Ice age - Knowledge

294:(1803–1867) was studying mosses which were growing on erratic boulders in the alpine upland of Bavaria. He began to wonder where such masses of stone had come from. During the summer of 1835 he made some excursions to the Bavarian Alps. Schimper came to the conclusion that ice must have been the means of transport for the boulders in the alpine upland. In the winter of 1835–36 he held some lectures in Munich. Schimper then assumed that there must have been global times of obliteration ("Verödungszeiten") with a cold climate and frozen water. Schimper spent the summer months of 1836 at Devens, near Bex, in the Swiss Alps with his former university friend 420: 1368:, and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100,000-year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as Earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the "predicted" periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Jose Antonio Rial. 287:, which threatened to cause a catastrophic flood when the dam broke. Perraudin attempted unsuccessfully to convert his companions to his theory, but when the dam finally broke, there were only minor erratics and no striations, and Venetz concluded that Perraudin was right and that only ice could have caused such major results. In 1821 he read a prize-winning paper on the theory to the Swiss Society, but it was not published until Charpentier, who had also become converted, published it with his own more widely read paper in 1834. 6012: 1911: 805: 788: 455: 1652:(6,962 m) have shown an unexpectedly extensive glacial glaciation of the type "ice stream network". The connected valley glaciers exceeding 100 km in length, flowed down on the East-side of this section of the Andes at 32–34°S and 69–71°W as far as a height of 2,060 m and on the western luff-side still clearly deeper. Where current glaciers scarcely reach 10 km in length, the snowline (ELA) runs at a height of 4,600 m and at that time was lowered to 3,200 m 576: 298:(1801–1873) and Jean de Charpentier. Schimper, Charpentier and possibly Venetz convinced Agassiz that there had been a time of glaciation. During the winter of 1836–37, Agassiz and Schimper developed the theory of a sequence of glaciations. They mainly drew upon the preceding works of Venetz, Charpentier and on their own fieldwork. Agassiz appears to have been already familiar with Bernhardi's paper at that time. At the beginning of 1837, Schimper coined the term "ice age" ( 1671: 1897: 7004: 1471: 350:. Successive glaciations tend to distort and erase the geological evidence for earlier glaciations, making it difficult to interpret. Furthermore, this evidence was difficult to date exactly; early theories assumed that the glacials were short compared to the long interglacials. The advent of sediment and ice cores revealed the true situation: glacials are long, interglacials short. It took some time for the current theory to be worked out. 1296: 302:) for the period of the glaciers. In July 1837 Agassiz presented their synthesis before the annual meeting of the Swiss Society for Natural Research at Neuchâtel. The audience was very critical, and some were opposed to the new theory because it contradicted the established opinions on climatic history. Most contemporary scientists thought that Earth had been gradually cooling down since its birth as a molten globe. 201: 1545: 770: 2500:

carving out valleys and fjords, in a cold climate caused by changes in the eccentricity of Earth's orbit. Esmark and his travel companion Otto Tank arrived at this insight by analogous reasoning: enigmatic landscape features they observed close to sea level along the Norwegian coast strongly resembled features they observed in the front of a retreating glacier during a mountain traverse in the summer of 1823.

52: 309:("Études sur les glaciers") in 1840. Charpentier was put out by this, as he had also been preparing a book about the glaciation of the Alps. Charpentier felt that Agassiz should have given him precedence as it was he who had introduced Agassiz to in-depth glacial research. As a result of personal quarrels, Agassiz had also omitted any mention of Schimper in his book. 1357:(tilt of the axis). The reasons for dominance of one frequency versus another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probably relates to some form of resonance in Earth's climate system. Recent work suggests that the 100K year cycle dominates due to increased southern-pole sea-ice increasing total solar reflectivity. 924:. This low precipitation allows high-latitude snowfalls to melt during the summer. An ice-free Arctic Ocean absorbs solar radiation during the long summer days, and evaporates more water into the Arctic atmosphere. With higher precipitation, portions of this snow may not melt during the summer and so glacial ice can form at lower altitudes 1656:, i.e. about 1,400 m. From this follows that—beside of an annual depression of temperature about c. 8.4 °C— here was an increase in precipitation. Accordingly, at glacial times the humid climatic belt that today is situated several latitude degrees further to the S, was shifted much further to the N. 1765:

regions, as well as much of central North America at the end of the last glacial maximum, with the present-day coastlines only being achieved in the last few millennia of prehistory. Also, the effect of elevation on Scandinavia submerged a vast continental plain that had existed under much of what is

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that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milanković orbital forcing periods is so close that orbital forcing is generally accepted. The combined effects of the changing distance to the Sun,

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periods by the 100,000-year cycle of radiation changes due to variations in Earth's orbit. This comparatively insignificant warming, when combined with the lowering of the Nordic inland ice areas and Tibet due to the weight of the superimposed ice-load, has led to the repeated complete thawing of the

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Another important contribution to ancient climate regimes is the variation of ocean currents, which are modified by continent position, sea levels and salinity, as well as other factors. They have the ability to cool (e.g. aiding the creation of Antarctic ice) and the ability to warm (e.g. giving the

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who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the second or third cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80,000

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will defer the next glacial period. Researchers used data on Earth's orbit to find the historical warm interglacial period that looks most like the current one and from this have predicted that the next glacial period would usually begin within 1,500 years. They go on to predict that emissions have

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more southerly latitudes, reducing the temperatures over land by increased albedo as noted above. Furthermore, under this hypothesis the lack of oceanic pack ice allows increased exchange of waters between the Arctic and the North Atlantic Oceans, warming the Arctic and cooling the North Atlantic.

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evidence consists of changes in the geographical distribution of fossils. During a glacial period, cold-adapted organisms spread into lower latitudes, and organisms that prefer warmer conditions become extinct or retreat into lower latitudes. This evidence is also difficult to interpret because it

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levels fell at the start of ice ages and rose during the retreat of the ice sheets, but it is difficult to establish cause and effect (see the notes above on the role of weathering). Greenhouse gas levels may also have been affected by other factors which have been proposed as causes of ice ages,

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Ice sheets that form during glaciations erode the land beneath them. This can reduce the land area above sea level and thus diminish the amount of space on which ice sheets can form. This mitigates the albedo feedback, as does the rise in sea level that accompanies the reduced area of ice sheets,

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hunter Jean-Pierre Perraudin (1767–1858) explained erratic boulders in the Val de Bagnes in the Swiss canton of Valais as being due to glaciers previously extending further. An unknown woodcutter from Meiringen in the Bernese Oberland advocated a similar idea in a discussion with the Swiss-German

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Kuhle, M. (1999). "Reconstruction of an approximately complete Quaternary Tibetan inland glaciation between the Mt. Everest- and Cho Oyu Massifs and the Aksai Chin. A new glaciogeomorphological SE–NW diagonal profile through Tibet and its consequences for the glacial isostasy and Ice Age cycle".

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can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacial–interglacial periods. In particular, during the last 800,000 years, the dominant period of glacial–interglacial oscillation has been

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varies by as much as 22% (from 450 W/m to 550 W/m). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too cool to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter. Some believe that the strength of the orbital forcing is too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback

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in the Atlantic, increasing heat transport into the Arctic, which melted the polar ice accumulation and reduced other continental ice sheets. The release of water raised sea levels again, restoring the ingress of colder water from the Pacific with an accompanying shift to northern hemisphere ice

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Meanwhile, European scholars had begun to wonder what had caused the dispersal of erratic material. From the middle of the 18th century, some discussed ice as a means of transport. The Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas (1712–1772) was, in 1742, the first person to suggest drifting sea ice was a

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The discovery of Ice Ages is one of the most revolutionary advances made in the Earth sciences. In 1824 Danish-Norwegian geoscientist Jens Esmark published a paper stating that there was indisputable evidence that Norway and other parts of Europe had previously been covered by enormous glaciers

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Despite the difficulties, analysis of ice core and ocean sediment cores has provided a credible record of glacials and interglacials over the past few million years. These also confirm the linkage between ice ages and continental crust phenomena such as glacial moraines, drumlins, and glacial

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Starr, Aidan; Hall, Ian R.; Barker, Stephen; Rackow, Thomas; Zhang, Xu; Hemming, Sidney R.; Lubbe, H. J. L. van der; Knorr, Gregor; Berke, Melissa A.; Bigg, Grant R.; Cartagena-Sierra, Alejandra; Jiménez-Espejo, Francisco J.; Gong, Xun; Gruetzner, Jens; Lathika, Nambiyathodi; LeVay, Leah J.;

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A specially interesting climatic change during glacial times has taken place in the semi-arid Andes. Beside the expected cooling down in comparison with the current climate, a significant precipitation change happened here. So, researches in the presently semiarid subtropic Aconcagua-massif

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Putnam, Aaron E.; Denton, George H.; Schaefer, Joerg M.; Barrell, David J. A.; Andersen, Bjørn G.; Finkel, Robert C.; Schwartz, Roseanne; Doughty, Alice M.; Kaplan, Michael R.; Schlüchter, Christian (2010). "Glacier advance in southern middle-latitudes during the Antarctic Cold Reversal".

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are a major factor in the current ice age, because these mountains have increased Earth's total rainfall and therefore the rate at which carbon dioxide is washed out of the atmosphere, decreasing the greenhouse effect. The Himalayas' formation started about 70 million years ago when the

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Some of these factors influence each other. For example, changes in Earth's atmospheric composition (especially the concentrations of greenhouse gases) may alter the climate, while climate change itself can change the atmospheric composition (for example by changing the rate at which

220:(1762–1839) argued for a sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in climate as the cause of those glaciations. He attempted to show that they originated from changes in Earth's orbit. Esmark discovered the similarity between moraines near 908:

One theory is that when glaciers form, two things happen: the ice grinds rocks into dust, and the land becomes dry and arid. This allows winds to transport iron rich dust into the open ocean, where it acts as a fertilizer that causes massive algal blooms that pulls large amounts of

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Volcanic eruptions may have contributed to the inception and/or the end of ice age periods. At times during the paleoclimate, carbon dioxide levels were two or three times greater than today. Volcanoes and movements in continental plates contributed to high amounts of

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There is strong evidence that the Milankovitch cycles affect the occurrence of glacial and interglacial periods within an ice age. The present ice age is the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by

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in 2004 argues that it might be most analogous to a previous interglacial that lasted 28,000 years. Predicted changes in orbital forcing suggest that the next glacial period would begin at least 50,000 years from now. Moreover, anthropogenic forcing from increased

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Another factor is the increased aridity occurring with glacial maxima, which reduces the precipitation available to maintain glaciation. The glacial retreat induced by this or any other process can be amplified by similar inverse positive feedbacks as for glacial

751:. The maximum extent of the ice is not maintained for the full interval. The scouring action of each glaciation tends to remove most of the evidence of prior ice sheets almost completely, except in regions where the later sheet does not achieve full coverage. 1009:(the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years); changes in Earth's orbit around the 1853:

A 2015 report by the Past Global Changes Project says simulations show that a new glaciation is unlikely to happen within the next approximately 50,000 years, before the next strong drop in Northern Hemisphere summer insolation occurs "if either atmospheric

251:(1992). Jameson's remarks about ancient glaciers in Scotland were most probably prompted by Esmark. In Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi (1797–1849), a geologist and professor of forestry at an academy in Dreissigacker (since incorporated in the southern 1391:

forcing, while in the early Pleistocene the 41,000-year glacial cycles resulted from jumps between only two climate states. A dynamical model explaining this behavior was proposed by Peter Ditlevsen. This is in support of the suggestion that the late

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Walker, M.; Johnsen, S.; Rasmussen, S. O.; Popp, T.; Steffensen, J.-P.; Gibbard, P.; Hoek, W.; Lowe, J.; Andrews, J.; Bjo; Cwynar, L. C.; Hughen, K.; Kershaw, P.; Kromer, B.; Litt, T.; Lowe, D. J.; Nakagawa, T.; Newnham, R.; Schwander, J. (2009).

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During glaciation, water was taken from the oceans to form the ice at high latitudes, thus global sea level dropped by about 110 meters, exposing the continental shelves and forming land-bridges between land-masses for animals to migrate. During

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Another negative feedback mechanism is the increased aridity occurring with glacial maxima, which reduces the precipitation available to maintain glaciation. The glacial retreat induced by this or any other process can be amplified by similar

1321:, and the changing tilt of Earth's axis redistribute the sunlight received by Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of Earth's axis, which affect the intensity of seasons. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 1192:, and the Himalayas are still rising by about 5 mm per year because the Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm/year. The history of the Himalayas broadly fits the long-term decrease in Earth's average temperature since the 274:

to the idea, pointing to deep striations in the rocks and giant erratic boulders as evidence. Charpentier held the general view that these signs were caused by vast floods, and he rejected Perraudin's theory as absurd. In 1818 the engineer

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Glacials are characterized by cooler and drier climates over most of Earth and large land and sea ice masses extending outward from the poles. Mountain glaciers in otherwise unglaciated areas extend to lower elevations due to a lower

848:. Sea levels drop due to the removal of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps. There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations. The glacials and interglacials coincide with changes in 5647: 404:

erratics. Hence the continental crust phenomena are accepted as good evidence of earlier ice ages when they are found in layers created much earlier than the time range for which ice cores and ocean sediment cores are available.

1353:. Yet this is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovitch. During the period 3.0–0.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41,000-year period of changes in Earth's 949:) would have a cooling effect on northern Europe, which in turn would lead to increased low-latitude snow retention during the summer. It has also been suggested that during an extensive glacial, glaciers may move through the 1307:

are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Each cycle has a different length, so at some times their effects reinforce each other and at other times they (partially) cancel each other.

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The causes of ice ages are not fully understood for either the large-scale ice age periods or the smaller ebb and flow of glacial–interglacial periods within an ice age. The consensus is that several factors are important:

2281:"Appendix: Martel, P. (1744) An account of the glacieres or ice alps in Savoy, in two letters, one from an English gentleman to his friend at Geneva; the other from Pierre Martel, engineer, to the said English gentleman" 1526:. The use of the Nebraskan, Afton, Kansan, and Yarmouthian stages to subdivide the ice age in North America has been discontinued by Quaternary geologists and geomorphologists. These stages have all been merged into the 1212:

Analyses suggest that ocean current fluctuations can adequately account for recent glacial oscillations. During the last glacial period the sea-level fluctuated 20–30 m as water was sequestered, primarily in the

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Since today's Earth has a continent over the South Pole and an almost land-locked ocean over the North Pole, geologists believe that Earth will continue to experience glacial periods in the geologically near future.

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reduce its albedo. When the air temperature decreases, ice and snow fields grow, and they reduce forest cover. This continues until competition with a negative feedback mechanism forces the system to an equilibrium.

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retained a greenhouse climate over its timespan and was previously assumed to have been entirely glaciation-free, more recent studies suggest that brief periods of glaciation occurred in both hemispheres during the

1745:, the melted ice-water returned to the oceans, causing sea level to rise. This process can cause sudden shifts in coastlines and hydration systems resulting in newly submerged lands, emerging lands, collapsed 1278:

Ice Age. Because this highland is at a subtropical latitude, with four to five times the insolation of high-latitude areas, what would be Earth's strongest heating surface has turned into a cooling surface.

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when the spread of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere began. Since then, the world has seen cycles of glaciation with ice sheets advancing and retreating on 40,000- and 100,000-year time scales called

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effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000-year cycle) on precession (26,000-year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000- and 26,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by

5738: 1270:?). According to Kuhle, the plate-tectonic uplift of Tibet past the snow-line has led to a surface of c. 2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi) changing from bare land to ice with a 70% greater 3527:

Heckel, P.H. (2008). "Pennsylvanian cyclothems in Midcontinent North America as far-field effects of waxing and waning of Gondwana ice sheets". In Fielding, C.R.; Frank, T.D.; Isbell, J.L. (eds.).

1725:, etc., are typical features left behind by the glaciers. The weight of the ice sheets was so great that they deformed Earth's crust and mantle. After the ice sheets melted, the ice-covered land 916:

In 1956, Ewing and Donn hypothesized that an ice-free Arctic Ocean leads to increased snowfall at high latitudes. When low-temperature ice covers the Arctic Ocean there is little evaporation or

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occurred in previous glaciations, including the Andean-Saharan and the late Paleozoic ice house. The glacial cycles of the late Paleozoic ice house are likely responsible for the deposition of

5333:"Ch 53: The High-Glacial (Last Glacial Maximum) Glacier Cover of the Aconcagua Group and Adjacent Massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America) with a Closer Look at Further Empirical Evidence" 381:, its proportion decreases with warmer conditions. This allows a temperature record to be constructed. This evidence can be confounded, however, by other factors recorded by isotope ratios. 3462: 3691: 5602: 1606:

in northern Canada can be almost entirely attributed to the action of the ice. As the ice retreated and the rock dust dried, winds carried the material hundreds of miles, forming beds of

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about 3 million years ago may have ushered in the present period of strong glaciation over North America by ending the exchange of water between the tropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

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and thus reduce the absorption of solar radiation. With less radiation absorbed the atmosphere cools; the cooling allows the ice sheets to grow, which further increases reflectivity in a

270:, there was a long-held local belief that the valley had once been covered deep in ice, and in 1815 a local chamois hunter called Jean-Pierre Perraudin attempted to convert the geologist 1870:

and temperature reduction toward unperturbed values in the absence of active removal is very long , and only weak precessional forcing occurs in the next two precessional cycles." (A

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Bornemann, André; Norris, Richard D.; Friedrich, Oliver; Beckmann, Britta; Schouten, Stefan; Damsté, Jaap S. Sinninghe; Vogel, Jennifer; Hofmann, Peter; Wagner, Thomas (2008-01-11).

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It took several decades before the ice age theory was fully accepted by scientists. This happened on an international scale in the second half of the 1870s, following the work of

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of lakes, new ice dams creating vast areas of freshwater, and a general alteration in regional weather patterns on a large but temporary scale. It can even cause temporary

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Although the last glacial period ended more than 8,000 years ago, its effects can still be felt today. For example, the moving ice carved out the landscape in Canada (See

655:, otherwise the warmest period of the Phanerozoic, are disputed), ice sheets and associated sea ice appear to have briefly returned to Antarctica near the very end of the 967: 3492:

Ghienne, Jean-François (January 2003). "Late Ordovician sedimentary environments, glacial cycles, and post-glacial transgression in the Taoudeni Basin, West Africa".

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provide the initial trigger for Earth to warm after an Ice Age, with secondary factors like increases in greenhouse gases accounting for the magnitude of the change.

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were carved by ice deepening old valleys. Most of the lakes in Minnesota and Wisconsin were gouged out by glaciers and later filled with glacial meltwaters. The old

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to the glaciers, saying that they had once extended much farther. Later similar explanations were reported from other regions of the Alps. In 1815 the carpenter and

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levels in the atmosphere, mainly from volcanoes, and some supporters of Snowball Earth argue that it was caused in the first place by a reduction in atmospheric CO

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Wang, Tianyang; He, Songlin; Zhang, Qinghai; Ding, Lin; Farnsworth, Alex; Cai, Fulong; Wang, Chao; Xie, Jing; Li, Guobiao; Sheng, Jiani; Yue, Yahui (2023-05-26).

1221:(the narrow strait between Siberia and Alaska is about 50 m deep today) was reduced, resulting in increased flow from the North Atlantic. This realigned the 259:), adopted Esmark's theory. In a paper published in 1832, Bernhardi speculated about the polar ice caps once reaching as far as the temperate zones of the globe. 6220: 5883: 1955: 5185: 3280:"Glacial dropstones in the western Tethys during the late Aptian–early Albian cold snap: Palaeoclimate and palaeogeographic implications for the mid-Cretaceous" 5943: 3231: 243:

During the following years, Esmark's ideas were discussed and taken over in parts by Swedish, Scottish and German scientists. At the University of Edinburgh

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Kuhle, Matthias (June 1987). "Subtropical Mountain- and Highland-Glaciation as Ice Age Triggers and the Waning of the Glacial Periods in the Pleistocene".

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The Ice Age World: an introduction to quaternary history and research with emphasis on North America and Northern Europe during the last 2.5 million years

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University of Houston-Clear Lake - Disasters Class Notes - Chapter 12: Climate Change sce.uhcl.edu/Pitts/disastersclassnotes/chapter_12_Climate_Change.doc

1387:. Paillard suggests that the late Pleistocene glacial cycles can be seen as jumps between three quasi-stable climate states. The jumps are induced by the 1239:

of ice ages over the last 1.5 million years were associated with northward shifts of melting Antarctic icebergs which changed ocean circulation patterns,

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Raymo, Maureen E.; Ruddiman, William F.; Froelich, Philip N. (1988-07-01). "Influence of late Cenozoic mountain building on ocean geochemical cycles".

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in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide from volcanoes probably contributed to periods with highest overall temperatures. One suggested explanation of the

1384: 506:, and correlation has been made with Paleoproterozoic glacial deposits from Western Australia. The Huronian ice age was caused by the elimination of 1737:, the flow of mantle rocks which controls the rebound process is very slow—at a rate of about 1 cm/year near the center of rebound area today. 377:, both from the ice itself and from atmospheric samples provided by included bubbles of air. Because water containing lighter isotopes has a lower 3426: 126:

period is an interglacial period of an ice age. The accumulation of anthropogenic greenhouse gases is projected to delay the next glacial period.

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Guinan, E.F.; Ribas, I. (2002). "Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate".

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Rodríguez-López, Juan Pedro; Liesa, Carlos L.; Luzón, Aránzazu; Muñoz, Arsenio; Mayayo, María J.; Murton, Julian B.; Soria, Ana R. (2023-10-10).

595:. Its former name, the Karoo glaciation, was named after the glacial tills found in the Karoo region of South Africa. There were extensive polar 221: 3315: 1858:

concentration remains above 300 ppm or cumulative carbon emissions exceed 1000 Pg C" (i.e. 1,000 gigatonnes carbon). "Only for an atmospheric CO

1579:, which formed a dramatic waterfall and gorge, when the waterflow encountered a limestone escarpment. Another similar waterfall, at the present 7033: 6790: 169:(1786–1855) in 1834. Comparable explanations are also known from the Val de Ferret in the Valais and the Seeland in western Switzerland and in 4336: 2550: 2045: 1134:

which block or reduce the flow of warm water from the equator to the poles and thus allow ice sheets to form. The ice sheets increase Earth's

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cause of the presence of erratic boulders in the Scandinavian and Baltic regions. In 1795, the Scottish philosopher and gentleman naturalist,

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glacial cycles are not due to the weak 100,000-year eccentricity cycle, but a non-linear response to mainly the 41,000-year obliquity cycle.

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during the Hauterivian and Aptian. Although ice sheets largely disappeared from Earth for the rest of the period (potential reports from the

451:. However, other studies dispute this, finding evidence of occasional glaciations at high latitudes even during apparent greenhouse periods. 5513:

Turpeinen, H.; Hampel, A.; Karow, T.; Maniatis, G. (2008). "Effect of ice sheet growth and melting on the slip evolution of thrust faults".

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The next well-documented ice age, and probably the most severe of the last billion years, occurred from 720 to 630 million years ago (the

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Discovering the Ice Ages. International Reception and Consequences for a Historical Understanding of Climate (German edition: Basel 2008)

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Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von: Geologische Probleme und Versuch ihrer Auflösung, Mineralogie und Geologie in Goethes Werke, Weimar 1892,

2137: 4934: 4224: 156:. Two years later he published an account of his journey. He reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of 5757: 1757:. This type of chaotic pattern of rapidly changing land, ice, saltwater and freshwater has been proposed as the likely model for the 660: 6011: 5192:, jpg version 844 KB. Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England 3963: 1021:

resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on Earth's surface, which affect wind and

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ancient organisms which survive for several million years without change and whose temperature preferences are easily diagnosed; and

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Augustin, L; Barbante, C; Barnes, PRF; Barnola, JM; Bigler, M; Castellano, E; Cattani, O; Chappellaz, J; et al. (2004-06-10).

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Hallberg, G.R. (1986). "Pre-Wisconsin glacial stratigraphy of the Central Plains region in Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri".

4498:. Development in Quaternary Science: Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology Vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 175–199. 4255: 3027: 1456:. There appears to be no geological evidence for such eruptions at the right time, but this does not prove they did not happen. 197:(1780–1851) published his theory of a glaciation of the Scandinavian peninsula. He regarded glaciation as a regional phenomenon. 4422: 4035: 1486:, which began about 2.6 million years ago and extends into the present, is marked by warm and cold episodes, cold phases called 1360:

The "traditional" Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles.

900:, which is how much of the sun's energy is reflected rather than absorbed by Earth. Ice and snow increase Earth's albedo, while 193:(1726–1797), explained erratic boulders in the Alps by the action of glaciers. Two decades later, in 1818, the Swedish botanist 6718: 6694: 6682: 6206: 5297:"The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) glacier cover of the Aconcagua group and adjacent massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America)" 448: 80: 30:

This article is about glacial periods in general. For specific recent glacial periods often referred to as the "Ice Age", see

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Bryden, H.L.; H.R. Longworth; S.A. Cunningham (2005). "Slowing of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 25° N".

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Ice ages go through cycles of about 100,000 years, but the next one may well be avoided due to our carbon dioxide emissions.

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is defined by the presence of extensive ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres. By this definition, the current

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Kuhle, Matthias (December 1988). "The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages — An Autocycle Hypothesis".

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Rodríguez-López, Juan Pedro; Liesa, Carlos L.; Pardo, Gonzalo; Meléndez, Nieves; Soria, Ana R.; Skilling, Ian (2016-06-15).

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content below the preindustrial level may a glaciation occur within the next 10 ka. ... Given the continued anthropogenic CO

447:). Outside these ages, Earth was previously thought to have been ice-free even in high latitudes; such periods are known as 5056: 3577: 1441: 1149:

There are three main contributors from the layout of the continents that obstruct the movement of warm water to the poles:

938: 6724: 5515: 4697: 1299:

Past and future of daily average insolation at top of the atmosphere on the day of the summer solstice, at 65 N latitude

872:

is estimated to potentially outweigh the orbital forcing of the Milankovitch cycles for hundreds of thousands of years.

5794: 5724: 579:

Sediment records showing the fluctuating sequences of glacials and interglacials during the last several million years

393:

sequences of sediments covering a long period of time, over a wide range of latitudes and which are easily correlated;

6964: 5180: 5013: 4254:; Waelbroeck, Claire; Weiqing Han; Loutre, Marie-France; Lambeck, Kurt; Mitrovica, Jerry X.; Rosenbloom, Nan (2010). 3772: 2948: 2625: 2376: 135: 4890:

Paillard, D. (22 January 1998). "The timing of Pleistocene glaciations from a simple multiple-state climate model".

6954: 6657: 6330: 2872: 1408:

In the very long term, astrophysicists believe that the Sun's output increases by about 7% every one billion years.

820:

Within the current glaciation, more temperate and more severe periods have occurred. The colder periods are called

5447:

Johnston, A. (1989). "The effect of large ice sheets on earthquake genesis". In Gregersen, S.; Basham, P. (eds.).

3184: 1474:

Northern hemisphere glaciation during the last ice ages. The setup of 3 to 4 kilometer thick ice sheets caused a

17: 5550:

Hunt, A. G.; Malin, P. E. (May 1998). "Possible triggering of Heinrich events by ice-load-induced earthquakes".

4118: 2212: 6651: 5736:

Eduard Y. Osipov, Oleg M. Khlystov. Glaciers and meltwater flux to Lake Baikal during the Last Glacial Maximum.

5687: 5145:

Richmond, G.M.; Fullerton, D.S. (1986). "Summation of Quaternary glaciations in the United States of America".

4747: 4486:

2c (Quaternary Glaciation — Extent and Chronology, Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica

4236:—formation of Isthmus of Panama may have started a series of climatic changes that led to evolution of hominids 4203: 3122:"The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis" 917: 486:

are exposed 10 to 100 kilometers (6 to 62 mi) north of the north shore of Lake Huron, extending from near

284: 3264: 920:

and the polar regions are quite dry in terms of precipitation, comparable to the amount found in mid-latitude

6229: 6146: 2804: 247:(1774–1854) seemed to be relatively open to Esmark's ideas, as reviewed by Norwegian professor of glaciology 2521: 1871: 537:

produced by volcanoes. "The presence of ice on the continents and pack ice on the oceans would inhibit both

6385: 1769:

The redistribution of ice-water on the surface of Earth and the flow of mantle rocks causes changes in the

1641: 1580: 538: 5093: 5034: 4144:; Mitrovica, Jerry X.; Hostetler, Steven W. & McCabe, A. Marshall (2009). "The Last Glacial Maximum". 2103: 773:

Shows the pattern of temperature and ice volume changes associated with recent glacials and interglacials.

7048: 6748: 1925: 1686: 1502:

ended about 10,000 years ago. Earth is currently in an interglacial period of the Quaternary, called the

5474:"Induced stresses and fault potential in eastern Canada due to a realistic load: a preliminary analysis" 2938: 1262:'s geological theory of Ice Age development was suggested by the existence of an ice sheet covering the 6894: 6621: 5843: 170: 3378: 3279: 1866:

emissions, glacial inception is very unlikely to occur in the next 50 ka, because the timescale for CO

6959: 6615: 6390: 6028: 487: 5921: 5202:

Kuhle, M. (1984). "Spuren hocheiszeitlicher Gletscherbedeckung in der Aconcagua-Gruppe (32–33° S)".

4555:

Kuhle, M. (2011). "Ice Age Development Theory". In Singh, V.P.; Singh, P.; Haritashya, U.K. (eds.).

4283: 6914: 6706: 6645: 4328: 2542: 2034: 1595: 1383:

and 120,000 years. This theory is consistent with a simple empirical multi-state model proposed by

1342: 1222: 942: 549:

at present." It has been suggested that the end of this ice age was responsible for the subsequent

305:

In order to persuade the skeptics, Agassiz embarked on geological fieldwork. He published his book

43: 1618:

continues to reshape the Great Lakes and other areas formerly under the weight of the ice sheets.

177:. Such explanations could also be found in other parts of the world. When the Bavarian naturalist 6663: 6034: 3658: 3180: 607:

periods. Correlatives are known from Argentina, also in the center of the ancient supercontinent

592: 515: 440: 291: 623:. Geologic and palaeoclimatological records suggest the existence of glacial periods during the 419: 328:

There are three main types of evidence for ice ages: geological, chemical, and paleontological.

6796: 6700: 6639: 6627: 6425: 6283: 6188: 6059: 5875: 5787: 4595: 4278: 1972: 1465: 1365: 950: 913:

out of the atmosphere. This in turn makes it even colder and causes the glaciers to grow more.

413: 5332: 4489: 2911: 2280: 1952: – Circa 24,000–16,000 BCE; most recent era when ice sheets were at their greatest extent 6939: 6874: 6772: 6550: 6504: 6365: 6151: 5996: 5899: 5816: 5811: 5296: 4256:"Influence of Bering Strait flow and North Atlantic circulation on glacial sea-level changes" 1821: 1491: 1185: 727: 667: 529:

in which glacial ice sheets reached the equator, possibly being ended by the accumulation of

444: 84: 39: 5528: 6949: 6904: 6742: 6420: 6375: 6370: 5879: 5871: 5852: 5617: 5559: 5524: 5485: 5412: 5371: 5154: 5116: 4972: 4956: 4899: 4830: 4731: 4638: 4372: 4270: 4216: 4153: 4106: 4068: 4001: 3852: 3797: 3721: 3614: 3559: 3501: 3438: 3291: 3199: 3133: 3066: 2987: 2845: 2586: 2462: 2227: 2175: 1966: 1949: 1726: 1646: 1615: 1534: 1523: 1346: 1267: 1240: 683:

periods, interglacials or glacial retreats. Earth is currently in an interglacial, and the

83:

during which there are no glaciers on the planet. Earth is currently in the ice age called

71:'s surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar 5749: 3987:"High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000–800,000 years before present" 3955: 937:.) Additional fresh water flowing into the North Atlantic during a warming cycle may also 248: 8: 7038: 6899: 6688: 6599: 6171: 6105: 6086: 6082: 6053: 5961: 5887: 5848: 5838: 4251: 1916: 1848: 1538: 1499: 1322: 1304: 1214: 1014: 998: 853: 811: 794: 715: 696: 692: 644: 507: 503: 483: 378: 271: 166: 31: 5622: 5563: 5489: 5375: 5158: 5120: 4985: 4960: 4935:"Bifurcation structure and noise-assisted transitions in the Pleistocene glacial cycles" 4903: 4834: 4800: 4735: 4642: 4376: 4274: 4157: 4110: 4072: 4005: 3856: 3801: 3725: 3618: 3563: 3505: 3442: 3295: 3203: 3137: 3070: 2991: 2849: 2590: 2466: 2231: 2179: 1217:

ice sheets. When ice collected and the sea level dropped sufficiently, flow through the

1142:

loop. The ice age continues until the reduction in weathering causes an increase in the

194: 6979: 6974: 6909: 6124: 5583: 5498: 5473: 5387: 5274: 5266: 5182:

Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years v. 2007b.

4946: 4915: 4872: 4537: 4469: 4461: 4414: 4304: 4177: 4140:

Clark, Peter U.; Dyke, Arthur S.; Shakun, Jeremy D.; Carlson, Anders E.; Clark, Jorie;

4027: 3923: 3876: 3821: 3640: 3454: 3223: 3156: 3121: 3097: 3054: 3019: 2892: 2614: 2598: 2193: 2072: 1836: 1797: 1584: 1559:

This Wisconsin glaciation left widespread impacts on the North American landscape. The

856:, which are periodic changes in Earth's orbit and the tilt of Earth's rotational axis. 554: 467: 6463: 5867: 4080: 3513: 2975: 743: 334:

evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scratching,

7028: 7007: 6984: 6879: 6565: 6453: 6242: 5935: 5927: 5909: 5895: 5891: 5780: 5575: 5452: 5416: 5391: 5342: 5306: 5278: 5231: 5207: 5166: 5128: 5009: 4864: 4856: 4818: 4792: 4674: 4669: 4656: 4626: 4541: 4499: 4473: 4418: 4406: 4398: 4360: 4199: 4169: 4141: 4122: 4019: 3986: 3930: 3901: 3868: 3840: 3813: 3768: 3745: 3737: 3632: 3458: 3396: 3359: 3307: 3215: 3161: 3102: 3084: 3055:"Palaeogeographic regulation of glacial events during the Cretaceous supergreenhouse" 3023: 3011: 3003: 2944: 2917: 2836: 2676: 2639: 2621: 2490: 2451:"Jens Esmark's mountain glacier traverse 1823 − the key to his discovery of Ice Ages" 2372: 2318: 2308: 2079: 2010: 1943: 1774: 1734: 1515: 1453: 1361: 1251:

will become too warm for the icebergs to travel far enough to trigger these changes.

1206: 1143: 1139: 1131: 1130:

The geological record appears to show that ice ages start when the continents are in

975: 885: 881: 648: 3880: 3185:"Neoproterozoic 'snowball Earth' simulations with a coupled climate/ice-sheet model" 2197: 1824:

are induced and this positive feedback may explain the fast collapse of ice sheets.

1075:

from the global atmosphere to be a significant causal factor of the 40 million year

6514: 6251: 6097: 5965: 5917: 5913: 5637: 5627: 5587: 5567: 5532: 5493: 5449:

Earthquakes at North-Atlantic passive margins: Neotectonics and postglacial rebound

5379: 5258: 5162: 5124: 4964: 4919: 4907: 4876: 4846: 4838: 4784: 4739: 4664: 4646: 4529: 4453: 4388: 4380: 4296: 4288: 4181: 4161: 4114: 4076: 4031: 4009: 3860: 3825: 3805: 3729: 3644: 3622: 3567: 3509: 3446: 3386: 3349: 3299: 3227: 3207: 3151: 3141: 3092: 3074: 2995: 2884: 2875:(November 1979). "The Antarctic Ice-Sheet: Regulator of Global Climates?: Review". 2853: 2594: 2577: 2480: 2470: 2235: 2183: 2002: 1782: 1778: 1770: 1665: 1371: 1337: 1318: 1274:. The reflection of energy into space resulted in a global cooling, triggering the 1231: 1064: 1056: 620: 490:

to Sudbury, northeast of Lake Huron, with giant layers of now-lithified till beds,

463: 458:

Ice age map of northern Germany and its northern neighbours. Red: maximum limit of

362: 174: 4570: 3733: 2006: 181:(1806–1878) visited the Chilean Andes in 1849–1850, the natives attributed fossil 6853: 6822: 6754: 6736: 6494: 6473: 6395: 6380: 5957: 5949: 5905: 5742: 5691: 5336: 5300: 5226:

Kuhle, M. (1986). "Die Vergletscherung Tibets und die Entstehung von Eiszeiten".

5189: 4992: 4788: 4770:"Pacemaking the ice ages by frequency modulation of Earth's orbital eccentricity" 4743: 4493: 3303: 2748: 1817: 1801: 1746: 1690: 1653: 1603: 1549: 1416: 1263: 1060: 1026: 1018: 849: 587:

period caused a long term increase in planetary oxygen levels and reduction of CO

565: 502:, and scoured basement rocks. Correlative Huronian deposits have been found near 499: 374: 347: 335: 280: 233: 178: 157: 6198: 5064: 3544: 2750:Études sur les glaciers. Ouvrage accompagné d'un atlas de 32 planches, Neuchâtel 2136:. Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research in Germany. 2016. Archived from 1800:

within Earth. The presence of the glaciers generally suppressed the movement of

1575:

drainage system. Other rivers were dammed and diverted to new channels, such as

1533:

During the most recent North American glaciation, during the latter part of the

1029:; the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system; the impact of relatively large 6989: 6858: 6817: 6306: 6272: 6260: 6161: 6156: 6141: 6074: 5536: 4631:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4384: 3391: 3338:"Ice-rafted dropstones at midlatitudes in the Cretaceous of continental Iberia" 2239: 1960: 1931: 1902: 1625:, a portion of western and southwestern Wisconsin along with parts of adjacent 1622: 1611: 1487: 1475: 1420: 1259: 1248: 1236: 1189: 1100: 1092: 1002: 980: 953:, extending into the North Atlantic Ocean far enough to block the Gulf Stream. 930: 869: 804: 787: 760: 738: 711: 676: 561: 542: 530: 526: 511: 436: 366: 244: 229: 89: 4693: 4533: 1247:. The authors suggest that this process may be disrupted in the future as the 1205:

British Isles a temperate as opposed to a boreal climate). The closing of the

454: 27:

Period of long-term reduction in temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere

7022: 6969: 6934: 6766: 6760: 6730: 6712: 6633: 6575: 6524: 6509: 6468: 5953: 5939: 5931: 5860: 5579: 5235: 5211: 4860: 4660: 4402: 4361:"Antarctic icebergs reorganize ocean circulation during Pleistocene glacials" 4126: 3741: 3400: 3363: 3311: 3088: 3007: 2744: 2494: 2322: 1963: – Climatic cooling after the Medieval Warm Period (16th–19th centuries) 1879: 1758: 1576: 1527: 1379: 1218: 1052: 1022: 901: 733:

Ice ages can be further divided by location and time; for example, the names

700: 684: 656: 600: 295: 276: 263: 237: 5728: 5302:

Quaternary Glaciations: South America, Asia, Africa, Australasia, Antarctica

4651: 4495:

Quaternary Glaciations: South America, Asia, Africa, Australasia, Antarctica

4490:"The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and LGM) ice cover in High and Central Asia" 4165: 4059:

Ruddiman, W.F.; Kutzbach, J.E. (1991). "Plateau Uplift and Climate Change".

3864: 3146: 2999: 810:

Minimum (interglacial, black) and maximum (glacial, grey) glaciation of the

793:

Minimum (interglacial, black) and maximum (glacial, grey) glaciation of the

6919: 6884: 6405: 6400: 6297: 6292: 6166: 4868: 4796: 4678: 4410: 4247: 4173: 4023: 3872: 3817: 3749: 3636: 3425:

Bowman, Vanessa C.; Francis, Jane E.; Riding, James B. (December 1, 2013).

3219: 3165: 3106: 3015: 1805: 1777:

of Earth. These changes to the moment of inertia result in a change in the

1754: 1742: 1722: 1564: 1495: 1295: 1283: 1076: 1034: 764: 680: 608: 320:

in 1875, which provided a credible explanation for the causes of ice ages.

190: 103: 6322: 5341:. Development in Quaternary Science. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 735–8. 5305:. Development in Quaternary Science. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 75–81. 4627:"Spectrum of 100-kyr glacial cycle: orbital inclination, not eccentricity" 1427:

The long-term increase in the Sun's output cannot be a cause of ice ages.

599:

at intervals from 360 to 260 million years ago in South Africa during the

575: 478:, have been dated to around 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago during the early 6944: 6929: 6924: 6778: 6570: 6458: 6415: 6116: 5856: 5642: 5632: 4968: 3787: 2572: 2188: 2159: 1813: 1789: 1762: 1710: 1674: 1670: 1591: 1568: 1560: 1553: 1514:

The major glacial stages of the current ice age in North America are the

1393: 1350: 1275: 1104: 1079:

trend. They further claim that approximately half of their uplift (and CO

946: 636: 628: 624: 479: 459: 313: 217: 205: 140:

In 1742, Pierre Martel (1706–1767), an engineer and geographer living in

56: 35: 5270: 4842: 4465: 4393: 4014: 3809: 3627: 3602: 3079: 2976:"Isotopic Evidence for Glaciation During the Cretaceous Supergreenhouse" 2768:

Essais sur les glaciers et sur le terrain erratique du bassin du Rhône,

1647:

Last Glacial Period in the semiarid Andes around Aconcagua and Tupungato

6848: 6827: 6560: 6519: 6410: 6070: 5833: 5825: 5383: 5262: 4457: 2485: 1875: 1832: 1809: 1766:

now the North Sea, connecting the British Isles to Continental Europe.

1572: 1483: 1470: 1375: 1168: 1154: 1119: 1042: 837: 707: 671: 604: 522: 432: 267: 115: 4300: 2896: 2475: 2450: 1896: 1404:

There are at least two types of variation in the Sun's energy output:

769: 6045: 6020: 5988: 5684: 3843:(2005). "Dilution of the northern North Atlantic in recent decades". 3572: 3450: 3354: 3337: 3211: 1934: – Discredited 1970s hypothesis of imminent cooling of the Earth 1730: 1626: 1449: 1354: 1180: 1030: 845: 688: 640: 550: 491: 427:

There have been at least five major ice ages in Earth's history (the

256: 252: 72: 4851: 4719: 4292: 2857: 1571:

drainage system was radically altered and largely reshaped into the

6832: 6540: 5980: 5753: 5600: 2888: 1828: 1812:. Earthquakes triggered near the ice margin may in turn accelerate 1750: 1677:

exhibits some of the typical effects of ice age glaciation such as

1634: 1503: 1336:

While Milankovitch forcing predicts that cyclic changes in Earth's

1325: 1313: 860: 719: 652: 615: 584: 569: 475: 428: 370: 225: 145: 123: 5571: 5362:

Brüggen, J. (1929). "Zur Glazialgeologie der chilenischen Anden".

4951: 4911: 1541:. These sheets were 3 to 4 kilometres (1.9 to 2.5 mi) thick. 1374:

has suggested a model that explains the 100,000-year cycle by the

687:

ended about 11,700 years ago. All that remains of the continental

6889: 6499: 6489: 6301: 6176: 5984: 4329:"Melting icebergs key to sequence of an ice age, scientists find" 3688:"The Complicated Role of Iron in Ocean Health and Climate Change" 3277: 2513: 1997:

Ehlers, Jürgen; Gibbard, Philip (2011). "Quaternary Glaciation".

1793: 1714: 1698: 1445: 1412: 1164: 1006: 747:(70,000–10,000 years bp) refer specifically to glaciation in the 596: 358: 339: 232:. Esmark's discovery were later attributed to or appropriated by 209: 182: 161: 87:. Individual pulses of cold climate within an ice age are termed 76: 5179:

Gibbard, P.L., S. Boreham, K.M. Cohen and A. Moscariello, 2007,

2973: 2616:

The Earth in Decay. A History of British Geomorphology 1578–1878

2213:"Mais comment s'écoule donc un glacier ? Aperçu historique" 1544: 1160:

A polar sea is almost land-locked, as the Arctic Ocean is today.

200: 4819:"Obliquity pacing of the late Pleistocene glacial terminations" 2675:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 160–167. 1718: 1519: 1271: 1193: 1135: 921: 897: 829: 632: 141: 5700:"Scientists unveil 'best-preserved Ice Age animal ever found'" 4571:"Earth's orbital variations and sea ice synch glacial periods" 4245: 3335: 2620:. London: New York, American Elsevier Pub. Co. pp. 267f. 888:

which mitigates and (in all cases so far) eventually ends it.

101:), and intermittent warm periods within an ice age are called 51: 6545: 6448: 5338:

Quaternary Glaciations – Extent and Chronology: A Closer Look

5144: 3712:

Ewing, M.; Donn, W. L. (1956-06-15). "A Theory of Ice Ages".

3600: 2870: 1706: 1702: 1678: 1607: 1388: 1118:

In 2009, further evidence was provided that changes in solar

1083:"scrubbing" capacity) occurred in the past 10 million years. 670:

started about 2.58 million years ago at the beginning of the

495: 474:

Rocks from the earliest well-established ice age, called the

153: 68: 5653:

from the original on Jul 18, 2018 – via UCL Discovery.

5512: 5216:

Verhandlungsblatt des Südamerika-Symposiums 1984 in Bamberg.

5006:

The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments

6555: 5772: 5669: 4119:

10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0649:IOLCMB>2.3.CO;2

2832: 2001:. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. pp. 873–882. 1694: 1630: 1599: 1537:(26,000 to 13,300 years ago), ice sheets extended to about 748: 343: 149: 3541: 1498:

lasting 10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode of the

1103:

hypothesis maintains that the severe freezing in the late

283:

above the valley created by an ice dam as a result of the

5601:

Interglacial Working Group Of PAGES (November 20, 2015).

1459: 1010: 3379:"Ice Sheet Expansion in the Cretaceous Greenhouse World" 3053:

Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Donnadieu, Yannick (2016-09-21).

2805:"How are past temperatures determined from an ice core?" 2033:

Cohen, K .M.; Finney, S. C.; Gibbard, P. L.; Fan, J.-X.

1788:

The weight of the redistributed surface mass loaded the

1552:

development in the region of the current North American

1399: 357:

evidence mainly consists of variations in the ratios of

2134:"Human-made climate change suppresses the next ice age" 2069: 1956:

List of Ice Age species preserved as permafrost mummies

1835:, which before the Ice Age was all land drained by the 1115:. The hypothesis also warns of future Snowball Earths. 564:

occurred from 460 to 420 million years ago, during the

216:

Only a few years later, the Danish-Norwegian geologist

95:

glacials, glaciations, glacial stages, stadials, stades

4359:

Robinson, Rebecca S.; Ziegler, Martin (January 2021).

4139: 3659:"Next Ice Age Delayed By Rising Carbon Dioxide Levels" 3535: 3529:

Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in Time and Space

3178: 1494:) lasting about 100,000 years, and warm phases called 859:

Earth has been in an interglacial period known as the

710:

as beginning 2.58 Ma is based on the formation of the

5335:. In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.; Hughes, P.D. (eds.). 4357: 4096: 3838: 1992: 1990: 1975: – Chronology of the major ice ages of the Earth 1928: – Very long term changes in Earth's temperature 896:

An important form of feedback is provided by Earth's

204:

Haukalivatnet lake (50 meters above sea level) where

4198:, 2nd ed. (Amsterdam: Academic Press, 2014), 23-28. 3921:

Bennett, Matthew M.; Glasser, Neil F. (2010-03-29).

2633: 1892: 1808:, the faults experience accelerated slip triggering 67:

is a long period of reduction in the temperature of

5204:

Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie, Teil I

5008:. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. p. 85. 3424: 1946: – Huge glacier during the Pleistocene Ice Age 1820:. As more ice is removed near the ice margin, more 1689:), Greenland, northern Eurasia and Antarctica. The 945:. Such a reduction (by reducing the effects of the 647:, ice sheets may have extended as far south as the 79:. Earth's climate alternates between ice ages, and 3922: 2638:. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press. p. 15. 2613: 2071: 1987: 1874:is around 21,000 years, the time it takes for the 1509: 1452:and thus caused a large and rapid increase in the 1096:such as the movement of continents and volcanism. 718:began to form earlier, at about 34 Ma, in the mid- 6228: 5405:Andersen, Bjørn G.; Borns, Harold W. Jr. (1997). 5173: 5140: 5138: 3603:"Eight glacial cycles from an Antarctic ice core" 3494:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3284:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2913:Evaporites: sediments, resources and hydrocarbons 2743: 2636:James David Forbes. Pioneer Scottish Glaciologist 2611: 2097: 2095: 1199: 583:The evolution of land plants at the onset of the 557:, though this model is recent and controversial. 7020: 5472:Wu, Patrick; Hasegawa, Henry S. (October 1996). 4092: 4090: 4058: 2157: 1969: – Rise of land masses after glacial period 1419:, which occurred during the coldest part of the 1254: 1163:A supercontinent covers most of the equator, as 1086: 6277:Earth's surface entirely or nearly frozen over 5697: 5248: 4932: 4624: 4443: 3767:(7th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 582. 3427:"Late Cretaceous winter sea ice in Antarctica?" 3376: 3052: 1071:"scrubbers" with a capacity to remove enough CO 962:since open ocean has a lower albedo than land. 318:Climate and Time, in Their Geological Relations 6791:Withrow Moraine and Jameson Lake Drumlin Field 5725:"Overview of the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis" 5670:"Development of the glacial theory, 1800–1870" 5135: 5106: 4625:Muller, R. A.; MacDonald, G. J. (1997-08-05). 3920: 2278: 2158:Archer, David; Ganopolski, Andrey (May 2005). 2092: 2035:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart 2013" 2028: 2026: 1773:as well as changes to the distribution of the 1290: 279:joined Perraudin and Charpentier to examine a 6338: 6214: 5788: 5404: 4816: 4691: 4214: 4087: 3765:Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science 1996: 1125: 754: 5446: 4889: 3897:Earth Environments: Past, Present and Future 3894:Huddart, David; Stott, Tim A. (2013-04-16). 3893: 3254: 2943:(Fourth ed.). Oxford University Press. 2673:Tambora, the Eruption that Changed the World 2104:"Global Warming Good News: No More Ice Ages" 935:a brief ice-free Arctic Ocean period by 2050 369:cores. For the most recent glacial periods, 212:near existing glaciers in the high mountains 6785:Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area 6352: 5361: 5003: 4817:Huybers, Peter; Wunsch, Carl (2005-03-24). 2023: 1938:International Union for Quaternary Research 863:for around 11,700 years, and an article in 482:Eon. Several hundreds of kilometers of the 55:An artist's impression of ice age Earth at 6345: 6331: 6221: 6207: 5795: 5781: 5667: 5471: 5326: 5324: 5322: 5290: 5288: 4767: 2940:A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences 2573:"Jens Esmark—a pioneer in glacial geology" 2307:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. p. 47. 2290: 2267: 2210: 1940: – International science organisation 668:Quaternary Glaciation / Quaternary Ice Age 466:glacial at maximum (Drenthe stage); blue: 7044:History of climate variability and change 5747: 5722: 5641: 5631: 5621: 5603:"Interglacials Of The Last 800,000 years" 5549: 5497: 5330: 5294: 5225: 5201: 5100: 4950: 4850: 4720:"Glacial Cycles and Astronomical Forcing" 4668: 4650: 4554: 4518: 4487: 4392: 4282: 4013: 3985:Luthi, Dieter; et al. (2008-03-17). 3925:Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms 3711: 3626: 3571: 3390: 3353: 3155: 3145: 3096: 3078: 2484: 2474: 2187: 2128: 2126: 2124: 3762: 3257:""Snowball" Scenarios of the Cryogenian" 2766:, pp. 223–4. Charpentier, Jean de: 2570: 2448: 1831:sinking from the weight of ice made the 1669: 1659: 1543: 1469: 1294: 768: 574: 453: 418: 342:, valley cutting, and the deposition of 199: 50: 5750:"Carbon emissions 'will defer Ice Age'" 5451:. Dordrecht: Kluwer. pp. 581–599. 5319: 5299:. In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L. (eds.). 5285: 4492:. In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L. (eds.). 3956:"Carbon emissions 'will defer Ice Age'" 3491: 2101: 14: 7021: 6719:Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail 6683:Chippewa Moraine State Recreation Area 6256:Tropical temperatures may reach poles 6247:Hypothetical runaway greenhouse state 4717: 4557:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers 4239: 3526: 2936: 2909: 2791: 2779: 2763: 2731: 2719: 2707: 2695: 2658: 2436: 2424: 2412: 2400: 2388: 2359: 2347: 2335: 2302: 2121: 1999:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers 1460:Recent glacial and interglacial phases 1153:A continent sits on top of a pole, as 545:, which are the two major sinks for CO 423:Timeline of glaciations, shown in blue 129: 7034:Geological history of the Great Lakes 6326: 6202: 5776: 3984: 3953: 3048: 3046: 3044: 2969: 2967: 2164:and the onset of the next glaciation" 2078:. Short Hills NJ: Enslow Publishers. 1400:Variations in the Sun's energy output 1033:and volcanism including eruptions of 875: 730:is used to include this early phase. 661:Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event 290:In the meantime, the German botanist 5760:from the original on 23 October 2018 4606:from the original on 2 February 2017 4425:from the original on 4 February 2021 4339:from the original on 27 January 2021 3476: 3119: 2670: 2511: 2168:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 1444:is that undersea volcanoes released 1341:100,000 years, which corresponds to 679:, glacials or glacial advances, and 399:the finding of the relevant fossils. 361:in fossils present in sediments and 6725:Ice Age National Scientific Reserve 5516:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3966:from the original on 18 August 2012 2540: 2379:, book 73 (WA II, 9), pp. 253, 254. 1602:, and the plethora of lakes on the 1482:The current geological period, the 973:According to research published in 929:(Current projected consequences of 208:in 1823 discovered similarities to 24: 5710:from the original on 9 August 2021 5499:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1996.tb01546.x 3041: 2964: 2599:10.1111/j.1502-3885.1992.tb00016.x 2160:"A movable trigger: Fossil fuel CO 2070:Imbrie, J.; Imbrie, K. P. (1979). 1842: 1785:, and wobble of Earth's rotation. 1415:, and longer episodes such as the 1245:being pulled out of the atmosphere 1229:According to a study published in 880:Each glacial period is subject to 185:to the former action of glaciers. 25: 7060: 6713:Horicon Marsh State Wildlife Area 5678: 5478:Geophysical Journal International 5057:"PETM: Global Warming, Naturally" 5028: 4596:"Ice-Age Explanation - Sciforums" 4081:10.1038/scientificamerican0391-66 3954:Black, Richard (9 January 2012). 2051:from the original on 17 July 2013 1610:many dozens of feet thick in the 1179:Some scientists believe that the 832:. There is evidence that similar 407: 136:History of climate change science 7003: 7002: 6658:Origin of the Oak Ridges Moraine 6010: 5594: 5543: 5506: 5465: 4694:"A New Theory of Glacial Cycles" 2937:Allaby, Michael (January 2013). 1909: 1895: 1442:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 1411:Shorter-term variations such as 1001:, such as the concentrations of 884:which makes it more severe, and 803: 786: 699:and smaller glaciers such as on 635:stages of the Early Cretaceous. 525:period) and may have produced a 5440: 5398: 5355: 5242: 5219: 5195: 5078: 5049: 5022: 4997: 4926: 4883: 4810: 4761: 4750:from the original on 2020-08-01 4711: 4700:from the original on 2013-04-29 4685: 4618: 4588: 4577:from the original on 2019-02-17 4563: 4548: 4512: 4480: 4437: 4351: 4321: 4227:from the original on 2014-02-03 4208: 4188: 4133: 4052: 4041:from the original on 2019-08-28 3978: 3947: 3914: 3887: 3832: 3781: 3756: 3705: 3694:from the original on 2022-08-02 3680: 3669:from the original on 2008-03-02 3651: 3594: 3583:from the original on 2013-11-04 3520: 3485: 3465:from the original on 2023-10-26 3418: 3407:from the original on 2023-10-26 3370: 3329: 3318:from the original on 2017-09-26 3271: 3248: 3237:from the original on 2013-07-01 3172: 3113: 3030:from the original on 2023-11-25 2930: 2903: 2864: 2826: 2815:from the original on 2013-05-20 2797: 2785: 2773: 2757: 2737: 2725: 2713: 2701: 2689: 2664: 2652: 2605: 2564: 2553:from the original on 2021-04-17 2534: 2524:from the original on 2021-03-07 2512:Berg, Bjørn Ivar (2020-02-25), 2505: 2442: 2430: 2418: 2406: 2394: 2382: 2365: 2353: 2341: 2329: 2296: 2249:from the original on 2012-04-26 2110:from the original on 2020-11-12 1878:to move all the way around the 1827:In Europe, glacial erosion and 1637:, was not covered by glaciers. 1510:Glacial stages in North America 988:been so high that it will not. 412:For a chronological guide, see 316:, including the publication of 6721:, Idaho, Oregon and Washington 5698:Rina Torchinsky (9 Aug 2021). 5661: 3261:Paleos: Life through deep time 3179:Hyde WT, Crowley TJ, Baum SK, 2272: 2261: 2204: 2151: 2063: 1200:Fluctuations in ocean currents 1107:was ended by an increase in CO 943:global ocean water circulation 780:Minimum and maximum glaciation 591:levels, which resulted in the 285:1815 eruption of Mount Tambora 13: 1: 6965:Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal 6230:Greenhouse and Icehouse Earth 6147:Greenhouse and icehouse Earth 4559:. Springer. pp. 576–581. 3734:10.1126/science.123.3207.1061 3514:10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00635-1 3120:Kopp, Robert (14 June 2005). 2747:; Bettannier, Joseph (1840). 2634:Cunningham, Frank F. (1990). 2287:. London: Unwin. p. 327. 2074:Ice ages: solving the mystery 2007:10.1007/978-90-481-2642-2_423 1980: 1255:Uplift of the Tibetan plateau 1087:Changes in Earth's atmosphere 6386:Glacial history of Minnesota 5802: 5748:Black, R. (9 January 2012). 5167:10.1016/0277-3791(86)90184-8 5129:10.1016/0277-3791(86)90169-1 5092:. 2017-01-06. Archived from 4789:10.1126/science.285.5427.564 4744:10.1126/science.277.5323.215 4718:Muller, R. A. (1997-07-11). 4215:Svitil, K. A. (April 1996). 3304:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.04.004 2671:Wood, Gillen D’Arcy (2014). 2032: 1642:Glacial history of Minnesota 1581:Clark Reservation State Park 1430: 1059:and others propose that the 228:and moraines at branches of 7: 6749:Kettle Moraine State Forest 6652:Lion's Head Provincial Park 5752:. Science and Environment. 2916:. Birkhäuser. p. 289. 2571:Andersen, Bjørn G. (1992). 1926:Geologic temperature record 1888: 1687:Canadian Arctic Archipelago 1333:may explain this mismatch. 1291:Variations in Earth's orbit 956: 891: 470:glacial maximum glaciation. 323: 10: 7065: 6895:Penultimate Glacial Period 6622:Big Rock (glacial erratic) 5844:Penultimate Glacial Period 5668:Montgomery, Keith (2010). 5537:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.02.017 5147:Quaternary Science Reviews 5109:Quaternary Science Reviews 4385:10.1038/s41586-020-03094-7 3392:10.1016/j.fmre.2023.05.005 2873:Zinderen-Bakker, E. M. van 2612:Davies, Gordon L. (1969). 2283:. In Mathews, C.E. (ed.). 2240:10.1016/j.crte.2006.02.004 1846: 1663: 1639: 1463: 1317:the precession of Earth's 1126:Position of the continents 968:inverse positive feedbacks 758: 755:Glacials and interglacials 411: 133: 29: 6998: 6960:Late Glacial Interstadial 6867: 6841: 6810: 6739:, Minnesota and Wisconsin 6673: 6616:Arrowhead Provincial Park 6608: 6592: 6533: 6482: 6441: 6434: 6391:List of prehistoric lakes 6358: 6271: 6265:Global climate during an 6259: 6250: 6241: 6236: 6185: 6134: 6115: 6096: 6069: 6044: 6019: 6008: 5979: 5824: 5810: 5228:Spektrum der Wissenschaft 3900:. John Wiley & Sons. 2518:Norsk biografisk leksikon 2293:) for a full bibliography 2220:Comptes Rendus Geoscience 2211:Rémy F, Testut L (2006). 991: 970:as for glacial advances. 724:Eocene-Oligocene Boundary 6915:Holocene glacial retreat 6707:Glacial Lakes State Park 6646:Foothills Erratics Train 4933:Ditlevsen, P.D. (2009). 4768:Rial, J.A. (July 1999). 4217:"We are all Panamanians" 2910:Warren, John K. (2006). 2877:The Geographical Journal 2285:The annals of Mont Blanc 2102:Thomson, Andrea (2007). 1816:and may account for the 1598:was formed from glacial 1596:Nantucket, Massachusetts 1223:thermohaline circulation 1196:, 40 million years ago. 144:, visited the valley of 44:Ice age (disambiguation) 6955:Bølling–Allerød warming 6695:Devil's Lake State Park 6664:Ovayok Territorial Park 6353:Continental glaciations 6035:Late Paleozoic icehouse 5723:Raymo, M. (July 2011). 5529:2008E&PSL.269..230T 4652:10.1073/pnas.94.16.8329 4534:10.1023/A:1007039510460 4252:Otto-Bliesner, Bette L. 4166:10.1126/science.1172873 3865:10.1126/science.1109477 3147:10.1073/pnas.0504878102 3000:10.1126/science.1148777 2520:(in Norwegian Bokmål), 2449:Hestmark, Geir (2018). 2303:Krüger, Tobias (2013). 2279:Martel, Pierre (1898). 1091:There is evidence that 999:atmospheric composition 737:(180,000–130,000 years 593:late Paleozoic icehouse 516:Great Oxygenation Event 292:Karl Friedrich Schimper 224:lake near sea level in 6797:Yosemite National Park 6701:Glacial Lake Wisconsin 6640:Eskers Provincial Park 6628:Cypress Hills (Canada) 6426:Timeline of glaciation 6189:Timeline of glaciation 6056:(579.88 to 579.63 Mya) 4196:Climate Change Biology 3763:Garrison, Tom (2009). 1973:Timeline of glaciation 1822:intraplate earthquakes 1682: 1556: 1479: 1466:Timeline of glaciation 1366:Gordon J. F. MacDonald 1300: 951:Gulf of Saint Lawrence 774: 706:The definition of the 580: 471: 424: 414:Timeline of glaciation 213: 60: 42:. For other uses, see 6940:Quaternary glaciation 6875:Quaternary glaciation 6773:Mill Bluff State Park 6737:Interstate State Park 6551:Giant current ripples 6366:Cordilleran ice sheet 6152:Great Oxidation Event 5674:Historical Simulation 5610:Reviews of Geophysics 3255:Chris Clowes (2003). 3059:Nature Communications 1673: 1660:Effects of glaciation 1547: 1473: 1298: 1266:during the Ice Ages ( 1186:Indo-Australian Plate 979:, human emissions of 824:, the warmer periods 772: 728:Late Cenozoic Ice Age 643:indicate that in the 578: 457: 422: 203: 85:Quaternary glaciation 54: 40:Quaternary glaciation 6950:Wisconsin glaciation 6905:Last Glacial Maximum 6421:Post-glacial rebound 6376:Last Glacial Maximum 6371:Laurentide ice sheet 6037:(360 Mya to 260 Mya) 6031:(460 Mya to 430 Mya) 5853:Last Glacial Maximum 5685:Cracking the Ice Age 5633:10.1002/2015RG000482 5413:Universitetsforlaget 4969:10.1029/2008PA001673 3383:Fundamental Research 2189:10.1029/2004GC000891 1967:Post-glacial rebound 1950:Last Glacial Maximum 1616:Post-glacial rebound 1535:Last Glacial Maximum 1524:Wisconsin glaciation 1478:of about 120 m. 1347:orbital eccentricity 1268:Last Glacial Maximum 697:Antarctic ice sheets 6935:Pre-Illinoian Stage 6900:Last Glacial Period 6689:Coteau des Prairies 6600:Greenland ice sheet 6172:Milankovitch cycles 5849:Last Glacial Period 5623:2016RvGeo..54..162P 5564:1998Natur.393..155H 5490:1996GeoJI.127..215W 5376:1929GeoRu..20....1B 5159:1986QSRv....5..183R 5121:1986QSRv....5...11H 5090:National Geographic 5086:"Quaternary Period" 5061:Weather Underground 5031:"Long Term Climate" 4961:2009PalOc..24.3204D 4904:1998Natur.391..378P 4843:10.1038/nature03401 4835:2005Natur.434..491H 4736:1997Sci...277..215M 4692:Richard A. Muller. 4643:1997PNAS...94.8329M 4602:. 28 January 2017. 4377:2021Natur.589..236S 4275:2010NatGe...3..118H 4158:2009Sci...325..710C 4111:1988Geo....16..649R 4073:1991SciAm.264c..66R 4061:Scientific American 4015:10.1038/nature06949 4006:2008Natur.453..379L 3857:2005Sci...308.1772C 3851:(5729): 1772–1774. 3810:10.1038/nature04385 3802:2005Natur.438..655B 3726:1956Sci...123.1061E 3720:(3207): 1061–1066. 3628:10.1038/nature02599 3619:2004Natur.429..623A 3564:2009JQS....24....3W 3531:. pp. 275–290. 3506:2003PPP...189..117G 3443:2013Geo....41.1227B 3296:2016PPP...452...11R 3204:2000Natur.405..425H 3138:2005PNAS..10211131K 3080:10.1038/ncomms12771 3071:2016NatCo...712771L 2992:2008Sci...319..189B 2850:2010NatGe...3..700P 2809:Scientific American 2591:1992Borea..21...97A 2541:Hverven, Tom Egil. 2467:2018Borea..47....1H 2232:2006CRGeo.338..368R 2180:2005GGG.....6.5003A 1917:Paleontology portal 1849:Next glacial period 1771:gravitational field 1539:45th parallel north 1500:Last Glacial Period 1305:Milankovitch cycles 1282:Kuhle explains the 1215:Northern Hemisphere 1015:Milankovitch cycles 854:Milankovitch cycles 812:southern hemisphere 795:northern hemisphere 716:Antarctic ice sheet 685:last glacial period 645:Northern Hemisphere 539:silicate weathering 508:atmospheric methane 504:Marquette, Michigan 484:Huronian Supergroup 379:heat of evaporation 272:Jean de Charpentier 167:Jean de Charpentier 130:History of research 97:, or colloquially, 32:Last Glacial Period 7049:History of science 6980:4.2 kiloyear event 6975:8.2 kiloyear event 6910:Mousterian Pluvial 6642:, British Columbia 6085:(717 to 660 Mya); 6062:(547 to 541.5 Mya) 5741:2016-03-12 at the 5690:2017-09-04 at the 5384:10.1007/BF01805072 5331:Kuhle, M. (2011). 5295:Kuhle, M. (2004). 5263:10.1007/BF02602717 5206:. 11/12: 1635–46. 5188:2008-09-10 at the 5096:on March 20, 2017. 4991:2011-09-27 at the 4696:. Muller.lbl.gov. 4488:Kuhle, M. (2004). 4458:10.1007/BF00209444 4142:Wohlfarth, Barbara 2362:, pp. 83, 151 1872:precessional cycle 1729:. Due to the high 1683: 1585:Syracuse, New York 1557: 1492:Quaternary ice age 1480: 1476:sea level lowering 1329:mechanisms like CO 1301: 1287:inland ice areas. 1241:leading to more CO 1188:collided with the 981:carbon dioxide (CO 876:Feedback processes 852:of climate due to 775: 659:just prior to the 581: 555:Cambrian explosion 472: 449:greenhouse periods 445:Quaternary Ice Age 425: 266:, a valley in the 214: 81:greenhouse periods 61: 7016: 7015: 6985:Piora Oscillation 6945:Sangamonian Stage 6806: 6805: 6588: 6587: 6584: 6583: 6320: 6319: 6315: 6314: 6196: 6195: 6127:(2.9 to 2.78 Gya) 6006: 6005: 5558:(6681): 155–158. 5458:978-0-7923-0150-9 5422:978-82-00-37683-5 5348:978-0-444-53447-7 5312:978-0-444-51593-3 4898:(6665): 378–381. 4829:(7032): 491–494. 4730:(5323): 215–218. 4637:(16): 8329–8334. 4600:www.sciforums.com 4505:978-0-444-51593-3 4371:(7841): 236–241. 4263:Nature Geoscience 4152:(5941): 710–714. 4000:(7193): 379–382. 3936:978-0-470-51690-4 3907:978-1-118-68812-0 3796:(7068): 655–657. 3552:J. Quaternary Sci 3437:(12): 1227–1230. 2986:(5860): 189–192. 2923:978-3-540-26011-0 2837:Nature Geoscience 2794:, pp. 458–60 2782:, pp. 181–84 2734:, pp. 177–78 2710:, pp. 167–70 2698:, pp. 155–59 2682:978-0-691-16862-3 2661:, pp. 142–47 2645:978-0-7073-0320-8 2476:10.1111/bor.12260 2314:978-90-04-24169-5 2085:978-0-89490-015-0 2016:978-90-481-2641-5 1944:Irish Sea Glacier 1796:and also induced 1775:moment of inertia 1454:greenhouse effect 1362:Richard A. Muller 1207:Isthmus of Panama 1144:greenhouse effect 1140:positive feedback 1065:Colorado Plateaus 976:Nature Geoscience 886:negative feedback 882:positive feedback 672:Quaternary Period 649:Iberian Peninsula 462:glacial; yellow: 443:, and the latest 363:sedimentary rocks 307:Study on Glaciers 249:Bjørn G. Andersen 16:(Redirected from 7056: 7006: 7005: 6606: 6605: 6531: 6530: 6515:Terminal moraine 6439: 6438: 6347: 6340: 6333: 6324: 6323: 6252:Greenhouse Earth 6239: 6238: 6223: 6216: 6209: 6200: 6199: 6108:(2.4 to 2.1 Gya) 6098:Paleoproterozoic 6089:(650 to 635 Mya) 6014: 5822: 5821: 5797: 5790: 5783: 5774: 5773: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5732: 5727:. Archived from 5719: 5717: 5715: 5673: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5645: 5635: 5625: 5607: 5598: 5592: 5591: 5547: 5541: 5540: 5523:(1–2): 230–241. 5510: 5504: 5503: 5501: 5469: 5463: 5462: 5444: 5438: 5437: 5435: 5434: 5425:. Archived from 5402: 5396: 5395: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5328: 5317: 5316: 5292: 5283: 5282: 5246: 5240: 5239: 5223: 5217: 5215: 5199: 5193: 5177: 5171: 5170: 5142: 5133: 5132: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5082: 5076: 5075: 5073: 5072: 5063:. Archived from 5053: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5042: 5033:. Archived from 5026: 5020: 5019: 5001: 4995: 4983: 4981: 4980: 4971:. Archived from 4954: 4939:Paleoceanography 4930: 4924: 4923: 4887: 4881: 4880: 4854: 4814: 4808: 4807: 4805: 4799:. Archived from 4774: 4765: 4759: 4758: 4756: 4755: 4715: 4709: 4708: 4706: 4705: 4689: 4683: 4682: 4672: 4654: 4622: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4583: 4582: 4567: 4561: 4560: 4552: 4546: 4545: 4516: 4510: 4509: 4484: 4478: 4477: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4432: 4430: 4396: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4315: 4309: 4303:. Archived from 4286: 4260: 4248:Meehl, Gerald A. 4243: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4232: 4212: 4206: 4192: 4186: 4185: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4094: 4085: 4084: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4047: 4046: 4040: 4017: 3991: 3982: 3976: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3951: 3945: 3944: 3928: 3918: 3912: 3911: 3891: 3885: 3884: 3836: 3830: 3829: 3785: 3779: 3778: 3760: 3754: 3753: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3700: 3699: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3674: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3630: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3589: 3588: 3582: 3575: 3573:10.1002/jqs.1227 3549: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3500:(3–4): 117–145. 3489: 3483: 3480: 3474: 3473: 3471: 3470: 3451:10.1130/g34891.1 3422: 3416: 3415: 3413: 3412: 3394: 3374: 3368: 3367: 3357: 3355:10.1130/g51725.1 3333: 3327: 3326: 3324: 3323: 3275: 3269: 3268: 3267:on 15 June 2009. 3263:. Archived from 3252: 3246: 3245: 3243: 3242: 3236: 3212:10.1038/35013005 3189: 3176: 3170: 3169: 3159: 3149: 3117: 3111: 3110: 3100: 3082: 3050: 3039: 3038: 3036: 3035: 2971: 2962: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2934: 2928: 2927: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2871:Lockwood, J.G.; 2868: 2862: 2861: 2830: 2824: 2823: 2821: 2820: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2741: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2686: 2668: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2649: 2631: 2619: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2568: 2562: 2561: 2559: 2558: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2530: 2529: 2509: 2503: 2502: 2488: 2478: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2428: 2427:, pp. 88–90 2422: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2398: 2392: 2386: 2380: 2369: 2363: 2357: 2351: 2345: 2339: 2338:, pp. 78–83 2333: 2327: 2326: 2300: 2294: 2288: 2276: 2270: 2265: 2259: 2257: 2255: 2254: 2248: 2217: 2208: 2202: 2201: 2191: 2155: 2149: 2148: 2146: 2145: 2130: 2119: 2118: 2116: 2115: 2099: 2090: 2089: 2077: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2050: 2042:stratigraphy.org 2039: 2030: 2021: 2020: 1994: 1919: 1914: 1913: 1912: 1905: 1900: 1899: 1779:angular velocity 1691:erratic boulders 1666:Glacial landform 1372:William Ruddiman 1338:orbital elements 1323:65 degrees north 1077:Cenozoic Cooling 1057:William Ruddiman 1025:; variations in 1017:; the motion of 870:greenhouse gases 807: 790: 621:Early Cretaceous 531:greenhouse gases 488:Sault Ste. Marie 373:provide climate 348:glacial erratics 346:or tillites and 336:glacial moraines 195:Göran Wahlenberg 158:erratic boulders 21: 7064: 7063: 7059: 7058: 7057: 7055: 7054: 7053: 7019: 7018: 7017: 7012: 6994: 6880:Illinoian Stage 6863: 6854:Lambert Glacier 6837: 6823:Killary Harbour 6802: 6755:Lake Bonneville 6675: 6669: 6604: 6580: 6529: 6478: 6474:U-shaped valley 6464:Roche moutonnée 6430: 6396:Proglacial lake 6381:Canadian Shield 6354: 6351: 6321: 6316: 6275: 6263: 6254: 6245: 6232: 6227: 6197: 6192: 6181: 6130: 6111: 6092: 6065: 6040: 6015: 6002: 5999:(34 to 2.5 Mya) 5987: 5983: 5975: 5815: 5806: 5801: 5763: 5761: 5743:Wayback Machine 5713: 5711: 5692:Wayback Machine 5681: 5664: 5659: 5658: 5650: 5605: 5599: 5595: 5548: 5544: 5511: 5507: 5470: 5466: 5459: 5445: 5441: 5432: 5430: 5423: 5403: 5399: 5360: 5356: 5349: 5329: 5320: 5313: 5293: 5286: 5247: 5243: 5230:(9/86): 42–54. 5224: 5220: 5200: 5196: 5190:Wayback Machine 5178: 5174: 5143: 5136: 5105: 5101: 5084: 5083: 5079: 5070: 5068: 5055: 5054: 5050: 5040: 5038: 5029:Rieke, George. 5027: 5023: 5016: 5002: 4998: 4993:Wayback Machine 4978: 4976: 4931: 4927: 4888: 4884: 4815: 4811: 4803: 4783:(5427): 564–8. 4772: 4766: 4762: 4753: 4751: 4716: 4712: 4703: 4701: 4690: 4686: 4623: 4619: 4609: 4607: 4594: 4593: 4589: 4580: 4578: 4569: 4568: 4564: 4553: 4549: 4517: 4513: 4506: 4485: 4481: 4442: 4438: 4428: 4426: 4356: 4352: 4342: 4340: 4327: 4326: 4322: 4313: 4311: 4307: 4293:10.1038/ngeo729 4284:10.1.1.391.8727 4258: 4244: 4240: 4230: 4228: 4213: 4209: 4193: 4189: 4138: 4134: 4095: 4088: 4057: 4053: 4044: 4042: 4038: 3989: 3983: 3979: 3969: 3967: 3952: 3948: 3937: 3919: 3915: 3908: 3892: 3888: 3837: 3833: 3786: 3782: 3775: 3761: 3757: 3710: 3706: 3697: 3695: 3686: 3685: 3681: 3672: 3670: 3657: 3656: 3652: 3613:(6992): 623–8. 3599: 3595: 3586: 3584: 3580: 3547: 3540: 3536: 3525: 3521: 3490: 3486: 3481: 3477: 3468: 3466: 3423: 3419: 3410: 3408: 3375: 3371: 3334: 3330: 3321: 3319: 3276: 3272: 3253: 3249: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3198:(6785): 425–9. 3187: 3177: 3173: 3132:(32): 11131–6. 3118: 3114: 3051: 3042: 3033: 3031: 2972: 2965: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2935: 2931: 2924: 2908: 2904: 2869: 2865: 2858:10.1038/ngeo962 2844:(10): 700–704. 2831: 2827: 2818: 2816: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2790: 2786: 2778: 2774: 2762: 2758: 2742: 2738: 2730: 2726: 2718: 2714: 2706: 2702: 2694: 2690: 2683: 2669: 2665: 2657: 2653: 2646: 2632: 2628: 2610: 2606: 2569: 2565: 2556: 2554: 2539: 2535: 2527: 2525: 2510: 2506: 2447: 2443: 2439:, pp. 91–6 2435: 2431: 2423: 2419: 2415:, pp. 61–2 2411: 2407: 2399: 2395: 2387: 2383: 2370: 2366: 2358: 2354: 2346: 2342: 2334: 2330: 2315: 2301: 2297: 2291:Montgomery 2010 2277: 2273: 2268:Montgomery 2010 2266: 2262: 2252: 2250: 2246: 2215: 2209: 2205: 2163: 2156: 2152: 2143: 2141: 2132: 2131: 2122: 2113: 2111: 2106:. LiveScience. 2100: 2093: 2086: 2068: 2064: 2054: 2052: 2048: 2037: 2031: 2024: 2017: 1995: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1915: 1910: 1908: 1901: 1894: 1891: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1851: 1845: 1843:Future ice ages 1818:Heinrich events 1792:, caused it to 1668: 1662: 1649: 1644: 1612:Missouri Valley 1604:Canadian Shield 1550:proglacial lake 1512: 1468: 1462: 1439: 1433: 1417:Maunder Minimum 1402: 1385:Didier Paillard 1332: 1293: 1264:Tibetan Plateau 1257: 1244: 1237:glacial periods 1202: 1167:did during the 1128: 1114: 1110: 1089: 1082: 1074: 1070: 1048: 1019:tectonic plates 994: 984: 959: 912: 894: 878: 850:orbital forcing 822:glacial periods 818: 817: 816: 815: 814: 808: 799: 798: 797: 791: 782: 781: 767: 757: 677:glacial periods 590: 566:Late Ordovician 548: 536: 417: 410: 386:paleontological 326: 281:proglacial lake 234:Theodor Kjerulf 179:Ernst von Bibra 175:scientific work 138: 132: 90:glacial periods 59:glacial maximum 47: 28: 23: 22: 18:Glacial maximum 15: 12: 11: 5: 7062: 7052: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7014: 7013: 7011: 7010: 6999: 6996: 6995: 6993: 6992: 6990:Little Ice Age 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6871: 6869: 6865: 6864: 6862: 6861: 6859:Ross Ice Shelf 6856: 6851: 6845: 6843: 6839: 6838: 6836: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6818:Hardangerfjord 6814: 6812: 6808: 6807: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6800: 6794: 6788: 6782: 6776: 6770: 6764: 6758: 6752: 6746: 6743:Kelleys Island 6740: 6734: 6728: 6722: 6716: 6710: 6704: 6698: 6692: 6691:, South Dakota 6686: 6679: 6677: 6671: 6670: 6668: 6667: 6661: 6655: 6649: 6643: 6637: 6631: 6630:, Saskatchewan 6625: 6619: 6612: 6610: 6603: 6602: 6596: 6594: 6590: 6589: 6586: 6585: 6582: 6581: 6579: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6537: 6535: 6528: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6486: 6484: 6480: 6479: 6477: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6454:Glacial striae 6451: 6445: 6443: 6436: 6432: 6431: 6429: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6362: 6360: 6356: 6355: 6350: 6349: 6342: 6335: 6327: 6318: 6317: 6313: 6312: 6309: 6304: 6295: 6290: 6287: 6280: 6279: 6273:Snowball Earth 6270: 6261:Icehouse Earth 6258: 6249: 6243:Hothouse Earth 6237: 6234: 6233: 6226: 6225: 6218: 6211: 6203: 6194: 6193: 6186: 6183: 6182: 6180: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6162:Snowball Earth 6159: 6157:Little Ice Age 6154: 6149: 6144: 6142:Glacial period 6138: 6136: 6135:Related topics 6132: 6131: 6129: 6128: 6121: 6119: 6113: 6112: 6110: 6109: 6102: 6100: 6094: 6093: 6091: 6090: 6079: 6077: 6075:Snowball Earth 6067: 6066: 6064: 6063: 6057: 6050: 6048: 6042: 6041: 6039: 6038: 6032: 6029:Andean-Saharan 6025: 6023: 6017: 6016: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6003: 6001: 6000: 5993: 5991: 5977: 5976: 5974: 5973: 5972:(2.5 to 0 Mya) 5946: 5924: 5902: 5864: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5830: 5828: 5819: 5808: 5807: 5800: 5799: 5792: 5785: 5777: 5771: 5770: 5745: 5733: 5731:on 2008-10-22. 5720: 5695: 5680: 5679:External links 5677: 5676: 5675: 5663: 5660: 5657: 5656: 5616:(1): 162–219. 5593: 5542: 5505: 5484:(1): 215–229. 5464: 5457: 5439: 5421: 5397: 5354: 5347: 5318: 5311: 5284: 5257:(4): 393–421. 5241: 5218: 5194: 5172: 5134: 5099: 5077: 5048: 5037:on 2 June 2015 5021: 5014: 4996: 4925: 4882: 4809: 4806:on 2008-10-15. 4760: 4710: 4684: 4617: 4587: 4562: 4547: 4528:(1–2): 3–276. 4511: 4504: 4479: 4452:(4): 581–595. 4436: 4350: 4320: 4269:(2): 118–121. 4238: 4207: 4187: 4132: 4105:(7): 649–653. 4086: 4051: 3977: 3946: 3935: 3913: 3906: 3886: 3831: 3780: 3773: 3755: 3704: 3679: 3650: 3593: 3534: 3519: 3484: 3475: 3417: 3369: 3328: 3270: 3247: 3171: 3112: 3040: 2963: 2949: 2929: 2922: 2902: 2889:10.2307/633219 2883:(3): 469–471. 2863: 2825: 2811:. 2004-09-20. 2796: 2784: 2772: 2770:Lausanne 1841. 2756: 2745:Agassiz, Louis 2736: 2724: 2712: 2700: 2688: 2681: 2663: 2651: 2644: 2626: 2604: 2563: 2533: 2504: 2441: 2429: 2417: 2405: 2393: 2381: 2364: 2352: 2340: 2328: 2313: 2295: 2271: 2260: 2226:(5): 368–385. 2203: 2161: 2150: 2120: 2091: 2084: 2062: 2022: 2015: 1985: 1984: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1961:Little Ice Age 1958: 1953: 1947: 1941: 1935: 1932:Global cooling 1929: 1922: 1921: 1920: 1906: 1903:Geology portal 1890: 1887: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1847:Main article: 1844: 1841: 1837:Eridanos River 1804:below. During 1735:Earth's mantle 1661: 1658: 1648: 1645: 1623:Driftless Area 1590:The area from 1587:, is now dry. 1530:in the 1980s. 1511: 1508: 1464:Main article: 1461: 1458: 1437: 1432: 1429: 1425: 1424: 1421:Little Ice Age 1413:sunspot cycles 1409: 1401: 1398: 1330: 1292: 1289: 1260:Matthias Kuhle 1256: 1253: 1249:Southern Ocean 1242: 1226:accumulation. 1201: 1198: 1190:Eurasian Plate 1173: 1172: 1161: 1158: 1127: 1124: 1112: 1108: 1101:Snowball Earth 1093:greenhouse gas 1088: 1085: 1080: 1072: 1068: 1067:are immense CO 1046: 1035:supervolcanoes 1023:ocean currents 1003:carbon dioxide 993: 990: 982: 958: 955: 931:global warming 910: 893: 890: 877: 874: 834:glacial cycles 828:, such as the 809: 802: 801: 800: 792: 785: 784: 783: 779: 778: 777: 776: 761:Glacial period 756: 753: 712:Arctic ice cap 588: 562:Andean-Saharan 546: 543:photosynthesis 534: 527:Snowball Earth 512:greenhouse gas 441:late Paleozoic 437:Andean-Saharan 409: 408:Major ice ages 406: 401: 400: 397: 394: 367:ocean sediment 325: 322: 245:Robert Jameson 230:Jostedalsbreen 131: 128: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7061: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7026: 7024: 7009: 7001: 7000: 6997: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6970:Younger Dryas 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6872: 6870: 6866: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6846: 6844: 6840: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6815: 6813: 6809: 6798: 6795: 6792: 6789: 6786: 6783: 6780: 6777: 6774: 6771: 6768: 6767:Lake Missoula 6765: 6762: 6761:Lake Lahontan 6759: 6756: 6753: 6750: 6747: 6744: 6741: 6738: 6735: 6732: 6731:Ice Age Trail 6729: 6726: 6723: 6720: 6717: 6714: 6711: 6708: 6705: 6702: 6699: 6696: 6693: 6690: 6687: 6684: 6681: 6680: 6678: 6672: 6665: 6662: 6659: 6656: 6653: 6650: 6647: 6644: 6641: 6638: 6635: 6634:Eramosa River 6632: 6629: 6626: 6623: 6620: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6611: 6607: 6601: 6598: 6597: 6595: 6593:North America 6591: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6538: 6536: 6532: 6526: 6525:Veiki moraine 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6510:Rogen moraine 6508: 6506: 6505:Pulju moraine 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6495:Erratic block 6493: 6491: 6488: 6487: 6485: 6481: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6469:Tunnel valley 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6446: 6444: 6440: 6437: 6433: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6361: 6357: 6348: 6343: 6341: 6336: 6334: 6329: 6328: 6325: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6299: 6298:Interstadials 6296: 6294: 6293:Interglacials 6291: 6288: 6285: 6284:Uninhabitably 6282: 6281: 6278: 6274: 6269: 6268: 6262: 6257: 6253: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6235: 6231: 6224: 6219: 6217: 6212: 6210: 6205: 6204: 6201: 6191: 6190: 6184: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6139: 6137: 6133: 6126: 6123: 6122: 6120: 6118: 6114: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6101: 6099: 6095: 6088: 6084: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6061: 6058: 6055: 6052: 6051: 6049: 6047: 6043: 6036: 6033: 6030: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6022: 6018: 6013: 5998: 5995: 5994: 5992: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5954:Pre-Illinoian 5951: 5947: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5932:Pre-Illinoian 5929: 5925: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5862: 5861:Younger Dryas 5858: 5854: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5831: 5829: 5827: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5817:Late Cenozoic 5813: 5809: 5805: 5798: 5793: 5791: 5786: 5784: 5779: 5778: 5775: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5746: 5744: 5740: 5737: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5721: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5696: 5693: 5689: 5686: 5683: 5682: 5671: 5666: 5665: 5649: 5644: 5643:2078.1/175429 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5604: 5597: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5572:10.1038/30218 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5546: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5517: 5509: 5500: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5468: 5460: 5454: 5450: 5443: 5429:on 2013-01-12 5428: 5424: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5409: 5401: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5364:Geol. Rundsch 5358: 5350: 5344: 5340: 5339: 5334: 5327: 5325: 5323: 5314: 5308: 5304: 5303: 5298: 5291: 5289: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5245: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5222: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5198: 5191: 5187: 5184: 5183: 5176: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5141: 5139: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5103: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5081: 5067:on 2016-12-02 5066: 5062: 5058: 5052: 5036: 5032: 5025: 5017: 5015:1-58381-109-5 5011: 5007: 5000: 4994: 4990: 4987: 4975:on 2012-11-01 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4945:(3): PA3204. 4944: 4940: 4936: 4929: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4912:10.1038/34891 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4886: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4813: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4771: 4764: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4714: 4699: 4695: 4688: 4680: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4621: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4591: 4576: 4572: 4566: 4558: 4551: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4515: 4507: 4501: 4497: 4496: 4491: 4483: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4440: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4354: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4324: 4310:on 2017-08-11 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4242: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4211: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4191: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4136: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4093: 4091: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4055: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3981: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3950: 3943: 3938: 3932: 3927: 3926: 3917: 3909: 3903: 3899: 3898: 3890: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3784: 3776: 3774:9780495391937 3770: 3766: 3759: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3693: 3689: 3683: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3654: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3546: 3538: 3530: 3523: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3488: 3479: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3421: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3393: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3373: 3365: 3361: 3356: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3332: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3251: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3186: 3182: 3175: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3116: 3108: 3104: 3099: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2970: 2968: 2952: 2950:9780199653065 2946: 2942: 2941: 2933: 2925: 2919: 2915: 2914: 2906: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2867: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2838: 2829: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2800: 2793: 2788: 2781: 2776: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2753:. H. Nicolet. 2752: 2751: 2746: 2740: 2733: 2728: 2722:, p. 173 2721: 2716: 2709: 2704: 2697: 2692: 2684: 2678: 2674: 2667: 2660: 2655: 2647: 2641: 2637: 2629: 2627:9780444197016 2623: 2618: 2617: 2608: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2585:(1): 97–102. 2584: 2580: 2579: 2574: 2567: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2537: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2514:"Jens Esmark" 2508: 2501: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2445: 2438: 2433: 2426: 2421: 2414: 2409: 2402: 2397: 2390: 2385: 2378: 2377:3-423-05946-X 2374: 2368: 2361: 2356: 2350:, p. 150 2349: 2344: 2337: 2332: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2310: 2306: 2299: 2292: 2286: 2282: 2275: 2269: 2264: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2222:(in French). 2221: 2214: 2207: 2199: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2154: 2140:on 2020-08-18 2139: 2135: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2109: 2105: 2098: 2096: 2087: 2081: 2076: 2075: 2066: 2047: 2043: 2036: 2029: 2027: 2018: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1993: 1991: 1986: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1957: 1954: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1936: 1933: 1930: 1927: 1924: 1923: 1918: 1907: 1904: 1898: 1893: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1880:tropical year 1877: 1873: 1850: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1786: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1749:resulting in 1748: 1744: 1738: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1667: 1657: 1655: 1643: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1619: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1577:Niagara Falls 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1555: 1551: 1546: 1542: 1540: 1536: 1531: 1529: 1528:Pre-Illinoian 1525: 1521: 1517: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1496:interglacials 1493: 1489: 1485: 1477: 1472: 1467: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1428: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1407: 1406: 1405: 1397: 1395: 1390: 1386: 1381: 1380:Peter Huybers 1377: 1373: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1327: 1324: 1320: 1315: 1309: 1306: 1297: 1288: 1285: 1280: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1252: 1250: 1246: 1238: 1235:in 2021, all 1234: 1233: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1219:Bering Strait 1216: 1210: 1208: 1197: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1159: 1156: 1152: 1151: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1123: 1121: 1116: 1106: 1102: 1097: 1094: 1084: 1078: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1053:Maureen Raymo 1050: 1044: 1038: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 989: 986: 978: 977: 971: 969: 963: 954: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 927: 923: 919: 914: 906: 903: 899: 889: 887: 883: 873: 871: 866: 862: 857: 855: 851: 847: 841: 839: 835: 831: 827: 826:interglacials 823: 813: 806: 796: 789: 771: 766: 762: 752: 750: 749:Alpine region 746: 745: 740: 736: 731: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 704: 702: 701:Baffin Island 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 673: 669: 664: 662: 658: 657:Maastrichtian 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 617: 614:Although the 612: 610: 606: 605:early Permian 602: 601:Carboniferous 598: 594: 586: 577: 573: 571: 567: 563: 558: 556: 552: 544: 540: 532: 528: 524: 519: 517: 514:, during the 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 469: 465: 461: 456: 452: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 421: 415: 405: 398: 395: 392: 391: 390: 387: 382: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 351: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 321: 319: 315: 310: 308: 303: 301: 297: 296:Louis Agassiz 293: 288: 286: 282: 278: 277:Ignatz Venetz 273: 269: 265: 264:Val de Bagnes 260: 258: 254: 250: 246: 241: 239: 238:Louis Agassiz 235: 231: 227: 223: 222:Haukalivatnet 219: 211: 207: 202: 198: 196: 192: 186: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 137: 127: 125: 121: 117: 112: 110: 109:interstadials 106: 105: 104:interglacials 100: 96: 92: 91: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 58: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 6920:Oldest Dryas 6890:Interstadial 6885:Interglacial 6868:Time periods 6799:, California 6793:, Washington 6534:Glacifluvial 6483:Depositional 6406:Lake Chicago 6401:Lake Agassiz 6311:Cold period 6289:Warm period 6276: 6266: 6264: 6255: 6246: 6187: 6167:Interglacial 5803: 5762:. 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Retrieved 2547:Klassekampen 2546: 2543:"Isens spor" 2536: 2526:, retrieved 2517: 2507: 2498: 2458: 2454: 2444: 2432: 2420: 2408: 2403:, p. 38 2396: 2391:, p. 83 2384: 2367: 2355: 2343: 2331: 2304: 2298: 2284: 2274: 2263: 2258:Note: p. 374 2251:. Retrieved 2223: 2219: 2206: 2171: 2167: 2153: 2142:. Retrieved 2138:the original 2112:. Retrieved 2073: 2065: 2053:. Retrieved 2041: 1998: 1884: 1852: 1826: 1806:deglaciation 1787: 1768: 1763:Scandinavian 1755:reglaciation 1743:deglaciation 1739: 1711:kettle lakes 1684: 1650: 1620: 1589: 1565:Finger Lakes 1558: 1532: 1513: 1481: 1434: 1426: 1403: 1370: 1359: 1349:and orbital 1335: 1310: 1302: 1284:interglacial 1281: 1258: 1230: 1228: 1211: 1203: 1178: 1174: 1148: 1136:reflectivity 1129: 1117: 1098: 1090: 1051: 1039: 1027:solar output 995: 974: 972: 964: 960: 925: 915: 907: 895: 879: 864: 858: 842: 833: 830:Eemian Stage 825: 821: 819: 765:Interglacial 742: 734: 732: 726:). The term 705: 681:interglacial 665: 616:Mesozoic Era 613: 609:Gondwanaland 582: 559: 520: 473: 426: 402: 385: 383: 354: 352: 331: 330: 327: 317: 311: 306: 304: 299: 289: 261: 242: 215: 191:James Hutton 187: 139: 119: 113: 108: 102: 98: 94: 88: 64: 62: 48: 6930:Pleistocene 6925:Older Dryas 6787:, Wisconsin 6779:Oneida Lake 6775:, Wisconsin 6751:, Wisconsin 6733:, Wisconsin 6727:, Wisconsin 6715:, Wisconsin 6709:, Minnesota 6703:, Wisconsin 6697:, Wisconsin 6685:, Wisconsin 6571:Outwash fan 6566:Kettle hole 6459:Ribbon lake 6416:Teays River 6117:Mesoarchean 6060:Baykonurian 5922:Santa María 5876:Weichselian 5704:AccuWeather 5662:Works cited 5370:(1): 1–35. 5153:: 183–196. 4429:12 February 4343:12 February 4246:Hu, Aixue; 3839:Curry, R.; 3558:(1): 3–17. 2792:Krüger 2013 2780:Krüger 2013 2764:Krüger 2013 2732:Krüger 2013 2720:Krüger 2013 2708:Krüger 2013 2696:Krüger 2013 2659:Krüger 2013 2486:10852/67376 2461:(1): 1–10. 2437:Krüger 2013 2425:Krüger 2013 2413:Krüger 2013 2401:Krüger 2013 2389:Krüger 2013 2360:Krüger 2013 2348:Krüger 2013 2336:Krüger 2013 1814:ice calving 1810:earthquakes 1790:lithosphere 1675:Scandinavia 1592:Long Island 1569:Teays River 1561:Great Lakes 1554:Great Lakes 1394:Pleistocene 1351:inclination 1345:in Earth's 1276:Pleistocene 1157:does today. 1105:Proterozoic 947:Gulf Stream 918:sublimation 629:Hauterivian 625:Valanginian 480:Proterozoic 460:Weichselian 314:James Croll 218:Jens Esmark 206:Jens Esmark 118:, the term 75:and alpine 57:Pleistocene 36:Pleistocene 7039:Glaciology 7023:Categories 6849:Antarctica 6842:Antarctica 6828:Monte Rosa 6781:, New York 6561:Kame delta 6520:Till plain 6411:Lake Tight 6071:Cryogenian 5966:Beestonian 5918:Wolstonian 5900:Llanquihue 5884:Midlandian 5834:Antarctica 5826:Quaternary 5812:Quaternary 5433:2013-10-14 5251:GeoJournal 5071:2016-12-02 4979:2012-06-09 4754:2020-05-03 4704:2012-08-07 4610:29 January 4581:2017-01-29 4522:GeoJournal 4446:GeoJournal 4314:2017-10-24 4301:1885/30691 4231:2012-04-23 4204:012799923X 4045:2019-08-16 3698:2022-08-02 3673:2008-02-28 3587:2017-07-26 3469:2023-10-26 3411:2023-10-26 3322:2023-10-26 3241:2012-06-16 3181:Peltier WR 3034:2023-10-26 2819:2011-04-04 2557:2021-02-28 2528:2021-02-28 2253:2009-06-23 2144:2019-01-07 2114:2019-01-07 1981:References 1876:perihelion 1833:Baltic Sea 1751:salination 1681:and lakes. 1664:See also: 1640:See also: 1573:Ohio River 1548:Stages of 1484:Quaternary 1450:clathrates 1376:modulating 1194:mid-Eocene 1169:Cryogenian 1155:Antarctica 1120:insolation 1045:removes CO 1043:weathering 1031:meteorites 838:cyclothems 759:See also: 708:Quaternary 689:ice sheets 641:dropstones 637:Ice-rafted 533:such as CO 523:Cryogenian 492:dropstones 433:Cryogenian 389:requires: 332:Geological 268:Swiss Alps 253:Thuringian 165:geologist 134:See also: 116:glaciology 73:ice sheets 6769:, Montana 6666:, Nunavut 6660:, Ontario 6654:, Ontario 6648:, Alberta 6636:, Ontario 6624:, Alberta 6618:, Ontario 6442:Erosional 6435:Landforms 6046:Ediacaran 6021:Paleozoic 5997:Antarctic 5989:Oligocene 5948:7th–8th: 5944:Rio Llico 5926:3rd–6th: 5910:Illinoian 5880:Devensian 5872:Wisconsin 5839:Greenland 5580:0028-0836 5392:128436981 5279:129366521 5236:0170-2971 5212:0340-5109 5115:: 11–15. 4952:0902.1641 4861:1476-4687 4661:0027-8424 4542:128089823 4474:189891305 4419:231598435 4403:1476-4687 4279:CiteSeerX 4127:0091-7613 3970:10 August 3942:advances. 3929:. Wiley. 3742:0036-8075 3459:128885087 3401:2667-3258 3364:0091-7613 3348:: 33–38. 3312:0031-0182 3290:: 11–27. 3089:2041-1723 3024:206509273 3008:0036-8075 2495:1502-3885 2323:968318929 2055:7 January 1829:isostatic 1731:viscosity 1727:rebounded 1627:Minnesota 1516:Illinoian 1431:Volcanism 1355:obliquity 1314:ice cores 1181:Himalayas 1132:positions 1013:known as 846:snow line 693:Greenland 551:Ediacaran 371:ice cores 300:"Eiszeit" 257:Meiningen 7029:Ice ages 7008:Category 6833:Svalbard 6763:, Nevada 6541:Diluvium 6307:Glacials 6302:Stadials 6106:Huronian 6087:Marinoan 6083:Sturtian 6054:Gaskiers 5981:Pliocene 5962:Menapian 5888:Pinedale 5804:Ice ages 5758:Archived 5754:BBC News 5739:Archived 5714:9 August 5708:Archived 5694:from PBS 5688:Archived 5648:Archived 5411:. 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