and
3651:The
3020:Guam
3015:Fiji
2970:Peru
2923:Cuba
2609:Oman
2579:Laos
2539:Iraq
2534:Iran
2491:Asia
2420:Igbo
2391:Mali
1410:Brit
1319:and
1317:Jews
688:Rema
603:Kupa
499:Łódź
327:Sanz
16724:. (
16327:in
16185:134
16150:doi
15619:doi
14601:on
14165:In:
13926:489
13880:353
13007:doi
12969:doi
12462:by
10673:, "
10534:146
9906:245
9259:in
8925:'s
8882:).
8251:on
8119:).
7965:).
7923:or
7854:34
7780:ŻOB
7776:ŻZW
7578:or
7430:in
7414:in
7191:or
7167:at
7040:).
6982:in
6900:or
6588:'s
6496:or
6382:),
6336:).
6186:or
6166:to
5645:by
5514:by
5311:by
5054:Ger
4821:lin
4809:God
4801:lan
4783:in
4779:or
4755:in
4496:in
4251:to
4109:of
3711:'s
3234:Art
1580:Tur
1372:613
297:Ger
64:in
19142::
17295:,
17149:,
17138:,
17127:,
17090:.
17054:64
17052:,
17048:.
16996:.
16962:.
16940:.
16908:.
16898:.
16738:,
16734:,
16712:.
16638:,
16620:,
16591:.
16566:.
16540:.
16515:.
16473:^
16443:.
16356:.
16313:^
16274:.
16248:.
16222:.
16187:.
16156:.
16146:19
16144:.
16108:.
16085:.
16062:,
16054:.
16039:^
16029:.
16014:^
15960:.
15915:^
15893:.
15875:18
15873:.
15861:^
15831:^
15801:^
15748:41
15746:.
15742:.
15726:^
15683:^
15647:^
15633:.
15625:.
15615:18
15613:.
15601:^
15556:^
15517:^
15462:.
15427:^
15285:.
15250:.
15226:^
15137:.
15077:^
15034:.
15030:.
15003:.
14889:^
14877:}}
14873:{{
14701:^
14618:.
14572:.
14556:,
14532:,
14486:.
14433:^
14378:.
14319:.
14315:.
14248:.
14133:.
13928:.
13882:.
13848:,
13822:.
13760:.
13732:,
13610:^
13581:.
13560:^
13488:.
13476:^
13403:^
13279:.
13267:^
13249:.
13237:^
13227:.
13197:.
13146:^
13110:,
13046:^
12983:.
12975:.
12965:19
12963:.
12959:.
12945:^
12897:,
12851:,
12822:,
12792:,
12775:,
12690:.
12678:^
12654:}}
12650:{{
12576:.
12551:,
12504:,
12494:^
12466:,
12192:,
12159:,
12143:,
12126:.
12029:,
12019:^
11975:.
11763:.
11734:^
11724:.
11706:.
11688:.
11637:,
11597:,
11525:.
11496:.
11492:.
11463:,
11432:,
11366:^
11335:,
11231:,
11214:^
11192:.
11141:.
11123:,
11028:^
10991:^
10981:.
10949:^
10900:^
10842:^
10824:.
10742:,
10701:,
10650:^
10593:.
10561:.
10502:.
10472:.
10436:^
10422:.
10374:^
10335:,
10306:.
10289:,
10272:.
10222:.
10183:.
10152:^
10130:.
10102:.
10065:^
10042:^
10017:^
9997:^
9975:^
9928:^
9918:.
9908:.
9878:,
9868:^
9840:,
9836:,
9781:.
9761:,
9718:,
9592:^
9571:^
9555:^
9545:.
9492:.
9481:.
9446:.
9428:.
9402:^
9385:^
9028:,
9006:.
8954:,
8936:pl
8918:.
8910:.
8835:,
8813:,
8809:,
8805:,
8580:,
8448:,
8444:,
8440:,
8267:.
8164:.
8140:,
8064::
7941:AK
7822:,
7818:—
7811:SS
7786:.
7753:.
7516:.
7446:,
7438:,
7434:,
7426:,
7422:,
7418:,
7374:,
7370:,
7366:,
7362:,
7250:,
7199:.
7183:,
7179:,
7175:,
7171:,
7130:.
6986:,
6963:.
6904:.
6853:,
6697:.
6668:.
6479:.
6448:.
6390:,
6386:,
6374:,
6362:,
6326:,
6301:,
6289:,
6285:,
6281:,
6277:,
6273:,
6245:,
6241:,
6237:,
6170:.
6043:.
5737:A
5713:,
5507:.
5493:,
5482:.
5474:,
5470:,
5466:,
5462:,
5401:,
5397::
5393:,
5387:,
5383::
5379:,
5373:,
5369::
5193:,
5056:,
5052:,
5048:,
5044:,
4997:.
4858:,
4817:po
4807:("
4805:ya
4797:po
4720:,
4599:,
4595:,
4591:,
4575:.
4532:,
4414:,
4292:,
4065:,
3999:.
3834:.
3799:,
3715:.
1847:,
1841:,
1811:,
1807:,
1803:,
1799:,
1311:on
127:,
123:,
119:,
18958:e
18951:t
18944:v
18316:e
18309:t
18302:v
17734:e
17727:t
17720:v
17328:e
17321:t
17314:v
17098:.
16970:.
16923:.
16890:.
16855:.
16750:.
16728:)
16701:.
16682:.
16652:.
16632:.
16603:.
16577:.
16551:.
16526:.
16454:.
16429:.
16407:.
16368:.
16285:.
16260:.
16234:.
16197:.
16152::
16112:.
16033:.
15989:.
15909:.
15855:.
15825:.
15758:.
15677:.
15641:.
15621::
15595:.
15511:.
15485:.
15421:.
15383:.
15341:.
15319:.
15258:.
15206:.
15176:.
15152:.
15146:,
15135:.
15071:.
14955:.
14883:)
14854:.
14827:.
14790:.
14725:.
14655:.
14576:.
14511:.
14471:.
14388:.
14327:.
14300:.
14286:.
14264:.
14179:.
14137:.
14072:.
13967:.
13938:.
13892:.
13826:.
13808:.
13764:.
13591:.
13529:.
13502:.
13316:.
13290:.
13261:.
13231:.
13213:.
13140:.
13009::
12991:.
12971::
12806:"
12753:.
12660:)
12646:.
12590:.
12520:.
12429:.
12407:.
12381:.
12354:.
12327:.
12287:.
12260:.
12077:.
12013:.
11986:.
11946:.
11917:.
11890:.
11792:.
11728:.
11710:.
11692:.
11539:.
11506:.
11419:.
11378:.
11322:.
11257:.
11179:.
11145:.
11061:.
11022:.
10968:.
10931:.
10836:.
10785:.
10677:"
10604:.
10579:.
10546:.
10513:.
10483:.
10408:.
10322:.
10258:.
10233:.
10195:.
10134:.
10089:.
9969:.
9823:.
9797:.
9466:.
9432:.
9145:)
9141:(
8875:(
8495:(
8060:(
7505:.
6990:.
6650:(
6330:(
6320:(
5672:)
5666:(
5661:)
5657:(
5653:.
5639:.
5365:(
5338:)
5332:(
5327:)
5323:(
5319:.
5305:.
3735:(
3640:e
3633:t
3626:v
2474:)
2470:(
2422:)
2418:(
1891:)
1887:(
1853:)
1836:(
1829:)
1824:(
1815:)
1795:(
1738:)
1727:(
1717:)
1706:(
1374:)
1359:)
1293:e
1286:t
1279:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.