382:) assess "distinctness", "uniformity", and "stability". But since some heritage cultivars are not necessarily uniform from plant to plant, or indeed within a single plant—a single cultivar—this has been a sticking point. "Distinctness" has been a problem, moreover, because many cultivars have several names, perhaps coming from different areas or countries (e.g., carrot cultivar Long Surrey Red is also known as "Red Intermediate", "St. Valery", and "Chertsey"). However, it has been ascertained that some of these varieties that look similar are in fact different cultivars. On the other hand, two that were known to be different cultivars were almost identical to each other, thus one would be dropped from the national list in order to clean it up.
488:. Biopiracy may negatively impact communities that grow these heirloom varieties through loss of profits and livelihoods, as well as litigation. One infamous example is the case of Enola bean patent, in which a Texas corporation collected heirloom Mexican varieties of the scarlet runner bean and patented them, and then sued the farmers who had supplied the seeds in the first place to prevent them from exporting their crops to the US. The 'Enola' bean was granted 20-year patent protection in 1999, but subsequently underwent numerous legal challenges on the grounds that the bean was not a novel variety. In 2004,
406:
rights, the Plant
Variety Protection Act of 1970 (PVPA) shields non-hybrid, seed-propagated plants. However, seed breeders can only shelter their variety for 20 years under PVPA. There are also a couple of exceptions under the PVPA which allow growers to cultivate, save seeds, and sell the resultant crops, and give breeders allowances to use PVPA protected varieties as starter material as long as it constitutes less than half of the breeding material. There are also seed licenses which may place restrictions on the use of seeds or trademarks that guard against the use of certain plant variety names.
118:
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129:, a much wider variety of plant foods were grown for human consumption, largely due to farmers and gardeners saving seeds and cuttings for future planting. From the 16th century through the early 20th century, the diversity was huge. Old nursery catalogues were filled with plums, peaches, pears and apples of numerous varieties, and seed catalogs offered legions of vegetable varieties. Valuable and carefully selected seeds were sold and traded using these catalogs along with useful advice on cultivation. Since World War II, agriculture in the
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and encouraging community participation. Heirloom varieties are an increasingly popular way for gardeners and small farmers to connect with traditional forms of agriculture and the crops grown in these systems. Growers also cite lower costs associated with purchasing seeds, improved taste, and perceived improved nutritional quality as reasons for growing heirlooms. In many countries, hundreds or even thousands of heirloom varieties are commercially available for purchase or can be obtained through
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800 varieties grown on the farm. This infuriated customers as well as members of the general public, many of whom spoke out against what was seen as an overly strict interpretation of the law. The scandal further escalated with a series of hearings held by agency officials, during which residents called for a reexamination of seed registration laws and demanded greater citizen participation in legal and political matters relating to agriculture.
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not support the claim that heirloom varieties generally contain a greater concentration of nutrients; however, nutrient concentration and composition does appear to vary between different cultivars. Nevertheless, heirloom varieties may still contain the genetic basis for useful traits that can be employed to improve modern crops, including for human nutritional qualities.
615:, many of which are hybrid varieties. Monocrop systems tend to be vulnerable to disease and pest outbreaks, which can decimate whole industries due to the genetic similarity between plants. Some organizations have employed seed banks and vaults to preserve and protect crop genetics against catastrophic loss. One of the most notable of these seed banks is the
438:, breeds and maintains a selection of traditional crops from the region, seeking to "preserve and promote heritage and threatened seed varieties, traditional Palestinian farming practices, and the cultural stories and identities associated with them." Some scholars have additionally framed the increasing control of Israeli
422:", and that a Seed Act of 2004 requires the library staff to test each seed packet for germination rate and whether the seed was true to type. In 2016 the department reversed this decision, and clarified that seed libraries and non-commercial seed exchanges are not subject to the requirements of the Seed Act.
434:, some heirloom growers and seed savers see themselves as contributing a form of resistance against the privatization of agriculture, while also telling stories of their ancestors, defying violence, and encouraging rebellion. The Palestinian Heirloom Seed Library (PHSL), founded by writer and activist
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Some debate has occurred regarding the perceived improved nutritional qualities of heirloom varieties compared to modern cultivars. Anecdotal reports claim that heirloom vegetables are more nutritious or contain more vitamins and minerals than more recently developed vegetables. Current research does
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when two undercover investigators from the
Latvian State Plant Protection Agency charged an independent farm with the illegal sale of unregistered heirloom tomato seeds. The agency suggested that the farm choose a small number of varieties to officially register and to abandon the other approximately
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to shut down and promised to curtail any similar efforts in the state. The lending library, hosted by a town library, allowed gardeners to "check out" a package of open-pollinated seed, and "return" seeds kept from the crop grown from those seeds. The
Department of Agriculture said that this activity
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In the UK and Europe, it is thought that many heritage vegetable varieties (perhaps over 2,000) have been lost since the 1970s, when EEC (now EU) laws were passed making it illegal to sell any vegetable cultivar not on the national list of any EEC country. This was set up to help in eliminating seed
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suppliers selling one seed as another, guarantee the seeds were true to type, and that they germinated consistently. Thus, there were stringent tests to assess varieties, with a view to ensuring they remain the same from one generation to the next. However, unique varieties were lost for posterity.
172:
In the 21st century, numerous community groups all over the world are working to preserve historic varieties to make a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, herbs, and flowers available again to the home gardener, by renovating old orchards, sourcing historic fruit varieties, engaging in seed swaps,
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located in
Svalbard, Norway, which safeguards approximately 1.2 million seed samples with capacity for up to 4.5 million. Some writers and farmers have criticized the apparent reliance on seed vaults, however, and argue that heirloom and rare varieties are better protected against extinction when
500:
Native communities in the United States and Mexico have drawn particular attention to the importance of traditional and culturally appropriate seed supplies. The
Traditional Native American Farmers Association (TNAFA) is an Indigenous organization aiming to "revitalize traditional agriculture for
212:, may affect heirlooms more significantly than non-heirloom crops. Heirloom varieties may also be more delicate and perishable. In recent years, research has been conducted into improving the disease resistance of heirlooms, particularly tomatoes, by crossing them with resistant hybrid varieties.
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Additionally, there is another category of cultivars that could be classified as "commercial heirlooms": cultivars that were introduced many generations ago and were of such merit that they have been saved, maintained and handed down—even if the seed company has gone out of business or otherwise
405:
There are a variety of intellectual property protections and laws that are applied to heirloom seeds, which can often differ greatly between states. Plant patents are based on the Plant Patent Act of 1930, which protects plants grown from cuttings and division, while under intellectual property
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can be considered heirloom cultivars. Another important point of discussion is that without the ongoing growing and storage of heirloom plants, the seed companies and the government will control all seed distribution. Most, if not all, hybrid plants, if they do not have sterile seeds and can be
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More attention is being put on heirloom plants as a way to restore genetic diversity and feed a growing population while safeguarding the food supply of diverse regions. Specific heirloom plants are often selected, saved, and planted again because of their superior performance in a particular
525:
is credited with the first usage of the term "food sovereignty" and campaigns for agrarian reform, seed freedom, and farmers' rights. It currently represents more than 150 social movement organizations in 56 countries. Numerous other organizations and collectives worldwide participate in food
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Indigenous peoples are also at the forefront of the seed rematriation movement to bring lost seed varieties back to their traditional stewards. Rematriation efforts are frequently directed at institutions such as universities, museums, and seed banks, which may hold
Indigenous seeds in their
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Another problem has been the fact that it is somewhat expensive to register and then maintain a cultivar on a national list. Therefore, if no seed breeder or supplier thinks it will sell well, no one will maintain it on a list, and so the seed will not be re-bred by commercial seed breeders.
275:
Writer and author
Jennifer A. Jordan describes the term "heirloom" as a culturally constructed concept that is only relevant due to the relatively recent loss of many crop varieties: "It is only with the rise of industrial agriculture that practice of treating food as a literal heirloom has
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plots. In order to maximize consistency, few varieties of each type of crop are grown. These varieties are often selected for their productivity and their ability to ripen at the same time while withstanding mechanical picking and cross-country shipping, as well as their tolerance to
1965:
Khoury, Colin K.; Brush, Stephen; Costich, Denise E.; Curry, Helen Anne; de Haan, Stef; Engels, Johannes M. M.; Guarino, Luigi; Hoban, Sean; Mercer, Kristin L.; Miller, Allison J.; Nabhan, Gary P.; Perales, Hugo R.; Richards, Chris; Riggins, Chance; Thormann, Imke (January 2022).
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When heirloom plants are not being sold, however, laws are often more lenient. Because most heirloom plants are at least 50 years old and grown and swapped in a family or community they fall under the public domain. Another worldwide alternative is to submit heirloom seeds to a
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spiritual and human need" and advocating for traditional methods of growing, preparing, and consuming plants. In concert with other organizations, TNAFA has also drafted a formal
Declaration of Seed Sovereignty and worked with legislators to protect Indigenous heritage seeds.
473:. These genes have been investigated for their usefulness in increasing drought and salt tolerance and disease resistance, as well as improving flavor, in commercial tomatoes. The American genomics development company Evolutionary Genomics identified genes found in
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and roughly the beginning of widespread hybrid use by growers and seed companies. Many gardeners consider 1951 to be the latest year a plant could have originated and still be called an heirloom, since that year marked the widespread introduction of the first
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267:. They may also require open-pollinated varieties to have been bred and stabilized using classic breeding practices. While there is currently one genetically modified tomato available to home growers, it is generally agreed that no
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techniques were used to demonstrate that 'Enola' was functionally identical to a yellow bean grown in Mexico known as
Azufrado Peruano 87. The case has been widely cited as a prime example of biopiracy and misapplication of
276:
disappeared in many parts of the world—and that is precisely when the heirloom label emerges. ...he concept of an heirloom becomes possible only in the context of the loss of actual heirloom varieties, of increased
224:
to describe a seed variety was first used in the 1930s by horticulturist and vegetable grower J.R. Hepler to describe bean varieties handed down through families. However, the current definition and use of the word
583:—that 'purebred' dog with the convoluted nose that snorts and hacks when it tries to catch a breath" and claims that selection for unique size, shape, color, and flavor has hampered disease resistance and
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397:. These public repositories in turn maintain and disperse these genetics to anyone who will use them appropriately. Typically, approved uses are breeding, study, and sometimes, further distribution.
1311:
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366:, where they were once planted at gravesites by mourners and left undisturbed in the decades since. Modern production methods and the rise in population have largely supplanted this practice.
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in its truest sense. Under this interpretation, a true heirloom is a cultivar that has been nurtured, selected, and handed down from one family member to another for many generations.
389:
In recent years, progress has been made in the UK to set up allowances and less stringent tests for heritage varieties on a B national list, but this is still under consideration.
1631:
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842:
538:; the African Center for Biodiversity (ACB), the Coalition for the Protection of African Genetic Heritage (COPAGEN), and the West African Peasant Seed Committee (COASP) in
799:
Powledge, F. (1995). "The food supply's safety net: If global agricultural crises occurred, could the international germplasm community survive a run on its genebanks?".
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locality. Over many crop cycles these plants develop unique adaptive qualities to their environment, which empowers local communities and can be vital to maintaining the
66:
In some parts of the world, it is illegal to sell seeds of cultivars that are not listed as approved for sale. The Henry
Doubleday Research Association, now known as
611:, which has generally declined since the middle of the 20th century. Heirloom crops may contain genetic material that is distinct from varieties typically grown in
1015:
575:'To keep seeds alive, clear, strong and open-pollinated, purity as the idea of a single pure race must be understood as the ironic insistence of imperial minds.
521:, farmers' rights, and seed sovereignty frequently overlap with the promotion and usage of heirloom crop varieties. International peasant farmers' organization
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varieties. It was in the 1970s that hybrid seeds began to proliferate in the commercial seed trade. Some heirloom varieties are much older; some are apparently
149:
While heirloom gardening has maintained a niche community, in recent years it has seen a resurgence in response to the industrial agriculture trend. In the
975:
236:. For instance, one school says the cultivar must be over 100 years old, others 50 years, and others prefer the date of 1945, which marks the end of
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dropped the line. Additionally, many old commercial releases have actually been family heirlooms that a seed company obtained and introduced.
509:, the largest publicly accessible seed bank in the United States, rematriated several heirloom seed varieties back to Indigenous communities.
557:
Other writers have pushed back against the promotion and proliferation of heirloom crop varieties, connecting their usage to the impacts of
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698:
1400:"We Are All Seeds: Heirloom Seed Saving, Multispecies Justice, and Resisting Colonial Erasures in the Occupied Palestinian Territories"
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that may increase sweetness by up to 25% and as of 2023 has filed an international patent application on the usage of these genes.
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regrown, will not be the same as the original hybrid plant, thus ensuring the dependency on seed distributors for future crops.
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410:
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stated that "Seed is the source of life. Seed is the source of food. To protect food freedom, we must protect seed freedom."
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of a plant used for food that is grown and maintained by gardeners and farmers, particularly in isolated communities of the
2075:
1913:"Variation of mineral nutrient contents of modern and heirloom cultivars of cabbage in different regimes of soil fertility"
1752:
1429:"Latvia's Tomato Rebellion: Nested Environmental Justice and Returning Eco-Sociality in the Post-Socialist Eu Countryside"
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1874:
1834:"Pursuing the Potential of Heirloom Cultivars to Improve Adaptation, Nutritional, and Culinary Features of Food Crops"
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Regardless of a person's specific interpretation, most authorities agree that heirlooms, by definition, must be
109:. The trend of growing heirloom plants in gardens has been returning in popularity in North America and Europe.
469:, genes from heirloom tomato varieties and wild tomato relatives have been the subject of patent claims by the
323:
1804:
268:
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527:
1911:
Barker, Allen V.; Eaton, Touria E.; Meagy, Md J.; Jahanzad, Emad; Bryson, Gretchen M. (6 September 2017).
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Gardening with Heirloom Seeds: Tried-and-True Flowers, Fruits, & Vegetables for a New Generation
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actively planted and grown than stored away with no immediate influence on crop genetic diversity.
358:
The heritage fruit trees that exist today are clonally descended from trees of antiquity. Heirloom
308:
197:
312:
893:
Heirloom plants : a complete compendium of heritage vegetables, fruits, herbs & flowers
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60:
1124:
579:" Writer and journalist Brendan Borrell calls heirloom tomatoes "the tomato equivalent of the
117:
2330:
2216:
2049:
688:
518:
470:
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collection that are inaccessible to the communities from which they originate. In 2018, the
1924:
1669:
1632:"Protecting Our Living Relatives: Environmental Reproductive Justice and Seed Rematriation"
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506:
414:
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8:
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are sometimes collected (nondestructively as small cuttings) from vintage homes and from
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as fewer people grow their own food, or at least know the people who grow their food."
186:
154:
101:, while fruit varieties such as apples have been propagated over the centuries through
56:
1206:"Gardeners can now grow a genetically modified purple tomato made with snapdragon DNA"
775:
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2009:
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Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources Nebraska Extension in Lancaster County
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546:, and the Southeast Asia Regional Initiatives for Community Empowerment (SEARICE) in
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1979:
1932:
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741:, a specific class of Japanese heirloom vegetables originating around Kyoto, Japan.
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242:
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98:
94:
1936:
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181:, seed swaps, or community events. Heirloom varieties may also be well suited for
2172:
1444:
639:
106:
2186:
1912:
974:
Gusti Ayu Fransiska Sri Rahajeng Kusuma Dewi; Verónica Argelis Gonzaléz (2015).
252:
Another way of defining heirloom cultivars is to use the definition of the word
2345:
1373:
608:
435:
419:
174:
162:
67:
2126:
Cavagnaro, Sue Stickland; foreword by Alan Gear; photographs by David (1998).
1968:"Crop genetic erosion: understanding and responding to loss of crop diversity"
1475:"TWN Biopiracy Watch Briefing – The patent pillage of Andean tomato diversity"
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1993:
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146:. This form of agriculture has led to a 75% drop in crop genetic diversity.
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2001:
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166:
150:
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1551:"The Enola Bean Patent Controversy: Biopiracy, Novelty and Fish-And-Chips"
74:
to preserve seeds of as many of the older cultivars as possible. However,
723:
558:
134:
126:
87:
2128:
Heritage vegetables : the gardener's guide to cultivating diversity
1233:
Edible memory: the lure of heirloom tomatoes & other forgotten foods
820:
703:
634:
158:
1984:
1967:
1345:
Seed Libraries in Pennsylvania Allowed to Engage in Free Seed Exchange
442:
corporations over Palestinian seed supplies as an attempt to suppress
1104:. University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Food and Environment
733:
550:. In a 2022 BBC interview, Indian environmental activist and scholar
485:
484:
crop varieties and their stewards are sometimes subject to theft and
233:
178:
143:
75:
1602:
812:
542:; and the Alliance for Sustainable and Holistic Agriculture (ASHA),
297:
169:, the majority of produce grown in the United States was heirlooms.
1499:
1264:. Zystro, Jared,, Buttala, Lee Alan,, Siegel, Shanyn. Decorah, IA.
738:
728:
693:
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481:
394:
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102:
83:
48:
1805:"How to Grow a Better Tomato: The Case Against Heirloom Tomatoes"
530:, Food Secure Canada, and the Latin American Seeds Collective in
466:
447:
139:
2192:
FDA Statement of Policy - Foods Derived from New Plant Varieties
1832:
Dwivedi, Sangam; Goldman, Irwin; Ortiz, Rodomiro (August 2019).
1236:. Chicago London: The University of Chicago Press. p. 328.
940:
Urban homesteading : heirloom skills for sustainable living
865:"Fruit Varieties Available in Victoria During the 19th Century"
539:
454:
24:
1658:"La VĂa Campesina and its Global Campaign for Agrarian Reform"
153:, heirloom plants are still widely grown, for example, in the
133:
has mostly consisted of food crops which are grown in large,
1875:"Why You Should Grow Heirloom Seeds • The Prairie Homestead"
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462:
359:
2201:
1779:"Stop obsessing over heirloom seeds and let plants change"
1262:
The seed garden : the art and practice of seed saving
196:
A primary drawback to growing heirloom varieties is lower
19:
2076:"Op-ed: Saving Heirloom Seeds Can Protect Crop Diversity"
1704:"'Keeping seeds in our hands': the rise of seed activism"
1312:"Department of Agriculture cracks down on seed libraries"
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Heirloom varieties are also critical to promoting global
580:
232:
One school of thought places an age or date point on the
1910:
969:
967:
835:"Colombia farmers' uprising puts the spotlight on seeds"
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Transactions of the Illinois State Horticultural Society
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In January 2012, a conflict over seed access erupted in
1964:
1255:
1253:
762:"Seed Savers Exchange: preserving our genetic heritage"
82:
against catastrophic loss. In some jurisdictions, like
1578:"DNA Fingerprinting Identifies Bean in Patent Dispute"
1151:"Breeding disease-resistant heirloom-quality tomatoes"
964:
1250:
1071:. University of Massachusetts Amherst. 16 April 2013
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1831:
1702:Peschard, Karine; Randeria, Shalini (6 June 2020).
1003:
369:
70:, responded to this legislation by setting up the
1069:Center for Agriculture, Food, and the Environment
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1701:
2180:from the Home and Garden Information Center at
1607:Traditional Native American Farmers Association
1305:
1303:
1259:
1012:"Heirlooms Passed Down By Seed Savers Exchange"
937:
78:alone have not been able to provide sufficient
1753:"Vandana Shiva on why the food we eat matters"
2217:
1309:
976:"Conserving Traditional Seed Crops Diversity"
47:(especially in Ireland and the UK) is an old
27:are commercially grown; others are heirlooms.
2150:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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1009:
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699:List of organic gardening and farming topics
204:varieties. Common disease problems, such as
1014:. Nebraska Educational Telecommunications.
326:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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2187:FAO/IAEA Programme Mutant Variety Database
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1292:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
942:. Blume, K. Ruby. New York: Skyhorse Pub.
923:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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86:, laws have been proposed that would make
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1983:
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1656:Borras, Saturnino M. Jr (25 April 2008).
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1529:Native American Food Sovereignty Alliance
895:. Harrison, Lorraine. Chicago, Illinois.
346:Learn how and when to remove this message
93:Many heirloom vegetables have kept their
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229:to describe plants is fiercely debated.
200:compared to many commercially available
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1500:"Tomato Sweetness & Salt Tolerance"
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561:. Quoting American author and educator
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983:United Nations Sustainable Development
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2074:Curry, Helen Anne (27 January 2022).
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1427:Aistara, Guntra A. (2 January 2014).
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1018:from the original on 25 December 2014
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1898:North Carolina Cooperative Extension
1894:"Heirloom vs. Hybrid Vegetable Seed"
1204:Woodruff, Sasha (February 6, 2024).
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1043:North Carolina Cooperative Extension
526:sovereignty activism, including the
324:adding citations to reliable sources
291:
23:Only a few of the many varieties of
2103:
2025:"How (and Why) to Be a Seed Savior"
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1398:Johnston, Jessica (18 April 2023).
1155:Organic Farming Research Foundation
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55:. These were commonly grown during
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1892:Solomon, Matt (13 February 2023).
1803:Borrell, Brendan (30 March 2009).
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1010:Boden, Sarah (September 8, 2014).
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14:
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2197:DEFRA - Plant varieties and seeds
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1873:Winger, Jill (22 February 2022).
1374:"Palestine Heirloom Seed Library"
1324:from the original on May 20, 2017
845:from the original on 30 July 2014
1777:Smith, Chris (18 October 2023).
1682:10.1111/j.1471-0366.2008.00170.x
1525:"Indigenous SeedKeepers Network"
1348:, March 15, 2016, archived from
1177:"America's Youngest Seed Grower"
1131:. University of Nebraska-Lincoln
1037:Smith, Hanna (18 October 2016).
652:
370:UK and EU law and national lists
296:
125:Before the industrialization of
121:A selection of heirloom tomatoes
57:earlier periods in human history
43:(Australia and New Zealand), or
2023:Castaldo, Nancy (29 May 2018).
1751:BBC Travel (24 February 2022).
1695:
1555:Duke Law Scholarship Repository
1336:
1310:Naomi Creason (July 31, 2014).
1197:
1102:Center for Crop Diversification
1039:"Heirloom Vegetables and Seeds"
992:from the original on 2020-05-19
425:
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2166:What is an heirloom vegetable?
1708:The Journal of Peasant Studies
1065:"Heirloom Vegetable Varieties"
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269:genetically modified organisms
1:
1937:10.1080/01904167.2017.1346682
1721:10.1080/03066150.2020.1753705
1093:Kaiser, Cheryl; Ernst, Matt.
746:
59:, but are not used in modern
2050:"Svalbard Global Seed Vault"
1445:10.1080/01629778.2013.836831
1230:Jordan, Jennifer A. (2015).
528:US Food Sovereignty Alliance
7:
2231:
1576:Bailey, Pat (27 May 2008).
645:
623:
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418:raises the possibility of "
16:Historic food crop cultivar
10:
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1917:Journal of Plant Nutrition
1662:Journal of Agrarian Change
1479:Third World Network Berhad
617:Svalbard Global Seed Vault
571:, Chris Smith writes that
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1433:Journal of Baltic Studies
1404:Environmental History Now
590:
112:
1260:Colley, Micaela (2015).
938:Kaplan, Rachel. (2011).
446:and as a form of subtle
1851:10.3390/agronomy9080441
774:: 80–84. Archived from
61:large-scale agriculture
2130:. London: Gaia Books.
1900:. NC State University.
122:
28:
1879:The Prairie Homestead
1504:Evolutionary Genomics
1125:"What are Heirlooms?"
1095:"Heirloom Vegetables"
1045:. NC State University
891:Etty, Thomas (2016).
689:Association Kokopelli
517:Activism surrounding
471:University of Florida
120:
72:Heritage Seed Library
22:
1549:Rattray, Gillian N.
841:. 3 September 2014.
684:History of gardening
507:Seed Savers Exchange
480:Native heirloom and
415:seed-lending library
378:These tests (called
320:improve this section
131:industrialized world
2321:Domesticated plants
2274:The Non-GMO Project
2178:Heirloom Vegetables
1929:2017JPlaN..40.2432B
1809:Scientific American
1674:2008JAgrC...8..258B
1630:Hoover, Elizabeth.
760:Whealy, K. (1990).
679:Community gardening
2300:Ecological farming
2182:Clemson University
2171:2013-06-06 at the
630:Bhutanese red rice
565:in his article in
490:DNA fingerprinting
475:Galapagos tomatoes
198:disease resistance
123:
45:heirloom vegetable
29:
2308:
2307:
1985:10.1111/nph.17733
1923:(17): 2432–2439.
1473:Hammond, Edward.
1352:on April 14, 2016
1271:978-0-9884749-1-8
949:978-1-61608-054-9
902:978-1-61373-575-6
871:on 22 March 2014.
719:Recalcitrant seed
598:genetic resources
356:
355:
348:
282:industrialization
2353:
2336:Food sovereignty
2295:Organic movement
2226:
2219:
2212:
2203:
2202:
2155:
2149:
2141:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2110:. Archived from
2091:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2071:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2037:
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2020:
2014:
2013:
1987:
1962:
1956:
1955:
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1951:
1908:
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1870:
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1765:
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1748:
1742:
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1723:
1699:
1693:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1668:(2–3): 258–289.
1653:
1647:
1646:
1644:
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1627:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1599:
1593:
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1496:
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1470:
1464:
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1424:
1415:
1414:
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1410:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1370:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1307:
1298:
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1291:
1283:
1257:
1248:
1247:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1181:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1147:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1123:Browning, Sara.
1120:
1114:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1099:
1090:
1081:
1080:
1078:
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1061:
1055:
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1034:
1028:
1027:
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1023:
1007:
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1000:
998:
997:
991:
980:
971:
962:
961:
935:
929:
928:
922:
914:
888:
873:
872:
867:. Archived from
861:
855:
854:
852:
850:
831:
825:
824:
796:
787:
786:
784:
783:
757:
662:
660:Gardening portal
657:
656:
613:monocrop systems
578:
574:
523:La Via Campesina
444:food sovereignty
351:
344:
340:
337:
331:
300:
292:
288:Collection sites
183:market gardening
99:open pollination
90:itself illegal.
37:heirloom variety
2361:
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2356:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2351:
2350:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2304:
2278:
2262:
2236:
2230:
2173:Wayback Machine
2162:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2117:
2115:
2104:Coulter, Lynn.
2100:
2098:Further reading
2095:
2094:
2084:
2082:
2072:
2068:
2058:
2056:
2048:
2047:
2043:
2033:
2031:
2021:
2017:
1972:New Phytologist
1963:
1959:
1949:
1947:
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1890:
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1867:
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1823:
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1801:
1797:
1787:
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1700:
1696:
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1531:
1523:
1522:
1518:
1508:
1506:
1498:
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1483:
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1471:
1467:
1457:
1455:
1425:
1418:
1408:
1406:
1396:
1392:
1382:
1380:
1372:
1371:
1364:
1355:
1353:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1327:
1325:
1308:
1301:
1285:
1284:
1272:
1258:
1251:
1244:
1228:
1224:
1214:
1212:
1202:
1198:
1188:
1186:
1179:
1175:Hepler, Billy.
1173:
1169:
1159:
1157:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1134:
1132:
1121:
1117:
1107:
1105:
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1058:
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1046:
1035:
1031:
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989:
978:
972:
965:
950:
936:
932:
916:
915:
903:
889:
876:
863:
862:
858:
848:
846:
833:
832:
828:
813:10.2307/1312415
797:
790:
781:
779:
758:
754:
749:
744:
658:
651:
648:
640:Heirloom tomato
626:
593:
576:
572:
563:MartĂn Prechtel
515:
428:
403:
372:
352:
341:
335:
332:
317:
301:
290:
265:open-pollinated
218:
187:farmer's market
115:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2359:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2306:
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2297:
2292:
2286:
2284:
2280:
2279:
2277:
2276:
2270:
2268:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2260:
2258:Heirloom plant
2255:
2250:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2237:
2229:
2228:
2221:
2214:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2175:
2161:
2160:External links
2158:
2157:
2156:
2136:
2123:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2066:
2041:
2015:
1957:
1903:
1884:
1865:
1821:
1795:
1769:
1743:
1714:(4): 613–647.
1694:
1648:
1619:
1594:
1568:
1541:
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1491:
1465:
1439:(1): 105–130.
1416:
1390:
1378:Vivien Sansour
1362:
1335:
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826:
807:(4): 235–243.
788:
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711:
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647:
644:
643:
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637:
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625:
622:
609:crop diversity
600:of the world.
592:
589:
587:in heirlooms.
514:
511:
436:Vivien Sansour
427:
424:
420:agro-terrorism
402:
399:
371:
368:
354:
353:
304:
302:
295:
289:
286:
217:
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175:seed libraries
163:Southeast Asia
114:
111:
68:Garden Organic
41:heritage fruit
33:heirloom plant
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2267:Organizations
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2137:1-85675-033-7
2133:
2129:
2124:
2114:on 2016-03-03
2113:
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2101:
2081:
2077:
2070:
2055:
2051:
2045:
2030:
2026:
2019:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1978:(1): 84–118.
1977:
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1454:
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1446:
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1438:
1434:
1430:
1423:
1421:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1379:
1375:
1369:
1367:
1351:
1347:
1346:
1339:
1323:
1319:
1318:
1313:
1306:
1304:
1295:
1289:
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1277:
1273:
1267:
1263:
1256:
1254:
1245:
1243:9780226228105
1239:
1235:
1234:
1226:
1215:September 12,
1211:
1207:
1200:
1185:
1178:
1171:
1156:
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1146:
1130:
1126:
1119:
1103:
1096:
1089:
1087:
1070:
1066:
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1044:
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1013:
1006:
988:
984:
977:
970:
968:
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951:
945:
941:
934:
926:
920:
912:
908:
904:
898:
894:
887:
885:
883:
881:
879:
870:
866:
860:
844:
840:
836:
830:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
795:
793:
778:on 2014-03-11
777:
773:
769:
768:
763:
756:
752:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
709:Orthodox seed
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
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621:
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614:
610:
605:
601:
599:
588:
586:
582:
570:
569:
564:
560:
555:
553:
552:Vandana Shiva
549:
545:
541:
537:
536:South America
533:
529:
524:
520:
510:
508:
502:
498:
496:
495:patent rights
491:
487:
483:
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
459:
456:
451:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
423:
421:
416:
412:
409:In 2014, the
407:
398:
396:
390:
387:
383:
381:
376:
367:
365:
361:
350:
347:
339:
329:
325:
321:
315:
314:
310:
305:This section
303:
299:
294:
293:
285:
283:
279:
273:
270:
266:
261:
257:
255:
250:
248:
244:
239:
235:
230:
228:
223:
213:
211:
210:fusarium wilt
207:
203:
199:
194:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
170:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
147:
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136:
132:
128:
119:
110:
108:
104:
100:
96:
91:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
64:
62:
58:
54:
53:Western world
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
26:
21:
2331:Biodiversity
2290:Natural food
2257:
2253:USDA Organic
2127:
2116:. Retrieved
2112:the original
2106:
2083:. Retrieved
2079:
2069:
2057:. Retrieved
2053:
2044:
2032:. Retrieved
2029:www.nrdc.org
2028:
2018:
1975:
1971:
1960:
1948:. Retrieved
1920:
1916:
1906:
1897:
1887:
1878:
1868:
1841:
1837:
1812:. Retrieved
1808:
1798:
1786:. Retrieved
1783:The Guardian
1782:
1772:
1760:. Retrieved
1756:
1746:
1711:
1707:
1697:
1685:. Retrieved
1665:
1661:
1651:
1639:. Retrieved
1635:
1610:. Retrieved
1606:
1597:
1585:. Retrieved
1581:
1571:
1559:. Retrieved
1554:
1544:
1532:. Retrieved
1528:
1519:
1507:. Retrieved
1503:
1494:
1482:. Retrieved
1478:
1468:
1456:. Retrieved
1436:
1432:
1407:. Retrieved
1403:
1393:
1381:. Retrieved
1377:
1354:, retrieved
1350:the original
1344:
1338:
1326:. Retrieved
1317:The Sentinel
1315:
1261:
1232:
1225:
1213:. Retrieved
1209:
1199:
1187:. Retrieved
1183:
1170:
1158:. Retrieved
1154:
1145:
1133:. Retrieved
1128:
1118:
1106:. Retrieved
1101:
1073:. Retrieved
1068:
1059:
1047:. Retrieved
1042:
1032:
1020:. Retrieved
1005:
994:. Retrieved
982:
939:
933:
892:
869:the original
859:
847:. Retrieved
838:
829:
804:
800:
780:. Retrieved
776:the original
771:
765:
755:
674:Biodiversity
669:Ark of Taste
606:
602:
594:
568:The Guardian
566:
556:
519:food justice
516:
503:
499:
479:
460:
452:
440:agribusiness
430:In disputed
429:
426:Food justice
408:
404:
401:US state law
391:
388:
384:
379:
377:
373:
357:
342:
333:
318:Please help
306:
278:urbanization
274:
262:
258:
253:
251:
247:pre-historic
238:World War II
231:
226:
221:
219:
216:Requirements
206:verticillium
195:
191:CSA programs
171:
167:World War II
155:home gardens
151:Global South
148:
142:, frost, or
135:monocultural
124:
92:
71:
65:
44:
40:
36:
32:
30:
2085:11 December
2059:11 December
2034:11 December
1950:11 December
1814:11 December
1788:11 December
1762:11 December
1757:www.bbc.com
1687:11 December
1641:11 December
1612:11 December
1587:11 December
1561:11 December
1534:11 December
1509:11 December
1484:11 December
1458:12 December
1409:11 December
1383:11 December
1328:December 2,
1189:11 December
1184:Seed Savers
1160:11 December
1135:11 December
1108:11 December
1075:11 December
1049:11 December
1022:25 December
724:Seed saving
559:colonialism
189:sales, and
127:agriculture
88:seed saving
2315:Categories
2118:2006-06-26
2080:Civil Eats
2054:Crop Trust
1844:(8): 441.
1557:. Duke Law
996:2019-12-11
801:BioScience
782:2013-02-16
747:References
714:Rare breed
704:Local food
635:Black rice
364:cemeteries
144:pesticides
76:seed banks
2341:Biopiracy
2283:Movements
2146:cite book
2010:237492439
1994:0028-646X
1945:103680100
1860:2073-4395
1738:219430613
1730:0306-6150
1603:"History"
1453:0162-9778
1356:March 31,
1288:cite book
1280:893453721
958:668194097
919:cite book
911:922631995
734:Slow Food
585:hardiness
486:biopiracy
432:Palestine
413:caused a
336:July 2019
307:does not
234:cultivars
220:The term
165:. Before
80:insurance
2169:Archived
2002:34515358
1838:Agronomy
1582:UC Davis
1322:Archived
1016:Archived
987:Archived
849:1 August
843:Archived
739:Kyoyasai
729:Seedbank
694:Landrace
646:See also
624:Examples
544:Navdanya
513:Activism
482:landrace
395:seedbank
254:heirloom
227:heirloom
222:heirloom
107:cuttings
97:through
84:Colombia
49:cultivar
2248:Non-GMO
1925:Bibcode
1670:Bibcode
821:1312415
467:Ecuador
448:ecocide
328:removed
313:sources
140:drought
2241:Labels
2134:
2008:
2000:
1992:
1943:
1858:
1736:
1728:
1636:e-flux
1451:
1278:
1268:
1240:
956:
946:
909:
899:
819:
591:Future
540:Africa
455:Latvia
243:hybrid
202:hybrid
113:Origin
103:grafts
95:traits
25:potato
2346:Crops
2006:S2CID
1941:S2CID
1734:S2CID
1180:(PDF)
1098:(PDF)
990:(PDF)
979:(PDF)
839:Grain
817:JSTOR
532:North
360:roses
179:banks
159:South
2232:Non-
2152:link
2132:ISBN
2087:2023
2061:2023
2036:2023
1998:PMID
1990:ISSN
1952:2023
1856:ISSN
1816:2023
1790:2023
1764:2023
1726:ISSN
1689:2023
1643:2023
1614:2023
1589:2023
1563:2023
1536:2023
1511:2023
1486:2023
1460:2023
1449:ISSN
1411:2023
1385:2023
1358:2016
1330:2014
1294:link
1276:OCLC
1266:ISBN
1238:ISBN
1217:2024
1191:2023
1162:2023
1137:2023
1110:2023
1077:2023
1051:2023
1024:2014
954:OCLC
944:ISBN
925:link
907:OCLC
897:ISBN
851:2014
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