663:(Turkish interpreter) of the British embassy wrote that the reason the Ottomans committed these atrocities was because they were "guided in their general action by the prescriptions of Sheri Law. That law prescribes that if the 'rayah' Christian attempts, by having recourse to foreign powers, to overstep the limits of privileges allowed to them by their Mussulman masters, and free themselves from their bondage, their lives and property are to be forfeited, and are at the mercy of the Mussulmans. To the Turkish mind, the Armenians had tried to overstep these limits by appealing to foreign powers, especially England. They, therefore, considered it their religious duty and a righteous thing to destroy and seize the lives and property of the Armenians."
1251:…That is the account of the affair which was sent to Yildiz, and that story contains all that the Sultan has any means of knowing about it. It is a most remarkable story, and the discrepancies are as thick as leaves in Valambrosa. On the face of it, it cannot be true, and before a jury it would hardly have any weight as evidence. It is extremely important, however, because it is probably a fair representation of the occurrences of the last few years. That it is a misrepresentation, so much so that it can fairly be called fabrication, becomes clear when you look at it a second time... and yet it is from an official document which the future historian will read when he wishes to compile the facts concerning those massacres.
717:
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mutilated. I saw one with his face completely smashed in with a blow of some heavy weapon after he was killed. I saw some with their own necks almost severed by a sword cut. One I saw whose whole chest had been skinned, his fore-arms were cut off, while the upper arm was skinned of flesh. I asked if the dogs had done this. "No, the Turks did it with their knives." A dozen bodies were half burned. All the corpses had been rifled of all their clothes except a cotton undergarment or two....To be killed in battle by brave men is one thing; to be butchered by cowardly armed soldiers in cold blood and utterly defenseless is another thing.
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central authorities instructed the mob "to start killing
Armenians, irrespective of age and gender, for the duration of 48 hours." The killings stopped only when the mob was ordered to desist from such activity by Sultan Hamid. Though their demands were rejected and new massacres broke out in Constantinople, the act was lauded by the European and American press, which vilified Hamid and painted him as the "great assassin" and "bloody Sultan." The Great Powers vowed to take action and enforce new reforms, although these never came to fruition due to conflicting political and economic interests.
1035:
Deringil notes that many
Armenian men shifted swiftly from Christianity to Islam, seeking out circumcision and becoming prominent attendees of their local mosques, attending prayer multiple times each day. Women converted as well, and many chose to remain within Islam even after the violence ended – some Armenian women who were tracked down following the violence indicated that they preferred to remain with their Muslim husbands, many of whom had captured them during the raids and violence, rather than return and face shame within their communities.
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185:
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63:
656:, improprieties during tax collection, criminal behavior by government officials and the refusal to accept Christians as witnesses in trial." These requests went unheeded by the central government. When a nascent form of nationalism spread among the Armenians of Anatolia, including demands for equal rights and a push for autonomy, the Ottoman leadership believed that the empire's Islamic character and even its very existence were threatened.
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1179:. Through his contacts, he supported the publication of favorable impressions of the Ottoman Empire in European newspapers and magazines, while himself attempting (unsuccessfully) to mediate between the Sultan and Armenian party activists in France, Britain, Austria and elsewhere. "Under no circumstances," he wrote to
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meticulously collected data on the destruction and in his calculations, counted the deaths of 88,243 Armenians, the destitution of 546,000, the destruction of 2,493 villages, the residents of 646 of which were forcibly converted to Islam, and the desecration of 645 churches and monasteries, of which
967:
My brother, if you want news from here we have killed 1,200 Armenians, all of them as food for the dogs... Mother, I am safe and sound. Father, 20 days ago we made war on the
Armenian unbelievers. Through God's grace no harm befell us... .There is a rumour afoot that our Batallion will be ordered to
1034:
In addition to the death toll many
Armenians converted to Islam in an attempt to escape the violence. While Ottoman officials claimed that these conversions were voluntary modern scholars, including Selim Deringil, have argued that the conversions were either directly forced or acts of desperation.
700:
He perceived that the
Ottoman Armenians were an extension of foreign hostility, a means by which Europe could "get at our most vital places and tear out our very guts." Turkish historian and Abdul Hamid biographer Osman Nuri observed, "The mere mention of the word 'reform' irritated him , inciting
647:
was ushered in by an era of
European nationalism and an insistence on self-determination by the inhabitants of many territories which had been ruled by the Ottomans for an extremely long period of time. The Armenians of the empire, who were always considered second-class citizens, had begun to ask
728:
were ultimately not enforced and were followed instead by further repression. On
January 2, 1881, collective notes sent by the European powers reminding the sultan of the promises of reform failed to prod him into action. The eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire were historically insecure; the
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on August 26, 1896 to bring the massacres to their full attention. The action resulted in the deaths of ten of the
Armenian militants, Ottoman soldiers and the massacre of 6,000 Armenian civilians living in Constantinople by Ottomans. According to the foreign diplomats in Constantinople, Ottoman
1051:
News of the
Armenian massacres in the empire were widely reported in Europe and the United States and drew strong responses from foreign governments, humanitarian organizations, and the press alike. British print and illustrated newspapers regularly covered the massacres, with the popular weekly
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responded enthusiastically to Abdul Hamid's personal request to harness "Jewish power" to undermine the widespread sympathy felt for
Armenians in Europe. Herzl viewed the arrangement with the Abdul Hamid as temporary, and his services were in exchange for bringing about a more favorable Ottoman
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declared, "Not all the perfume of Arabia can wash the hand of Turkey clean enough to be suffered any longer to hold the reins of power over one inch of Christian territory." The rest of the American press called for action to help the Armenians and to remove, "if not by political action then by
606:
The massacres began in the Ottoman interior in 1894, before they became more widespread in the following years. The majority of the murders took place between 1894 and 1896. The massacres began to taper off in 1897, following international condemnation of Abdul Hamid. The harshest measures were
937:
Abdul Hamid's private first secretary wrote in his memoirs about Abdul Hamid that he "decided to pursue a policy of severity and terror against the Armenians, and in order to succeed in this respect he elected the method of dealing them an economic blow... he ordered that they absolutely avoid
704:
While he admitted that some of their complaints were well-founded, he likened the Armenians to "hired female mourners who simulate a pain which they do not feel; they are an effeminate and cowardly people who hide behind the clothes of the great powers and raise an outcry for the smallest of
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of the English Legation, a soldier, my interpreter, and a photographer (Armenian) to the Gregorian Cemetery ....Along the wall on the north, in a row 20 ft (6 m) wide and 150 ft (46 m) long, lay 321 dead bodies of the massacred Armenians. Many were fearfully mangled and
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directed against the long persecuted Armenian community as its calls for civil reform and better treatment were ignored by the government. The Ottomans made no allowances for the victims on account of their age or gender, and as a result, they massacred all of the victims with brutal force.
1066:
The French ambassador described Turkey as "literally in flames," with "massacres everywhere" and all Christians being murdered "without distinction." A French vice consul declared that the Ottoman Empire was "gradually annihilating the Christian element" by "giving the Kurdish chieftains
1267:
The Sultan lately sent to me, in common with my colleagues, an urgent message inviting the six Representatives to visit the military and municipal hospitals to see for themselves the number of Turkish soldiers and civilians who had been wounded during the recent disturbances.
685:), territorial (mentioned above), and the hope among some Armenians that one day all of the Armenian territory might be ruled by Russia, led to a new restiveness among Armenians who were living inside the Ottoman Empire. The Armenians sent a delegation which was led by
1131:, where its captain, "Red Bill" Kirkland, delivered the following warning, somewhat softened by his translator, to its governor: "If these massacres continue I'll be swuzzled if I won't someday forget my order… and find some pretext to hammer a few Turkish towns… I'd
929:
stories of Armenian women and children being assaulted and killed and described the attackers "as cowardly as they were cruel. They refused to attack where people defended themselves and instead concentrated on defenseless districts." The worst atrocity took place in
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your part of the world—if so, we will kill all the Armenians there. Besides, 511 Armenians were wounded, one or two perish every day. If you ask after the soldiers and bashi bozouks , not one of their noses has bled... May God bless you....
1205:
Despite the great public sympathy that was felt for the Armenians in Europe, none of the European powers took concrete action to alleviate their plight. Frustrated with their indifference and failure to take action, Armenians from the ARF
747:
Regiments"). The Hamidiye and Kurdish brigands were given free rein to attack Armenians, confiscating stores of grain, foodstuffs, and driving off livestock, confident of escaping punishment as they were subjects of military courts only.
859:) to petition for the implementation of the reforms, but Ottoman police units converged on the rally and violently broke it up. Upon receiving the reform package, the sultan is said to have remarked, "This business will end in blood."
785:
In 1894 the sultan began to target the Armenian people in a precursor to the Hamidian massacres. This persecution strengthened nationalistic sentiment among Armenians. The first notable battle in the Armenian resistance took place in
1058:
publishing dozens of cartoons depicting the carnage. Further, historian Leslie Rogne Schumacher notes that the massacres "reflected and impacted the changing world of European international relations" in the years before the
701:
his criminal instincts." Upon hearing of the Armenian delegation's visit to Berlin in 1878, he bitterly remarked, "Such great impudence ... Such great treachery toward religion and state ... May they be cursed upon by God."
732:
In 1890–91, at a time when the empire was either too weak and disorganized or reluctant to halt them, Sultan Abdul Hamid gave semi-official status to the Kurdish bandits. Made up mainly of Kurdish tribes, but also of Turks,
642:
The origins of the hostility towards the Armenians lay in the increasingly precarious position in which the Ottoman Empire found itself in the last quarter of the 19th century. The end of Ottoman domination of the
2741:
1464:
1278:
The hospital authorities made attempts to pass off wounded Christians as Mussulmans. Thus, the 112 in the Stamboul prison were represented as being Muslims, and it was only discovered by accident that 109 were
806:
armed the people of the region. The Armenians confronted the Ottoman army and Kurdish irregulars at Sasun, finally succumbing to superior numbers and to Turkish assurances of amnesty, which never materialized.
1243:, which discusses the causes and effects of the recent massacres. In one chapter Hepworth describes the disparity between the reality of the Massacre in Bitlis and the official reports that were sent to the
696:
But the sultan was not prepared to relinquish any of his power. Abdul Hamid believed that the woes of the Ottoman Empire stemmed from "the endless persecutions and hostilities of the Christian world."
648:
for civil reforms and better treatment by the government in the mid-1860s and early 1870s. They pressed for an end to the usurpation of their land, "the looting and murder in Armenian towns by
1004:
In contrast the ambassador of Britain estimated 100,000 were killed up until early December 1895. However, the period of massacres spread well into 1896. German foreign ministry operative and
1910:
1116:
listed the saving of the Armenians as one of his top priorities in foreign policy. Americans in the Ottoman Empire, such as George Washburn, then-president of the Constantinople-based
821:
Sultan Abdul Hamid sent the Ottoman army into the area and also armed groups of Kurdish irregulars. The violence spread and affected most of the Armenian towns in the Ottoman Empire.
1168:
was banned by Ottoman censors for its extensive coverage of the massacres) and counteract the negative press by enlisting the help of sympathetic Western activists and journalists.
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closed. Many Armenian revolutionaries had either been killed or escaped to Russia. The Ottoman government closed Armenian societies and restricted Armenian political movements.
3307:
2448:
For a study on the American response to the massacres, see Ralph Elliot Cook (1957), "The United States and the Armenian Question, 1894–1924," Unpublished PhD Dissertation,
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Official Ottoman sources downplayed or misrepresented the death toll numbers. The attempt of deliberately misrepresenting the numbers were noted by British Ambassador
1011:
claimed that 200,000 Armenians were killed and 50,000 were expelled and a million pillaged and plundered. A similar figure is cited by the French diplomatic historian
3327:
3312:
1001:
328 were converted into mosques. He also estimated the additional deaths of 100,000 Armenians due to famine and disease totalling a number of approximately 200,000.
3887:
1967:, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 4. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, pp. 246–47.
3563:
3241:
1183:, "are the Armenians to learn that we want to use them in order to erect a Jewish state." Herzl's courting the Sultan's favor was protested by other Zionists.
818:
wrote that massacres of this kind were often achieved by gathering Muslims in a local mosque and claiming the Armenians had the aim of "striking at Islam".
1984:, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 6. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, p. 219.
1272:
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2711:
For a brief discussion on continuity, see Richard G. Hovannisian (2007), "The Armenian Genocide: Wartime Radicalization or Premeditated Continuum?" in
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1236:
681:, the clear weakening of the Ottoman Empire in various spheres including financial spheres (from 1873, the Ottoman Empire suffered greatly from the
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3406:
1289:
1094:
3912:
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Sipahi, Ali (2020). "Deception and Violence in the Ottoman Empire: The People's Theory of Crowd Behavior during the Hamidian Massacres of 1895".
894:. Thousands were killed at the hands of their Muslim neighbours and government soldiers, and many more died during the cold winter of 1895–96.
2763:
Astourian, Stephan. On the Genealogy of the Armenian-Turkish Conflict, Sultan Abdülhamid, and the Armenian Massacres, Vol. 21 (2012): 168-208.
3256:
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as a state ideology. Although the massacres were aimed mainly at the Armenians, in some cases they turned into indiscriminate anti-Christian
993:
It is impossible to ascertain how many Armenians were killed, although the figures cited by historians have ranged from 80,000 to 300,000.
547:
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The number of Armenian children under twelve years of age made orphans by the massacres of 1895 is estimated by the missionaries at 50.000
3538:
3459:
3141:
934:, where Ottoman troops burned the Armenian cathedral, in which 3,000 Armenians had taken refuge, and shot at anyone who tried to escape.
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What I myself saw this Friday afternoon is forever engraven on my mind as the most horrible sight a man can see. I went with one of the
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1151:. Other humanitarian groups and the Red Cross helped by sending aid to the remaining survivors who were dying of disease and hunger.
3822:
2860:
1147:, donated and raised large amounts of money and organized relief aid that was channeled to the Armenians via the newly established
720:
An Armenian woman and her children who were refugees of the massacres and sought help from missionaries by walking great distances.
614:
spread news of the massacres around the world, leading to a significant amount of coverage of them in the media of Western Europe,
1714:
Quoted in Stephan Astourian, "On the Genealogy of the Armenian-Turkish Conflict, Sultan Abdülhamid, and the Armenian Massacres,"
2107:'The Armenian Question Is Finally Closed': Mass Conversions of Armenians in Anatolia during the Hamidian Massacres of 1895–1897
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in October 1895 which, like the Berlin treaty, was never implemented. On October 1, 1895, two thousand Armenians assembled in
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2260:
1535:
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1247:. After retelling the Ottoman version of events, which places the blame solely on the Armenians of Bitlis, Hepworth writes:
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L'établissement de la République – Le Protectorat Tunisien – La régence en Espagne – La Turquie d'Abd Ul Hamid, (1870–1908)
1485:
1373:
938:
negotiating or discussing anything with the Armenians and that they inflict upon them a decisive strike to settle scores."
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The Great Powers (Britain, France, Russia) forced Hamid to sign a new reform package designed to curtail the powers of the
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3528:
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2176:
1836:
1353:
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17:
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Some non-Armenian groups were also attacked during the massacres. The French diplomatic correspondence shows that the
3687:
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2433:
2143:
2086:
2060:
1923:
1869:
1702:
1639:
1566:
1343:
1328:
803:
756:
1023:
830:
596:
3892:
3852:
3807:
3571:
2930:
1109:
752:
678:
540:
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At the height of the massacres, in 1896, Abdul Hamid tried to limit the flow of information coming out of Turkey (
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to "invade and occupy" Armenia. The massacres were an important item on the agenda of the United States President
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The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Armenian Political Parties through the Nineteenth Century
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569:
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1948:
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to do whatever they please, to enrich themselves at the Christians' expense and to satisfy their men's whims."
294:
151:
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Soon massacres of Armenians broke out in Constantinople and then engulfed the rest of the Armenian-populated
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to lobby the European powers to include proper safeguards for their kinsmen in the eventual peace agreement.
459:
229:
219:
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3210:
2888:
2884:
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in 1899. The one fellow leader Herzl sought to enlist, Max Nordau, replied with a one-word telegram: 'No'.
515:
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1857:
1368:
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404:
309:
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2516:'Down in Turkey, Far Away,': Human Rights, the Armenian Massacres, and Orientalism in Wilhelmine Germany
3907:
3902:
3897:
3862:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3302:
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3127:
1239:, a preeminent journalist of the late 19th century, traveled through Ottoman Armenia in 1897, he wrote
1207:
464:
374:
334:
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976:
I killed like dogs... .If you ask news in this manner, we slew 2,500 Armenians and looted their goods
3442:
2914:
2520:
2384:
1826:] (in Armenian). Vol. III. Athens: Council of National Education Publishing. pp. 42–44.
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359:
477:
3847:
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3422:
3347:
2975:
2899:
1306:
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after the massacre there in 1895, recounted the grisly scene he came across in a lengthy letter to
2590:
The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of The Ottoman Armenians
2078:
The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus
2052:
The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus
1757:
Astourian, Stepan (2011). "The Silence of the Land: Agrarian Relations, Ethnicity, and Power," in
1695:
The History of the Armenian genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus
1631:
The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus
1063:, weakening Britain's relationship with the Ottoman Empire and bolstering British ties to Russia.
184:
3837:
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3633:
3619:
3205:
3107:
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who claimed that 250,000 Armenians died based on authenticated documents while serving his duty.
879:
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519:
394:
209:
50:
2425:
2389:
1889:
627:
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3729:
1363:
1358:
852:
637:
584:
54:
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1558:
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every blithering mother's son of a Turk that wears hair." Americans on the mainland, such as
1090:
810:
In response to the resistance at Sasun, the governor of Mush responded by inciting the local
795:
429:
369:
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1275:, to make the round of the hospitals in company with Mr. Blech, of Her Majesty's Embassy...
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3220:
2653:
780:
572:
in the mid-1890s. Estimated casualties ranged from 100,000 to 300,000, resulting in 50,000
1915:
1584:"Mass Violence in the Late Ottoman Empire: A Discussion: An Interview with Selim Deringil"
1310:, subscribe to the view that the mass killings of 1894–1896 marked the first phase of the
963:
A letter sent by an Ottoman soldier to his brother and parents in November 23, 1895 says:
8:
3377:
3174:
1885:
1853:
1348:
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1140:
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197:
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1963:
Quoted in Gia Aivazian (2003), "The W. L. Sachtleben Papers on Erzerum in the 1890s" in
3593:
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2625:
2298:
Schumacher, Leslie Rogne (2020), "Outrage and Imperialism, Confusion and Indifference:
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1762:
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1120:, pressured their government to take concrete action. In December 1900, the battleship
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690:
384:
314:
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173:
68:
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A Shameful Act : The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility
737:, Arabs, Turkmens and Circassians, and armed by the state, they came to be called the
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2716:
2700:
The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924
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2149:
2139:
2082:
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Native Christians Massacred: The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I
1944:
1919:
1865:
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672:
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379:
324:
125:
35:
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Child victims of a massacre awaiting burial in an Armenian cemetery in Erzurum, 1895
3682:
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3447:
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2798:
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2715:, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, pp. 9–11.
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2449:
1977:
1591:
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Armenian victims of the massacres being buried in a mass grave at Erzerum cemetery.
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364:
347:
329:
224:
129:
2999:
724:
The provisions for reform in the Armenian provinces embodied in Article 61 of the
3704:
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3414:
2985:
2683:
2415:
2379:
2076:
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1727:
Quoted in Astourian, "On the Genealogy of the Armenian-Turkish Conflict," p. 195.
1629:
1525:
1314:. Most scholars, however, limit this definition strictly to the years 1915–1923.
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875:
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277:
105:
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Schumacher, Leslie Rogne. "Outrage and Imperialism, Confusion and Indifference:
1740:
Azat S. Hambaryan (1981), "Hoghayin haraberut'yunner: Harkern u parhaknere" in
1465:
A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility
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The killings continued until 1897. In that last year, Sultan Hamid declared the
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King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa
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1610:
1530:, vol. 5. Eastern Christianity, Cambridge University Press, p. 512,
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Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, 1815–1914
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Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, 1815–1914
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883:
802:, encouraged resistance against double taxation and Ottoman persecution. The
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Kurdish rebels attacked the inhabitants of towns and villages with impunity.
682:
304:
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2820:. (2018). The Hamidian Massacres, 1894-1897: Disinterring a Buried History.
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A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire
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Above the fray: The Red Cross and the Making of the Humanitarian NGO Sector
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Edhem Eldem, "26 Ağustos 1896 'Banka Vakası' ve 1896 'Ermeni Olayları,'"
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Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East 1776 to the Present
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Schumacher, "Outrage and Imperialism, Confusion and Indifference," p. 326
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1005:
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891:
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653:
234:
117:
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Hovannisian. "The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire," pp. 224–26.
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2255:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 268.
1980:(2006), "Gustave Meyrier and the Turmoil in Diarbekir, 1894–1896," in
1486:"Fifty Thousand Orphans made So by the Turkish Massacres of Armenians"
1446:
Dictionary of Genocide, By Paul R. Bartrop, Samuel Totten, 2007, p. 23
62:
3432:
3332:
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Comic Empires: Imperialism in Cartoons, Caricature, and Satirical Art
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Comic Empires: Imperialism in Cartoons, Caricature, and Satirical Art
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611:
599:, where, at least according to one contemporary source, up to 25,000
319:
101:
3119:
985:
835:
27:
1894–1897 massacres of Armenians and Assyrians in the Ottoman Empire
2122:
Hovannisian. "The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire," p. 224.
1993:
Kieser, Hans-Lucas. "Ottoman Urfa and its Missionary Witnesses" in
1288:
Some scholars, such as the Soviet historians Mkrtich G. Nersisyan,
1089:
resort to the knife... the fever spot of the Turkish Empire." King
856:
764:
660:
354:
249:
31:
1941:
Imperialism, evangelism and the Ottoman Armenians : 1878-1896
1780:
The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone
2349:
The Forgotten Genocide: The Eastern Christians, the Last Arameans
1218:
1187:
published an open letter critical of Herzl and resigned from the
1176:
899:
863:
760:
644:
592:
499:
239:
121:
72:
2524:
79, pp. 87–90, quotation on p. 88. Cf. also Marwan R. Buheiry, "
1911:
The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response
1748:
et al. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, vol. 6, pp. 49–54.
2830:
special issues (2018): Global Narratives and Local Approaches,
1228:
1128:
913:
811:
577:
573:
264:
259:
244:
133:
1841:
The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire
751:
Armenians established revolutionary organizations, namely the
3739:
2253:
A History of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East
840:
787:
768:
649:
583:, who, in his efforts to maintain the imperial domain of the
254:
1582:
Deringil, Selim; Adjemian, Boris; Nichanian, Mikaël (2018).
1231:
hospital to protect it from an anti-Armenian pogrom in 1895.
1223:
2642:. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012, pp. 185–211.
1862:
The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II
214:
2277:
Freedom's Battle: The Origins of Humanitarian Intervention
1795:, 3rd rev. and updated ed. London: I.B. Tauris, pp. 60–62.
1666:
677:
The combination of Russian military success in the recent
2785:, 305–333. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2020.
2234:
L'Epoque contemporaine. La paix armee et la Grande Guerre
2138:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 267.
1581:
1858:"The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914"
952:
carried out massacres not only of Armenians but also of
2306:, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2020, p. 306
3242:
Deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915
2713:
The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies
2481:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 72.
1769:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 58–61, 63–67.
2688:. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. pp. 239–41.
1884:
1852:
1502:
755:(Hunchak; founded in Switzerland in 1887) and the
1782:. Stanford: Stanford University Press, pp. 21–34.
1524:Angold, Michael (2006), O'Mahony, Anthony (ed.),
763:). Clashes ensued and unrest occurred in 1892 at
3769:
2702:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019.
2592:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 53.
1227:Haji Agha, a Muslim, chose to stand guard at an
3888:Persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire
1557:(2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview. p.
1194:
898:, an American journalist who happened to be in
759:(the ARF or Dashnaktsutiun, founded in 1890 in
2770:. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012.
2651:
1995:Armenian Tigranakert/Diarbekir and Edessa/Urfa
1982:Armenian Tigranakert/Diarbekir and Edessa/Urfa
1811:
1271:I accordingly requested Surgeon Tomlinson, of
1219:Inaccurate reporting by the Ottoman government
3135:
2854:
2777:and the Armenian Massacres of 1894–1896." In
2302:and the Armenian Massacres of 1894–1896," in
1864:. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 223.
1108:, and in his presidential platform for 1896,
541:
2351:. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, pp. 106–10.
1519:
1517:
1076:One headline in a September 1895 article by
972:Another letter from December 23, 1895 says:
2868:
2543:
2131:
1894:. Edgewood Publishing Company. p. 432.
1817:
1808:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1716:Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies
925:, Gustave Meyrier, recounted to Ambassador
3142:
3128:
2861:
2847:
2791:Comparative Studies in Society and History
2514:Anderson, Margaret Lavinia (March 2007). "
2414:
2388:. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. p.
2374:
2372:
2370:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2111:Comparative Studies in Society and History
1407:– via The British Newspaper Archive.
548:
534:
3818:Massacres committed by the Ottoman Empire
2582:
2135:Armenia on the road to independence, 1918
1595:
1550:
1514:
1038:
3918:Genocide of indigenous peoples in Europe
3295:
2681:
2608:
2166:
1904:
1222:
1153:
1042:
984:
834:
774:
715:
666:
576:children. The massacres are named after
2526:Theodor Herzl and the Armenian Question
2367:
2250:
2185:
1455:
1453:
67:A photograph taken in November 1895 by
14:
3913:Genocide of indigenous peoples in Asia
3770:
2788:
2424:. Boston, MA: Mariner Books. pp.
1523:
3149:
3123:
2842:
2735:
2474:
2246:
2244:
2242:
1508:
960:, Sivas and other parts of Anatolia.
2378:
2202:The History of the Armenian genocide
1938:
1914:. New York: HarperCollins. pp.
1468:p. 42, Metropolitan Books, New York
1450:
1374:List of conflicts in the Middle East
1082:ran "Armenian Holocaust," while the
3747:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
3529:May 1915 Triple Entente declaration
2544:Elboim-Dror, Rachel (May 1, 2015).
2279:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008;
2232:P. Renouvin, E. Preclin, G. Hardy,
2171:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1554:A History of the Modern Middle East
628:Armenian genocide § Background
24:
3552:National Armenian Relief Committee
2929:
2729:
2546:"How Herzl sold out the Armenians"
2239:
1891:Turkey and the Armenian Atrocities
1878:
1697:. Oxford: Berghahn Books, p. 163.
1354:Christianity in the Ottoman Empire
183:
25:
3959:
3688:Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day
2828:Études arméniennes contemporaines
2822:Études arméniennes contemporaines
2220:, 6th ed. (Berlin, 1916), p. 139.
1943:. London u.a.: Cass. p. 88.
1588:Études arméniennes contemporaines
1527:Cambridge History of Christianity
1344:Anti-Armenian sentiment in Turkey
1283:
1097:that he was prepared to send his
1022:also lost their lives during the
814:against the Armenians. Historian
757:Armenian Revolutionary Federation
3103:
3102:
2167:Forsythe, David P., ed. (2009).
2132:Hovannisian, Richard G. (1967).
2008:History of the Armenian genocide
1860:. In Richard Hovannisian (ed.).
839:An 1896 depiction of fanatical "
753:Social Democrat Hunchakian Party
61:
3823:Massacres in the Ottoman Empire
3476:Committee of Union and Progress
3165:Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
2781:, edited by Richard Scully and
2705:
2692:
2675:
2652:Jenkins, H. D. (October 1915).
2645:
2632:
2614:
2602:
2573:
2560:
2537:
2508:
2495:
2468:
2455:
2442:
2408:
2354:
2347:De Courtois, Sébastien (2004).
2341:
2318:
2309:
2292:
2269:
2223:
2207:
2160:
2125:
2116:
2095:
2069:
2043:
2038:Genocide Studies and Prevention
2026:
2013:
2000:
1987:
1970:
1957:
1932:
1898:
1846:
1830:
1798:
1785:
1772:
1751:
1730:
1721:
1708:
1684:
1648:
1622:
1604:
1018:Besides Armenians, some 25,000
708:
632:Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
570:Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
495:Republic of Mountainous Armenia
3180:Hamidian massacres (1894–1897)
2698:Benny Morris and Dror Ze'evi,
2236:. 2nd ed. Paris, 1947, p. 176.
2101:On this issue in general, see
1575:
1551:Cleveland, William L. (2000).
1544:
1478:
1439:
1411:
1400:. December 7, 1895. p. 35
1390:
1304:and Dror Ze'evi in their book
1259:in a letter to Prime Minister
1201:Occupation of the Ottoman Bank
1029:
831:Massacres of Diyarbakır (1895)
13:
1:
3587:Assassination of Talaat Pasha
3216:Ottoman Empire in World War I
2971:Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
1818:Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1996).
1793:A Modern History of the Kurds
980:
790:. Hunchak activists, such as
621:
3185:Young Turk Revolution (1908)
2910:Yıldız assassination attempt
2889:Senate of the Ottoman Empire
2885:Ottoman constitution of 1876
2832:Perceptions and Perspectives
2685:Through Armenia On Horseback
2534:7 (Autumn, 1977): pp. 75–97.
2531:Journal of Palestine Studies
2251:Sharkey, Heather J. (2017).
2169:Encyclopedia of human rights
1329:Yıldız assassination attempt
1273:Her Majesty's ship "Imogene"
1241:Through Armenia on Horseback
1195:Takeover of the Ottoman Bank
1093:told British Prime Minister
824:
7:
3757:Hitler's Armenian reference
3752:Assassination of Hrant Dink
3627:The Forty Days of Musa Dagh
2682:Hepworth, George H (1898).
2654:"Armenia and the Armenians"
1843:. New York: Morrow, p. 559.
1804:Nalbandian, Louise (1963).
1369:List of massacres in Turkey
1317:
310:Christianization of Armenia
10:
3964:
3883:1896 in the Ottoman Empire
3878:1895 in the Ottoman Empire
3873:1894 in the Ottoman Empire
1379:Zeitun rebellion (1895–96)
1198:
921:The French vice consul of
828:
778:
670:
635:
625:
375:Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget
335:Muslim conquest of Armenia
29:
3722:
3656:Witnesses and testimonies
3648:
3602:
3562:
3521:
3468:
3405:
3360:
3229:
3157:
3097:
3021:
2984:
2963:
2942:
2926:
2915:Second Constitutional Era
2877:
2803:10.1017/S0010417520000298
2521:Journal of Modern History
2503:Power, Faith, and Fantasy
2463:Power, Faith, and Fantasy
2338:. Paris: Grasset, p. 395.
2332:Correspondance, 1870–1924
2218:Der Aufsteugende Halbmond
1421:
485:First Republic of Armenia
360:Principality of Hamamshen
230:Lchashen–Metsamor culture
220:Trialeti–Vanadzor culture
147:
139:
111:
97:
89:
79:
60:
48:
43:
3378:Post-genocide population
2976:Greco-Turkish War (1897)
2900:First Constitutional Era
2081:. Berghahn Books. 2003.
2055:. Berghahn Books. 2003.
1819:
1791:McDowall, David (2004).
1765:, Fatma Müge Göçek, and
1742:Hay Zhoghovrdi Patmutyun
1634:. Berghahn Books. 2003.
1384:
1307:The Thirty-Year Genocide
1189:Zionist Action Committee
585:declining Ottoman Empire
51:persecution of Armenians
3893:Massacres of Christians
3853:Mamuret-ul-Aziz vilayet
3808:19th century in Armenia
3543:Foreign aid and relief
3368:Pre-genocide population
3206:1914 Greek deportations
3108:Category:Abdul Hamid II
2475:Dromi, Shai M. (2020).
1339:Anti-Armenian sentiment
843:" massacring Armenians.
726:Treaty of Berlin (1878)
395:Principality of Khachen
260:Urartu (Kingdom of Van)
205:Shulaveri–Shomu culture
188:Coat of Arms of Armenia
71:of Armenians killed in
3948:1896 murders in Europe
3943:1895 murders in Europe
3938:1894 murders in Europe
3803:Massacres of Armenians
3783:Massacres in the 1890s
3730:Late Ottoman genocides
3522:International response
2955:Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque
2935:
2040:3 (2006): pp. 327–371.
1965:Armenian Karin/Erzerum
1433:
1429:
1364:Late Ottoman genocides
1359:Christianity in Turkey
1281:
1253:
1232:
1159:
1127:called at the port of
1048:
1039:International reaction
990:
978:
970:
956:living in Diyarbakir,
919:
844:
721:
638:Late Ottoman genocides
189:
55:late Ottoman genocides
3252:20 Hunchakian gallows
3201:1914 Armenian reforms
3190:Adana massacre (1909)
2933:
1939:Salt, Jeremy (1993).
1778:Klein, Janet (2011).
1494:, December 18, 1896,
1265:
1249:
1226:
1210:the European-managed
1157:
1091:Leopold II of Belgium
1047:Sultan Abdul Hamid II
1046:
988:
974:
965:
910:
838:
796:Hampartsoum Boyadjian
775:Disturbances in Sasun
719:
667:The Armenian Question
636:Further information:
370:Kingdom of Vaspurakan
187:
30:For the 20th-century
3933:1896 murders in Asia
3928:1895 murders in Asia
3923:1894 murders in Asia
3813:Massacres in Armenia
3547:Near East Foundation
3513:Special Organization
3271:Concentration camps
3221:Battle of Sarikamish
2943:Associated buildings
2570:5 (2007): pp. 13–46.
2023:, pp. 137, 144, 145.
1300:, and most recently
1024:Diyarbekir massacres
781:1894 Sasun rebellion
597:Diyarbekir massacres
568:, were massacres of
500:Contemporary Armenia
3604:Cultural depictions
3455:Rescue of Armenians
3373:Genocide casualties
3211:Congress at Erzerum
3175:Turkish nationalism
2894:Chamber of Deputies
2818:Suny, Ronald Grigor
2661:National Geographic
2032:Travis, Hannibal. "
1886:Edwin Munsell Bliss
1854:Richard Hovannisian
1434:Massacres hamidiens
1349:Armenians in Turkey
1145:John D. Rockefeller
1141:David Josiah Brewer
618:and North America.
505:Republic of Artsakh
255:Nairi Confederation
210:Kura–Araxes culture
3843:Diyarbekir vilayet
3828:Ottoman war crimes
3778:Hamidian massacres
3594:Treaty of Lausanne
3460:Turkish opposition
2936:
2905:Hamidian massacres
2626:The Burning Tigris
2362:Forgotten Genocide
2286:The Burning Tigris
2021:Forgotten Genocide
1824:History of Armenia
1763:Ronald Grigor Suny
1718:21 (2012), p. 185.
1491:The New York Times
1233:
1160:
1149:American Red Cross
1079:The New York Times
1049:
996:The German pastor
991:
896:William Sachtleben
845:
722:
691:Congress of Berlin
603:were also killed.
566:Armenian massacres
562:Hamidian massacres
405:Kingdom of Cilicia
385:Kingdom of Artsakh
365:Kingdom of Armenia
355:Emirate of Armenia
315:Kingdom of Sophene
295:Kingdom of Armenia
285:Satrapy of Armenia
190:
69:William Sachtleben
44:Hamidian massacres
18:Hamidian Massacres
3908:Conflicts in 1896
3903:Conflicts in 1895
3898:Conflicts in 1894
3863:Trebizond vilayet
3798:Massacres in 1896
3793:Massacres in 1895
3788:Massacres in 1894
3765:
3764:
3693:100th anniversary
3582:Operation Nemesis
3356:
3355:
3170:Armenian question
3151:Armenian genocide
3117:
3116:
3002:(adoptive mother)
2920:31 March Incident
2766:Rodogno, Davide.
2752:978-0-8050-8665-2
2638:Rodogno, Davide.
2588:Bloxham, Donald.
2399:978-0-393-33030-4
2262:978-0-521-18687-2
1691:Dadrian, Vahakn N
1537:978-0-521-81113-2
1474:978-0-8050-7932-6
1430:Hamidiye Katliamı
1324:Armenian genocide
1312:Armenian genocide
943:Armenian Question
740:Hamidiye Alaylari
679:Russo-Turkish War
673:Armenian Question
558:
557:
465:National movement
455:Armenian genocide
450:Armenian question
380:Kingdom of Syunik
325:Byzantine Armenia
157:
156:
126:forced conversion
36:Armenian genocide
16:(Redirected from
3955:
3710:notable visitors
3683:Hidden Armenians
3612:Ravished Armenia
3534:Imperial Germany
3443:Shabin-Karahisar
3415:Armenian militia
3383:Hidden Armenians
3293:
3292:
3144:
3137:
3130:
3121:
3120:
3106:
3105:
2994:Tirimüjgan Kadın
2937:
2863:
2856:
2849:
2840:
2839:
2814:
2783:Andrekos Varnava
2756:
2724:
2709:
2703:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2670:
2668:
2658:
2649:
2643:
2636:
2630:
2618:
2612:
2606:
2600:
2586:
2580:
2577:
2571:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2541:
2535:
2512:
2506:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2472:
2466:
2459:
2453:
2450:Tufts University
2446:
2440:
2439:
2416:Hochschild, Adam
2412:
2406:
2403:
2376:
2365:
2358:
2352:
2345:
2339:
2326:
2322:
2316:
2313:
2307:
2296:
2290:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2248:
2237:
2231:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2211:
2205:
2198:
2183:
2182:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2129:
2123:
2120:
2114:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2047:
2041:
2030:
2024:
2017:
2011:
2004:
1998:
1991:
1985:
1978:Claire Mouradian
1974:
1968:
1961:
1955:
1954:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1850:
1844:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1820:Պատմութիւն Հայոց
1815:
1809:
1802:
1796:
1789:
1783:
1776:
1770:
1755:
1749:
1739:
1734:
1728:
1725:
1719:
1712:
1706:
1688:
1682:
1670:
1664:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1626:
1620:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1597:10.4000/eac.1803
1579:
1573:
1572:
1548:
1542:
1540:
1521:
1512:
1506:
1500:
1498:
1482:
1476:
1457:
1448:
1443:
1437:
1423:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1406:
1405:
1394:
1175:attitude toward
1114:William McKinley
1106:Grover Cleveland
998:Johannes Lepsius
687:Mkrtich Khrimian
595:, including the
564:also called the
550:
543:
536:
418:Early modern age
330:Sasanian Armenia
177:
159:
158:
130:ethnic cleansing
65:
41:
40:
21:
3963:
3962:
3958:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3953:
3952:
3848:Erzurum vilayet
3768:
3767:
3766:
3761:
3718:
3705:Tsitsernakaberd
3644:
3598:
3558:
3517:
3506:Bahaeddin Şakir
3464:
3401:
3352:
3291:
3225:
3153:
3148:
3118:
3113:
3093:
3017:
2980:
2959:
2938:
2928:
2924:
2873:
2867:
2753:
2732:
2730:Further reading
2727:
2710:
2706:
2697:
2693:
2680:
2676:
2666:
2664:
2656:
2650:
2646:
2637:
2633:
2619:
2615:
2607:
2603:
2587:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2568:Tarih ve Toplum
2565:
2561:
2551:
2549:
2542:
2538:
2513:
2509:
2500:
2496:
2489:
2473:
2469:
2460:
2456:
2447:
2443:
2436:
2413:
2409:
2400:
2380:Oren, Michael B
2377:
2368:
2359:
2355:
2346:
2342:
2324:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2310:
2297:
2293:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2249:
2240:
2229:
2228:
2224:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2199:
2186:
2179:
2165:
2161:
2146:
2130:
2126:
2121:
2117:
2113:51, pp. 344–71.
2105:(April 2009), "
2100:
2096:
2089:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2049:
2048:
2044:
2031:
2027:
2018:
2014:
2005:
2001:
1992:
1988:
1975:
1971:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1906:Balakian, Peter
1903:
1899:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1851:
1847:
1835:
1831:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1803:
1799:
1790:
1786:
1777:
1773:
1756:
1752:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1713:
1709:
1689:
1685:
1671:
1667:
1653:
1649:
1642:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1609:
1605:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1522:
1515:
1507:
1503:
1484:
1483:
1479:
1458:
1451:
1444:
1440:
1422:Համիդյան ջարդեր
1416:
1412:
1403:
1401:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1320:
1294:John Kirakosyan
1286:
1237:George Hepworth
1221:
1203:
1197:
1165:Harper's Weekly
1137:Julia Ward Howe
1061:First World War
1041:
1032:
1013:Pierre Renouvin
983:
880:Mamuret-ul-Aziz
833:
827:
792:Mihran Damadian
783:
777:
767:and in 1893 at
714:
675:
669:
640:
634:
626:Main articles:
624:
554:
510:
509:
490:Armenian S.S.R.
480:
470:
469:
460:Western Armenia
445:Armenian Oblast
440:Russian Armenia
435:Ottoman Armenia
425:Iranian Armenia
420:
410:
409:
390:Zakarid Armenia
350:
340:
339:
300:Armenian Empire
280:
270:
269:
200:
175:
168:
114:
75:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3961:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3838:Bitlis vilayet
3835:
3833:Ottoman Empire
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3737:
3735:Greek genocide
3732:
3726:
3724:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3697:
3696:
3695:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3658:
3652:
3650:
3646:
3645:
3643:
3642:
3637:
3630:
3623:
3608:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3590:
3589:
3579:
3574:
3572:Courts-martial
3568:
3566:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3556:
3555:
3554:
3549:
3541:
3539:Press coverage
3536:
3531:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3515:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3472:
3470:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3451:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3417:
3411:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3392:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3375:
3370:
3364:
3362:
3358:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3299:
3297:
3290:
3289:
3284:
3283:
3282:
3277:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3226:
3224:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3161:
3159:
3155:
3154:
3147:
3146:
3139:
3132:
3124:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3018:
3016:
3015:
3009:
3003:
2997:
2990:
2988:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2978:
2973:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2939:
2934:Abdul Hamid II
2927:
2925:
2923:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2891:
2881:
2879:
2875:
2874:
2871:Abdul Hamid II
2866:
2865:
2858:
2851:
2843:
2835:
2834:
2825:
2824:, 11, 125-134.
2815:
2797:(4): 810–835.
2786:
2771:
2764:
2761:
2751:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2725:
2704:
2691:
2674:
2644:
2631:
2629:, pp. 35, 115.
2613:
2601:
2581:
2572:
2559:
2536:
2507:
2494:
2487:
2467:
2454:
2441:
2434:
2407:
2398:
2366:
2353:
2340:
2317:
2308:
2291:
2275:Gary J. Bass,
2268:
2261:
2238:
2222:
2216:Jäckh, Ernst.
2206:
2184:
2178:978-0195334029
2177:
2159:
2144:
2124:
2115:
2103:Selim Deringil
2094:
2087:
2068:
2061:
2042:
2025:
2012:
1999:
1986:
1969:
1956:
1949:
1931:
1924:
1897:
1877:
1870:
1845:
1829:
1810:
1797:
1784:
1771:
1767:Norman Naimark
1750:
1746:Tsatur Aghayan
1729:
1720:
1707:
1683:
1678:A Shameful Act
1665:
1660:A Shameful Act
1647:
1640:
1621:
1616:A Shameful Act
1603:
1590:(11): 95–104.
1574:
1567:
1543:
1536:
1513:
1501:
1477:
1449:
1438:
1410:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1334:Adana massacre
1331:
1326:
1319:
1316:
1290:Ruben Sahakyan
1285:
1284:Historiography
1282:
1261:Lord Salisbury
1257:Phillip Currie
1220:
1217:
1199:Main article:
1196:
1193:
1185:Bernard Lazare
1118:Robert College
1102:Force Publique
1085:Catholic World
1040:
1037:
1031:
1028:
982:
979:
853:Constantinople
829:Main article:
826:
823:
779:Main article:
776:
773:
713:
707:
671:Main article:
668:
665:
623:
620:
616:Russian Empire
581:Abdul Hamid II
556:
555:
553:
552:
545:
538:
530:
527:
526:
512:
511:
508:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
481:
476:
475:
472:
471:
468:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
430:Five Melikdoms
427:
421:
416:
415:
412:
411:
408:
407:
402:
400:Mongol Armenia
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
372:
367:
362:
357:
351:
346:
345:
342:
341:
338:
337:
332:
327:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
281:
276:
275:
272:
271:
268:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
217:
215:Legend of Hayk
212:
207:
201:
196:
195:
192:
191:
180:
179:
170:
169:
162:
155:
154:
149:
145:
144:
143:80,000–300,000
141:
137:
136:
115:
112:
109:
108:
99:
95:
94:
91:
87:
86:
84:Ottoman Empire
81:
77:
76:
66:
58:
57:
46:
45:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3960:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3858:Sivas vilayet
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3744:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3727:
3725:
3721:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3698:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3666:United States
3664:
3663:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3651:
3647:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3595:
3592:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3567:
3565:
3561:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3511:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3467:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3294:
3288:
3285:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3262:Forced labour
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3145:
3140:
3138:
3133:
3131:
3126:
3125:
3122:
3110:
3109:
3100:
3099:
3096:
3090:
3089:Saliha Naciye
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3020:
3013:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3001:
3000:Perestu Kadın
2998:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2983:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2962:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2950:Yıldız Palace
2948:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2932:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2864:
2859:
2857:
2852:
2850:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2787:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:- Profile at
2754:
2748:
2745:. Macmillan.
2744:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2733:
2722:
2721:1-4128-0619-4
2718:
2714:
2708:
2701:
2695:
2687:
2686:
2678:
2663:. p. 348
2662:
2655:
2648:
2641:
2635:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2611:, p. 109
2610:
2609:Balakian 2003
2605:
2599:
2598:0-19-927356-1
2595:
2591:
2585:
2576:
2569:
2563:
2547:
2540:
2533:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2522:
2517:
2511:
2505:, pp. 294–96.
2504:
2498:
2490:
2488:9780226680101
2484:
2480:
2479:
2471:
2464:
2458:
2451:
2445:
2437:
2435:0-618-00190-5
2431:
2427:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2411:
2405:
2401:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2386:
2381:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2363:
2360:De Courtois.
2357:
2350:
2344:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2321:
2312:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2288:
2287:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2264:
2258:
2254:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2235:
2226:
2219:
2210:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2180:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2145:0-520-00574-0
2141:
2137:
2136:
2128:
2119:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2098:
2090:
2088:9781571816665
2084:
2080:
2079:
2072:
2064:
2062:9781571816665
2058:
2054:
2053:
2046:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2022:
2019:De Courtois,
2016:
2009:
2003:
1996:
1990:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1966:
1960:
1952:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1927:
1925:0-06-055870-9
1921:
1917:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1901:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1881:
1873:
1871:0-312-10168-6
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1849:
1842:
1838:
1833:
1825:
1814:
1807:
1801:
1794:
1788:
1781:
1775:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1754:
1747:
1743:
1738:(in Armenian)
1733:
1724:
1717:
1711:
1704:
1703:1-57181-666-6
1700:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1680:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1662:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1643:
1641:9781571816665
1637:
1633:
1632:
1625:
1618:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1578:
1570:
1568:0-8133-3489-6
1564:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1547:
1539:
1533:
1529:
1528:
1520:
1518:
1511:, p. 44.
1510:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1492:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1454:
1447:
1442:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1419:
1414:
1399:
1398:"The Graphic"
1393:
1389:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1280:
1276:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1252:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1230:
1225:
1216:
1213:
1209:
1202:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1172:Theodor Herzl
1169:
1167:
1166:
1156:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1125:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1086:
1081:
1080:
1074:
1072:
1071:
1070:carte blanche
1064:
1062:
1057:
1056:
1045:
1036:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1007:
1002:
999:
994:
987:
977:
973:
969:
964:
961:
959:
955:
951:
946:
944:
939:
935:
933:
928:
924:
918:
915:
909:
907:
906:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
860:
858:
854:
850:
842:
837:
832:
822:
819:
817:
813:
808:
805:
801:
800:Hrayr Dzhoghk
797:
793:
789:
782:
772:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
749:
746:
742:
741:
736:
730:
727:
718:
712:
706:
702:
698:
694:
692:
688:
684:
683:Panic of 1873
680:
674:
664:
662:
657:
655:
651:
646:
639:
633:
629:
619:
617:
613:
608:
604:
602:
598:
594:
590:
587:, reasserted
586:
582:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
551:
546:
544:
539:
537:
532:
531:
529:
528:
525:
521:
517:
514:
513:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
482:
479:
474:
473:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
422:
419:
414:
413:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
352:
349:
344:
343:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
305:Roman Armenia
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
290:Armenia Minor
288:
286:
283:
282:
279:
274:
273:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
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59:
56:
52:
47:
42:
37:
33:
19:
3632:
3625:
3611:
3577:Malta exiles
3469:Perpetrators
3419:By location
3394:
3280:Ra's al-'Ayn
3257:Confiscation
3179:
3101:
3079:Fatma Pesend
3054:Mezidimestan
3006:Abdulmejid I
2904:
2878:Major events
2836:
2827:
2821:
2794:
2790:
2778:
2774:
2767:
2759:Google Books
2740:
2737:Akçam, Taner
2712:
2707:
2699:
2694:
2684:
2677:
2665:. Retrieved
2647:
2639:
2634:
2624:
2616:
2604:
2589:
2584:
2575:
2567:
2562:
2550:. Retrieved
2539:
2529:
2519:
2510:
2502:
2497:
2477:
2470:
2462:
2457:
2444:
2419:
2410:
2383:
2361:
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2335:
2331:
2328:Cambon, Paul
2320:
2311:
2303:
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2294:
2284:
2276:
2271:
2252:
2233:
2225:
2217:
2209:
2201:
2168:
2162:
2134:
2127:
2118:
2110:
2097:
2077:
2071:
2051:
2045:
2037:
2028:
2020:
2015:
2007:
2002:
1994:
1989:
1981:
1972:
1964:
1959:
1940:
1934:
1909:
1900:
1890:
1880:
1861:
1848:
1840:
1837:Lord Kinross
1832:
1823:
1813:
1805:
1800:
1792:
1787:
1779:
1774:
1758:
1753:
1741:
1732:
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1546:
1526:
1504:
1495:
1489:
1480:
1463:
1460:Akçam, Taner
1441:
1413:
1402:. Retrieved
1392:
1305:
1302:Benny Morris
1298:Yehuda Bauer
1287:
1277:
1270:
1266:
1254:
1250:
1240:
1234:
1212:Ottoman Bank
1204:
1170:
1163:
1161:
1123:
1083:
1077:
1075:
1068:
1065:
1053:
1050:
1033:
1017:
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992:
975:
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962:
949:
947:
940:
936:
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911:
903:
861:
848:
846:
820:
816:Lord Kinross
809:
784:
750:
738:
731:
723:
710:
703:
699:
695:
689:to the 1878
676:
658:
641:
609:
605:
589:pan-Islamism
565:
561:
559:
240:Arme–Shupria
152:Ottoman Army
49:Part of the
3868:Van vilayet
3673:Reparations
3661:Recognition
3634:The Promise
3564:Prosecution
3287:Terminology
3275:Deir ez-Zor
3197:(1912–1913)
3195:Balkan Wars
2667:January 22,
2325:(in French)
2230:(in French)
2214:(in German)
1279:Christians.
1030:Conversions
1009:Ernst Jäckh
1006:Turkologist
927:Paul Cambon
654:Circassians
348:Middle Ages
235:Hayasa-Azzi
174:History of
118:Mass murder
113:Attack type
3772:Categories
3407:Resistance
3396:Vorpahavak
3361:Demography
3318:Diyarbekir
3247:Tehcir Law
3158:Background
3034:Bedrifelek
2552:20 October
2334:, vol. 1:
1976:Quoted in
1950:0714634484
1693:. (1995).
1509:Akçam 2006
1432:, French:
1404:2018-02-05
1181:Max Nordau
1112:candidate
1110:Republican
981:Death toll
923:Diyarbakır
872:Diyarbekir
659:The chief
622:Background
478:Modern age
198:Prehistory
148:Assailants
3700:Memorials
3649:Aftermath
3433:Musa Dagh
3390:Survivors
3343:Trebizond
3296:By region
3267:Mass rape
3059:Emsalinur
3049:Dilpesend
3012:Abdülaziz
2869:Reign of
2811:224856533
2548:. Haaretz
2465:, p. 294.
2364:, p. 138.
2204:, p. 155.
2200:Dadrian.
2010:, p. 161.
2006:Dadrian.
1997:, p. 406.
1133:keel-haul
1099:Congolese
1095:Salisbury
1020:Assyrians
958:Hasankeyf
954:Assyrians
905:The Times
888:Trebizond
825:Massacres
705:causes."
612:telegraph
601:Assyrians
524:Etymology
320:Commagene
278:Antiquity
106:Assyrians
102:Armenians
93:1894–1897
3230:Genocide
3074:Peyveste
3039:Nurefsun
3029:Nazikeda
3008:(father)
2996:(mother)
2739:(2006).
2621:Balakian
2418:(1999).
2382:(2007).
2330:(1940).
2281:Balakian
1908:(2003).
1888:(1896).
1856:(1997).
1839:(1977).
1681:, p. 44.
1663:, p. 43.
1619:, p. 36.
1418:Armenian
1318:See also
1124:Kentucky
950:Hamidiye
914:cavasses
864:vilayets
857:Istanbul
849:Hamidiye
765:Merzifon
745:Hamidian
711:Hamidiye
661:dragoman
574:orphaned
516:Timeline
165:a series
163:Part of
80:Location
53:and the
32:genocide
3723:Related
3496:Djevdet
3323:Erzurum
3064:Müşfika
3014:(uncle)
1761:, eds.
1462:(2006)
1426:Turkish
1177:Zionism
900:Erzurum
876:Erzurum
812:Muslims
645:Balkans
593:pogroms
520:Origins
176:Armenia
122:looting
73:Erzurum
3678:Denial
3640:others
3501:Reshid
3491:Djemal
3481:Talaat
3423:Zeitun
3328:Harput
3313:Bitlis
3308:Aleppo
3237:Causes
3084:Behice
3069:Sazkar
2986:Family
2809:
2749:
2719:
2596:
2501:Oren.
2485:
2461:Oren.
2432:
2426:167–68
2396:
2259:
2175:
2154:825110
2152:
2142:
2085:
2059:
1947:
1922:
1868:
1744:, ed.
1701:
1638:
1565:
1534:
1472:
1296:, and
1235:After
1229:Aintab
1208:seized
1143:, and
1129:Smyrna
868:Bitlis
841:Softas
798:, and
761:Tiflis
735:Yörüks
630:, and
578:Sultan
265:Etiuni
245:Mushki
225:Armani
167:on the
140:Deaths
134:pogrom
98:Target
34:, see
3740:Sayfo
3486:Enver
3448:Azakh
3338:Sivas
3303:Adana
3044:Bidar
3022:Wives
2807:S2CID
2775:Punch
2657:(PDF)
2300:Punch
1916:57–58
1822:[
1673:Akçam
1655:Akçam
1611:Akçam
1385:Notes
1245:Porte
1055:Punch
884:Sivas
855:(now
788:Sasun
769:Tokat
650:Kurds
250:Urumu
3620:film
3616:book
3438:Urfa
2964:Wars
2747:ISBN
2717:ISBN
2669:2013
2594:ISBN
2554:2016
2483:ISBN
2430:ISBN
2394:ISBN
2257:ISBN
2173:ISBN
2150:OCLC
2140:ISBN
2083:ISBN
2057:ISBN
1945:ISBN
1920:ISBN
1866:ISBN
1736:See
1699:ISBN
1636:ISBN
1563:ISBN
1532:ISBN
1470:ISBN
1122:USS
932:Urfa
890:and
709:The
652:and
610:The
560:The
90:Date
3428:Van
3348:Van
3333:Muş
2799:doi
2528:,"
2518:,"
2390:293
2109:,"
2036:."
1592:doi
1559:119
892:Van
866:of
804:ARF
3774::
3618:,
2805:.
2795:62
2793:.
2659:.
2623:.
2428:.
2392:.
2369:^
2283:,
2241:^
2187:^
2148:.
1918:.
1675:.
1657:.
1613:.
1586:.
1561:.
1516:^
1488:,
1452:^
1428::
1424:,
1420::
1292:,
1263::
1139:,
1026:.
908::
886:,
882:,
878:,
874:,
870:,
794:,
771:.
743:("
522:•
518:•
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2671:.
2556:.
2491:.
2452:.
2438:.
2402:.
2289:.
2265:.
2181:.
2156:.
2091:.
2065:.
1953:.
1928:.
1874:.
1705:.
1644:.
1600:.
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1571:.
1541:.
1499:.
1436:)
549:e
542:t
535:v
38:.
20:)
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