Hand washing - Knowledge

967: 764: 1058: 669: 319:, a major ARI, is the number one cause of mortality among children under five years old, taking the lives of an estimated 1.8 million children per year. Diarrhea and pneumonia together account for almost 3.5 million child deaths annually. According to UNICEF, turning handwashing with soap before eating and after using the toilet into an ingrained habit can save more lives than any single vaccine or medical intervention, cutting deaths from diarrhea by almost half and deaths from acute respiratory infections by one-quarter. Hand washing is usually integrated with other sanitation interventions as part of water, sanitation, and hygiene ( 982:, hand washing with soap is recognized as a cost-effective, essential tool for achieving good health, and even good nutrition. However, a lack of reliable water supply, soap or hand washing facilities in people's homes, at schools and the workplace make it a challenge to achieve universal hand washing behaviors. For example, in most of rural Africa hand washing taps close to every private or public toilet are scarce, even though cheap options exist to build hand washing stations. However, low hand washing rates can also be the result of engrained habits rather than due to a lack of soap or water. 917: 553: 182: 265: 713: 655:

the use of ash to wash hands is of poor quality. It is not clear if washing hands with ash is effective at reducing viral or bacterial spreading compared to washing with mud, not washing, or with washing with water alone. One concern is that if the soil or ash is contaminated with microorganisms it may increase the spread of disease rather than decrease it, however, there is also no clear evidence to determine the level of risk. Like soap, ash is also a disinfecting agent because in contact with water, it forms an alkaline solution.

1165: 989:, Target 6.2 which states "By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations. The corresponding Indicator 6.2.1 is formulated as follows: "Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water" (see map to the right with data worldwide from 2017)." 5954: 1002: 5978: 349: 42: 5966: 247:), before feeding a child, before eating and before/after preparing food or handling raw meat, fish, or poultry. Other occasions when correct handwashing technique should be practiced in order to prevent the transmission of disease include before and after treating a cut or wound; after sneezing, coughing, or blowing your nose; after touching animal waste or handling animals; and after touching 1261: 308:, such as hand washing with soap. This simple action can reduce the rate of mortality from these diseases by almost 50%. Interventions that promote hand washing can reduce diarrhoea episodes by about a third, and this is comparable to providing clean water in low income areas. 48% of reductions in diarrhoea episodes can be associated with hand washing with soap. 839: 634:

soap and water are unavailable. Despite their effectiveness, non-water agents do not cleanse the hands of organic material, but simply disinfect them. It is for this reason that hand sanitizers are not as effective as soap and water at preventing the spread of many pathogens, since the pathogens remain on the hands.

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Several companies around the globe have developed technologies that aim to improve the hand washing process. Among the different inventions, there are eco-friendly devices that use 90% less water and 60% less soap compared to hand washing under a faucet. Another device uses light-based rays to detect

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In situations with limited water supply (such as schools or rural areas in developing countries), there are water-conserving solutions, such as "tippy-taps" and other low-cost options. A tippy-tap is a simple technology using a jug suspended by a rope, and a foot-operated lever to pour a small amount

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or soil instead. The World Health Organization recommended ash or sand as an alternative to soap when soap is not available. Use of ash is common in rural areas of developing countries and has in experiments been shown at least as effective as soap for removing pathogens. However, evidence to support

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Medical hand-washing is for a minimum of 15 seconds, using generous amounts of soap and water or gel to lather and rub each part of the hands. Hands should be rubbed together with digits interlocking. If there is debris under fingernails, a bristle brush may be used to remove it. Since pathogens may

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such as an alcohol hand gel can be used. They can be used in addition to hand washing to minimize risks when caring for "at-risk" groups. To be effective, alcohol hand gels should contain not less than 60%v/v alcohol. Enough hand antiseptic or alcohol rub must be used to thoroughly wet or cover both

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and clean water, although the benefits and harms are uncertain for reducing the spread of viral or bacterial infections. However, frequent hand washing can lead to skin damage due to drying of the skin. Moisturizing lotion is often recommended to keep the hands from drying out; dry skin can lead to

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wash, sterile towels for drying the hands after washing, and a sterile brush for scrubbing and another sterile instrument for cleaning under the fingernails. All jewelry should be removed. This procedure requires washing the hands and forearms up to the elbow, usually 2–6 minutes. Long scrub-times

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The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) are clear and straightforward concerning hand hygiene, and recommend paper towels and hand dryers equally. Both have stressed the importance of frequent and thorough hand washing followed by their complete

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The promotion and advocacy of hand washing with soap can influence policy decisions, raise awareness about the benefits of hand washing and lead to long-term behavior change of the population. For this to work effectively, monitoring and evaluation are necessary. A systematic review of 70 studies

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Comparing hand-rubbing with alcohol-based solution with hand washing with antibacterial soap for a median time of 30 seconds each showed that the alcohol hand-rubbing reduced bacterial contamination 26% more than the antibacterial soap. But soap and water is more effective than alcohol-based hand

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reports that a lack of hand-washing remains at unacceptable levels in most medical environments, with large numbers of doctors and nurses routinely forgetting to wash their hands before touching patients, thus transmitting microorganisms. One study showed that proper hand-washing and other simple

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recommend hand washing with soap over hand sanitizer rubs, particularly when hands are visibly dirty. The increasing use of these agents is based on their ease of use and rapid killing activity against micro-organisms; however, they should not serve as a replacement for proper hand washing unless

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that is still comfortable for washing hands is not hot enough to kill bacteria. Bacteria grow much faster at body temperature (37 °C). WHO considers warm soapy water to be more effective than cold, soapy water at removing natural oils which hold soils and bacteria. But CDC mentions that warm

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It has also been found that people, after having recalled or contemplated unethical acts, tend to wash hands more often than others, and tend to value hand washing equipment more. Furthermore, those who are allowed to wash their hands after such a contemplation are less likely to engage in other

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The importance of hand washing for human health – particularly for people in vulnerable circumstances like mothers who had just given birth or wounded soldiers in hospitals – was first recognized in the mid 19th century by two pioneers of hand hygiene: the Hungarian

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that encourages schools to take simple, inexpensive steps to ensure that students wash their hands with soap, among other hygienic requirements. When minimum standards are achieved, schools can move from one to ultimately three stars. Building hand washing stations can be a part of hand washing

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infections in hospitals, it has been found that the greatest benefit from hand-cleansing came from the first 20% of washing, and that very little additional benefit was gained when hand cleansing frequency was increased beyond 35%. Washing with plain soap results in more than triple the rate of

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in 2020 led to increased awareness in many countries of the importance of washing hands with soap to protect oneself from such infectious diseases. For example, posters with "correct hand washing techniques" were hung up next to hand washing sinks in public toilets and in the toilets of office

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Jet-air dryers were found to be capable of blowing micro-organisms from the hands and the unit and potentially contaminating other users and the environment up to 2 metres (6.6 feet) away. In the same study in 2008 (sponsored by the paper-towel industry the European Tissue Symposium), use of a

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Certain environments are especially sensitive to the transmission of pathogenic microorganisms, like health care and food production. Organizations attempting to prevent infection transmission in these environments have started using programmed washing cycles that provide sufficient time for

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drying as a means to stop the spread of pathogens, like COVID-19. Specifically, the World Health Organization recommends that everyone "frequently clean hands..." and "dry thoroughly by using paper towels or a warm air dryer." The CDC report that, "Both are effective ways to dry hands."

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A 2007 meta-analysis from the University of Oregon School of Public Health indicated that plain soaps are as effective as consumer-grade anti-bacterial soaps containing triclosan in preventing illness and removing bacteria from the hands. Dissenting, a 2011 meta-analysis in the

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warm-air hand dryer spread micro-organisms only up to 0.25 metres (0.82 feet) from the dryer, and paper towels showed no significant spread of micro-organisms. No studies have found a correlation to hand dryers and human health, however, making these findings inconsequential.

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Solid soap, because of its reusable nature, may hold bacteria acquired from previous uses. A small number of studies which have looked at the bacterial transfer from contaminated solid soap have concluded transfer is unlikely as the bacteria are rinsed off with the foam. The

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The addition of antiseptic chemicals to soap ("medicated" or "antimicrobial" soaps) confers killing action to a hand-washing agent. Such killing action may be desired before performing surgery or in settings in which antibiotic-resistant organisms are highly prevalent.

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Lather hands by rubbing them with a generous amount of soap, including the backs of hands, between fingers, and under nails. Soap lifts pathogens from the skin, and studies show that people tend to wash their hands more thoroughly when soap is used rather than water

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Andrighetto, Giulia; Szekely, Aron; Guido, Andrea; Gelfand, Michele; Abernathy, Jered; Arikan, Gizem; Aycan, Zeynep; Bankar, Shweta; Barrera, Davide; Basnight-Brown, Dana; Belaus, Anabel; Berezina, Elizaveta; Blumen, Sheyla; Boski, Paweł; Bui, Huyen Thi Thu (2024).

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discovered its effectiveness (in 1846) in preventing disease in a hospital environment. There are electronic devices that provide feedback to remind hospital staff to wash their hands when they forget. One study has found decreased infection rates with their use.

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remain in the water on the hands, it is important to rinse well and wipe dry with a clean towel. After drying, the paper towel should be used to turn off the water (and open any exit door if necessary). This avoids re-contaminating the hands from those surfaces.

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found in many public toilets. A review in 2012 concluded that "From a hygiene standpoint, paper towels are superior to air dryers; therefore, paper towels should be recommended for use in locations in which hygiene is paramount, such as hospitals and clinics."

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scrubbing the hands with soap and rinsing them with water. Combined with AI-powered software, these technological advancements turn the hand-washing process into digital data, allowing individuals to receive insights and improve their hand hygiene practices.

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has published a sheet demonstrating standard hand-washing and hand-rubbing in health-care sectors. The draft guidance of hand hygiene by the organization can also be found at its website for public comment. A relevant review was conducted by Whitby

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Wet hands with warm or cold running water. Running water is recommended because standing basins may be contaminated, while the temperature of the water does not seem to make a difference, however some experts suggest warm, tepid water may be

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water causes skin irritations more often and its ecological footprint is more significant. Water temperatures from 4 to 40 °C do not differ significantly regarding removal of microbes. The most important factor is proper scrubbing.

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agent. In the late 1990s and early part of the 21st century, alcohol rub non-water-based hand hygiene agents (also known as alcohol-based hand rubs, antiseptic hand rubs, or hand sanitizers) began to gain popularity. Most are based on

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In the 1980s, foodborne outbreaks and healthcare-associated infections led the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to more actively promote hand hygiene as an important way to prevent the spread of infection. The

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Various low-cost options can be made to facilitate hand washing where tap-water and/or soap is not available e.g. pouring water from a hanging jerrycan or gourd with suitable holes and/or using ash if needed in developing countries.

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A small detrimental effect of handwashing is that frequent hand washing can lead to skin damage due to the drying of the skin. A 2012 Danish study found that excessive hand washing can lead to an itchy, flaky skin condition known as

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hands. The front and back of both hands and between and the ends of all fingers must be rubbed for approximately 30 seconds until the liquid, foam or gel is dry. Finger tips must be washed well too, rubbing them in both palms.

902:(10 minutes) are not necessary. When rinsing, water on the forearms must be prevented from running back to the hands. After hand-washing is completed, the hands are dried with a sterile cloth and a surgical gown is donned. 2638: 114:, dirt, grease, and other harmful or unwanted substances stuck to the hands. Drying of the washed hands is part of the process as wet and moist hands are more easily recontaminated. If soap and water are unavailable, 543:

Contrary to popular belief, scientific studies have shown that using warm water has no effect on reducing the microbial load on hands. Using hot water for handwashing can even be regarded as a waste of energy.

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Group hand washing for school children at set times of the day is one option in developing countries to engrain hand washing in children's behaviors. The "Essential Health Care Program" implemented by the

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Effective drying of the hands is an essential part of the hand hygiene process. Therefore, the proper drying of hands after washing should be an integral part of the hand hygiene process in health care.

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Swoboda SM, Earsing K, Strauss K, Lane S, Lipsett PA (February 2004). "Electronic monitoring and voice prompts improve hand hygiene and decrease nosocomial infections in an intermediate care unit".

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In many countries, there is a low rate of hand washing with soap. A study of hand washing in 54 countries in 2015 found that on average, 38.7% of households practiced hand washing with soap.

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Jabbar U, Leischner J, Kasper D, Gerber R, Sambol SP, Parada JP, et al. (June 2010). "Effectiveness of alcohol-based hand rubs for removal of Clostridium difficile spores from hands".

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begins to compulsively wash her hands in an attempt to cleanse an imagined stain, representing her guilty conscience regarding crimes she had committed and induced her husband to commit.

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The phrase "washing one's hands of" something, means declaring one's unwillingness to take responsibility for the thing or share complicity in it. It originates from the bible passage in

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deliveries. A 2013 study showed that improved hand washing practices may lead to small improvements in the length growth in children under five years of age. In developing countries,

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Whitby M, Pessoa-Silva CL, McLaws ML, Allegranzi B, Sax H, Larson E, et al. (January 2007). "Behavioural considerations for hand hygiene practices: the basic building blocks".

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The most commonly missed areas are the thumb, the wrist, the areas between the fingers, and under fingernails. Artificial nails and chipped nail polish may harbor microorganisms.

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Low-cost hand washing technologies for households may differ from facilities for multiple users. For households, options include tippy taps, bucket/container with tap (such as a

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Hand washing facilities should be placed at convenient locations to encourage people to use them regularly and at the right times; they should be attractive and well maintained.

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Hand washing using hand sanitizing wipes is an alternative during traveling in the absence of soap and water. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer should contain at least 60% alcohol.

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is an example of at scale action to promote children's health and education. Deworming twice a year, supplemented with washing hands daily with soap, brushing teeth daily with

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Baker, K.K.; Dil Farzana, F.; Ferdous, F.; Ahmed, S.; Kumar Das, S.; Faruque, A.S.G.; Nasrin, D.; Kotloff, K.L.; Nataro, J.P.; Kolappaswamy, K.; Levine, M.M. (28 April 2014).

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of organisms. So, even if antibiotic resistant strains are not selected for by antibacterial soaps, they might not be as effective as they are marketed to be. Besides the

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Weber DJ, Rutala WA (October 2006). "Use of germicides in the home and the healthcare setting: is there a relationship between germicide use and antibiotic resistance?".

1494:"The effectiveness of hand hygiene procedures in reducing the risks of infections in home and community settings including hand washing and alcohol-based hand sanitizers" 958:, and written and verbal reminders to staff. There is a need for more research into which of these interventions are most effective in different healthcare settings. 6184: 3274: 622:

Hand sanitizers are most effective against bacteria and less effective against some viruses. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are almost entirely ineffective against

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averted. However, one review suggests that promoting hand washing with soap is significantly more cost-effective than other water and sanitation interventions.

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buildings and airports in Germany. Research indicates that the COVID pandemic shifted social norms regarding hand washing, making it more prevalent worldwide.

7068: 3104: 3842:"Increasing the frequency of hand washing by healthcare workers does not lead to commensurate reductions in staphylococcal infection in a hospital ward" 5759: 4749: 3412: 363:

A 2014 study showed that Saudi Arabia had the highest rate of 97%; the United States near the middle with 77%; and China with the lowest rate of 23%.

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There are five critical times during the day where washing hands with soap is important to reduce fecal-oral transmission of disease: after using the

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Poster about when to wash hands to raise awareness about hygiene. This poster can be used to raise awareness on that topic amongst school children.

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found that community-based approaches are effective at increasing hand washing in LMICs, while social marketing campaigns are less effective.

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Interventions to improve hand hygiene in healthcare settings can involve education for staff on hand washing, increasing the availability of

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In situations where hand washing with soap is not an option (e.g., when in a public place with no access to wash facilities), a waterless

4169:"Approaches to promote handwashing and sanitation behaviour change in low- and middle-income countries: a mixed method systematic review" 3323: 3180: 920:

Microbial growth on a cultivation plate without procedures (A), after washing hands with soap (B) and after disinfection with alcohol (C)

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De Buck E, Van Remoortel H, Hannes K, Govender T, Naidoo S, Avau B, Veegaete AJ, Musekiwa A, Lutje V, Cargo M, Mosler HJ (19 May 2017).

5799: 3983:"Efficacy of soap and water and alcohol-based hand-rub preparations against live H1N1 influenza virus on the hands of human volunteers" 2569: 630: 433: 190: 126:

in water can be used as long as hands are not visibly excessively dirty or greasy. Hand hygiene is central to preventing the spread of

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To reduce the spread of pathogens, it is better to wash the hands or use a hand antiseptic before and after tending to a sick person.

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Several behavior change methodologies now exist to increase uptake of the behavior of hand washing with soap at the critical times.

4810: 2747: 6170: 5832: 5804: 4844: 4754: 3934:"Efficacy of handrubbing with alcohol based solution versus standard handwashing with antiseptic soap: randomised clinical trial" 2046:

Curtis V, Cairncross S (May 2003). "Effect of washing hands with soap on diarrhoea risk in the community: a systematic review".

1844: 7841: 7828: 6442: 6198: 5809: 5125: 4614: 1775: 966: 2852:"The Environmental Cost of Misinformation: Why the Recommendation to Use Elevated Temperatures for Handwashing is Problematic" 2403:"Double hand washing with a fingernail brush. HACCP – HITM: food science safety and HACCP training and certification provider" 1005:

Poster used in Africa for raising awareness about hand washing after using the toilet with simple low-cost hand washing device

209:. Scrubbing creates friction, which helps remove pathogens from skin, and scrubbing for longer periods removes more pathogens. 7113: 5867: 5774: 4288: 3656: 3319: 3209: 2386: 2171: 1447: 371: 6455: 7630: 7088: 5857: 3529:

Boyce JM (October 2011). "Measuring healthcare worker hand hygiene activity: current practices and emerging technologies".

3311: 2402: 6767: 5814: 5378: 4966: 1870: 763: 2714: 7833: 4882: 2935:"Glycerol content within the WHO ethanol-based handrub formulation: balancing tolerability with antimicrobial efficacy" 2315: 6837: 4208:. Eschborn, Germany: United Nations Children's Fund and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). 3226:"The Hygiene Improvement Project (HIP) – Tippy-Tap: A simple low-cost technology for handwashing when water is scarce" 3225: 1069:

Few studies have considered the overall cost effectiveness of hand washing in developing countries in relationship to

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A study in 2020 found that hand dryers and paper towels were both found to be equally hygienic hand-drying solutions.

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Building a culture of handwashing with children can create a change in culture with widespread public health benefits.

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Ejemot RI, Ehiri JE, Meremikwu MM, Critchley JA (2009). "Cochrane review: Hand washing for preventing diarrhoea".

6936: 5515: 5143: 5120: 4572: 4137:"The Handwashing Handbook – A guide for developing a hygiene promotion program to increase handwashing with soap" 2238: 1021: 862:

Commercial devices can measure and validate hand hygiene, if demonstration of regulatory compliance is required.

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Zhong CB, Liljenquist K (September 2006). "Washing away your sins: threatened morality and physical cleansing".

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have been heavily promoted to a health-conscious public. To date, there is no evidence that using recommended

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de Almeida e Borges LF, Silva BL, Gontijo Filho PP (August 2007). "Hand washing: changes in the skin flora".

1086: 1070: 1057: 784: 193:(CDC) recommends the following steps when washing one's hands for the prevention of transmission of disease: 7672: 6825: 6588: 6303: 6002: 5487: 5214: 4548: 3447:"Comparison of electric hand dryers and paper towels for hand hygiene: a critical review of the literature" 1553: 240: 154: 6497: 4578: 2933:

Menegueti MG, Laus AM, Ciol MA, Auxiliadora-Martins M, Basile-Filho A, Gir E, et al. (24 June 2019).

787:) to everyone is crucial to maintain hand washing behavior. Considerations for accessibility include age, 7714: 7585: 7521: 7489: 7437: 6734: 6716: 5634: 5527: 5438: 5251: 5239: 5148: 4837: 4780: 4775: 4327: 2295: 1926: 772: 412: 312: 168:

When neither hand washing nor using hand sanitizer is possible, hands can be cleaned with uncontaminated

1802:"Facemasks and hand hygiene to prevent influenza transmission in households: a cluster randomized trial" 615:

into a liquid, or foam for ease of use and to decrease the drying effect of the alcohol. Adding diluted

161:), before feeding a child, before eating and before/after preparing food or handling raw meat, fish, or 7270: 6683: 6423: 5704: 5629: 5534: 5070: 4607: 3393: 1365: 1242: 893:, it is necessary to have a tap that can be turned on and off without touching it with the hands, some 668: 4430: 3893:"Effect of hand wash agents on controlling the transmission of pathogenic bacteria from hands to food" 3498:

A comparative study of three different hand drying methods: paper towel, warm air dryer, jet air dryer

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argued that when properly formulated, triclosan can grant a small but detectable improvement, as can

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Handwashing with soap is the single most effective and inexpensive way to prevent diarrhea and acute

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Pronovost P, Needham D, Berenholtz S, Sinopoli D, Chu H, Cosgrove S, et al. (December 2006).

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Scaling up group handwashing in schools – Compendium of group washing facilities across the globe

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Indicator 6.2.1b in 2017: "Share of the population with basic handwashing facilities on premises"

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Dry with a clean towel or allow to air dry. Wet and moist hands are more easily recontaminated.

4356:"Changes in social norms during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic across 43 countries" 3981:

Grayson ML, Melvani S, Druce J, Barr IG, Ballard SA, Johnson PD, et al. (February 2009).

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Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Painter J, Altaf A, Billhimer W, Keswick B, Hoekstra RM (April 2006).

746:. A growing volume of research suggests paper towels are much more hygienic than the electric 7687: 7319: 7188: 6696: 6603: 6522: 6092: 5915: 5699: 5234: 5135: 5028: 4877: 4770: 4738: 4600: 4220: 3197: 3105:"Water Sanitation Health. How can personal hygiene be maintained in difficult circumstances?" 1275: 775:

handwashing was part of a system of public health measures encouraged to reduce transmission.

552: 181: 6467: 4271:. In Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, Alleyne G, Claeson M, Evans DB, et al. (eds.). 4225:(3rd ed.). FHI 360 for the Global Public-Private Partnership for Handwashing with Soap. 3090: 2357:

Raising Even More Clean Hands: Advancing Health, Learning and Equity through WASH in Schools

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Wheatley T, Haidt J (October 2005). "Hypnotic disgust makes moral judgments more severe".

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Dangour AD, Watson L, Cumming O, Boisson S, Che Y, Velleman Y, et al. (August 2013).

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Laestadius JG, Dimberg L (April 2005). "Hot water for handwashing--where is the proof?".

2675:"A meta-analysis of the published literature on the effectiveness of antimicrobial soaps" 1951:

Rhee V, Mullany LC, Khatry SK, Katz J, LeClerq SC, Darmstadt GL, Tielsch JM (July 2008).

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Cairncross S, Hunt C, Boisson S, Bostoen K, Curtis V, Fung IC, Schmidt WP (April 2010).

7580: 7575: 7484: 7464: 7098: 6941: 6906: 6760: 6726: 6276: 5522: 5105: 4954: 4696: 4527: 4491: 4094: 4069: 4047: 3868: 3841: 3770: 3597: 3585: 3554: 3473: 3446: 3156: 3131: 2961: 2934: 2876: 2851: 2832: 2820: 2615: 2542: 2517: 2138: 2117: 2028: 1977: 1952: 1900: 1633: 1608: 1518: 1493: 1424: 1397: 933: 444: 337: 301: 6512: 4265: 3958: 3933: 3375:"New safety tool at SEA Airport scans restaurant employee hands to ensure cleanliness" 2493: 2460: 2059: 272:

Hand washing has many significant health benefits, including minimizing the spread of

7866: 7807: 7667: 7620: 7422: 6924: 6593: 6583: 6573: 6558: 6375: 6358: 6222: 5684: 5679: 5607: 5556: 5330: 5310: 5298: 5258: 5229: 5197: 5115: 5008: 4976: 4872: 4785: 4732: 4519: 4515: 4483: 4411: 4393: 4294: 4284: 4099: 4051: 4039: 4004: 3963: 3914: 3873: 3811: 3748: 3707: 3638: 3633: 3589: 3546: 3478: 3315: 3282: 3205: 3161: 3072: 3067: 3050: 2966: 2908: 2881: 2824: 2792: 2775: 2696: 2607: 2547: 2498: 2382: 2167: 2143: 2098: 2063: 2032: 2020: 1982: 1892: 1887: 1823: 1676: 1638: 1485: 1429: 1219: 1201: 1197: 1173: 1028: 616: 584: 315:(ARI), as automatic behavior performed in homes, schools, and communities worldwide. 4531: 4495: 3558: 2836: 2619: 1953:"Maternal and birth attendant hand washing and neonatal mortality in southern Nepal" 1800:

Cowling BJ, Chan KH, Fang VJ, Cheng CK, Fung RO, Wai W, et al. (October 2009).

1038:

Designing hand washing facilities that encourage use can use the following aspects:

7894: 7861: 7797: 7784: 7613: 7602: 7494: 7474: 7309: 7223: 7198: 6929: 6876: 6815: 6706: 6353: 6281: 6146: 6060: 5849: 5602: 5561: 5373: 5348: 5160: 5090: 4934: 4511: 4475: 4401: 4383: 4375: 4276: 4180: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4031: 3994: 3953: 3945: 3904: 3863: 3853: 3803: 3738: 3697: 3628: 3601: 3581: 3538: 3468: 3458: 3151: 3143: 3062: 2956: 2946: 2871: 2863: 2816: 2787: 2686: 2599: 2537: 2529: 2488: 2480: 2133: 2125: 2090: 2055: 2016: 2012: 1972: 1964: 1904: 1882: 1813: 1668: 1628: 1620: 1513: 1505: 1489: 1419: 1409: 1181: 1169: 1159: 835:

procedures can decrease the rate of catheter-related bloodstream infections by 66%.

808: 804: 592: 464: 289: 3891:

Fischler GE, Fuls JL, Dail EW, Duran MH, Rodgers ND, Waggoner AL (December 2007).

3667: 2633: 2484: 2378:

School Community Manual – Indonesia (formerly Manual for teachers), Fit for School

1398:"The hygienic efficacy of different hand-drying methods: a review of the evidence" 1009:

One example for hand washing promotion in schools is the "Three Star Approach" by

436:

still states "liquid soap with hands-free controls for dispensing is preferable".

7729: 7724: 7568: 7516: 7324: 7301: 7146: 7123: 6507: 6472: 6348: 6293: 5910: 5612: 5415: 5408: 5343: 5283: 5165: 5155: 5085: 5058: 5043: 4998: 4988: 4939: 4691: 3909: 3892: 2774:

Michaels B, Gangar V, Schultz A, Arenas M, Curiale M, Ayers T, Paulson D (2002).

2691: 2674: 2363: 2302: 1414: 1326: 1014:

promotion campaigns that are carried out to reduce diseases and child mortality.

906: 898: 693: 673: 297: 6477: 3727:"An intervention to decrease catheter-related bloodstream infections in the ICU" 2985: 2900: 1607:

Paludan-Müller AS, Boesen K, Klerings I, Jørgensen KJ, Munkholm K (April 2020).

626:(or Norwalk) type viruses, the most common cause of contagious gastroenteritis. 7759: 7692: 7635: 7407: 7296: 7288: 7213: 7166: 7161: 7108: 6832: 6613: 6608: 6568: 6517: 6482: 6320: 6256: 6098: 5597: 5383: 5320: 5305: 5288: 5246: 5048: 4929: 4806: 4660: 4650: 4379: 4236: 4120: 3807: 2406: 1968: 1672: 1509: 1321: 1266: 1230:, but has become a phrase with a much wider usage in some English communities. 1223: 928: 567: 561: 115: 21: 4583: 4280: 3356:"How Swiss scale-up Smixin battles the spread of infectious disease worldwide" 2951: 2533: 1624: 1533: 1020:

is another example of an awareness-raising campaign that is trying to achieve

7889: 7883: 7640: 7597: 7556: 7449: 7432: 7390: 7103: 6654: 6623: 6244: 5905: 5784: 5592: 5566: 5443: 5403: 5368: 5358: 5338: 5080: 5038: 5013: 4961: 4949: 4944: 4853: 4665: 4645: 4397: 3949: 3286: 2983: 2102: 1316: 1280: 1189: 894: 780: 743: 488: 471:

and skin-protecting agent, the sophisticated formulations may contain acids (

408: 404: 228: 142: 111: 6490: 4479: 3858: 3617:"APIC guideline for handwashing and hand antisepsis in health care settings" 2652: 2636:, "Microbicidal and sanitizing soap compositions", issued 1997-09-04 7851: 7789: 7531: 7479: 7427: 7378: 7178: 7128: 6739: 6310: 6080: 6042: 6034: 5925: 5353: 5202: 5170: 5100: 4993: 4907: 4717: 4686: 4635: 4523: 4487: 4415: 4298: 4139:. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. 4103: 4043: 4008: 3967: 3918: 3877: 3815: 3752: 3711: 3616: 3593: 3550: 3482: 3233: 3165: 2970: 2912: 2885: 2828: 2700: 2611: 2255:

WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation

2147: 2067: 2024: 1986: 1896: 1827: 1680: 1642: 1433: 1227: 1164: 1115: 1042: 600: 492: 212:

Rinse well under running water. Rinsing in a basin can recontaminate hands.

173:

skin damage which can increase the risk for the transmission of infection.

3642: 3185:. International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene (IFH). Somerset, England. 3147: 3076: 2551: 2502: 2187: 7744: 7546: 7469: 7444: 7193: 7173: 7078: 7038: 6962: 6333: 6328: 6249: 6232: 5920: 5617: 5315: 5224: 5187: 4670: 4068:

Gould DJ, Moralejo D, Drey N, Chudleigh JH, Taljaard M (September 2017).

3743: 3726: 3686:"System failure versus personal accountability--the case for clean hands" 2129: 1295: 1290: 1234: 792: 480: 472: 17: 3702: 3685: 742:

However, there is some debate over the most effective form of drying in

556:

Hand disinfection procedure according to the German standard DIN EN 1500

7682: 7657: 7625: 7402: 7383: 7373: 7361: 7208: 6820: 6792: 6618: 6578: 6070: 5546: 5268: 4388: 4185: 4168: 4121:"Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6) 3413:"Interest in Israeli Smart Hand-Washing Device Surges with Coronavirus" 2867: 2242: 788: 747: 726: 575: 468: 448: 420: 400: 293: 236: 150: 5994: 3932:

Girou E, Loyeau S, Legrand P, Oppein F, Brun-Buisson C (August 2002).

3503:(Report). The School of Biosciences, University of Westminster London. 3463: 3202:

Healthy villages: a guide for communities and community health workers

2269:"Les Français et le savonnage des mains après être allé aux toilettes" 69: 7754: 7233: 6266: 6261: 6194: 5644: 5463: 5033: 4914: 4569:

Photos of low-cost hand washing installations in developing countries

3083: 2518:"Washing with contaminated bar soap is unlikely to transfer bacteria" 2296:

Approaches to promoting behaviour-change around handwashing-with-soap

2094: 1658: 1606: 1311: 1284: 1094: 1077:

Cost-Effectiveness of Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion

1001: 825: 623: 608: 496: 476: 460: 396: 316: 273: 232: 146: 127: 2932: 936:

transmitted to food as compared to washing with antibacterial soap.

865:

The World Health Organization has "Five Moments" for washing hands:

824:

The purpose of hand-washing in the health-care setting is to remove

7737: 7652: 7228: 7203: 7156: 6701: 6271: 6214: 6025: 5510: 5263: 4897: 4867: 4558: 4314:

Die Aetiologie, der Begriff und die Prophylaxis des Kindbettfiebers

4035: 3999: 3982: 3542: 3312:

Handwashing Compendium for Low Resource Settings: A Living Document

3027: 2603: 1331: 612: 596: 524: 520: 391:

Removal of microorganisms from skin is enhanced by the addition of

375: 324: 285: 277: 107: 4559:

Centers for Disease Control on hand hygiene in healthcare settings

4166: 4070:"Interventions to improve hand hygiene compliance in patient care" 3793: 3724: 1483: 7541: 7412: 6665: 6151: 5182: 4563: 1577: 1538: 1238: 1141: 890: 650:

Many people in low-income communities cannot afford soap and use

588: 579: 504: 500: 455:

organisms in nature. However, antibacterial soaps contain common

416: 248: 162: 4822: 3516:"The Doctor Who Championed Hand-Washing And Briefly Saved Lives" 3445:

Reynolds KA, Sexton JD, Norman A, McClelland DJ (January 2021).

2849: 2748:"WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care (Advanced Draft)" 7749: 7314: 6967: 6563: 6113: 5477: 4592: 3338:"By Gamifying Hand Washing, Soapy Might Just Save Civilization" 2850:

Carrico AR, Spoden M, Wallston KA, Vandenbergh MP (July 2013).

2653:"Plain soap as effective as antibacterial but without the risk" 2118:"Water, sanitation and hygiene for the prevention of diarrhoea" 1062: 1010: 768: 348: 244: 158: 41: 4352: 3444: 2566:"Infection Control: Frequently Asked Questions – Hand Hygiene" 2430:"A brief history of aluminum stearate as a component of paint" 6978: 6136: 5639: 3394:"This Startup Wants to Fight Coronavirus With Soap and Water" 3051:"Alcohol-impregnated wipes as an alternative in hand hygiene" 2080: 1032: 971: 948: 677: 536: 103: 99: 6192: 3182:

Use of ash and mud for handwashing in low income communities

3129: 2115: 1692: 1690: 1260: 985:

Hand washing at a global level has its own indicator within

6431: 5765:

Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety

5571: 4021: 2773: 1999: 1868: 1464: 392: 320: 95: 91: 51: 47: 4067: 3049:

Butz AM, Laughon BE, Gullette DL, Larson EL (April 1990).

3030:. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. 16 March 2020 1458: 3571: 3314:. Edition 1, The Sanitation Learning Hub, Brighton: IDS, 3048: 2191: 1687: 651: 604: 423:

oils, enabling them to be carried away by running water.

169: 119: 4153:

Handwashing Promotion – Monitoring and Evaluation Module

3931: 1839: 1837: 1249:"cleansing" compensatory actions, such as volunteering. 663: 340:, which is especially common among health-care workers. 4328:"The Global Public-Private Partnership for Handwashing" 3980: 2776:"Water temperature as a factor in handwashing efficacy" 911: 771:

with sinks for people of different heights. During the

705:

contaminants on the hands after they have been washed.

484: 16:

For the figure of speech in the law-based context, see

4431:"Lady Macbeth Not Alone in Her Quest for Spotlessness" 4275:(Second ed.). World Bank Group. pp. 771–92. 2984:

National Center for Biotechnology Information (2009).

2083:

Evidence-Based Child Health: A Cochrane Review Journal

327:

which is transmitted through direct physical contact.

4266:"41: Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene Promotion" 3890: 3765: 2742: 1950: 1834: 1750:"When and How to Wash Your Hands | Handwashing | CDC" 3198:"Chapter 8 Personal, domestic and community hygiene" 1799: 1256: 720: 4263: 4115: 4113: 4750:Political abuse of psychiatry in the United States 4564:Global Public-Private Partnership for Hand washing 4273:Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries 4134: 2809:Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2672: 2109: 658: 288:; decreasing respiratory infections; and reducing 4259: 4257: 3840:Beggs CB, Shepherd SJ, Kerr KG (September 2008). 3839: 3136:American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2806: 1031:, UNICEF promoted the adoption of a hand washing 803:Medical hand-washing became mandatory long after 323:) programmes. Hand washing also protects against 7881: 4447: 4110: 3310:Coultas, M. and Iyer, R. with Myers, J. (2020). 2045: 1957:Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2515: 2074: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1708: 547: 4254: 3218: 3178: 2939:Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control 1696: 1366:"Show Me the Science – How to Wash Your Hands" 1360: 1358: 1356: 1354: 1352: 1350: 1348: 1125:Basic sanitation – construction and promotion 619:increases further the antimicrobial activity. 6544: 6178: 6010: 4838: 4702:Prescription drug prices in the United States 4608: 4501: 4202:"The Three Star Approach for WASH in Schools" 3829:WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care 2351: 2349: 1850:. World Health Organization. 27 February 2020 352:Hand cleaning station at the entrance of the 243:), after cleaning a child's bottom (changing 157:), after cleaning a child's bottom (changing 4311: 3495: 3260:"Hand washing devices – How to make and use" 1917: 1875:Tropical Medicine & International Health 1705: 1701:(2nd ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Co. 1465:Centers for Disease Control (2 April 2020). 1395: 1226:washed his hands of the decision to crucify 4199: 4119:Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) 4074:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4024:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 3531:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2769: 2767: 2715:"Antibacterial Soap Has Poor Killing Power" 2673:Montville R, Schaffner DW (November 2011). 2592:Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2589: 2266: 2009:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1845:"Getting your workplace ready for COVID-19" 1613:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1534:"WHO: How to handwash? With soap and water" 1477: 1391: 1389: 1387: 1345: 828:("germs") and avoid transmitting them. The 689:of water over the hands and a bar of soap. 463:, which has an extensive list of resistant 6185: 6171: 6017: 6003: 5800:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4845: 4831: 4615: 4601: 3428:"Soapy Washes Your Hands Clean Of Corona!" 3415:. The Christian Broadcasting Network, Inc. 3195: 2570:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2346: 2333: 2316:"How to Trigger for Handwashing with Soap" 1452:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 631:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 372:Department of Education in the Philippines 191:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 40: 5760:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control 5750:Center for Disease Control and Prevention 4469: 4405: 4387: 4184: 4149: 4093: 3998: 3957: 3908: 3867: 3857: 3742: 3701: 3632: 3472: 3462: 3155: 3066: 2960: 2950: 2875: 2856:International Journal of Consumer Studies 2791: 2690: 2541: 2492: 2461:"Microbial flora of in-use soap products" 2381:. GIZ Fit for School, Philippines. 2014. 2137: 1976: 1886: 1817: 1632: 1517: 1423: 1413: 716:A nurse uses a smart hand washing device. 222: 4584:WHO: How to handwash with soap and water 3683: 2898: 2764: 1384: 1163: 1056: 1000: 965: 915: 837: 762: 711: 699: 667: 551: 347: 263: 180: 7259:Ear-Nose-Throat/Upper respiratory tract 6432:Access to water, sanitation and hygiene 6024: 5805:Health departments in the United States 4755:Political abuse of psychiatry in Russia 3507: 3179:Bloomfield SF, Nath KJ (October 2009). 2738: 2736: 2458: 2124:. 39 Suppl 1 (Supplement 1): i193-205. 1819:10.7326/0003-4819-151-7-200910060-00142 1654: 1652: 961: 7882: 7842:Infectious disease (medical specialty) 7734:Antimicrobial resistance surveillance 5810:Council on Education for Public Health 4222:Global Handwashing Day Planner's Guide 3771:"How to Handrub & How to Handwash" 3614: 3257: 2516:Heinze JE, Yackovich F (August 1988). 2465:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 2427: 2163:The State of the World's Children 2008 1396:Huang C, Ma W, Stack S (August 2012). 1208: 992: 386: 6166: 5998: 5868:Professional degrees of public health 5775:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 4826: 4596: 4428: 4218: 4135:Curtis V, Scott B, Cardosi J (2000). 4063: 4061: 3621:American Journal of Infection Control 3528: 3513: 3410: 3335: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3253: 3251: 3055:American Journal of Infection Control 3028:"Handwashing: Clean Hands Save Lives" 2122:International Journal of Epidemiology 1661:American Journal of Infection Control 1498:American Journal of Infection Control 1448:"Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)" 1052: 664:Low-cost options when water is scarce 439: 304:can be reduced by introducing simple 176: 7089:Compartmental models in epidemiology 5965: 5858:Bachelor of Science in Public Health 4320: 3787: 3759: 3496:Redway K, Fawdar S (November 2008). 3391: 3042: 2987:WHO-recommended handrub formulations 2733: 2214:"Too-Clean Hands Can Lead to Eczema" 1911: 1862: 1793: 1649: 1602: 1600: 1598: 1572: 1570: 912:Effectiveness in healthcare settings 767:A community handwashing facility in 130:in home and everyday life settings. 5977: 5126:Workers' right to access the toilet 4967:Human right to water and sanitation 4237:"What about a handwashing emoji??!" 3731:The New England Journal of Medicine 3690:The New England Journal of Medicine 3425: 3372: 3272: 1554:"Hand Hygiene: How, Why & When" 1061:Hand washing stands at a school in 875:after exposure to blood/body fluids 849:Video demonstration on hand washing 13: 4549:Hand Hygiene: Why, How & When? 4264:Cairncross S, Valdmanis V (2006). 4058: 3586:10.1097/01.CCM.0000108866.48795.0F 3438: 3293: 3248: 2926: 2821:10.1097/01.jom.0000158737.06755.15 2440:from the original on 18 March 2017 1776:"The right way to wash your hands" 1488:; Cookson, Barry; O'Boyle, Carol; 1184:who worked in Vienna, Austria and 399:to water. Soap and detergents are 381: 343: 330: 284:; preventing infectious causes of 259: 14: 7916: 5399:Commercial determinants of health 4852: 4542: 3796:The Journal of Hospital Infection 3091:"When and How to Wash Your Hands" 2293:Abdi & Gautam, R. & O.P, 1724:"When and How to Wash Your Hands" 1595: 1567: 1546: 1526: 1467:"When and How to Wash Your Hands" 721:Drying with towels or hand driers 7838:Economics of Infectious Diseases 6132:Automatic self-clean toilet seat 6127:Automatic toilet paper dispenser 5976: 5964: 5953: 5952: 4982:National public health institute 4622: 4516:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01614.x 3657:"Surgical Handrubbing Technique" 3002:"Preventing Norovirus Infection" 2793:10.1046/j.1471-5740.2002.00043.x 2267:BreakingWeb (23 November 2015). 1888:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01592.x 1259: 1213: 758: 407:by disorganizing their membrane 254: 20:. For the biblical passage, see 5379:Open-source healthcare software 5121:Sociology of health and illness 4680:Economic and financial concerns 4573:Sustainable Sanitation Alliance 4441: 4422: 4346: 4305: 4229: 4212: 4193: 4160: 4143: 4128: 4015: 3974: 3925: 3884: 3833: 3822: 3718: 3677: 3649: 3608: 3565: 3522: 3489: 3451:Journal of Applied Microbiology 3419: 3404: 3385: 3366: 3360:GGBa Invest Western Switzerland 3348: 3329: 3266: 3189: 3172: 3123: 3097: 3020: 2994: 2977: 2892: 2843: 2800: 2707: 2666: 2645: 2626: 2583: 2558: 2509: 2452: 2421: 2395: 2369: 2308: 2287: 2260: 2231: 2206: 2180: 2154: 2048:The Lancet. Infectious Diseases 2039: 1993: 1944: 1768: 1742: 1697:Wilkinson JM, Treas LA (2011). 831:New England Journal of Medicine 779:Making hand washing facilities 659:Technologies and design aspects 495:and further skin conditioners ( 90:, is the act of cleaning one's 7847:Infectious disease informatics 7678:Transmission-based precautions 6122:Automatic deodorizer dispenser 5740:Caribbean Public Health Agency 5552:Sexually transmitted infection 5449:Statistical hypothesis testing 5210:Occupational safety and health 5111:Sexual and reproductive health 5024:Occupational safety and health 4086:10.1002/14651858.CD005186.pub4 2428:Tumosa CS (1 September 2001). 2017:10.1002/14651858.CD009382.pub2 1440: 987:Sustainable Development Goal 6 798: 1: 7264:Chest/Lower respiratory tract 7039:Ocular (Eye) mucosal membrane 6400:Behavioral/lifestyle factors 5394:Social determinants of health 4745:Political abuse of psychiatry 4429:Carey B (12 September 2006). 3275:"When Low-Tech Solutions Win" 3204:. World Health Organization. 2485:10.1128/AEM.48.2.338-341.1984 2405:. 2 July 2019. Archived from 2343:. New York; Eschborn, Germany 2060:10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00606-6 1338: 889:To 'scrub' one's hands for a 645: 530: 451:or disinfectants selects for 426: 6826:Aerosol-generating procedure 6604:Silent/Subclinical infection 6304:Multidrug-resistant bacteria 5454:Analysis of variance (ANOVA) 5215:Human factors and ergonomics 4312:Semmelweisig, Ignaz (1861). 3987:Clinical Infectious Diseases 3910:10.4315/0362-028X-70.12.2873 3634:10.1016/0196-6553(95)90070-5 3262:. Zimbabwe: Aquamor Pvt Ltd. 3068:10.1016/0196-6553(90)90084-6 2990:. World Health Organization. 2692:10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-11-122 1918:Scott B, Curtis V, Rabie T. 1415:10.1016/j.mayocp.2012.02.019 548:Antiseptics (hand sanitizer) 141:of disease: after using the 7: 7490:Vaccine-preventable disease 7438:Monoclonal antibody therapy 5635:Good manufacturing practice 5439:Randomized controlled trial 4781:Hospital-acquired infection 4776:Hospital-acquired pneumonia 4173:Campbell Systematic Reviews 3392:Pick A (3 September 2020). 3273:Rao A (11 September 2014). 3107:. WHO. 2014. Archived from 1806:Annals of Internal Medicine 1252: 1027:As a result of the ongoing 878:before an aseptic task, and 872:after environmental contact 773:COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda 591:formulated together with a 300:related to respiratory and 27:Act of cleaning one's hands 10: 7921: 7631:Respiratory source control 5705:Theory of planned behavior 5630:Good agricultural practice 5535:Public health surveillance 5427:epidemiological statistics 5071:Public health intervention 4380:10.1038/s41467-024-44999-5 3897:Journal of Food Protection 3808:10.1016/j.jhin.2006.09.026 2679:Journal of Food Protection 2522:Epidemiology and Infection 2459:McBride ME (August 1984). 1969:10.1001/archpedi.162.7.603 1673:10.1016/j.ajic.2006.07.012 1510:10.1016/j.ajic.2007.07.001 1157: 1153: 1133:Sanitation promotion only 1065:district, Karnataka, India 904: 724: 578:is a non-water-based hand 559: 513:Journal of Food Protection 15: 7821: 7775:Global Health Initiatives 7765:Evolutionary epidemiology 7713: 7505: 7460:Post-exposure prophylaxis 7396:Antimicrobial stewardship 7354: 7341: 7246: 7137: 7119:Multiplicity of infection 7084:Basic reproduction number 7059: 7031: 7017: 7003: 6987: 6955: 6917: 6860:Percutaneous inoculation 6846: 6808: 6801: 6783: 6715: 6682: 6675: 6639: 6632: 6535: 6422: 6344:Host–pathogen interaction 6319: 6213: 6206: 6112: 6079: 6051: 6033: 5948: 5883: 5842: 5827:World Toilet Organization 5822:World Health Organization 5729: 5718: 5655: 5580: 5496: 5424: 5389:Public health informatics 5329: 5134: 5096:Right to rest and leisure 4925:Globalization and disease 4860: 4799: 4763: 4710: 4679: 4628: 4553:World Health Organization 4281:10.1596/978-0-8213-6179-5 4150:Vujcic J, Ram PK (2013). 3767:World Health Organization 3664:World Health Organization 3615:Larson EL (August 1995). 3196:Howard G, Bogh C (2002). 2952:10.1186/s13756-019-0553-z 2744:World Health Organization 2534:10.1017/s0950268800029290 2239:"JMP handwashing dataset" 2166:. UNICEF. November 2008. 1625:10.1002/14651858.cd013597 1561:World Health Organization 1168:Electronic sign inside a 855:World Health Organization 826:pathogenic microorganisms 815: 574:A hand sanitizer or hand 298:childhood mortality rates 135:World Health Organization 66: 62:Handwashing, hand hygiene 58: 39: 34: 7593:Protective sequestration 7455:Pre-exposure prophylaxis 6746:Generational difference 6299:Horizontal gene transfer 6289:Antimicrobial resistance 6066:Automatic soap dispenser 5873:Schools of public health 5665:Diffusion of innovations 5364:Health impact assessment 5076:Public health laboratory 4972:Management of depression 4728:Compulsory sterilization 4124:SDG-Tracker.org, website 3950:10.1136/bmj.325.7360.362 3684:Goldmann D (July 2006). 3411:Stahl J (4 April 2020). 3336:Carni Y (10 July 2019). 2899:Gold NA, Avva U (2021). 2434:cool.conservation-us.org 637: 354:Toronto General Hospital 7780:Microbial phylogenetics 7698:Wastewater surveillance 7219:Geographic distribution 7094:Critical community size 6892:Surgical site infection 6740:Iatrogenic/Medical care 6659:Microbial translocation 6655:Endogenous reactivation 6650:Normal flora overgrowth 6599:Opportunistic infection 6371:Opportunistic infection 6142:Deodorizing toilet seat 5936:Social hygiene movement 5863:Doctor of Public Health 5695:Social cognitive theory 5497:Infectious and epidemic 5279:Fecal–oral transmission 4656:Unnecessary health care 4480:10.1126/science.1130726 3859:10.1186/1471-2334-8-114 3846:BMC Infectious Diseases 3373:Sun DD (21 July 2020). 2780:Food Service Technology 2320:Sanitation Learning Hub 1699:Fundamentals of Nursing 1402:Mayo Clinic Proceedings 1116:Water sector regulation 517:chlorhexidine gluconate 139:fecal-oral transmission 7852:Microbial bioterrorism 7475:efficacy/effectiveness 6883:Surgical intervention 6775:Breakthrough infection 6397:Genetic predisposition 6381:Susceptible individual 6228:Germ theory of disease 5931:Germ theory of disease 5710:Transtheoretical model 4723:Sluggish schizophrenia 3574:Critical Care Medicine 3093:. CDC. 10 August 2021. 2366:, Joint Call to Action 1484:Bloomfield, Sally F.; 1301:Global Handwashing Day 1176: 1106:House water connection 1066: 1018:Global Handwashing Day 1006: 975: 956:alcohol-based hand rub 942:H1N1 influenza A virus 921: 850: 776: 717: 681: 672:A school girl using a 557: 357: 313:respiratory infections 269: 223:When it is recommended 186: 118:that is at least 60% ( 7688:Universal precautions 6646:Endogenous overgrowth 6498:Poultry and livestock 5815:Public Health Service 5700:Social norms approach 5690:PRECEDE–PROCEED model 5136:Preventive healthcare 5029:Pharmaceutical policy 4878:Chief Medical Officer 4800:Records and histories 4771:Adverse drug reaction 4739:The Protest Psychosis 4504:Psychological Science 4360:Nature Communications 4332:globalhandwashing.org 3148:10.4269/ajtmh.13-0509 2301:21 March 2017 at the 1276:Antibiotic resistance 1198:outbreak of swine flu 1167: 1158:Further information: 1060: 1004: 969: 946:Clostridium difficile 919: 905:Further information: 848: 766: 725:Further information: 715: 700:Advanced technologies 671: 555: 351: 267: 184: 7790:Genomic reassortment 7770:Genetic epidemiology 7609:Health communication 7537:Flattening the curve 7527:Disease surveillance 7310:Systemic/Generalized 7074:Animal disease model 6554:Asymptomatic carrier 6104:Toothbrush sanitizer 5891:Sara Josephine Baker 5790:Public Health Agency 5675:Health communication 5540:Disease surveillance 5506:Asymptomatic carrier 5488:Statistical software 5176:Preventive nutrition 5004:Medical anthropology 4893:Environmental health 4579:OCD and Hand Washing 4200:UNICEF, GIZ (2013). 3744:10.1056/NEJMoa061115 3426:Joe (7 April 2020). 2362:4 March 2016 at the 2339:UNICEF, GIZ (2016). 1306:Nosocomial infection 1186:Florence Nightingale 1045:, cues and reminders 980:developing countries 962:Developing countries 457:antibacterial agents 453:antibiotic-resistant 7857:Pandemic prevention 7813:Viral phylodynamics 7794:Re-emerging disease 7683:Travel restrictions 6887:Postoperative wound 6856:Blood-borne disease 6838:Respiratory droplet 6750:Vertical/Congenital 6735:Nosocomial/Hospital 6692:Spillover infection 6089:Electric toothbrush 5901:Carl Rogers Darnall 5896:Samuel Jay Crumbine 5670:Health belief model 5523:Notifiable diseases 5459:Regression analysis 5294:Waterborne diseases 4883:Cultural competence 4641:Medical malpractice 4462:2006Sci...313.1451Z 4372:2024NatCo..15.1436A 4156:. New York: UNICEF. 3703:10.1056/NEJMp068118 3111:on 14 February 2005 2901:"Alcohol Sanitizer" 2721:. 24 September 2015 2719:Scientific American 2477:1984ApEnM..48..338M 1454:. 11 February 2020. 1285:infectious diseases 1209:Society and culture 1172:station during the 1078: 993:Promotion campaigns 881:after patient care. 869:before patient care 507:, plant extracts). 445:Antibacterial soaps 387:Soap and detergents 282:infectious diseases 207:at least 20 seconds 128:infectious diseases 7803:Selection pressure 7099:Force of infection 6727:Contagious disease 6662:Endogenous seeding 6559:Chain of infection 6483:Injection drug use 6394:Vaccination status 6277:Case fatality rate 6195:infectious disease 5499:disease prevention 5434:Case–control study 5106:Security of person 4955:Health care reform 4697:Financial toxicity 4435:The New York Times 4186:10.4073/csr.2017.7 3236:on 25 October 2014 2868:10.1111/ijcs.12012 2218:EverydayHealth.com 2130:10.1093/ije/dyq035 1486:Aiello, Allison E. 1177: 1076: 1067: 1053:Cost effectiveness 1007: 976: 940:rubs for reducing 934:infectious disease 922: 891:surgical operation 851: 777: 718: 682: 558: 440:Antibacterial soap 358: 338:contact dermatitis 306:behavioral changes 302:diarrheal diseases 270: 189:The United States 187: 177:Steps and duration 46:Hand washing with 7877: 7876: 7867:Tropical medicine 7808:Synthetic biology 7709: 7708: 7668:Social distancing 7621:Outbreak response 7242: 7241: 7069:Agent-based model 7055: 7054: 7051: 7050: 7047: 7046: 6594:Natural reservoir 6584:Infectious period 6574:Incubation period 6531: 6530: 6487:Natural disaster 6456:Tropical diseases 6439:Biodiversity loss 6376:Risk of infection 6366:Microbiome health 6359:Immunosuppression 6160: 6159: 5992: 5991: 5944: 5943: 5854:Higher education 5685:Positive deviance 5680:Health psychology 5656:Health behavioral 5583:safety management 5557:Social distancing 5331:Population health 5311:Smoking cessation 5259:Pharmacovigilance 5230:Injury prevention 5198:Infection control 5116:Social psychology 5066:Prisoners' rights 5009:Medical sociology 4977:Public health law 4873:Biological hazard 4820: 4819: 4786:Iatrogenic anemia 4733:Physician gag law 4290:978-0-8213-6179-5 3673:on 29 April 2016. 3464:10.1111/jam.14796 3320:978-1-78118-638-1 3258:Morgan P (2011). 3211:978-92-4-154553-2 2388:978-3-95645-250-5 2194:. 19 October 2017 2173:978-92-806-4191-2 1756:. 4 December 2019 1730:. 4 December 2019 1492:(December 2007). 1490:Larson, Elaine L. 1202:COVID-19 pandemic 1174:COVID-19 pandemic 1151: 1150: 1029:COVID-19 pandemic 846: 617:hydrogen peroxide 585:isopropyl alcohol 241:menstrual hygiene 155:menstrual hygiene 86:), also known as 77: 76: 7912: 7862:Tropical disease 7798:Reverse zoonosis 7785:One Health Model 7614:Health education 7603:Community health 7522:Cordon sanitaire 7495:Ring vaccination 7465:Repurposed drugs 7352: 7351: 7271:Gastrointestinal 7114:Machine learning 6918:Gastrointestinal 6869:Intravenous line 6806: 6805: 6720:/Cross-infection 6707:Reverse zoonosis 6680: 6679: 6637: 6636: 6542: 6541: 6523:War and conflict 6391:Nutrition status 6354:Immunodeficiency 6211: 6210: 6187: 6180: 6173: 6164: 6163: 6147:Electronic bidet 6061:Automatic faucet 6019: 6012: 6005: 5996: 5995: 5980: 5979: 5968: 5967: 5956: 5955: 5850:Health education 5727: 5726: 5581:Food hygiene and 5562:Tropical disease 5374:Infant mortality 5349:Community health 5225:Controlled Drugs 5161:Health promotion 5091:Right to housing 4935:Health economics 4847: 4840: 4833: 4824: 4823: 4764:Related concerns 4617: 4610: 4603: 4594: 4593: 4536: 4535: 4499: 4473: 4456:(5792): 1451–2. 4445: 4439: 4438: 4426: 4420: 4419: 4409: 4391: 4350: 4344: 4343: 4341: 4339: 4324: 4318: 4317: 4309: 4303: 4302: 4270: 4261: 4252: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4233: 4227: 4226: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4197: 4191: 4190: 4188: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4147: 4141: 4140: 4132: 4126: 4117: 4108: 4107: 4097: 4065: 4056: 4055: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4002: 3978: 3972: 3971: 3961: 3929: 3923: 3922: 3912: 3888: 3882: 3881: 3871: 3861: 3837: 3831: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3775: 3763: 3757: 3756: 3746: 3722: 3716: 3715: 3705: 3681: 3675: 3674: 3672: 3666:. 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Archived from 1924: 1915: 1909: 1908: 1890: 1866: 1860: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1849: 1841: 1832: 1831: 1821: 1797: 1791: 1790: 1788: 1786: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1746: 1740: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1720: 1703: 1702: 1694: 1685: 1684: 1656: 1647: 1646: 1636: 1604: 1593: 1592: 1590: 1588: 1574: 1565: 1564: 1558: 1550: 1544: 1543: 1530: 1524: 1523: 1521: 1481: 1475: 1474: 1462: 1456: 1455: 1444: 1438: 1437: 1427: 1417: 1393: 1382: 1381: 1379: 1377: 1362: 1269: 1264: 1263: 1200:in 2009 and the 1182:Ignaz Semmelweis 1170:Washington Metro 1160:Ignaz Semmelweis 1079: 1075: 847: 809:Ignaz Semmelweis 680:for handwashing 593:thickening agent 290:infant mortality 96:soap or handwash 70:edit on Wikidata 44: 32: 31: 7920: 7919: 7915: 7914: 7913: 7911: 7910: 7909: 7900:Medical hygiene 7880: 7879: 7878: 7873: 7817: 7730:Antigenic shift 7725:Antigenic drift 7716: 7705: 7569:Barrier nursing 7517:Contact tracing 7508: 7501: 7346: 7344: 7337: 7248: 7238: 7139: 7133: 7124:Serial interval 7043: 7027: 7018:Cervico-vaginal 7013: 7004:Trans-placental 6999: 6983: 6951: 6913: 6849:Vascular system 6848: 6842: 6797: 6785: 6779: 6719: 6711: 6671: 6628: 6546: 6527: 6418: 6349:Immune response 6315: 6294:Drug resistance 6238:Infectious dose 6202: 6191: 6161: 6156: 6108: 6075: 6047: 6029: 6023: 5993: 5988: 5940: 5911:Margaret Sanger 5879: 5838: 5722: 5720: 5714: 5657: 5651: 5623:Safety scandals 5582: 5576: 5498: 5492: 5426: 5420: 5416:Social medicine 5409:Race and health 5344:Child mortality 5325: 5284:Open defecation 5166:Human nutrition 5156:Family planning 5144:Behavior change 5130: 5086:Right to health 4999:Maternal health 4989:Health politics 4940:Health literacy 4856: 4851: 4821: 4816: 4795: 4759: 4711:Political abuse 4706: 4692:Balance billing 4675: 4624: 4621: 4590: 4545: 4540: 4539: 4500: 4446: 4442: 4427: 4423: 4351: 4347: 4337: 4335: 4334:. 19 March 2015 4326: 4325: 4321: 4310: 4306: 4291: 4268: 4262: 4255: 4245: 4243: 4235: 4234: 4230: 4217: 4213: 4198: 4194: 4165: 4161: 4148: 4144: 4133: 4129: 4118: 4111: 4080:(9): CD005186. 4066: 4059: 4020: 4016: 3979: 3975: 3930: 3926: 3889: 3885: 3838: 3834: 3827: 3823: 3792: 3788: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3764: 3760: 3737:(26): 2725–32. 3723: 3719: 3682: 3678: 3670: 3659: 3655: 3654: 3650: 3613: 3609: 3570: 3566: 3537:(10): 1016–28. 3527: 3523: 3512: 3508: 3500: 3494: 3490: 3443: 3439: 3424: 3420: 3409: 3405: 3390: 3386: 3371: 3367: 3354: 3353: 3349: 3334: 3330: 3324:alternative URL 3309: 3294: 3271: 3267: 3256: 3249: 3239: 3237: 3224: 3223: 3219: 3212: 3194: 3190: 3177: 3173: 3128: 3124: 3114: 3112: 3103: 3102: 3098: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3047: 3043: 3033: 3031: 3026: 3025: 3021: 3011: 3009: 3000: 2999: 2995: 2982: 2978: 2931: 2927: 2917: 2915: 2897: 2893: 2848: 2844: 2805: 2801: 2772: 2765: 2755: 2753: 2750: 2741: 2734: 2724: 2722: 2713: 2712: 2708: 2685:(11): 1875–82. 2671: 2667: 2657: 2655: 2651: 2650: 2646: 2639: 2632: 2631: 2627: 2598:(10): 1107–19. 2588: 2584: 2574: 2572: 2564: 2563: 2559: 2514: 2510: 2457: 2453: 2443: 2441: 2426: 2422: 2412: 2410: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2389: 2375: 2374: 2370: 2364:Wayback Machine 2354: 2347: 2338: 2334: 2324: 2322: 2314: 2313: 2309: 2303:Wayback Machine 2292: 2288: 2278: 2276: 2265: 2261: 2248: 2246: 2245:on 2 April 2016 2237: 2236: 2232: 2222: 2220: 2212: 2211: 2207: 2197: 2195: 2186: 2185: 2181: 2174: 2160: 2159: 2155: 2114: 2110: 2079: 2075: 2044: 2040: 2011:(8): CD009382. 2004: 1998: 1994: 1949: 1945: 1935: 1933: 1932:on 28 June 2009 1929: 1922: 1916: 1912: 1867: 1863: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1842: 1835: 1798: 1794: 1784: 1782: 1774: 1773: 1769: 1759: 1757: 1748: 1747: 1743: 1733: 1731: 1722: 1721: 1706: 1695: 1688: 1657: 1650: 1619:(7): CD013597. 1605: 1596: 1586: 1584: 1578:"UNICEF Malawi" 1576: 1575: 1568: 1556: 1552: 1551: 1547: 1532: 1531: 1527: 1504:(10): S27–S64. 1482: 1478: 1463: 1459: 1446: 1445: 1441: 1394: 1385: 1375: 1373: 1364: 1363: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1327:Rubbing alcohol 1265: 1258: 1255: 1216: 1211: 1162: 1156: 1055: 1022:behavior change 995: 964: 927:For control of 914: 909: 907:Jewelry hygiene 838: 818: 801: 761: 729: 723: 702: 694:Veronica Bucket 674:Veronica Bucket 666: 661: 648: 640: 564: 550: 533: 489:antimicrobially 442: 429: 389: 384: 382:Substances used 346: 344:Behavior change 333: 331:Adverse effects 262: 260:Health benefits 257: 225: 179: 73: 54: 50:and water at a 28: 25: 12: 11: 5: 7918: 7908: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7875: 7874: 7872: 7871: 7870: 7869: 7859: 7854: 7849: 7844: 7839: 7836: 7831: 7825: 7823: 7819: 7818: 7816: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7760:Emergent virus 7757: 7752: 7747: 7742: 7741: 7740: 7732: 7727: 7721: 7719: 7711: 7710: 7707: 7706: 7704: 7703: 7700: 7695: 7693:Vector control 7690: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7649: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7636:N95 respirator 7628: 7623: 7618: 7617: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7595: 7590: 7589: 7588: 7578: 7573: 7572: 7571: 7561: 7560: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7513: 7511: 7509:pharmaceutical 7503: 7502: 7500: 7499: 7498: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7467: 7462: 7457: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7441: 7440: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7405: 7400: 7399: 7398: 7388: 7387: 7386: 7376: 7371: 7370: 7369: 7358: 7356: 7355:Pharmaceutical 7349: 7339: 7338: 7336: 7335: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7306:Cardiovascular 7304: 7299: 7294: 7291: 7286: 7285:Nervous system 7283: 7280: 7279: 7278: 7268: 7267: 7266: 7261: 7252: 7250: 7244: 7243: 7240: 7239: 7237: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7170: 7169: 7164: 7154: 7149: 7143: 7141: 7135: 7134: 7132: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7109:Infection rate 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7065: 7063: 7057: 7056: 7053: 7052: 7049: 7048: 7045: 7044: 7042: 7041: 7035: 7033: 7029: 7028: 7026: 7025: 7021: 7019: 7015: 7014: 7012: 7011: 7007: 7005: 7001: 7000: 6998: 6997: 6991: 6989: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6981: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6959: 6957: 6953: 6952: 6950: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6933: 6932: 6921: 6919: 6915: 6914: 6912: 6911: 6910: 6909: 6904: 6896: 6895: 6894: 6889: 6881: 6880: 6879: 6874: 6871: 6866: 6864:Injection site 6858: 6852: 6850: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6840: 6835: 6833:Dental aerosol 6830: 6829: 6828: 6818: 6812: 6810: 6803: 6799: 6798: 6796: 6795: 6789: 6787: 6781: 6780: 6778: 6777: 6772: 6771: 6770: 6765: 6764: 6763: 6758: 6755: 6744: 6743: 6742: 6737: 6729: 6723: 6721: 6717:Human-to-human 6713: 6712: 6710: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6688: 6686: 6677: 6673: 6672: 6670: 6669: 6663: 6660: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6643: 6641: 6634: 6630: 6629: 6627: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6614:Super-spreader 6611: 6609:Superinfection 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6550: 6548: 6539: 6533: 6532: 6529: 6528: 6526: 6525: 6520: 6518:Vector control 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6494: 6493: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6453: 6447:Climate zones 6445: 6443:Climate change 6440: 6437: 6434: 6428: 6426: 6420: 6419: 6417: 6416: 6415: 6414: 6411: 6408: 6407: 6406: 6398: 6395: 6392: 6389: 6386: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6363: 6362: 6361: 6356: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6325: 6323: 6317: 6316: 6314: 6313: 6308: 6307: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6269: 6259: 6257:Quorum sensing 6254: 6253: 6252: 6242: 6241: 6240: 6230: 6225: 6219: 6217: 6208: 6204: 6203: 6190: 6189: 6182: 6175: 6167: 6158: 6157: 6155: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6118: 6116: 6110: 6109: 6107: 6106: 6101: 6099:Oral irrigator 6096: 6085: 6083: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6057: 6055: 6049: 6048: 6046: 6045: 6039: 6037: 6031: 6030: 6022: 6021: 6014: 6007: 5999: 5990: 5989: 5987: 5986: 5974: 5962: 5949: 5946: 5945: 5942: 5941: 5939: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5887: 5885: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5877: 5876: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5852: 5846: 5844: 5840: 5839: 5837: 5836: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5818: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5794: 5793: 5792: 5787: 5779: 5778: 5777: 5769: 5768: 5767: 5762: 5754: 5753: 5752: 5744: 5743: 5742: 5733: 5731: 5724: 5719:Organizations, 5716: 5715: 5713: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5661: 5659: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5642: 5632: 5627: 5626: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5586: 5584: 5578: 5577: 5575: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5543: 5542: 5532: 5531: 5530: 5520: 5519: 5518: 5508: 5502: 5500: 5494: 5493: 5491: 5490: 5485: 5484: 5483: 5475: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5430: 5428: 5425:Biological and 5422: 5421: 5419: 5418: 5413: 5412: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5391: 5386: 5384:Multimorbidity 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5335: 5333: 5327: 5326: 5324: 5323: 5321:Vector control 5318: 5313: 5308: 5306:School hygiene 5303: 5302: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5289:Sanitary sewer 5286: 5281: 5276: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5255: 5254: 5247:Patient safety 5244: 5243: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5207: 5206: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5180: 5179: 5178: 5173: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5152: 5151: 5140: 5138: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5062: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4979: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4958: 4957: 4952: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4930:Harm reduction 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4911: 4910: 4905: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4857: 4850: 4849: 4842: 4835: 4827: 4818: 4817: 4815: 4814: 4807:Drug pollution 4803: 4801: 4797: 4796: 4794: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4767: 4765: 4761: 4760: 4758: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4714: 4712: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4683: 4681: 4677: 4676: 4674: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4661:Adverse effect 4658: 4653: 4651:Patient safety 4648: 4643: 4638: 4632: 4630: 4626: 4625: 4620: 4619: 4612: 4605: 4597: 4588: 4587: 4581: 4576: 4571:(collected by 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551:(PDF from the 4544: 4543:External links 4541: 4538: 4537: 4471:10.1.1.181.571 4440: 4421: 4345: 4319: 4304: 4289: 4253: 4241:www.unicef.org 4228: 4219:PPPHW (2014). 4211: 4192: 4159: 4142: 4127: 4109: 4057: 4036:10.1086/652772 4014: 4000:10.1086/595845 3973: 3924: 3903:(12): 2873–7. 3883: 3832: 3821: 3786: 3758: 3717: 3676: 3648: 3607: 3564: 3543:10.1086/662015 3521: 3506: 3488: 3437: 3418: 3403: 3384: 3365: 3362:. 12 May 2020. 3347: 3328: 3292: 3265: 3247: 3217: 3210: 3188: 3171: 3122: 3096: 3082: 3041: 3019: 3008:. 9 March 2018 2993: 2976: 2925: 2891: 2862:(4): 433–441. 2842: 2799: 2763: 2732: 2706: 2665: 2644: 2625: 2604:10.1086/507964 2582: 2557: 2508: 2451: 2420: 2409:on 2 July 2019 2394: 2387: 2368: 2355:UNICEF (2012) 2345: 2332: 2307: 2286: 2259: 2230: 2205: 2179: 2172: 2153: 2108: 2089:(2): 893–939. 2073: 2038: 1992: 1943: 1910: 1861: 1833: 1792: 1767: 1741: 1704: 1686: 1648: 1594: 1582:www.unicef.org 1566: 1545: 1525: 1476: 1457: 1439: 1383: 1372:. 4 March 2020 1343: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1322:Patient safety 1319: 1314: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1278: 1272: 1271: 1270: 1267:Viruses portal 1254: 1251: 1224:Pontius Pilate 1215: 1212: 1210: 1207: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1148: 1145: 1138: 1137: 1134: 1130: 1129: 1126: 1122: 1121: 1118: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1102: 1101: 1098: 1091: 1090: 1083: 1054: 1051: 1050: 1049: 1046: 994: 991: 970:World map for 963: 960: 929:staphylococcal 913: 910: 883: 882: 879: 876: 873: 870: 817: 814: 800: 797: 760: 757: 744:public toilets 722: 719: 701: 698: 665: 662: 660: 657: 647: 644: 639: 636: 568:hand sanitizer 562:Hand sanitizer 560:Main article: 549: 546: 532: 529: 441: 438: 428: 425: 405:microorganisms 388: 385: 383: 380: 345: 342: 332: 329: 261: 258: 256: 253: 224: 221: 217: 216: 213: 210: 203: 199: 178: 175: 116:hand sanitizer 112:microorganisms 75: 74: 67: 64: 63: 60: 56: 55: 45: 37: 36: 26: 22:Pontius Pilate 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7917: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7887: 7885: 7868: 7865: 7864: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7826: 7824: 7820: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7739: 7736: 7735: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7722: 7720: 7718: 7712: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7673:Sterilization 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7641:Surgical mask 7639: 7637: 7634: 7633: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7604: 7601: 7600: 7599: 7598:Public health 7596: 7594: 7591: 7587: 7584: 7583: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7570: 7567: 7566: 7565: 7562: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7514: 7512: 7510: 7504: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7472: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7450:Phage therapy 7448: 7446: 7443: 7439: 7436: 7435: 7434: 7433:Immunotherapy 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7397: 7394: 7393: 7392: 7391:Antimicrobial 7389: 7385: 7382: 7381: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7368: 7365: 7364: 7363: 7360: 7359: 7357: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7340: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7284: 7282:Genitourinary 7281: 7277: 7274: 7273: 7272: 7269: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7256: 7254: 7253: 7251: 7245: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7159: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7144: 7142: 7140:in population 7136: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7104:Herd immunity 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7062: 7058: 7040: 7037: 7036: 7034: 7030: 7023: 7022: 7020: 7016: 7009: 7008: 7006: 7002: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6990: 6988:Genitourinary 6986: 6980: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6960: 6958: 6954: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6931: 6930:Contamination 6928: 6927: 6926: 6923: 6922: 6920: 6916: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6899: 6898:Vector-borne 6897: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6884: 6882: 6878: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6861: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6845: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6827: 6824: 6823: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6813: 6811: 6807: 6804: 6800: 6794: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6782: 6776: 6773: 6769: 6766: 6762: 6759: 6756: 6753: 6752: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6745: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6724: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6689: 6687: 6685: 6684:Cross-species 6681: 6678: 6674: 6667: 6664: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6645: 6644: 6642: 6638: 6635: 6631: 6625: 6624:Window period 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6589:Latent period 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6549: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6534: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6492: 6489: 6488: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6468:Deforestation 6466: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6429: 6427: 6425: 6421: 6413:Stress levels 6412: 6409: 6405: 6402: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6393: 6390: 6387: 6384: 6383: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6351: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6326: 6324: 6322: 6318: 6312: 6309: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6291: 6290: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6264: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6251: 6248: 6247: 6246: 6245:Pathogenicity 6243: 6239: 6236: 6235: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6220: 6218: 6216: 6212: 6209: 6205: 6200: 6196: 6188: 6183: 6181: 6176: 6174: 6169: 6168: 6165: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6119: 6117: 6115: 6111: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6094: 6090: 6087: 6086: 6084: 6082: 6078: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6058: 6056: 6054: 6050: 6044: 6041: 6040: 6038: 6036: 6032: 6027: 6020: 6015: 6013: 6008: 6006: 6001: 6000: 5997: 5985: 5984: 5975: 5973: 5972: 5963: 5961: 5960: 5951: 5950: 5947: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5906:Joseph Lister 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5888: 5886: 5882: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5847: 5845: 5841: 5834: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5797: 5795: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5785:Health Canada 5783: 5782: 5780: 5776: 5773: 5772: 5770: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5757: 5755: 5751: 5748: 5747: 5745: 5741: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5734: 5732: 5730:Organizations 5728: 5725: 5717: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5662: 5660: 5654: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5637: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5587: 5585: 5579: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5567:Vaccine trial 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5541: 5538: 5537: 5536: 5533: 5529: 5526: 5525: 5524: 5521: 5517: 5514: 5513: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5503: 5501: 5495: 5489: 5486: 5482: 5480: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5451: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5444:Relative risk 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5423: 5417: 5414: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5404:Health equity 5402: 5400: 5397: 5396: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5369:Health system 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5359:Global health 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5339:Biostatistics 5337: 5336: 5334: 5332: 5328: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5271: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5253: 5250: 5249: 5248: 5245: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5212: 5211: 5208: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5185: 5184: 5181: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5168: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5150: 5147: 5146: 5145: 5142: 5141: 5139: 5137: 5133: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5081:Right to food 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5036: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5019: 5015: 5014:Mental health 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4974: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4962:Housing First 4960: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4950:Health system 4948: 4947: 4946: 4945:Health policy 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4854:Public health 4848: 4843: 4841: 4836: 4834: 4829: 4828: 4825: 4812: 4808: 4805: 4804: 4802: 4798: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4768: 4766: 4762: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4740: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4715: 4713: 4709: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4684: 4682: 4678: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4666:Patient abuse 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4646:Medical error 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4633: 4631: 4627: 4618: 4613: 4611: 4606: 4604: 4599: 4598: 4595: 4591: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4574: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4554: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4510:(10): 780–4. 4509: 4505: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4436: 4432: 4425: 4417: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4349: 4333: 4329: 4323: 4315: 4308: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4267: 4260: 4258: 4242: 4238: 4232: 4224: 4223: 4215: 4207: 4203: 4196: 4187: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4163: 4155: 4154: 4146: 4138: 4131: 4125: 4122: 4116: 4114: 4105: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4064: 4062: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4030:(6): 565–70. 4029: 4025: 4018: 4010: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3993:(3): 285–91. 3992: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3969: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3944:(7360): 362. 3943: 3939: 3935: 3928: 3920: 3916: 3911: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3879: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3836: 3830: 3825: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3772: 3768: 3762: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3721: 3713: 3709: 3704: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3680: 3669: 3665: 3658: 3652: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3627:(4): 251–69. 3626: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3580:(2): 358–63. 3579: 3575: 3568: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3525: 3517: 3510: 3499: 3492: 3484: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3414: 3407: 3399: 3395: 3388: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3361: 3357: 3351: 3343: 3339: 3332: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3269: 3261: 3254: 3252: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3221: 3213: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3192: 3184: 3183: 3175: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3142:(1): 181–89. 3141: 3137: 3133: 3126: 3110: 3106: 3100: 3092: 3086: 3078: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3045: 3029: 3023: 3007: 3003: 2997: 2989: 2988: 2980: 2972: 2968: 2963: 2958: 2953: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2929: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2878: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2846: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2803: 2794: 2789: 2786:(3): 139–49. 2785: 2781: 2777: 2770: 2768: 2749: 2745: 2739: 2737: 2720: 2716: 2710: 2702: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2669: 2654: 2648: 2635: 2629: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2586: 2571: 2567: 2561: 2553: 2549: 2544: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2528:(1): 135–42. 2527: 2523: 2519: 2512: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2471:(2): 338–41. 2470: 2466: 2462: 2455: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2424: 2408: 2404: 2398: 2390: 2384: 2380: 2379: 2372: 2365: 2361: 2358: 2352: 2350: 2342: 2336: 2321: 2317: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2300: 2297: 2290: 2274: 2270: 2263: 2256: 2244: 2240: 2234: 2219: 2215: 2209: 2193: 2189: 2183: 2175: 2169: 2165: 2164: 2157: 2149: 2145: 2140: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2112: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2077: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2054:(5): 275–81. 2053: 2049: 2042: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2003: 1996: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1947: 1928: 1921: 1914: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1889: 1884: 1881:(4): 479–89. 1880: 1876: 1872: 1865: 1846: 1840: 1838: 1829: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1812:(7): 437–46. 1811: 1807: 1803: 1796: 1781: 1777: 1771: 1755: 1751: 1745: 1729: 1725: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1700: 1693: 1691: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1667:(6): 417–20. 1666: 1662: 1655: 1653: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1603: 1601: 1599: 1583: 1579: 1573: 1571: 1562: 1555: 1549: 1541: 1540: 1535: 1529: 1520: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1480: 1472: 1468: 1461: 1453: 1449: 1443: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1392: 1390: 1388: 1371: 1367: 1361: 1359: 1357: 1355: 1353: 1351: 1349: 1344: 1333: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1317:Public health 1315: 1313: 1310:Occupational 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1282: 1281:Didier Pittet 1279: 1277: 1274: 1273: 1268: 1262: 1257: 1250: 1246: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1214:Moral aspects 1206: 1203: 1199: 1193: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1175: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1113: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1099: 1097:or standpost 1096: 1093: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1082:Intervention 1081: 1080: 1074: 1072: 1064: 1059: 1047: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1012: 1003: 999: 990: 988: 983: 981: 973: 968: 959: 957: 952: 950: 947: 943: 937: 935: 930: 925: 918: 908: 903: 900: 896: 895:chlorhexidine 892: 887: 880: 877: 874: 871: 868: 867: 866: 863: 861: 856: 836: 833: 832: 827: 822: 813: 810: 806: 796: 794: 790: 786: 782: 774: 770: 765: 759:Accessibility 756: 752: 749: 745: 740: 737: 733: 728: 714: 710: 706: 697: 695: 690: 686: 679: 675: 670: 656: 653: 643: 635: 632: 627: 625: 620: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 581: 577: 572: 569: 563: 554: 545: 541: 538: 528: 526: 522: 518: 514: 508: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 477:ascorbic acid 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 437: 435: 424: 422: 418: 414: 410: 409:lipid bilayer 406: 402: 398: 394: 379: 377: 373: 367: 364: 361: 355: 350: 341: 339: 328: 326: 322: 318: 314: 309: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 266: 255:Public 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