Health and environmental impact of the coal industry

804: 1171:. Every year, the burning of coal without the use of available pollution control technology causes thousands of preventable deaths in the United States. A study commissioned by the Maryland nurses association in 2006 found that emissions from just six of Maryland's coal-burning plants caused 700 deaths per year nationwide, including 100 in Maryland. Since installation of pollution abatement equipment on one of these six, the Brandon Shores plant, now "produces 90 percent less nitrogen oxide, an ingredient of smog; 95 percent less sulfur, which causes acid rain; and vastly lower fractions of other pollutants." In the United States, an average of 26 coal miners per year died in the decade 2005–2014. 1246: 591:

interrupted. What becomes of the land surface after mining is determined by the manner in which the mining is conducted. Usually reclamation of disturbed lands to a land use condition is not equal to the original use. Existing land uses (such as livestock grazing, crop and timber production) are temporarily eliminated in mining areas. High-value, intensive-land-use areas like urban and transportation systems are not usually affected by mining operations. If mineral values are sufficient, these improvements may be removed to an adjacent area.

5668: 19: 852:

production of aquatic organisms used as food by other species. These changes destroy the habitat of valued species and may enhance habitat for less-desirable species. Existing conditions are already marginal for some freshwater fish in the United States, and the sedimentation of their habitat may result in their extinction. The heaviest sediment pollution of drainage normally comes within 5 to 25 years after mining. In some areas, unvegetated spoil piles continue to erode even 50 to 65 years after mining.

1090:

is caused when coal oxidizes and airflow is insufficient to dissipate heat; this more commonly occurs in stockpiles and waste piles, rarely in bedded coal underground. Where coal fires occur, there is attendant air pollution from emission of smoke and noxious fumes into the atmosphere. Coal seam fires may burn underground for decades, threatening destruction of forests, homes, roadways and other valuable infrastructure. The best-known coal-seam fire may be the one which led to the permanent evacuation of

5656: 1428: 5592: 1009: 5580: 1369:

environment than does the normal operation of a similarly productive nuclear plant. This comparison does not consider the rest of the fuel cycle, i.e., coal and uranium mining and refining and waste disposal. The operation of a 1000-MWe coal-fired power plant results in a nuclear radiation dose of 490 person-rem/year, compared to 136 person-rem/year, for an equivalent nuclear power plant including uranium mining, reactor operation and waste disposal.

1424:, in particular, has the highest number of coal mining related deaths in the world, with official statistics claiming that 6,027 deaths in 2004. To compare, 28 deaths were reported in the US in the same year. Coal production in China is twice that in the US, while the number of coal miners is around 50 times that of the US, making deaths in coal mines in China 4 times as common per worker (108 times as common per unit output) as in the US. 5644: 5616: 5604: 3729: 59: 595:

a coal strip mine. Geomorphic and geophysical features and outstanding scenic resources may be sacrificed by indiscriminate mining. Paleontological, cultural, and other historic values may be endangered due to the disruptive activities of blasting, ripping, and excavating coal. Stripping of overburden eliminates and destroys archeological and historic features, unless they are removed beforehand.

27: 654:; and increased infiltration of precipitation on spoil piles. Where coal or carbonaceous shale is present, increased infiltration may result in: increased runoff of poor-quality water and erosion from spoil piles, recharge of poor-quality water to shallow groundwater aquifers and poor-quality water flow to nearby streams. 1089:

Fires sometimes occur in coal beds underground. When coal beds are exposed, the fire risk is increased. Weathered coal can also increase ground temperatures if it is left on the surface. Almost all fires in solid coal are ignited by surface fires caused by people or lightning. Spontaneous combustion

819:

leach into groundwater from unlined ponds or landfills, and can pollute aquifers for decades or centuries. The EPA classified 44 sites in the US as potential hazards to communities. Such a classification means that the waste sites could cause death and significant property damage if an event such as

594:

Strip mining eliminates existing vegetation, destroys the genetic soil profile, displaces or destroys wildlife and habitat, alters current land uses, and to some extent permanently changes the general topography of the area mined. Adverse impacts on geological features of human interest may occur in

2687:

EPA. (2012-02-16). "National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants From Coal- and Oil-Fired Electric Utility Steam Generating Units and Standards of Performance for Fossil-Fuel-Fired Electric Utility, Industrial-Commercial-Institutional, and Small Industrial-Commercial-Institutional Steam

1284:

Coal mining releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Methane is the naturally occurring product of the decay of organic matter as coal deposits are formed with increasing depths of burial, rising temperatures, and rising pressure over geological time. A portion of the methane produced is absorbed

843:

The most direct effect on wildlife is destruction or displacement of species in areas of excavation and spoil piling. Pit and spoil areas are not capable of providing food and cover for most species of wildlife. Mobile wildlife species like game animals, birds, and predators leave these areas. More

614:

Removal of soil and rock overburden covering the coal resource may cause burial and loss of topsoil, exposes parent material, and creates large infertile wastelands. Soil disturbance and associated compaction result in conditions conducive to erosion. Soil removal from the area to be surface-mined

1297:

potential 21 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over a 100-year timeline. The process of mining can release pockets of methane. These gases may pose a threat to coal miners, as well as a source of air pollution. This is due to the relaxation of pressure and fracturing of the strata during

851:

The effects of sediment on aquatic wildlife vary with the species and the amount of contamination. High sediment levels can kill fish directly, bury spawning beds, reduce light transmission, alter temperature gradients, fill in pools, spread streamflows over wider, shallower areas, and reduce the

757:

due to the accumulation of salts in the remaining water after meeting various transpiration and evaporation losses, become acute when many coal-fired boilers and power stations are installed in a river basin. River water sodicity affects downstream cultivated river basins located in China, India,

606:

Surface mining disrupts virtually all aesthetic elements of the landscape. Alteration of land forms often imposes unfamiliar and discontinuous configurations. New linear patterns appear as material is extracted and waste piles are developed. Different colors and textures are exposed as vegetative

590:

in the surrounding land. The land surface is dedicated to mining activities until it can be reshaped and reclaimed. If mining is allowed, resident human populations must be resettled off the mine site; economic activities, such as agriculture or hunting and gathering food and medicinal plants are

1368:

Excluding contained waste and unintentional releases from nuclear plants, coal-plants carry more radioactive wastes into the environment than nuclear plants per unit of produced energy. Plant-emitted radiation carried by coal-derived fly ash delivers 100 times more radiation to the surrounding

649:

Surface mining may impair groundwater in numerous ways: by drainage of usable water from shallow aquifers; lowering of water levels in adjacent areas and changes in flow direction within aquifers; contamination of usable aquifers below mining operations due to infiltration (percolation) of

1160:(WHO) and other organizations calculated that coal particulates pollution cause approximately one million deaths annually across the world, which is approximately one third of all premature deaths related to all air pollution sources, for example in Istanbul by lung diseases and cancer. 855:

The presence of acid-forming materials exposed as a result of surface mining can affect wildlife by eliminating habitat and by causing direct destruction of some species. Lesser concentrations can suppress productivity, growth rate and reproduction of many aquatic species. Acids, dilute

847:

Degradation of aquatic habitats is a major impact by surface mining and may be apparent many miles from a mining site. Sediment contamination of surface water is common with surface mining. Sediment yields may increase a thousand times their former level as a result of strip mining.

1144:). As of 2008, mercury levels in bald eagles in the Catskills had reached new heights. "People are exposed to methylmercury almost entirely by eating contaminated fish and wildlife that are at the top of aquatic food chains." Ocean fish account for the majority of human exposure to 839:

Surface mining of coal causes direct and indirect damage to wildlife. The impact on wildlife stems primarily from disturbing, removing and redistributing the land surface. Some impacts are short-term and confined to the mine site however others have far-reaching, long-term effects.

692:

landfills. EPA promulgated more stringent requirements for ash ponds and landfills in its first national regulation in 2015. Subsequently, there has been litigation and several amendments or proposed revisions to the regulations. Final regulations are pending as of December 2020.

856:

concentrations of heavy metals, and high alkalinity can cause severe damage to wildlife in some areas. The duration of acidic-waste pollution can be long; estimates of the time required to leach exposed acidic materials in the Eastern United States range from 800 to 3,000 years.

1507:

explosions, which can engulf an entire pit. Most of these risks can be greatly reduced in modern mines, and multiple fatality incidents are now rare in some parts of the developed world. Modern mining in the US results in approximately 30 deaths per year due to mine accidents.

914:

generation, the latter could save 51,999 American lives per year if solar were to replace coal-based energy generation in the U.S. Due to the decline of jobs related to coal mining a study found that approximately one American suffers a premature death from coal

1298:

mining activity, which gives rise to safety concerns for the coal miners if not managed properly. The buildup of pressure in the strata can lead to explosions during (or after) the mining process if prevention methods, such as "methane draining", are not taken.

673:

the sulfuric-acid production continues, whether the mine is still operating or not. Also waste piles and coal storage piles can yield sediment to streams. Surface waters may be rendered unfit for agriculture, human consumption, bathing, or other household uses.

1397:. In some mining countries black lung is still common, with 4,000 new cases of black lung every year in the US (4 percent of workers annually) and 10,000 new cases every year in China (0.2 percent of workers). Rates may be higher than reported in some regions. 1183:

of Energy, over the decade from 1995 to 2005 found that the cost of producing electricity from coal would double over its present value, if external costs were taken into account. These external costs include damage to the environment and to human health from

909:

was about 52,000 each year. When compared to electricity produced from natural gas via hydraulic fracturing, coal electricity is 10–100 times more toxic, largely due to the amount of particulate matter emitted during combustion. When coal is compared to solar

602:

and hauling of soil and coal increase the quantity of dust around mining operations. Dust degrades air quality in the immediate area, has an adverse impact on vegetative life, and constitutes health and safety hazards for mine workers and nearby residents.

569:, although work related coal deaths has declined substantially as safety measures have been enacted and underground mining has given up market share to surface mining. Underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse and 820:

a storm, a terrorist attack or a structural failure caused a spill. EPA estimated that about 300 dry landfills and wet storage ponds are used around the country to store ash from coal-fired power plants. The storage facilities hold the

622:) has damaged thousands of houses, and the coal-mining industries have set aside large sums in funding for future subsidence damages as part of their insurance and state-subsidy schemes. In a particularly spectacular case in the German 607:

cover is removed and overburden dumped to the side. Dust, vibration, and diesel exhaust odors are created (affecting sight, sound, and smell). Residents of local communities often find such impacts disturbing or unpleasant. In case of

1419:

However, in lesser developed countries and some developing countries, many miners continue to die annually, either through direct accidents in coal mines or through adverse health consequences from working under poor conditions.

844:

sedentary animals like invertebrates, reptiles, burrowing rodents, and small mammals may be destroyed. The community of microorganisms and nutrient-cycling processes are upset by movement, storage, and redistribution of soil.

1204:, with coal being the main fossil fuel accountable, and this was before the external cost of global warming from these sources was even included. The study found that environmental and health costs of coal alone were €60/ 611:, tops are removed from mountains or hills to expose thick coal seams underneath. The soil and rock removed is deposited in nearby valleys, hollows and depressions, resulting in blocked (and contaminated) waterways. 1365:'s 1988 report estimated the committed dose 1 km away to be 20 μSv/year for older plants or 1 μSv/year for newer plants with improved fly ash capture, but was unable to confirm these numbers by test. 3026: 2160: 2387:

Caiazzo, F., Ashok, A., Waitz, I.A., Yim, S.H. and Barrett, S.R., 2013. Air pollution and early deaths in the United States. Part I: Quantifying the impact of major sectors in 2005. Atmospheric Environment, 79,

2950: 2322: 2670: 2999:

ExternE-Pol, External costs of current and advanced electricity systems, associated with emissions from the operation of power plants and with the rest of the energy chain, final technical report.

618:

Mine collapses (or mine subsidences) have the potential to produce major effects above ground, which are especially devastating in developed areas. German underground coal-mining (especially in

3338: 1362: 615:

alters or destroys many natural soil characteristics, and reduces its biodiversity and productivity for agriculture. Soil structure may be disturbed by pulverization or aggregate breakdown.

3581: 2671:"EPA Issues First National Standards for Mercury Pollution from Power Plants/ Historic 'mercury and air toxics standards' meet 20-year old requirement to cut dangerous smokestack emissions" 1109:

which scatters solar radiation, hence their increase in the atmosphere exerts a cooling effect on climate that masks some of the warming caused by increased greenhouse gases. Release of SO

2249: 986:, which are dangerous if released into the environment. While these substances are trace impurities, enough coal is burned that significant amounts of these substances are released. 3018: 1223:

failures in China and India appear to be due to "sulfurous air pollution produced by coal that’s burned to generate electricity. It corrodes the copper circuitry," according to

3386: 5316: 2536: 2504: 2167: 2660:

Human Impacts on Atmospheric Chemistry, by PJ Crutzen and J Lelieveld, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Vol. 29: 17 -45 (Volume publication date May 2001)

2196: 2947: 5492: 3144: 905:, concluded that coal burning costs 24,000 lives a year in the United States. More recently, an academic study estimated that the premature deaths from coal related 661:, toxic trace elements, high content of dissolved solids in mine drainage water, and increased sediment loads discharged to streams. When coal surfaces are exposed, 876:

In northern China, air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels, principally coal, is causing people to die on average 5.5 years sooner than they otherwise might.

5160: 2618: 3118: 1881:, Washington, D.C.: Office of Indian Energy and Economic Development, Tribal Energy and Environmental Information Clearinghouse (TEEIC). Retrieved 9 March 2012. 815:

The burning of coal leaves substantial quantities of fly ash, which is usually stored in ash ponds (wet storage) or landfills (dry storage). Pollutants such as

2712: 1381:

is long. The principal hazards are mine wall failures and vehicle collisions; underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse and

5333: 3507: 3633: 2974: 2142: 2674: 901:

pollution are estimated to shorten approximately 10,000 lives annually worldwide. A 2004 study commissioned by environmental groups, but contested by the

4769: 4595: 3985: 3953: 3411: 300: 270: 2341: 5688: 4764: 2923: 634: 630:, causing some damage to houses. Previously, smaller earthquakes had become increasingly common and coal mining was temporarily suspended in the area. 4632: 2348:, Next Big Future, March 2011. Quote: "The World Health Organization and other sources attribute about 1 million deaths/year to coal air pollution." 1285:

by the coal and later released from the coal seam (and surrounding disturbed strata) during the mining process. Methane accounts for 10.5 percent of

1592: 3578: 4569: 1824:

Permanent Regulatory Program Implementing Section 01(b) of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977: Environmental Impact Statement

808: 3235: 2447: 1844:

The Strip Mining Handbook: A Coalfield Citizens' Guide To Using The Law To Fight Back Against The Ravages Of Strip Mining And Underground Mining

573:

explosions. Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions. Hundreds of people died in coal mine accidents in 2022.

2233: 516: 335: 4278: 1762: 902: 3455: 2852: 2562: 2114: 4511: 3171: 4395: 3551: 1964: 1236: 3430: 1400:

In the United States, an average of 23 coal miners per year died in the decade 2007–2016. Recent U.S. coal-mining disasters include the

4654: 4612: 3486: 657:

The contamination of both groundwater and nearby streams may be for long periods of time. Deterioration of stream quality results from

598:

The removal of vegetative cover and activities associated with the construction of haul roads, stockpiling of topsoil, displacement of

3064: 741:. Also, water-soluble sodium salts present in the ash enhance the sodium content in water further. Thus river water is converted into 633:

In response to negative land effects of coal mining and the abundance of abandoned mines in the US the federal government enacted the

5533: 4649: 4234: 3262: 3093: 1874: 1632: 1290: 4864: 4585: 4303: 4080: 3383: 2815: 1867: 2592: 2528: 1736: 5693: 5220: 5009: 4177: 3001: 2473: 552: 1654:

Henneman, Lucas; Choirat, Christine; Dedoussi, Irene; Dominici, Francesca; Roberts, Jessica; Zigler, Corwin (24 November 2023).

1082:. In case of cooling towers with sea water makeup, sodium salts are deposited on nearby lands which would convert the land into 4869: 4832: 4686: 4671: 4590: 4239: 4183: 3519: 1846: 478: 2968:"New research reveals the real costs of electricity in Europe (press release), EC, Research Directorate-General, 25 July 2001" 1552: 5528: 4666: 3360: 2648: 2192: 1940: 1800: 2890: 1454:

in a mine can cause suffocation. The anoxic condition results of depletion of oxygen in enclosed spaces, e.g. by corrosion.

5550: 4506: 4501: 2271: 1240: 626:

region (another historical coal-mining area), a suspected mine collapse in 2008 created an earthquake measuring 4.0 on the

3148: 2834: 2760: 5031: 4809: 4627: 4559: 4549: 4532: 4439: 4246: 1128:

In New York State winds deposit mercury from the coal-fired power plants of the Midwest, contaminating the waters of the

1067:

and are transported long distances, making it difficult for other states to achieve healthy levels of pollution control.

4564: 3325:

The estimated 50-year dose commitments to the whole body in millirems per year of plant operation were: coal plant - 1.9

1580: 5460: 5321: 5278: 4774: 3980: 2092: 641:

plans for future coal mining sites. These plans must be approved by federal or state authorities before mining begins.

290: 2614: 2071:

EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System; Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities." 80

1008: 5387: 5263: 5080: 4283: 3122: 2906: 2309: 170: 2708: 5620: 5258: 5238: 5185: 5137: 4199: 2284:

Permanent Regulatory Program Implementing Section 501(b) of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977.

1200:

emissions produced by coal. It was estimated that external, downstream, fossil fuel costs amount up to 1–2% of the

1122: 175: 684:

In the United States, due to few federal and state regulations concerning ash ponds, most power plants do not use

5377: 5328: 4754: 4716: 4661: 4131: 3808: 2734: 2318:"Evidence on the impact of sustained exposure to air pollution on life expectancy from China's Huai River policy" 1262: 195: 3604: 2967: 2139: 1121:

In 2011 U.S. power plants emitted half of the nation's mercury air pollutants. In February 2012, EPA issued the

1016:

During combustion, the reaction between coal and the air produces oxides of carbon, including carbon dioxide (CO

5445: 4729: 4486: 3661: 2366: 1413: 1185: 3408: 1321:

peaks at 563 parts per million (ppm) in the year 2100. Under the four coal phase-out scenarios, atmospheric CO

5555: 5090: 4622: 2338: 1628: 1354: 1201: 1079: 1012:

Illustration of air pollutants generated by U.S. power plants (includes both coal-fired and oil-fired plants)

3627: 2919: 5538: 5210: 4739: 4734: 4639: 4516: 4073: 1990:

Tiwary, R. K. (1 November 2001). "Environmental Impact of Coal Mining on Water Regime and Its Management".

803: 681:(surface impoundments), groundwater pumping systems, subsurface drainage systems, and subsurface barriers. 1357:

estimated that coal-fired power plants of that time may contribute a whole-body committed dose of 19

737:(washing soda) further reacts with the remaining Ca and Mg in the water to remove / precipitate the total 4749: 4602: 1892: 1599: 997:

is the most polluted area in the world due to the mining industry and coal plant power stations and the

5634: 5608: 5372: 5175: 5132: 4905: 4827: 4681: 4000: 2862: 2118: 1313:

levels. Their baseline mitigation scenario was a phaseout of global coal emissions by 2050. Under the

798: 471: 295: 31: 3337: 3239: 669:. As water drains from the mine, the acid moves into the waterways; as long as rain falls on the mine 5477: 5152: 5127: 5100: 5062: 4979: 4797: 4644: 4607: 4357: 4126: 4121: 4116: 3798: 2883: 1540: 1517: 1346: 1157: 894: 745:

by eliminating Ca and Mg ions and enhancing Na ions by coal-fired boilers. Soft water application in

405: 4992: 5487: 5482: 5472: 5413: 5253: 4759: 4724: 4617: 4544: 4385: 4214: 4150: 4111: 4051:

Note: Peat is considered a precursor to coal. Graphite is only technically considered a coal type.

3870: 3783: 3778: 2474:"Potential lives saved by replacing coal with solar photovoltaic electricity production in the U.S" 1432: 1286: 1125:(MATS) regulation, which requires all coal-fired plants to substantially reduce mercury emissions. 1075: 821: 677:

There are five principal technologies used to control water flow at mine sites: diversion systems,

528: 305: 185: 98: 93: 3615: 5596: 5518: 5428: 5170: 5142: 4822: 4481: 4459: 4066: 4030: 3447: 2898: 2566: 1140:. The mercury is consumed by worms, which are eaten by fish, which are eaten by birds (including 1091: 627: 362: 3221: 729:

process precipitates Ca and Mg ions / removes temporary hardness in the water and also converts

5195: 5015: 4957: 4874: 4859: 4744: 4390: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4005: 3813: 3352: 3346: 2791: 786: 619: 558:

There are severe health effects caused by burning coal. Worldwide 25 people die early for each

440: 202: 3555: 3145:"Where Greenhouse Gases Come From — Energy Explained, Your Guide To Understanding Energy" 1968: 1377:

Historically, coal mining has been a very dangerous activity, and the list of historical coal

1353:, which is inhaled and ingested by neighbours, and incorporated into crops. A 1978 paper from 5672: 5584: 5230: 5107: 4915: 4375: 4298: 3860: 3758: 3427: 3147:. Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy. 13 October 2010. Archived from 1534: 1270: 1254: 689: 464: 425: 3478: 1933:

Averting a global environmental collapse : the role of anthropology and local knowledge

1086:, reducing the fertility of vegetative lands and also cause corrosion of nearby structures. 5423: 5301: 4962: 4537: 4464: 3865: 3840: 3342: 3277: 3197: 3056: 3049: 2411: 2091:. Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 14 December 2020. 1999: 1409: 1342: 1101:) is released from burning coal. After release, the Sulfur Dioxide is oxidized to gaseous H 1044:

of carbon and sulfur are also produced during the combustion of coal in air. These include

435: 285: 165: 143: 3609: 3309: 3089: 1871: 1624: 1305:

and Pushker Kharecha published a peer-reviewed scientific study analyzing the effect of a

8: 5440: 5215: 4449: 4444: 3943: 3803: 3703: 3395: 3060: 2812: 1561: 1421: 608: 587: 190: 3281: 3201: 2415: 2003: 1740: 1690: 5660: 5268: 5200: 5117: 4967: 4932: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4454: 4015: 3958: 3928: 3918: 3875: 3654: 3301: 3213: 3187: 2588: 2496: 2075: 2023: 1792: 1401: 1129: 1064: 730: 658: 430: 260: 222: 180: 2998: 2696: 1713: 1655: 1078:, etc. emit drift and fog which are also an environmental concern. The drift contains 562:

of electricity generated by coal, around a thousand times more than nuclear or solar.

5502: 5165: 4910: 4676: 4469: 4432: 4219: 4173: 4020: 3948: 3895: 3748: 3621: 3526: 3356: 3293: 2902: 2644: 2500: 2429: 2305: 2241: 2015: 1946: 1936: 1917: 1843: 1796: 1677: 1522: 1485: 1245: 939: 770: 532: 357: 340: 245: 113: 3305: 3217: 2317: 2027: 725:) which is carried by rainwater to rivers/irrigation water from the ash dump areas. 5545: 5112: 5095: 5036: 4927: 4691: 4415: 4288: 4224: 4010: 3763: 3285: 3261:

McBride, J. P.; Moore, R. E.; Witherspoon, J. P.; Blanco, R. E. (8 December 1978).

3205: 2693: 2488: 2419: 2400:"Comparative Human Toxicity Impact of Electricity Produced from Shale Gas and Coal" 2072: 2054: 2007: 1685: 1667: 1481: 1378: 1148:; the full range of sources of methylmercury in ocean fish is not well understood. 1045: 734: 638: 566: 500: 352: 3289: 2788:"Mercury in stream ecosystems—new studies initiated by the U.S. Geological Survey" 1739:. Arlington, VA: U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). Archived from 519:

produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including

5497: 5418: 5382: 5311: 5285: 5273: 5190: 5122: 4997: 4854: 4476: 4427: 4405: 3708: 3585: 3434: 3415: 3390: 3005: 2954: 2894: 2887: 2857: 2838: 2819: 2345: 2146: 1878: 1850: 1491: 1461: 1427: 1394: 1302: 1189: 1137: 515:, processing and the use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, 504: 153: 83: 5667: 2888:

What Will Work: Fighting Climate Change with Renewable Energy, Not Nuclear Power

2831: 1763:"China shifts approach to fatal coal mining accidents to ensure supply security" 1528: 5450: 5306: 5248: 5243: 5085: 4974: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4554: 4491: 4229: 4209: 4168: 4089: 3890: 3818: 3793: 2764: 2492: 2323:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2234:"Most US coal plants are contaminating groundwater with toxins, analysis finds" 1853:, Washington, D.C.: Environmental Policy Institute, Friends of the Earth, 1990. 1705: 1546: 1447: 1390: 1306: 1294: 1274: 1060: 1025: 1021: 870: 726: 410: 400: 330: 148: 138: 133: 123: 118: 2011: 1555: – Microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth's atmosphere 18: 5682: 5655: 5648: 5523: 5455: 5180: 5002: 4987: 4922: 4817: 3647: 2301: 2245: 2019: 1950: 1681: 1474:, a highly flammable gas that explodes between 5% and 15% – at 25% it causes 1209: 1205: 1145: 1133: 1071: 930:

and boiler slag) release approximately 20 toxic-release chemicals, including

906: 714: 666: 559: 508: 390: 385: 128: 42: 3508:

Deconstructing deadly details from China's coal mine safety statistics | CLB

2424: 2399: 2088: 1672: 824:, including the ash captured by equipment designed to reduce air pollution. 5408: 5205: 4849: 4839: 4496: 4380: 4293: 4035: 3409:

https://www.ornl.gov/sites/default/files/ORNL%20Review%20v26n3-4%201993.pdf

3297: 2433: 2293: 2089:"Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals from Electric Utilities Rulemakings" 2058: 1494:: air containing carbon monoxide which is toxic, even at low concentrations 1475: 1083: 994: 911: 898: 881: 816: 750: 586:

Strip mining severely alters the landscape, which reduces the value of the

548: 415: 2641:

Unseen Danger: A Tragedy of People, Government and the Centralia Mine Fire

2045:

Kessler, K. A. (1981). "Wet Disposal of Fossil Plant Waste Case History".

1273:. Electric generation using coal burning produces approximately twice the 785:. In the US, discharges to surface waters are regulated by permits in the 5435: 4952: 4944: 4204: 3968: 3963: 3905: 3855: 3830: 3209: 2358: 1325:

peaks at 422–446 ppm between 2045 and 2060 and declines thereafter.

1278: 1220: 1193: 1180: 1141: 1002: 718: 685: 512: 450: 420: 280: 275: 212: 160: 2312:). This sentence of the book has a note citing the reference: Yuyu Chen 1791:. Ashgate studies in environmental policy and practice. Burlington, VT: 761:

Pollutant discharges from ash ponds to surface waters typically include

5467: 4844: 3713: 1443: 1213: 990: 971: 927: 754: 746: 742: 738: 651: 599: 524: 78: 3384:"Coal Ash Is More Radioactive than Nuclear Waste: Scientific American" 3339:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

3263:"Radiological impact of airborne effluents of coal and nuclear plants" 2787: 2738: 2448:"The US could prevent a lot of deaths by switching from coal to solar" 1549: – Gas in an atmosphere with certain absorption characteristicses 1363:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

1253:

have been caused by different sources ramping up one after the other (

4422: 4040: 4025: 3973: 3923: 3913: 2193:"Steam Electric Power Generating Effluent Guidelines—2015 Final Rule" 1709: 1504: 1457: 1132:. Mercury is concentrated up the food chain, as it is converted into 951: 916: 828: 706: 688:, leachate collection systems, or other flow controls often found in 445: 367: 265: 255: 1525: – Chemical process of converting coal into liquid hydrocarbons 1136:, a toxic compound which harms both wildlife and people who consume 3990: 3938: 3845: 3823: 3788: 3768: 3743: 3718: 1537: – Gradual reduction of the use and production of fossil fuels 1500: 1467: 1451: 979: 963: 947: 778: 774: 678: 670: 623: 496: 395: 347: 240: 207: 103: 88: 3728: 3634:

Emissions Of Hazardous Air Pollutants From Coal-Fired Power Plants

3599: 3192: 1731: 1729: 1727: 1036:). Because of the hydrogenous and nitrogenous components of coal, 5643: 4400: 4058: 3850: 3698: 3236:"Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash, USGS Factsheet 163-97" 1471: 1350: 1338: 1334: 1197: 1041: 1037: 998: 955: 931: 923: 782: 762: 710: 702: 544: 540: 536: 520: 73: 3568:

possibly from the German word "Dampf" which means steam or vapor

1918:"Impact of Mining Activity on Water Resource: An Overview study" 1113:

also contributes to the widespread acidification of ecosystems.

551:. Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of 58: 5403: 3835: 3753: 3601:

online tool for identifying deaths from particular coal plants.

1724: 1656:"Mortality risk from United States coal electricity generation" 1653: 1598:(Report). American Lung Association. March 2011. Archived from 1543: – Facility that burns fossil fuels to produce electricity 1464:, carbon dioxide and nitrogen and forms after a mine explosion. 983: 967: 959: 943: 662: 250: 217: 2140:

Managing irrigation water quality, Oregon State University, US

1358: 1163:

Pollutants emitted by burning coal include fine particulates (

5317:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

4410: 3688: 3399:, Nature America, Inc., 13 December 2007. Web. 18 March 2011. 3260: 1224: 1208:, with the energy sources of the lowest external costs being 1168: 1164: 325: 2161:"River basin development phases and implications of closure" 1789:

Mining environmental policy: Comparing Indonesia and the USA

1393:(black lung) were once common in miners, leading to reduced 3933: 3885: 3773: 3693: 3670: 2218: 1930: 1593:

Toxic Air: The Case for Cleaning Up Coal-fired Power Plants

1405: 1386: 1361:/year to their immediate neighbours in a 500 m radius. The 975: 935: 766: 320: 108: 50: 2785: 2709:"Basic Information about Mercury and Air Toxics Standards" 2326:, volume 110, number 32, 6 August 2013, pages 12936-12941. 749:(surface or ground water) converts the fertile soils into 5493:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

3880: 1382: 1261:

The combustion of coal is the largest contributor to the

570: 315: 3169: 2529:"These Two Industries Kill More People Than They Employ" 1349:. Coal plants emit radiation in the form of radioactive 1151: 758:

Egypt, Pakistan, west Asia, Australia, western US, etc.

3639: 2158: 1557:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

26: 3605:

EPA fact sheet: Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR)

3479:"No Survivors Found After West Virginia Mine Disaster" 3050:"Testimony of James E. Hansen at Iowa Utilities Board" 2673:. EPA. 21 December 2011. Press Release. Archived from 5632: 5334:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

2398:

Chen, Lu; Miller, Shelie A.; Ellis, Brian R. (2017).

1714:"What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?" 1345:

which, if released into the environment, may lead to

811:

site taken the day after the event (23 December 2008)

3996:

Health and environmental impact of the coal industry

3090:"Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution" 2615:"Much objection against mining next to Marloth Park" 1625:"Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution" 1097:

Approximately 75 Tg/S per year of Sulfur Dioxide (SO

493:

health and environmental impact of the coal industry

3986:

Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia

3019:"Scientists studying pollution damage to computers" 2832:

Fact Sheet 146-00 : Mercury in the Environment

2298:

Atmosphere of Hope. Solutions to the Climate Crisis

2053:(2). American Society of Civil Engineers: 199–208. 1488:

gas, stink damp can explode and is also very toxic.

1063:react in the atmosphere to form fine particles and 3610:Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution 3520:"Coal Mining Fatalities by State by Calendar Year" 3121:. The Coal Authority. October 2007. Archived from 2185: 635:Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 581: 2813:"Bald Eagles in Catskills Show Increasing Mercury 2219:"National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System" 1439:Build-ups of a hazardous gas are known as damps: 1416:in West Virginia killed 29 miners in April 2010. 1289:created through human activity. According to the 5680: 5534:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 3348:Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation 2786:Brigham ME, Krabbenhoft DP, Hamilton PA (2003). 1553:Health effects of atmospheric particulate matter 1460:: similar to black damp, after damp consists of 3628:Map of Death and Disease from U.S. Power Plants 2948:A Coal-Fired Plant That Is Eager for U.S. Rules 2565:. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from 2397: 2115:"Precipitation softening, GE Power & Water" 1503:explosions can trigger the much more dangerous 809:Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill 787:National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 3172:"Implications of "peak oil" for atmospheric CO 2943: 2941: 2663: 2133: 2044: 1005:is under threat of new mine projects as well. 717:(CaO). CaO readily dissolves in water to form 665:comes in contact with water and air and forms 4279:History of climate change policy and politics 4074: 3655: 2957:by Matthew L. Wald, published 5 January 2012. 2922:. Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Gizlilik Impressum. 2563:"Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger" 2560: 2472:Prehoda, Emily W.; Pearce, Joshua M. (2017), 2471: 1404:of January 2006. In 2007, a mine accident in 903:United States Environmental Protection Agency 472: 3047: 2038: 1893:"Mining Sets Off Earthquake in West Germany" 1890: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1704: 1179:A 2001 EU-funded study known as ExternE, or 4396:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 2938: 2351: 1531: – Climate justice movement in Germany 1484:: so named for the rotten egg smell of the 1412:killed nine miners, with six entombed. The 1237:Environmental impact of the energy industry 1230: 5615: 5603: 5060: 4081: 4067: 3662: 3648: 3616:Air pollution from coal-fired power plants 3113: 3111: 2643:. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. 2556: 2554: 1818: 1816: 1814: 1812: 1564: – Decrease of pH levels in the ocean 1277:per kilowatt compared to generation using 827:In the low-coal-content areas waste forms 479: 465: 271:Coal mining disasters in the United States 22:A coal surface mining site in Bihar, India 5689:Environmental impact of the coal industry 5355: 5161:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 4304:United Nations Climate Change conferences 3191: 2920:"AIR POLLUTION AND ISTANBUL; Alarm bells" 2423: 2359:"Deadly Power Plants? Study Fuels Debate" 1856: 1829: 1689: 1671: 1291:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 701:Coal-fired boilers, using either coal or 4865:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 3552:"World Coal Institute – Coal Production" 2481:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 1868:United States Department of the Interior 1786: 1426: 1244: 1202:EU's entire Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 1007: 922:Coal and coal waste products (including 919:for every job remaining in coal mining. 802: 25: 17: 5221:National Adaptation Programme of Action 5010:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 3579:"Respiratory Protection in Coal Mines." 3525:. MSHA. 24 October 2017. Archived from 3448:"Panel to Explore Deadly Mine Accident" 3108: 2850: 2841:, U.S. Geological Survey, October 2000. 2589:"We have the dirtiest air in the world" 2551: 2081: 1822:U.S. Department of the Interior. 1979. 1809: 1780: 1737:"Coal Fatalities for 1900 Through 2016" 1080:respirable suspended particulate matter 565:In addition, there have been many coal 5681: 4870:Economics of climate change mitigation 4833:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 4356: 4184:Scientific consensus on climate change 3476: 3454:. Associated Press. 4 September 2007. 2980:from the original on 24 September 2015 2926:from the original on 29 September 2018 2404:Environmental Science & Technology 2334: 2332: 2231: 1989: 1983: 1967:. World Coal Institute. Archived from 1965:"Environmental Impacts of Coal Mining" 1585: 733:in river water into sodium carbonate. 576: 5529:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5354: 5059: 4795: 4355: 4267: 4148: 4100: 4062: 3954:mining disasters in the United States 3643: 3096:from the original on 11 November 2005 2681: 2369:from the original on 12 February 2020 1872:Coal: Construction and Mining Impacts 1635:from the original on 11 November 2005 1617: 1328: 1152:Annual excess mortality and morbidity 1032:), and various oxides of nitrogen (NO 5551:Representative Concentration Pathway 4502:Tipping points in the climate system 4178:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere 3351:. New York: United Nations. p. 3119:"Methane Associated with Coal Seams" 3070:from the original on 3 February 2009 3029:from the original on 28 October 2013 3008:2006, See figure 9, 9b and figure 11 2510:from the original on 15 October 2019 2095:from the original on 24 January 2020 1931:Reuter, Thomas Herausgeber. (2015). 1372: 1241:Attribution of recent climate change 1116: 553:carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere 5322:Nationally determined contributions 5032:Individual action on climate change 4247:World energy supply and consumption 3170:Kharecha P.A.; Hansen J.E. (2008). 2329: 792: 644: 13: 5461:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis 4088: 3981:Environmental issues in Appalachia 3489:from the original on 28 March 2019 2595:from the original on 23 March 2021 2199:from the original on 29 April 2017 1435:kills 78. West Virginia, US, 1968. 822:noncombustible ingredients of coal 696: 14: 5705: 5388:Satellite temperature measurement 4993:forestry for carbon sequestration 4284:History of climate change science 3593: 3458:from the original on 4 April 2020 3092:. Union of Concerned Scientists. 2822:New York Times, 24 November 2008. 2715:from the original on 7 March 2020 2561:Gabbard, Alex (5 February 2008). 2539:from the original on 29 July 2019 2252:from the original on 16 June 2020 2159:J. Keller; A. Keller; G. Davids. 1891:Barkin, Noah (24 February 2008). 1333:Coal also contains low levels of 1174: 5666: 5654: 5642: 5614: 5602: 5591: 5590: 5578: 5239:Climate Change Performance Index 3727: 2621:from the original on 3 June 2019 1992:Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 1341:, and other naturally occurring 1123:Mercury and Air Toxics Standards 864: 859: 286:Environmental problems involving 57: 5378:Instrumental temperature record 5329:Sustainable Development Goal 13 3571: 3562: 3544: 3512: 3501: 3470: 3440: 3421: 3402: 3376: 3331: 3254: 3228: 3163: 3137: 3082: 3041: 3011: 2992: 2960: 2912: 2877: 2844: 2825: 2805: 2779: 2753: 2727: 2701: 2688:Generating Units." Final rule. 2654: 2633: 2607: 2581: 2521: 2465: 2440: 2391: 2381: 2339:Deaths per TWH by Energy Source 2287: 2278: 2264: 2232:Milman, Oliver (4 March 2019). 2225: 2211: 2152: 2107: 2065: 1957: 1924: 1910: 1884: 582:Impact to land and surroundings 5694:Environmental impact of mining 5446:Climate variability and change 4796: 4487:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 2761:"Atmospheric Mercury Modeling" 2272:"Associated Press – June 2009" 2149:, Retrieved on 4 October 2012. 2047:Journal of the Energy Division 1755: 1698: 1647: 1574: 1414:Upper Big Branch Mine disaster 1052:) and other toxic substances. 34:operation in the United States 1: 5556:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 5091:Climate emergency declaration 3622:Environmental impacts of coal 3612:Union of Concerned Scientists 3290:10.1126/science.202.4372.1045 2851:Jaffe E (27 September 2007). 1787:Hamilton, Michael S. (2005). 1629:Union of Concerned Scientists 1568: 1433:Farmington coal mine disaster 1355:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 893:According to a report by the 753:. River water alkalinity and 5539:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 4765:Middle East and North Africa 4101: 3477:Urbina, Ian (9 April 2010). 1024:), oxides of sulfur (mainly 7: 4268: 1511: 1186:airborne particulate matter 834: 10: 5710: 5373:Global surface temperature 5264:Popular culture depictions 5176:Ecosystem-based adaptation 4906:Carbon capture and storage 4828:Carbon offsets and credits 4149: 4001:Health effects of coal ash 3809:power in the United States 3437:, "Fossil fuel disasters". 2884:Shrader-Frechette, Kristin 2493:10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.119 1234: 1048:(HCN), sulfur nitrate (SNO 868: 799:Health effects of coal ash 796: 32:mountaintop removal mining 5585:Climate change portal 5572: 5511: 5478:Extreme event attribution 5396: 5365: 5361: 5350: 5294: 5229: 5151: 5101:School Strike for Climate 5073: 5069: 5055: 5024: 4980:Climate-smart agriculture 4941: 4898: 4808: 4804: 4791: 4715: 4578: 4525: 4368: 4364: 4351: 4274: 4263: 4192: 4161: 4157: 4144: 4127:Climate change adaptation 4122:Climate change mitigation 4117:Effects of climate change 4107: 4096: 4049: 3904: 3736: 3725: 3677: 3636:American Lung Association 3577:OccupationalHazards.com. 3180:Global Biogeochem. Cycles 1541:Fossil fuel power station 1518:Coal pollution mitigation 1347:radioactive contamination 1158:World Health Organization 1076:coal-fired power stations 895:World Health Organization 406:Coal pollution mitigation 301:coal mining in Appalachia 5488:Global warming potential 5295:International agreements 4942:Preserving and enhancing 4386:Arctic methane emissions 4308:Years in climate change 4215:Greenhouse gas emissions 4112:Causes of climate change 3871:Greenhouse gas emissions 3669: 2893:29 December 2019 at the 2221:. EPA. 14 December 2020. 2195:. EPA. 6 November 2019. 1317:scenario, atmospheric CO 1287:greenhouse-gas emissions 1231:Greenhouse gas emissions 529:flue-gas desulfurization 495:includes issues such as 306:Greenhouse gas emissions 99:Coal-fired power station 94:Coal combustion products 5519:Climate change scenario 5171:Disaster risk reduction 4823:Carbon emission trading 4633:U.S. insurance industry 4613:Civilizational collapse 4460:sea surface temperature 4031:Problems in coal mining 3433:13 January 2018 at the 3414:31 January 2017 at the 2899:Oxford University Press 2425:10.1021/acs.est.7b03546 2145:19 October 2013 at the 2032:(subscription required) 2012:10.1023/A:1012083519667 1673:10.1126/science.adf4915 1092:Centralia, Pennsylvania 628:Richter magnitude scale 363:Problems in coal mining 5512:Research and modelling 5196:Nature-based solutions 5016:Nature-based solutions 4958:Carbon dioxide removal 4875:Fossil fuel divestment 4860:Climate risk insurance 4770:Small island countries 4391:Arctic sea ice decline 4006:History of coal mining 2792:U.S. Geological Survey 2059:10.1061/JDAEDZ.0000063 1436: 1258: 1013: 891: 812: 620:North Rhine-Westphalia 441:History of coal mining 336:the petroleum industry 203:Coal preparation plant 35: 23: 5473:Earth's energy budget 5356:Background and theory 5244:Climate crisis (term) 4916:Fossil fuel phase-out 4810:Economics and finance 4775:by individual country 4717:By country and region 4692:Security and conflict 4687:Psychological impacts 4376:Abrupt climate change 4299:Charles David Keeling 4132:By country and region 3861:Fossil fuel phase-out 3759:Black coal equivalent 3624:Global Energy Monitor 3618:Global Energy Monitor 3584:23 April 2008 at the 3224:on 13 September 2008. 3048:James Hansen (2007). 3004:15 April 2016 at the 2953:24 March 2017 at the 2818:15 April 2016 at the 2735:"Atmospheric Mercury" 1535:Fossil fuel phase-out 1470:: consists of mostly 1430: 1255:Global Carbon Project 1248: 1011: 874: 807:Aerial photograph of 806: 690:municipal solid waste 531:sludge, that contain 426:Fossil fuel phase-out 29: 21: 5302:Glasgow Climate Pact 4963:Carbon sequestration 4538:Mass mortality event 3866:Great Smog of London 3799:pollution mitigation 3630:Clean Air Task Force 3389:12 June 2013 at the 3382:Hvistendahl, Mara. 3315:on 27 September 2012 3210:10.1029/2007GB003142 3057:Iowa Utilities Board 2837:18 July 2015 at the 2711:. EPA. 8 June 2017. 2677:on 24 December 2011. 2344:24 July 2015 at the 1877:1 March 2012 at the 1712:(28 December 2023). 1581:RadTown USA | US EPA 1410:Crandall Canyon Mine 1385:explosions. Chronic 1343:radioactive isotopes 751:alkaline sodic soils 436:Great Smog of London 5441:Climate sensitivity 5216:The Adaptation Fund 4672:Infectious diseases 4579:Social and economic 3784:fired power station 3779:combustion products 3704:Sub-bituminous coal 3681:(lowest to highest) 3678:Coal types by grade 3532:on 23 February 2011 3396:Scientific American 3282:1978Sci...202.1045M 3202:2008GBioC..22.3012K 3151:on 18 February 2010 3061:Columbia University 3025:. 27 October 2013. 2416:2017EnST...5113018C 2410:(21): 13018–13027. 2004:2001WASP..132..185T 1849:4 June 2012 at the 1562:Ocean acidification 1167:) and ground level 731:sodium bicarbonates 609:mountaintop removal 588:natural environment 577:Land use management 5012:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 4984:Forest management 4968:Direct air capture 4933:Sustainable energy 4890:Net zero emissions 4885:Low-carbon economy 4880:Green Climate Fund 4667:Indigenous peoples 4570:Plant biodiversity 4358:Effects and issues 3919:Black lung disease 3896:Toxic heavy metals 3876:Metallurgical coal 3242:on 9 December 2006 3125:on 13 October 2008 2865:on 17 January 2008 2767:on 5 February 2012 2741:on 5 February 2012 2569:on 5 February 2007 2304:, 2015, pages 28 ( 2173:on 19 October 2013 2121:on 24 January 2013 1971:on 23 October 2008 1826:. Washington, D.C. 1793:Ashgate Publishing 1437: 1402:Sago Mine disaster 1389:diseases, such as 1329:Radiation exposure 1259: 1130:Catskill Mountains 1072:wet cooling towers 1065:ground level ozone 1014: 886:Atmosphere of Hope 813: 659:acid mine drainage 431:Fossil fuels lobby 353:Hydrosulfuric acid 341:toxic heavy metals 261:Black lung disease 223:Metallurgical coal 181:Coal-mining region 36: 24: 5630: 5629: 5568: 5567: 5564: 5563: 5503:Radiative forcing 5346: 5345: 5342: 5341: 5166:Adaptive capacity 5051: 5050: 5047: 5046: 4911:Energy transition 4787: 4786: 4783: 4782: 4507:Tropical cyclones 4433:Urban heat island 4347: 4346: 4259: 4258: 4255: 4254: 4220:Carbon accounting 4174:Greenhouse effect 4140: 4139: 4056: 4055: 3814:preparation plant 3749:Asian brown cloud 3682: 3558:on 30 April 2008. 3362:978-92-1-142143-9 3276:(4372): 1045–50. 2811:Anthony De Palma, 2690:Federal Register, 2649:978-0-8122-8022-7 2591:. November 2018. 1942:978-1-4438-7597-4 1842:Squillace, Mark. 1802:978-0-7546-4493-4 1743:on 3 October 2015 1718:Our World in Data 1666:(6673): 941–946. 1523:Coal liquefaction 1486:hydrogen sulphide 1373:Dangers to miners 1315:Business as Usual 1309:on atmospheric CO 1275:greenhouse gasses 1117:Mercury emissions 1094:, United States. 637:, which requires 489: 488: 246:Asian brown cloud 5701: 5671: 5670: 5659: 5658: 5647: 5646: 5638: 5618: 5617: 5606: 5605: 5594: 5593: 5583: 5582: 5581: 5546:Paleoclimatology 5363: 5362: 5352: 5351: 5113:Ecological grief 5096:Climate movement 5071: 5070: 5057: 5056: 5037:Plant-based diet 4928:Renewable energy 4806: 4805: 4793: 4792: 4628:Economic impacts 4560:Invasive species 4416:Coastal flooding 4366: 4365: 4353: 4352: 4289:Svante Arrhenius 4265: 4264: 4235:from agriculture 4225:Carbon footprint 4210:Greenhouse gases 4159: 4158: 4146: 4145: 4098: 4097: 4083: 4076: 4069: 4060: 4059: 4011:Hydrogen sulfide 3731: 3680: 3664: 3657: 3650: 3641: 3640: 3588: 3575: 3569: 3566: 3560: 3559: 3554:. Archived from 3548: 3542: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3531: 3524: 3516: 3510: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3474: 3468: 3467: 3465: 3463: 3444: 3438: 3425: 3419: 3406: 3400: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3335: 3329: 3327: 3322: 3320: 3314: 3308:. Archived from 3267: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3238:. Archived from 3232: 3226: 3225: 3220:. Archived from 3195: 3167: 3161: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3141: 3135: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3115: 3106: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3086: 3080: 3079: 3077: 3075: 3069: 3054: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3015: 3009: 2996: 2990: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2979: 2972: 2964: 2958: 2945: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2916: 2910: 2881: 2875: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2861:. Archived from 2853:"Mystery at sea" 2848: 2842: 2829: 2823: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2783: 2777: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2763:. Archived from 2757: 2751: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2737:. Archived from 2731: 2725: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2705: 2699: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2667: 2661: 2658: 2652: 2637: 2631: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2585: 2579: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2558: 2549: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2525: 2519: 2518: 2517: 2515: 2509: 2478: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2444: 2438: 2437: 2427: 2395: 2389: 2385: 2379: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2355: 2349: 2336: 2327: 2291: 2285: 2282: 2276: 2275: 2268: 2262: 2261: 2259: 2257: 2229: 2223: 2222: 2215: 2209: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2189: 2183: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2172: 2166:. Archived from 2165: 2156: 2150: 2137: 2131: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2117:. Archived from 2111: 2105: 2104: 2102: 2100: 2085: 2079: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2042: 2036: 2035: 2033: 1998:(1–2): 185–199. 1987: 1981: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1928: 1922: 1921: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1888: 1882: 1865: 1854: 1840: 1827: 1820: 1807: 1806: 1784: 1778: 1777: 1775: 1773: 1759: 1753: 1752: 1750: 1748: 1733: 1722: 1721: 1702: 1696: 1695: 1693: 1675: 1651: 1645: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1621: 1615: 1614: 1612: 1610: 1604: 1597: 1589: 1583: 1578: 1558: 1379:mining disasters 1293:, methane has a 1046:hydrogen cyanide 1001:near the famous 889: 793:Waste management 735:Sodium carbonate 645:Water management 567:mining disasters 511:, caused by the 501:waste management 481: 474: 467: 380:Related articles 61: 38: 37: 5709: 5708: 5704: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5699: 5698: 5679: 5678: 5677: 5665: 5653: 5641: 5633: 5631: 5626: 5579: 5577: 5560: 5507: 5498:Orbital forcing 5392: 5357: 5338: 5312:Paris Agreement 5290: 5286:Warming stripes 5225: 5191:Managed retreat 5186:Loss and damage 5147: 5081:Business action 5065: 5043: 5020: 4943: 4937: 4894: 4855:Climate finance 4800: 4779: 4711: 4574: 4550:Extinction risk 4526:Flora and fauna 4521: 4482:Permafrost thaw 4477:Ozone depletion 4406:Extreme weather 4360: 4343: 4270: 4251: 4188: 4153: 4136: 4103: 4092: 4087: 4057: 4052: 4045: 3900: 3737:Coal combustion 3732: 3723: 3709:Bituminous coal 3679: 3673: 3668: 3596: 3591: 3586:Wayback Machine 3576: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3550: 3549: 3545: 3535: 3533: 3529: 3522: 3518: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3502: 3492: 3490: 3475: 3471: 3461: 3459: 3446: 3445: 3441: 3435:Wayback Machine 3426: 3422: 3416:Wayback Machine 3407: 3403: 3391:Wayback Machine 3381: 3377: 3367: 3365: 3363: 3336: 3332: 3318: 3316: 3312: 3265: 3259: 3255: 3245: 3243: 3234: 3233: 3229: 3175: 3168: 3164: 3154: 3152: 3143: 3142: 3138: 3128: 3126: 3117: 3116: 3109: 3099: 3097: 3088: 3087: 3083: 3073: 3071: 3067: 3052: 3046: 3042: 3032: 3030: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3006:Wayback Machine 2997: 2993: 2983: 2981: 2977: 2970: 2966: 2965: 2961: 2955:Wayback Machine 2946: 2939: 2929: 2927: 2918: 2917: 2913: 2895:Wayback Machine 2882: 2878: 2868: 2866: 2858:Smithsonian.com 2849: 2845: 2839:Wayback Machine 2830: 2826: 2820:Wayback Machine 2810: 2806: 2796: 2794: 2784: 2780: 2770: 2768: 2759: 2758: 2754: 2744: 2742: 2733: 2732: 2728: 2718: 2716: 2707: 2706: 2702: 2686: 2682: 2669: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2655: 2638: 2634: 2624: 2622: 2617:. 31 May 2019. 2613: 2612: 2608: 2598: 2596: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2572: 2570: 2559: 2552: 2542: 2540: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2513: 2511: 2507: 2476: 2470: 2466: 2456: 2454: 2446: 2445: 2441: 2396: 2392: 2386: 2382: 2372: 2370: 2365:. 9 June 2004. 2357: 2356: 2352: 2346:Wayback Machine 2337: 2330: 2292: 2288: 2283: 2279: 2270: 2269: 2265: 2255: 2253: 2230: 2226: 2217: 2216: 2212: 2202: 2200: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2176: 2174: 2170: 2163: 2157: 2153: 2147:Wayback Machine 2138: 2134: 2124: 2122: 2113: 2112: 2108: 2098: 2096: 2087: 2086: 2082: 2070: 2066: 2043: 2039: 2031: 1988: 1984: 1974: 1972: 1963: 1962: 1958: 1943: 1929: 1925: 1916: 1915: 1911: 1901: 1899: 1889: 1885: 1879:Wayback Machine 1866: 1857: 1851:Wayback Machine 1841: 1830: 1821: 1810: 1803: 1785: 1781: 1771: 1769: 1761: 1760: 1756: 1746: 1744: 1735: 1734: 1725: 1706:Ritchie, Hannah 1703: 1699: 1652: 1648: 1638: 1636: 1623: 1622: 1618: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1595: 1591: 1590: 1586: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1556: 1514: 1462:carbon monoxide 1446:: a mixture of 1395:life expectancy 1375: 1331: 1324: 1320: 1312: 1303:James E. Hansen 1268: 1252: 1249:Emissions of CO 1243: 1233: 1190:nitrogen oxides 1177: 1154: 1138:freshwater fish 1119: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1058: 1051: 1035: 1031: 1020:, an important 1019: 890: 880: 873: 867: 862: 837: 801: 795: 724: 699: 697:Water pollution 647: 584: 579: 485: 456: 455: 381: 373: 372: 236: 228: 227: 84:Bituminous coal 69: 12: 11: 5: 5707: 5697: 5696: 5691: 5676: 5675: 5673:Global warming 5663: 5651: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5624: 5612: 5600: 5588: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5566: 5565: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5542: 5541: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5515: 5513: 5509: 5508: 5506: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5464: 5463: 5453: 5451:Cloud feedback 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5432: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5406: 5400: 5398: 5394: 5393: 5391: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5375: 5369: 5367: 5359: 5358: 5348: 5347: 5344: 5343: 5340: 5339: 5337: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5325: 5324: 5319: 5309: 5307:Kyoto Protocol 5304: 5298: 5296: 5292: 5291: 5289: 5288: 5283: 5282: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5261: 5259:Media coverage 5256: 5251: 5249:Climate spiral 5246: 5241: 5235: 5233: 5227: 5226: 5224: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5157: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5146: 5145: 5140: 5138:Public opinion 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5104: 5103: 5093: 5088: 5086:Climate action 5083: 5077: 5075: 5067: 5066: 5053: 5052: 5049: 5048: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5028: 5026: 5022: 5021: 5019: 5018: 5013: 5007: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4998:REDD and REDD+ 4995: 4990: 4982: 4977: 4975:Carbon farming 4972: 4971: 4970: 4965: 4955: 4949: 4947: 4939: 4938: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4919: 4918: 4908: 4902: 4900: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4825: 4820: 4814: 4812: 4802: 4801: 4789: 4788: 4785: 4784: 4781: 4780: 4778: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4721: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4709: 4707:Water security 4704: 4702:Water scarcity 4699: 4697:Urban flooding 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4658: 4657: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4636: 4635: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4599: 4598: 4593: 4582: 4580: 4576: 4575: 4573: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4555:Forest dieback 4552: 4547: 4542: 4541: 4540: 4529: 4527: 4523: 4522: 4520: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4492:Sea level rise 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4473: 4472: 4467: 4465:stratification 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4437: 4436: 4435: 4430: 4420: 4419: 4418: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4372: 4370: 4362: 4361: 4349: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4341: 4340: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4275: 4272: 4271: 4261: 4260: 4257: 4256: 4253: 4252: 4250: 4249: 4244: 4243: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4230:Carbon leakage 4227: 4222: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4196: 4194: 4190: 4189: 4187: 4186: 4181: 4171: 4169:Climate system 4165: 4163: 4155: 4154: 4142: 4141: 4138: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4108: 4105: 4104: 4094: 4093: 4090:Climate change 4086: 4085: 4078: 4071: 4063: 4054: 4053: 4050: 4047: 4046: 4044: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4016:Mining regions 4013: 4008: 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3977: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3944:homogenization 3941: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3910: 3908: 3902: 3901: 3899: 3898: 3893: 3891:Sulfur dioxide 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3827: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3804:power in China 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3740: 3738: 3734: 3733: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3685: 3683: 3675: 3674: 3667: 3666: 3659: 3652: 3644: 3638: 3637: 3631: 3625: 3619: 3613: 3607: 3602: 3595: 3594:External links 3592: 3590: 3589: 3570: 3561: 3543: 3511: 3500: 3483:New York Times 3469: 3452:New York Times 3439: 3420: 3401: 3375: 3361: 3330: 3253: 3227: 3173: 3162: 3136: 3107: 3081: 3040: 3010: 2991: 2959: 2937: 2911: 2901:, 2011, pg.9, 2876: 2843: 2824: 2804: 2778: 2752: 2726: 2700: 2680: 2662: 2653: 2639:DeKok, David, 2632: 2606: 2580: 2550: 2520: 2464: 2439: 2390: 2380: 2350: 2328: 2286: 2277: 2263: 2224: 2210: 2184: 2151: 2132: 2106: 2080: 2064: 2037: 1982: 1956: 1941: 1923: 1909: 1883: 1855: 1828: 1808: 1801: 1779: 1754: 1723: 1697: 1646: 1616: 1605:on 15 May 2012 1584: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1566: 1565: 1559: 1550: 1547:Greenhouse gas 1544: 1538: 1532: 1526: 1520: 1513: 1510: 1498: 1497: 1489: 1479: 1465: 1455: 1448:carbon dioxide 1391:pneumoconiosis 1374: 1371: 1330: 1327: 1322: 1318: 1310: 1307:coal phase-out 1295:global warming 1266: 1265:increase of CO 1250: 1232: 1229: 1219:High rates of 1216:at €0.90/MWh. 1212:€1.9/MWh, and 1176: 1175:Economic costs 1173: 1153: 1150: 1118: 1115: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1061:nitrogen oxide 1056: 1049: 1033: 1029: 1026:sulfur dioxide 1022:greenhouse gas 1017: 897:in 2008, coal 878: 871:Coal-seam fire 866: 863: 861: 858: 836: 833: 794: 791: 727:Lime softening 722: 698: 695: 646: 643: 583: 580: 578: 575: 487: 486: 484: 483: 476: 469: 461: 458: 457: 454: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 423: 418: 413: 411:Coal-seam fire 408: 403: 401:Coal phase-out 398: 393: 388: 382: 379: 378: 375: 374: 371: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 344: 343: 338: 333: 331:sulfur dioxide 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 243: 237: 234: 233: 230: 229: 226: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 199: 198: 193: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 157: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 121: 116: 106: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 70: 67: 66: 63: 62: 54: 53: 47: 46: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5706: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5686: 5684: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5639: 5636: 5623: 5622: 5613: 5611: 5610: 5601: 5599: 5598: 5589: 5587: 5586: 5575: 5574: 5571: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5540: 5537: 5536: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5524:Climate model 5522: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5514: 5510: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5462: 5459: 5458: 5457: 5456:Cloud forcing 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5411: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5401: 5399: 5395: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5370: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5353: 5349: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5314: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5297: 5293: 5287: 5284: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5266: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5232: 5231:Communication 5228: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5211:Vulnerability 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5181:Flood control 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5154: 5150: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5102: 5099: 5098: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5078: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5058: 5054: 5038: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5030: 5029: 5027: 5023: 5017: 5014: 5011: 5008: 5004: 5003:reforestation 5001: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4988:afforestation 4986: 4985: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4960: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4950: 4948: 4946: 4940: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4923:Nuclear power 4921: 4917: 4914: 4913: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4897: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4818:Carbon budget 4816: 4815: 4813: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4794: 4790: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4722: 4720: 4718: 4714: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4656: 4655:Mental health 4653: 4652: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4634: 4631: 4630: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4597: 4596:United States 4594: 4592: 4589: 4588: 4587: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4577: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4539: 4536: 4535: 4534: 4531: 4530: 4528: 4524: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4450:deoxygenation 4448: 4446: 4445:acidification 4443: 4442: 4441: 4438: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4424: 4421: 4417: 4414: 4413: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4373: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4350: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4276: 4273: 4266: 4262: 4248: 4245: 4241: 4240:from wetlands 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4217: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4200:Deforestation 4198: 4197: 4195: 4191: 4185: 4182: 4179: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4166: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4147: 4143: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4109: 4106: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4084: 4079: 4077: 4072: 4070: 4065: 4064: 4061: 4048: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3959:mining region 3957: 3955: 3952: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3936: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3903: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3792: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3776: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3741: 3739: 3735: 3730: 3720: 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3686: 3684: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3660: 3658: 3653: 3651: 3646: 3645: 3642: 3635: 3632: 3629: 3626: 3623: 3620: 3617: 3614: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3597: 3587: 3583: 3580: 3574: 3565: 3557: 3553: 3547: 3528: 3521: 3515: 3509: 3504: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3473: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3443: 3436: 3432: 3429: 3424: 3417: 3413: 3410: 3405: 3398: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3385: 3379: 3364: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3340: 3334: 3326: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3264: 3257: 3241: 3237: 3231: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3194: 3189: 3186:(3): GB3012. 3185: 3181: 3177: 3166: 3150: 3146: 3140: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3112: 3095: 3091: 3085: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3051: 3044: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3014: 3007: 3003: 3000: 2995: 2976: 2969: 2963: 2956: 2952: 2949: 2944: 2942: 2925: 2921: 2915: 2908: 2907:0-19-979463-4 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2889: 2885: 2880: 2864: 2860: 2859: 2854: 2847: 2840: 2836: 2833: 2828: 2821: 2817: 2814: 2808: 2793: 2789: 2782: 2766: 2762: 2756: 2740: 2736: 2730: 2714: 2710: 2704: 2698: 2695: 2691: 2684: 2676: 2672: 2666: 2657: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2636: 2620: 2616: 2610: 2594: 2590: 2584: 2568: 2564: 2557: 2555: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2524: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2475: 2468: 2453: 2449: 2443: 2435: 2431: 2426: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2394: 2384: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2354: 2347: 2343: 2340: 2335: 2333: 2325: 2324: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2310:9780141981048 2307: 2303: 2302:Penguin Books 2299: 2295: 2290: 2281: 2273: 2267: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2228: 2220: 2214: 2198: 2194: 2188: 2169: 2162: 2155: 2148: 2144: 2141: 2136: 2120: 2116: 2110: 2094: 2090: 2084: 2078:, 2015-04-17. 2077: 2074: 2068: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2041: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1986: 1970: 1966: 1960: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1938: 1934: 1927: 1919: 1913: 1898: 1894: 1887: 1880: 1876: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1852: 1848: 1845: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1825: 1819: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1804: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1783: 1768: 1764: 1758: 1742: 1738: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1701: 1692: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1650: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1620: 1601: 1594: 1588: 1582: 1577: 1573: 1563: 1560: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1545: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1509: 1506: 1502: 1496: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1440: 1434: 1429: 1425: 1423: 1417: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1370: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1326: 1316: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1264: 1256: 1247: 1242: 1238: 1228: 1227:researchers. 1226: 1222: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1210:nuclear power 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1182: 1181:Externalities 1172: 1170: 1166: 1161: 1159: 1149: 1147: 1146:methylmercury 1143: 1139: 1135: 1134:methylmercury 1131: 1126: 1124: 1114: 1095: 1093: 1087: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1053: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1027: 1023: 1010: 1006: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 987: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 920: 918: 913: 908: 907:air pollution 904: 900: 896: 887: 883: 877: 872: 865:Air emissions 860:Air pollution 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 832: 830: 825: 823: 818: 810: 805: 800: 790: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 759: 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 720: 716: 715:calcium oxide 712: 708: 704: 694: 691: 687: 682: 680: 675: 672: 668: 667:sulfuric acid 664: 660: 655: 653: 650:poor-quality 642: 640: 636: 631: 629: 625: 621: 616: 612: 610: 604: 601: 596: 592: 589: 574: 572: 568: 563: 561: 560:terawatt hour 556: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 509:air pollution 506: 502: 498: 494: 482: 477: 475: 470: 468: 463: 462: 460: 459: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 392: 391:Carboniferous 389: 387: 386:Carbon bubble 384: 383: 377: 376: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 288: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 238: 235:Externalities 232: 231: 224: 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 197: 194: 192: 189: 188: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 111: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 71: 65: 64: 60: 56: 55: 52: 49: 48: 44: 40: 39: 33: 28: 20: 16: 5619: 5607: 5595: 5576: 5409:Carbon cycle 5366:Measurements 5061:Society and 4945:carbon sinks 4850:Climate debt 4840:Carbon price 4662:Human rights 4497:Season creep 4455:heat content 4381:Anoxic event 4294:James Hansen 4036:Refined coal 3995: 3949:liquefaction 3841:Energy value 3573: 3564: 3556:the original 3546: 3534:. Retrieved 3527:the original 3514: 3503: 3491:. Retrieved 3482: 3472: 3460:. Retrieved 3451: 3442: 3423: 3404: 3394: 3378: 3366:. Retrieved 3347: 3333: 3324: 3317:. Retrieved 3310:the original 3273: 3269: 3256: 3244:. Retrieved 3240:the original 3230: 3222:the original 3183: 3179: 3176:and climate" 3165: 3153:. Retrieved 3149:the original 3139: 3127:. Retrieved 3123:the original 3098:. Retrieved 3084: 3072:. Retrieved 3043: 3031:. Retrieved 3022: 3013: 2994: 2982:. Retrieved 2962: 2928:. Retrieved 2914: 2879: 2867:. Retrieved 2863:the original 2856: 2846: 2827: 2807: 2795:. Retrieved 2781: 2769:. Retrieved 2765:the original 2755: 2743:. Retrieved 2739:the original 2729: 2717:. Retrieved 2703: 2689: 2683: 2675:the original 2665: 2656: 2640: 2635: 2623:. Retrieved 2609: 2597:. Retrieved 2583: 2571:. Retrieved 2567:the original 2541:. Retrieved 2532: 2523: 2512:, retrieved 2484: 2480: 2467: 2455:. Retrieved 2451: 2442: 2407: 2403: 2393: 2383: 2371:. Retrieved 2362: 2353: 2321: 2313: 2297: 2294:Tim Flannery 2289: 2280: 2266: 2254:. Retrieved 2238:The Guardian 2237: 2227: 2213: 2201:. Retrieved 2187: 2175:. Retrieved 2168:the original 2154: 2135: 2123:. Retrieved 2119:the original 2109: 2097:. Retrieved 2083: 2067: 2050: 2046: 2040: 1995: 1991: 1985: 1973:. Retrieved 1969:the original 1959: 1932: 1926: 1912: 1900:. Retrieved 1896: 1886: 1823: 1788: 1782: 1770:. Retrieved 1766: 1757: 1745:. Retrieved 1741:the original 1717: 1700: 1663: 1659: 1649: 1637:. Retrieved 1619: 1607:. Retrieved 1600:the original 1587: 1576: 1529:Ende Gelände 1499: 1495: 1476:asphyxiation 1438: 1418: 1399: 1376: 1367: 1332: 1314: 1300: 1283: 1260: 1218: 1178: 1162: 1156:In 2008 the 1155: 1127: 1120: 1096: 1088: 1069: 1054: 1015: 995:South Africa 993:highveld in 988: 921: 912:photovoltaic 899:particulates 892: 885: 882:Tim Flannery 875: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 826: 817:heavy metals 814: 760: 700: 686:geomembranes 683: 676: 656: 648: 632: 617: 613: 605: 597: 593: 585: 564: 557: 549:heavy metals 547:, and other 517:coal burning 492: 490: 416:Energy lobby 311:human health 310: 144:South Africa 68:Economic use 15: 5661:Environment 5436:Carbon sink 5414:atmospheric 5279:video games 4953:Blue carbon 4586:Agriculture 4565:Marine life 4512:Water cycle 4470:temperature 4205:Fossil fuel 3906:Coal mining 3856:Fossil fuel 3493:24 February 3462:24 February 3428:Abelard.org 3368:16 November 3319:15 November 3246:9 September 3155:19 February 2984:8 September 2930:29 December 2487:: 710–715, 2388:pp.198–208. 2256:16 February 2203:16 February 2099:16 February 1279:natural gas 1221:motherboard 1194:chromium VI 1142:bald eagles 1084:alkali soil 1003:Kruger Park 719:slaked lime 713:containing 709:, produces 639:reclamation 513:coal mining 451:War on coal 421:Fossil fuel 281:Coal slurry 276:Coal refuse 213:Coke (fuel) 161:Coal mining 5683:Categories 5468:Cryosphere 5429:permafrost 5201:Resilience 5153:Adaptation 5128:Litigation 5118:Governance 5063:adaptation 4845:Carbon tax 4798:Mitigation 4735:Antarctica 4623:Disability 3929:Coalfields 3714:Anthracite 3129:22 October 3074:22 October 3033:27 October 3023:Missoulian 2869:31 January 2797:31 January 2771:23 January 2745:23 January 2573:22 October 2533:IFLScience 2514:15 October 2457:23 January 2125:11 October 1975:22 October 1902:22 October 1772:25 January 1767:MINING.COM 1747:25 October 1710:Roser, Max 1569:References 1492:White damp 1482:Stink damp 1458:After damp 1444:Black damp 1271:atmosphere 1263:human-made 1235:See also: 1214:wind power 991:Mpumalanga 972:molybdenum 928:bottom ash 869:See also: 797:See also: 747:irrigation 743:soft water 652:mine water 600:overburden 525:bottom ash 291:Appalachia 196:in the USA 186:Coal power 176:in the USA 79:Anthracite 5483:Feedbacks 5254:Education 4755:Caribbean 4750:Australia 4677:Migration 4640:Fisheries 4591:Livestock 4517:Wildfires 4423:Heat wave 4041:Whitedamp 4026:Peak coal 4021:Outbursts 3924:Coal dust 3914:Blackdamp 3819:seam fire 3794:phase-out 3536:2 October 3343:"Annex A" 3193:0704.2782 2501:113715270 2452:USA TODAY 2246:0261-3077 2177:25 August 2020:1573-2932 1951:959228681 1682:0036-8075 1505:coal dust 1468:Fire damp 952:beryllium 917:pollution 829:spoil tip 789:(NPDES). 707:limestone 679:ash ponds 446:Peak coal 368:Whitedamp 358:Outbursts 266:Coal dust 256:Blackdamp 171:in the UK 114:Australia 5609:Glossary 5597:Category 5419:biologic 5133:Politics 5025:Personal 4730:Americas 4603:Children 4369:Physical 4162:Overview 4102:Overview 3991:Firedamp 3846:Flue gas 3769:Charcoal 3744:Ash pond 3719:Graphite 3582:Archived 3487:Archived 3456:Archived 3431:Archived 3412:Archived 3387:Archived 3341:(1988). 3306:41057679 3298:17777943 3218:53557160 3100:10 March 3094:Archived 3065:Archived 3027:Archived 3002:Archived 2975:Archived 2951:Archived 2924:Archived 2891:Archived 2835:Archived 2816:Archived 2713:Archived 2619:Archived 2593:Archived 2537:Archived 2505:archived 2434:29016130 2367:Archived 2363:NBC News 2342:Archived 2250:Archived 2197:Archived 2143:Archived 2093:Archived 2028:91408401 1875:Archived 1847:Archived 1691:10870829 1633:Archived 1512:See also 1501:Firedamp 1452:nitrogen 1301:In 2008 1074:used in 1042:nitrides 1038:hydrides 980:selenium 964:chromium 948:vanadium 879:— 835:Wildlife 779:chromium 775:selenium 755:sodicity 739:hardness 705:rich in 671:tailings 497:land use 396:Coal oil 348:Firedamp 296:coal ash 241:Ash pond 208:Coal tar 191:in China 166:in Chile 104:Coal gas 89:Charcoal 43:a series 41:Part of 5635:Portals 5424:oceanic 5274:fiction 5123:Justice 5074:Society 4682:Poverty 4401:Drought 4269:History 4193:Sources 3851:Fly ash 3699:Lignite 3328:Page 35 3278:Bibcode 3270:Science 3198:Bibcode 2719:7 March 2625:15 June 2599:15 June 2543:9 March 2412:Bibcode 2373:6 March 2000:Bibcode 1897:Reuters 1660:Science 1639:9 March 1609:9 March 1472:methane 1351:fly ash 1339:thorium 1335:uranium 1269:in the 1198:arsenic 999:lowveld 956:cadmium 940:mercury 932:arsenic 924:fly ash 888:, 2015. 783:cadmium 771:mercury 763:arsenic 721:(Ca(OH) 711:fly ash 703:lignite 545:arsenic 541:thorium 537:uranium 533:mercury 521:fly ash 154:Ukraine 109:Coal in 74:Ammonia 5649:Energy 5404:Albedo 5397:Theory 5108:Denial 4899:Energy 4760:Europe 4740:Arctic 4725:Africa 4650:Health 4645:Gender 4608:Cities 4533:Biomes 4440:Oceans 4428:Marine 4151:Causes 3969:slurry 3964:refuse 3836:Coking 3754:Asthma 3359: 3304: 3296: 3216: 2905: 2647: 2499: 2432: 2314:et al. 2308: 2244: 2026: 2018: 1949: 1939: 1799: 1688: 1680: 984:radium 968:copper 960:barium 944:nickel 781:, and 663:pyrite 527:, and 251:Asthma 218:Coking 149:Turkey 139:Russia 134:Poland 124:Europe 119:Canada 5621:Index 5383:Proxy 5143:Women 4618:Crime 4545:Birds 4411:Flood 3689:Xylit 3530:(PDF) 3523:(PDF) 3313:(PDF) 3302:S2CID 3266:(PDF) 3214:S2CID 3188:arXiv 3068:(PDF) 3053:(PDF) 2978:(PDF) 2971:(PDF) 2508:(PDF) 2497:S2CID 2477:(PDF) 2171:(PDF) 2164:(PDF) 2076:21301 2024:S2CID 1603:(PDF) 1596:(PDF) 1422:China 1225:Intel 1169:ozone 1165:PM2.5 505:water 326:smoke 129:India 5206:Risk 4745:Asia 4337:2024 4332:2023 4327:2022 4322:2021 4317:2020 4312:2019 3974:town 3934:Coal 3886:Smog 3831:Coke 3774:Coal 3764:Char 3694:Peat 3671:Coal 3538:2013 3495:2017 3464:2017 3418:pg28 3370:2012 3357:ISBN 3321:2012 3294:PMID 3248:2005 3157:2010 3131:2008 3102:2011 3076:2008 3035:2013 2986:2012 2932:2016 2903:ISBN 2871:2008 2799:2008 2773:2024 2747:2024 2721:2020 2697:9303 2645:ISBN 2627:2019 2601:2019 2575:2008 2545:2019 2516:2019 2459:2024 2430:PMID 2375:2012 2306:ISBN 2258:2020 2242:ISSN 2205:2020 2179:2012 2127:2012 2101:2020 2016:ISSN 1977:2008 1947:OCLC 1937:ISBN 1904:2008 1797:ISBN 1774:2024 1749:2017 1678:ISSN 1641:2012 1611:2012 1450:and 1431:The 1406:Utah 1387:lung 1239:and 1196:and 1070:The 1059:and 1040:and 1028:, SO 989:The 982:and 976:zinc 936:lead 767:lead 624:Saar 507:and 491:The 321:smog 51:Coal 5269:art 3939:gas 3881:NOx 3824:tar 3789:gas 3286:doi 3274:202 3206:doi 2692:77 2489:doi 2420:doi 2055:doi 2051:107 2008:doi 1996:132 1686:PMC 1668:doi 1664:382 1408:'s 1383:gas 1359:μSv 1206:MWh 571:gas 316:NOx 5685:: 3485:. 3481:. 3450:. 3393:, 3355:. 3353:83 3345:. 3323:. 3300:. 3292:. 3284:. 3272:. 3268:. 3212:. 3204:. 3196:. 3184:22 3182:. 3178:. 3110:^ 3063:. 3059:, 3055:. 3021:. 2973:. 2940:^ 2897:, 2886:. 2855:. 2790:. 2694:FR 2553:^ 2535:. 2531:. 2503:, 2495:, 2485:80 2483:, 2479:, 2450:. 2428:. 2418:. 2408:51 2406:. 2402:. 2361:. 2331:^ 2320:, 2316:, 2300:, 2296:, 2248:. 2240:. 2236:. 2073:FR 2049:. 2030:. 2022:. 2014:. 2006:. 1994:. 1945:. 1935:. 1895:. 1870:. 1858:^ 1831:^ 1811:^ 1795:. 1765:. 1726:^ 1716:. 1708:; 1684:. 1676:. 1662:. 1658:. 1631:. 1627:. 1337:, 1281:. 1257:). 1192:, 1188:, 1105:SO 1055:SO 978:, 974:, 970:, 966:, 962:, 958:, 954:, 950:, 946:, 942:, 938:, 934:, 926:, 884:, 831:. 777:, 773:, 769:, 765:, 555:. 543:, 539:, 535:, 523:, 503:, 499:, 45:on 30:A 5637:: 4180:) 4176:( 4082:e 4075:t 4068:v 3663:e 3656:t 3649:v 3540:. 3497:. 3466:. 3372:. 3288:: 3280:: 3250:. 3208:: 3200:: 3190:: 3174:2 3159:. 3133:. 3104:. 3078:. 3037:. 2988:. 2934:. 2909:. 2873:. 2801:. 2775:. 2749:. 2723:. 2651:. 2629:. 2603:. 2577:. 2547:. 2491:: 2461:. 2436:. 2422:: 2414:: 2377:. 2274:. 2260:. 2207:. 2181:. 2129:. 2103:. 2061:. 2057:: 2034:. 2010:: 2002:: 1979:. 1953:. 1920:. 1906:. 1805:. 1776:. 1751:. 1720:. 1694:. 1670:: 1643:. 1613:. 1478:. 1323:2 1319:2 1311:2 1267:2 1251:2 1111:2 1107:2 1103:2 1099:2 1057:2 1050:3 1034:x 1030:2 1018:2 723:2 480:e 473:t 466:v

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.