Kisaeng - Knowledge

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to contemporary times, there is little information on prostitution and the climate that the kisaeng were exposed to during the colonial period. Prior to the Japanese occupation, kisaeng were courtesans, artists, and poets. However, during the 1920s, while Korea remained under Japanese occupation, the role of kisaeng shifted from entertainers to sex workers. This transition allowed the Japanese police to have control over female bodies through the prostitution licensing system that Japan employed. Chang Han, a magazine run largely by kisaeng, discussed the personal lives of a kisaeng in conjunction with their professional ones, stating that before the Japanese occupation, the kisaeng were of lower caste and able to interact with those of a higher caste. However, after the start of the Japanese occupation, the kisaeng had to actively navigate a restructured sex market in colonial Korea. Chang Han also discussed how the kisaeng of the time were able to interweave femininity with the arts, to create a more cultured approach that allowed them to compete with the licensed prostitutes. The publication also spoke of how their clientele were seen as friends, rather than as oppressors, and they often had a working relationship with Japanese law enforcement.

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the Japanese occupation, even as the face of the kisaeng profession underwent drastic changes. One of the prominent sijo poets of the era was Hwang Jin-I, who was considered to be one of the most irresistible kisaeng of her time. A famous sijo poem that is attributed to Jin-I is entitled (정산리 벽계수야), which is rumored to be a humorous comeback to a yangban official who boasted that he could pass through Jin-I’s territory without stopping or being tempted by her. Such elements were not as prevalent in the work of their male counterparts from the same era. The economic depression that Korea faced at the time of the Japanese occupation led to an impoverished female population being exposed to the labor market. The transition from the Sino-Japanese War to colonial Korea helped expand the sex market. Such expansion came in the form of new laws such as the Kisaeng Regulation Order or

814: 4095: 2426:. While very little of their painting survive, the National Museum of Korea has thirteen of Juk-hyang's paintings of plants and flowers. In the Japanese colonial period, though the education of gwonbeon still focused on traditional music and performance, the scope of their art expanded along with the cultural changes of society to include both folk genres and Japanese music. The transmission of many songs and dances, albeit some with modification, were through the 125: 1960: 2280: 2148:) enacted in 1908 which forced the kisaeng out of the palace and replaced their pimps with the Japanese police. This led to the kisaeng being grouped with licensed prostitutes, called ch’anggi. As the overtaking of Korea by Japan continued, the kisaeng profession responded to social and economic shifts in fashion, schools, and brothel management. Guilds or groups of kisaeng were changed to 2176:

of this time performed in restaurants or entertainment houses to earn a living, and they were often seen as a tourist attraction for the Japanese in Korea, especially Seoul. Even though there is information on prostitution within Korean history regarding the kisaeng over the centuries from pre-modern

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The kisaeng were considered to be the lowest of the caste system in the Neo-Confucian way of living that had developed in Korea. Kisaeng often composed and sang their own sijo which allowed them to incorporate their emotions and themes into their work. This continued to be a prevalent practice during

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held a unique role in ancient Korea's society, and were respected for their career as educated artists and writers. For this reason, they were sometimes spoken of as "possessing the body of the lower class but the mind of the aristocrat" and as having a "paradoxical identity as a socially despised

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were the government's legal entertainers, required to perform various functions for the state. Many were employed at court, but they were also spread throughout the country. They were carefully trained and frequently accomplished in the fine arts, poetry, and prose, and although they were of low

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houses were typically located near the center of a town, often close to the marketplace. They were laid out to create a welcoming effect; in many cases, a location was chosen with a fine view, and the area around the house would be landscaped with ornamental pools and plantings.

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were exclusively court entertainers. Their role in the affairs of the court became increasingly important as the dynasty progressed. They entertained both the king and visiting dignitaries, a role which continued into the Joseon period. In addition, beginning in the reign of

42: 1996:, or for their exclusion from court, but these were not successful—perhaps because of the influence of the women themselves, or perhaps because of fear that officials would take to stealing the wives of other men. One such proposal was made during the reign of 2415:

are extant to this day. While many were accomplished artists in their time, it is likely that their work was not deemed valuable enough to keep or store. A large amount of their poetry survive, Hwang Jin-I being one of the most famous

2250:'s evolution and impact on Korean society is receiving new attention as Koreans increase efforts to rediscover and revitalize their cultural and historical heritage. However, this interest is focused almost entirely on the historical 1812:

people wandered the country. It is not clear whether this nomadic lifestyle was already established, or a consequence of the recent turmoil. In fact, a connection between these wanderers and the nomadic tribes of

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schools, that predominated during the Japanese colonial period, between 1910 and 1945. Although true gwŏnbŏn no longer existed, an academic convention developed where students would study privately with former

2111:, like many other slaves, continued in servitude for many years. In addition, many of those who were freed had no alternative career; they continued as entertainers, now without the protections afforded by 894:

were not permitted to entertain after they turned 30. However, they could continue working in other duties, such as dressmaking and medicine, until the age of 50. They received guests only by choice. The

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Ko, Jeong-hee, and Justin M. Byron-Davies. "Korean Kisaeng Sijo." The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Medieval Women's Writing in the Global Middle Ages. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. 1-4.

1821:, considered these wanderers to be a threat to the stability of the state. He ordered that they be made into slaves of the government. Although no certain records exist, it is likely that the first 1394: 3446:

Hwang (1997). However, according to Ahn (2000a, p. 298), Chunhyang could refuse the magistrate's advances because her body-price had already been paid and her name had been removed from the

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houses continue to operate in South Korea, and many traditions and dances are considered to be lost forever. Some South Korean businesses continue to escort visiting foreign business people to a

1433:, then called Hanseong, with perhaps 1000. Many of these worked for the court, and helped to fill the vast number of trained entertainers needed for grand festivals. Beautiful or talented 1406:

seem to have been relatively few in number, at the most a few thousand. They were spread throughout the country, with a few hundred in the larger centers and smaller numbers in the

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Barraclough, Ruth. “The Courtesan's Journal: Kisaeng and the Sex Labour Market in Colonial Korea.” Intersections: Gender and Sexuality in Asia and the Pacific. Issue 29, May 2012.

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Hwang (1997), p. 450; Ahn (2000b) notes that some estimates place the total as high as 20,000, but ultimately concurs with Hwang that the total was probably less than 10,000.

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of a patron. However, even this was not an option unless their patron first purchased them from the state, which few men of the Joseon period could afford. Thus, most former

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could only be released from their position if a hefty price was paid to the government; this could only be done by a wealthy patron, typically a high government official.

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played a number of important political roles, as servants of the state and in their own right. They were employed to entertain visiting foreign dignitaries from parts of

2000:, but when an advisor of the court suggested that the abolition of the class would lead to government officials committing grave crimes, the king chose to preserve the 2066:

of the office". Their role did not, by law, include sexual service to the officeholder; in fact, government officials could be punished severely for consorting with a

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of the district were expected to appear for inspection twice a month and also when a new official arrived in the area. In addition, they were required to report for

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were often among the most knowledgeable on local affairs. For this reason, they were at times a key source of intelligence. It was through information supplied by

3859:(Link: search author's name in the box in the middle of the page; do not change language or search in the top of the page, which will lead to an external site) 3911:

Link: search author's name in the box in the middle of the page; do not change language or search in the top of the page, which will lead to an external site)

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stories, including the fictional Chunhyang and the historical Hwang Jin-Yi, continue to emerge in popular novels and cinema. There was a modern re-telling of

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husband", who provided protection and economic support, such as buying them valuable things or granting them social status in return for entertainment. Most

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were skilled workers from the beginning, the government took an early interest in ensuring correct education. This first emerged with the establishment of

765:, and their status was differentiated from that of the common slaves also attached to the office. They were separately entered on the census rolls. The 1410:

villages. They were also found in the "stations" and inns which provided food and shelter to travelers along the country's arterial roads, such as the

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were former soldiers, government enforcers, or servants of the royal household. At times, there was friction between would-be customers and possessive

660:, the lowest in society. They shared this status with other entertainers, as well as butchers and slaves. Status was hereditary, so the children of a 2601: 2820:

These include Hwang Jin-i's "I will break the back of this long winter night" and Han-u's "You will freeze to death". See McCann (1974), Kim (1976).

1728:), the last one being written in the Japanese colonial period. Even today, many formal histories of Korea pay little or no heed to the story of the 1027:, who inherited their mother's status. Others were sold into the class by families who could not afford to support them. Most such families were of 4369: 3910: 3858: 1077:

of the first tier. The course of study lasted three years and covered poetry, dance, music, and art. The most advanced such school was located in

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Hwang (1997), p. 452. According to Hwang, he terms used were 겉수청, or "surface government servants", and 살수청, or "flesh government servants".

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have been forgotten, a few are remembered for an outstanding attribute, such as skill or loyalty. The most famous of these is the 16th century

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also began to appear in the vernacular art of later Joseon. They are particularly common in the work of the famed early 19th-century painter

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dynasty, 935–1394. They are first mentioned in the early 11th century. At this time, they were primarily engaged in skilled trades such as

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So claimed by Kim (1976, p. 140); but Song (1999, p. 35) seems to state that the system continued into the early 20th century.

1849:, music, and medicine. The female entertainers of the court during this period filled a role similar to that later filled by almost all 3398: 2531: 2453: 2035:; many of them were paid from the public treasury. He may have been the first to institute a formal hierarchy among them, dividing the 1521:

essentially filled the role of wives for the army and their role was commensurately more focused on domestic tasks than entertainment.

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of the early 20th century. In this they resembled other women of Joseon, who often took a leading role in the independence struggle.

2460:, committed suicide in a river in her hometown Danyang after Toegye's death. Her tomb still stands near where she committed suicide. 4049: 3620:

Loken-Kim, Christine; Crump, Juliette T. (Autumn 1993). "Qualitative change in performances of two generations of Korean dancers".

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is unclear, so is their precise relation to other strata of society. The female entertainers who appear in records are exclusively

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social class, they were respected as educated artists. Aside from entertainment, their roles included medical care and needlework.

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mainly traditional art, such as calligraphy, dance, and songs. During the colonial period, the preexisting tiers or structures of

1540:, a traditional sword dance. Those of Jeju were known for their equestrian prowess. In many cases, the noted skills of a region's 4328: 4192: 1880:

living in each jurisdiction. Around this time, the state also made its first efforts to set up educational institutions to train

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have played important roles in Korean popular literature since the mid-Joseon dynasty. As popular literature such as novels and

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during the Goryeo period. During the Joseon period, this became further codified, with instruction focusing on music and dance.

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descendants were labelled as members of the 'hostile class' and are considered to have 'bad songbun', i.e. "tainted blood".

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school of Pyeongyang was one of the country's most advanced, and continued operating until late in the colonial period. The

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who were obliged to sleep with the officeholder, and those who were not. This distinction was featured in the popular play

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became symbolic of royal excess. Yeonsan-gun treated women as primarily objects of pleasure, and made even the medicinal

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rank, but sometimes poor families of higher status sold their children in this fashion. On occasion, even women from the

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Many others trace their origins to the early years of Goryeo, when many people were displaced following the end of the

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of 1895 officially abolished the class system of Joseon dynasty, and slavery as well. From that year forward, all

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often took a leading role. This was in part due to their unique role as women who could move freely in society.

4103: 4054: 2942: 1167:, usually focused on music and dance. The frequency and content of this training varied from region to region. 813: 566: 520: 91: 4184: 4020: 3505:[The Social Activities and Historical Meaning of the Gisaeng in the period of Japanese Colonialism]. 2194:

dances and vocabulary partially preserved in the contemporary Korean dance and theatre scene observed in the

964: 501: 3696: 2476:, associated with many scholars: Sin Jong-ho, Jeong Sa-yong, Hong Eon-pil, Kim Han-guk, and Jeong Sun-yeong. 1801:

were always members of the lower classes. For these reasons, few contemporary scholars support this theory.

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were required to meet their expenses, including food, clothes, and makeup, out of their own personal funds.

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Broken voices : postcolonial entanglements and the preservation of Korea's central folksong traditions

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system continued to flourish and develop, despite the government's deeply ambivalent attitude toward it.

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were able to maintain their business for very long beyond this time. It may be for this reason that the

4069: 2754:"Convention and Innovation: The Lives and Cultural Legacy of the Kisaeng in Colonial Korea (1910–1945)" 2716: 771:

were regarded as of significantly higher status than the slaves, although technically they were all of

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of the palace into "Heaven", those with whom he slept, and "Earth", those who served other functions.

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In the three-tiered system of later Joseon, more specialized training schools were established for

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as well. Beginning in the Goryeo period, the governing offices in each district kept a registry of

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Sejong Cultural Society. (n.d.). Sijo Chang: Chung-San-ri (시조창 청산리). Chung-san-ri | Sejong prize.

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In the later period of Joseon, a three-tiered system developed. The highest tier was occupied by

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have survived. These often reflect themes of heartache and parting, similar to poems composed by

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were a popular object to Japanese and Korean painters, and postcards with the picture of Korean

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were often made to entertain the generals of the victorious army. Some of Korea's most famous

597:, providing artistic entertainment and conversation to men of upper class. First appearing in 4323: 4202: 3191: 491: 486: 241: 236: 105: 3747: 2356:

continue to be central to the understanding and imagining of Joseon culture in contemporary

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disappeared, and they were more viewed as relevant to prostitution than before. Most of the

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were often forced to serve the officeholder. A distinction was sometimes made between those

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were required to answer the requests of patrons, unless they had previously notified the

398: 204: 3818:역사 속의 대구, 대구 사람들 (Yeoksa sogui Daegu, Daegu saramdeul) (Daegu and its people in history) 4348: 4319: 4237: 3645: 3637: 3600: 3553: 2610:

who gave an interview, that was unprecedented at that time, on the March 1923 issue of

2473: 1984:, and these scholars of the time took a very dim view of professional women and of the 1423:

varied greatly from region to region. During the Joseon period, the city with the most

1382: 684:, to ensure thorough oversight. The same practice was followed for conscripted slaves. 1646:), records names of those who worked to prepare for important court rituals, and some 3947: 3921: 3892: 3869: 3840: 3821: 3802: 3778: 3722: 3702: 3675: 3649: 3588: 3578: 3557: 3545: 3358: 3283: 2875: 2865: 2689: 1925: 1663: 441: 248: 188: 2937: 976:

were able to amass considerable personal wealth. However, these were the exception.

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in government service had no such patron. However, by the late Joseon dynasty, the

357: 324: 161: 142: 3541: 1045:, usually because they had violated the strict sexual mores of the Joseon period. 833:

was very short, generally peaking at age 16 or 17, and over by age 22. Only a few

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play an important role in Korean conceptions of the traditional culture of the

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https://www.sejongculturalsociety.org/composition/current/music/chungsanri.php

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as specializing specifically in arts, music, poetry, and conversation skills.

4401: 4298: 4267: 4084: 3549: 1667: 1557: 1498: 746: 643: 639: 263: 3775:조선시대 생활사 (Joseon Sidae Saenghwalsa) (Lifestyle history of the Joseon period) 4343: 4272: 4059: 3572: 2864:. Translated by Contogenis, Constantine; Choe, Wolhee. BOA Editions. 1997. 2517: 2366: 2323: 723:

poems were composed to persuade prominent scholars to spend the night. The

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Chunhyang before the magistrate, from an anonymous Joseon dynasty painting

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dynasty, which lasted from 1394 to 1897. During the Joseon dynasty, the

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were often taken from the provinces to Seoul. The required training for

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had different educations and roles. Numerous accounts report individual

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An introduction to classical Korean literature from hyangga to p'ansori

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Songs of the Kisaeng : courtesan poetry of the last Korean dynasty

2651: 2565: 1846: 1501:, particularly along the northern border. For instance, in the time of 1474:

of Pyeongyang were noted for their high level of skill and beauty. The

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were closely regulated. They were overseen by the officer in charge of

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often. They enter only occasionally into official records such as the

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Thanks to their frequenting the taverns and guest-houses of the town,

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and a client, or when charges of criminal conduct were made against a

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or "anecdotal histories" of later Joseon and Silhak thinkers such as

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house, but these locations are mostly modern interpretations of old

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class in particular. There were many calls for the abolition of the

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were not directly overseen by the state. Order was kept within each

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of other regions also maintained distinctive local identities. The

1094: 655: 3944:기생: 말하는 꽃 (Kisaeng: Malhanŭn kkot) (Kisaeng: The speaking flowers) 3853:

Kim, Dong-uk. (1963). Women's literary achievements (Yi Dynasty).

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Daegu-Gyeongbuk Historical Research Society (대구-경북 역사연구회) (1999).

2584: 2550:, remembered for killing a Japanese general during the battle of 2547: 2293: 1888: 1782: 1582: 1461: 1314: 1057: 738: 481: 465: 453: 434: 409: 350: 275: 166: 3526:"Recoding the chaste kisaeng in Yi Hae-jo's Kang myŏng-hwa chŏn" 3134:

Daegu Gyeongbuk Historical Research Society (1999), p. 219.

2314:, and as important figures in many other Joseon-era narratives. 851:

were obliged by law to retire at age 50. The best prospect most

4282: 4247: 4242: 4207: 4001: 3748:"Women of Oblivion : Women Gisaeng Artists from the 1910s" 3448: 3340: 3338:

traced the origin of the class to Myeongjong's creation of the

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region on the east coast, home to many famous sights including

1537: 1358: 1337: 1294:, and to accompany them if they travelled through the country. 1127: 995: 714: 617: 598: 378: 345: 270: 54: 3271:

7 Questioning Women's Place in the Canon of Korean Art History

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of Pyeongyang were also known for their ability to recite the

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training institutes accepted entrants as young as eight. All

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So estimated by Hwang (1997), also Ahn (2000b, p. 101).

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of the court, and are recorded as slaves of the government.

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in 1010. However, they were re-established in the reign of

1841:

first emerged as a class and rose to prominence during the

1680:

that exist are used in the study of their history, such as

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When cities fell, as many of Korea's cities did during the

1195:, those of the highest tier. When problems arose between a 702: 3104:

Kim (1976), pp. 139–140; Ahn (2000b), pp. 91–92.

1576:), a poem recounting their region's scenery. Those of the 1253:'s husband and had no legal claim to her. The role of the 1216:

usually took the leading role in resolving the situation.

3970: 2401: 110: 41: 3889:: Traditional and early modern Korean women's literature 2158:

under registration but was also a school to teach young

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no longer belonged to the government. In practice, many

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There are various theories concerning the origin of the

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class through various paths. Some were the daughters of

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engaged in prostitution as different groups or tiers of

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yet popularly (unofficially) acclaimed artist". Not all

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http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue29/barraclough.htm

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in Seoul was regular and very strict, with inattentive

1928:, they performed at official ceremonies of the state. 1892:, and first appear in history with their abolition by 1546:

corresponded with some other local claim to fame. The

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were forbidden to perform the songs and dances of the

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McCann, David. (1974). Traditional world of kisaeng.

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Journal of Korean Modern and Contemporary Art History

2891: 2889: 2514:, Sim Yook's lover, best female poet during her time. 1381:

of Jinju took part in a demonstration as part of the

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Women of Korea: A history from ancient times to 1945

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Lee (2002), pp. 89–90; Ahn (2000b), p. 82.

2688:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 164. 2605: 2593: 2499: 2483: 2467: 2444: 2427: 2417: 2410: 2387: 2381: 2371: 2351: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2317: 2303: 2297: 2287: 2266: 2257: 2251: 2245: 2235: 2229: 2223: 2217: 2208: 2201: 2189: 2171: 2165: 2159: 2153: 2118: 2117:

status. During the subsequent decade, many of these

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attached to a local government office were known as

754: 744: 736: 730: 724: 718: 708: 700: 694: 685: 679: 673: 667: 661: 653: 647: 621: 611: 602: 570: 3190:This practice was at its height under the reign of 3091: 3089: 3087: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3009: 3007: 2979: 2977: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2767:(1). Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies: 71–93 2274: 2256:of the Joseon period, and not on the traces of the 1141:register, and ensuring that none of the district's 857:had for long-term support was through becoming the 3794: 3723:"[ip0954] [Court Kisaeng Dancing]" 3240:Ahn (2000b), p. 100; Kim (1976), p. 144. 3236: 3234: 2962:Lee (2002), p. 89; Hwang (1997), p. 452. 2886: 3197: 2685:A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present 2336:, and erotic themes. During the colonial period, 963:. The three-tiered system, like other aspects of 4399: 4370:1883 Korean special mission to the United States 3084: 3025: 3004: 2974: 2918:Lee (2002), p. 90; Ahn (2000b), p. 82. 2898: 1817:has been conjectured. The first king of Goryeo, 1771:One theory actually places their origins in the 3231: 1808:period in 936. At this time, a large number of 1768:themselves have receded further into the past. 1652:are listed as needleworkers. Yet references to 717:in exile. In addition, some of the most famous 3619: 2056:attached to a government office were known as 913:) of each district, who was the leader of the 3986: 2560:, who attempted to have the Japanese general 2326:, whose work focused on both the life of the 1397:Jinju kisaeng specialized in the sword dance. 919:, took charge of discipline and training new 888:) who sang and danced at upper-class feasts. 867:went on to work in or manage a local tavern. 521: 4112:Political factions during the Joseon dynasty 2664:, a similar profession during colonial India 2143: 2137: 1886:entertainers. These academies were known as 1723: 1717: 1707: 1701: 1691: 1685: 1641: 1635: 1571: 1565: 1100: 946: 940: 908: 902: 883: 877: 588: 582: 560: 550: 76: 60: 3628:(2). Congress on Research in Dance: 13–14. 3523: 3397:Hwang (1997), p. 450. The advisor was 2620:, the most popular singer in Korea in 1935. 2364:. For example, the female lead in the film 2126: 1742:does not contain a single reference to the 1608:Official histories of Korea do not mention 1505:in the 15th century, there were some sixty 672:status, and daughters automatically became 27:Historical female slave courtesans in Korea 3993: 3979: 3918:Korean music: Historical and other aspects 3668:Nothing to Envy: Real Lives in North Korea 3605:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3570: 1497:Other large concentrations existed around 1113:As slaves of the government, the lives of 780:Though they were of low social class, the 528: 514: 40: 3258:Remarked upon by Ahn (2000b), p. 79. 1280: 1085:, during which time the schools training 4050:19th-century peasant rebellions in Korea 3941: 2278: 2050:were made slaves of the government. The 1958: 1950: 1868:the state began to keep records (called 1827:were drawn from these former wanderers. 1580:region in the southwest were trained in 1536:of Jinju were particularly adept at the 1392: 1313:was able to easily take the fortress of 994: 812: 4329:Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty 4034:Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 3868:. Seoul: Ewha Womans University Press. 3428:So asserted by Ahn (2000a), p. 94. 3267: 1623:Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty 1388: 967:, broke down in the late 19th century. 729:style later came to be associated with 14: 4400: 3694: 3662: 2308:appear as heroines in stories such as 2244:(오진암), was closed in 2010. Today, the 2009:During the brief and violent reign of 1490:, a song by the 18th-century composer 1417:The number and characteristics of the 1375:in the early 20th century. Some fifty 1135:was also in charge of maintaining the 1081:. This system continued well into the 3974: 3792: 3500: 3306:, author of the first history of the 2751: 2717:"Life and role of gisaeng courtesans" 1322:1592–1598 Japanese invasions of Korea 1170:However, the detailed affairs of the 985: 970:In the course of their careers, some 699:were skilled in poetry, and numerous 4080:Assassination of Empress Myeongseong 3915: 3745: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2681: 2508:, painter and Kim Jeong-hui's lover. 3961: 3882: 3863: 1267:system was more or less universal. 1180:, which might include some tens of 24: 4428:Women in Korea under Japanese rule 3935: 3656: 3524:Middleditch, Carrie (2019-01-02). 3353:Specifically during the reigns of 1257:changed over time; at first, many 633: 620:. Although the names of most real 25: 4439: 4314:Royal Tombs of the Joseon dynasty 3268:Horlyck, Charlotte (2017-01-01). 3194:, but continued in other periods. 2734: 2633:, a similar profession in Vietnam 2435: 2180: 1946: 1454:There were also large numbers of 1062:, training institutes for palace 4153:Border Defense Council of Joseon 4093: 3801:. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. 3530:Asian Journal of Women's Studies 2275:Literary and artistic depictions 2152:, which not only was a group of 1373:National Debt Repayment Movement 123: 3739: 3715: 3688: 3613: 3564: 3517: 3494: 3482: 3470: 3461: 3440: 3431: 3422: 3413: 3404: 3391: 3382: 3373: 3364: 3347: 3324: 3315: 3296: 3261: 3252: 3243: 3222: 3213: 3184: 3175: 3166: 3137: 3128: 3119: 3098: 3075: 3066: 3057: 3048: 3039: 3016: 2995: 2986: 2965: 2956: 2930: 2921: 2912: 2852: 2841: 2832: 2761:Seoul Journal of Korean Studies 2648:, a similar profession in Japan 2592:, the last classically trained 2540:, musician and intellectual of 2402:Literary and artistic works by 2234:houses. The oldest traditional 2101:became nominally free, and the 1005:receiving musical instruction, 933:of the lowest tier were called 3766: 3507:Korean Journal of Folk Studies 3452:, meaning she was no longer a 2943:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture 2823: 2814: 2805: 2796: 2787: 2778: 2709: 2675: 2380:. Fresh treatments of popular 2144: 2138: 1724: 1718: 1708: 1702: 1692: 1686: 1642: 1636: 1572: 1566: 1101: 947: 941: 909: 903: 884: 878: 589: 583: 561: 551: 77: 61: 13: 1: 3835:Hwang, Won-gap (황원갑) (1997). 3773:Ahn, Gil-jeong (안길정) (2000). 3542:10.1080/12259276.2019.1573945 3045:Ahn (2000b), pp. 99–100. 1835:Regardless of their origins, 1781:, female predecessors of the 1511:attached to the army base at 1355:Korean independence movements 1108: 1006: 502:100 Cultural Symbols of Korea 3958:(Tr. from Japanese original) 3746:Choi, Youl (December 2013). 3727:Lafayette Digital Repository 3701:. Laurence King Publishing. 3503:"일제강점기 기생의 사회적 활동과 그 역사적 의미" 3501:Hwang, Mi Yeon (June 2011). 3116:Ahn (2000b), pp. 89–90. 3072:Ahn (2000b), pp. 91–92. 3054:Ahn (2000b), pp. 98–99. 1967:Goryeo was succeeded by the 1658:are quite widespread in the 7: 4038:Manchu invasions of Korea ( 3454: 3379:Kim (1976), pp. 54–55. 3308: 3274:. Brill. pp. 224–250. 3081:Ahn (2000b), p. 92–93. 2624: 2606: 2594: 2500: 2484: 2468: 2445: 2428: 2418: 2411: 2388: 2382: 2376:, the companion of painter 2372: 2352: 2344: 2338: 2332: 2318: 2304: 2298: 2288: 2267: 2258: 2252: 2246: 2236: 2230: 2224: 2218: 2209: 2202: 2190: 2172: 2166: 2160: 2154: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2097: 2074: 2068: 2062: 2052: 2046: 2037: 2031: 2021: 2015: 2002: 1992: 1986: 1973: 1939: 1933: 1882: 1876: 1864:class, during the reign of 1860: 1851: 1837: 1823: 1797: 1791: 1764: 1758: 1744: 1730: 1676: 1654: 1648: 1610: 1548: 1542: 1532: 1526: 1517: 1507: 1482: 1476: 1470: 1456: 1447: 1441: 1435: 1425: 1419: 1402: 1377: 1371:, was a major donor to the 1363: 1349: 1332: 1326: 1317:in the early 19th century. 1305: 1299: 1286: 1272: 1259: 1249: 1231: 1221: 1212: 1203: 1197: 1191: 1182: 1172: 1159: 1149: 1143: 1137: 1121: 1115: 1093: 1087: 1073: 1064: 1056: 1050: 1041: 1035: 1029: 1023: 1017: 1001: 988: 978: 972: 959: 953: 935: 929: 921: 915: 897: 890: 872: 863: 853: 847: 841: 835: 829: 819: 801: 795: 789: 782: 773: 767: 761: 755: 745: 737: 731: 725: 719: 709: 701: 695: 686: 680: 674: 668: 662: 654: 648: 622: 612: 603: 571: 111: 97: 10: 4444: 4070:Donghak Peasant Revolution 4000: 3695:Kim, Yŏng-na; 김영나 (2005). 3571:Maliangkay, Roald (2017). 3361:(Hwang 1997, p. 450). 3312:(Hwang 1997, p. 449). 2927:Hwang (1997), p. 452. 2895:Hwang (1997), p. 451. 2811:McCann (1974), p. 42. 2784:Hwang (1997), Ahn (2000b). 2348:were circulated in Japan. 1931:Just as the origin of the 1751: 1603: 1600:(Daxue; Daehak) by heart. 4362: 4291: 4225: 4183: 4125: 4102: 4091: 4019: 4008: 3942:Kawamura, Minato (2001). 3419:Breen (2004), p. 88. 3280:10.1163/9789004348950_009 3228:Ahn (2000b), p. 102. 3210:Ahn (2000b), p. 100. 2682:Seth, Michael J. (2010). 2637:Caste in the sex industry 2213:or gwŏnbŏn entertainers. 1919:The women trained in the 1904:provided training in the 1858:Due to the growth of the 1830: 808: 104: 90: 69: 53: 48: 39: 34: 4380:Joseon missions to Japan 4375:Joseon missions to China 4143:Six Ministries of Joseon 4012:Korean state (1392–1897) 3916:Song, Bang-song (1999). 3864:Kim, Yung Chung (1976). 3410:Kim (1976), p. 138. 3249:Kim (1976), p. 144. 3219:Kim (1976), p. 142. 3125:Ahn (2000b), p. 94. 3095:Kim (1976), p. 139. 3063:Ahn (2000b), p. 99. 3036:Ahn (2000b), p. 98. 3022:Song (1999, p. 35). 3013:Ahn (2000b), p. 82. 3001:Ahn (2000b), p. 86. 2983:Kim (1976), p. 140. 2909:Song (1999), p. 35. 2838:Ahn (2000b), p. 83. 2668: 2127:Japanese colonial period 2123:went elsewhere to work. 1353:were also active in the 1083:Japanese colonial period 4148:Three offices of Joseon 4138:State Council of Joseon 4133:List of kings of Joseon 3793:Breen, Michael (2004). 3698:20th Century Korean Art 3388:Kim (1976), p. 55. 3370:Kim (1976), p. 54. 2971:Lee (2002), p. 89. 2829:Kim (1963), p. 34. 2793:Lee (2002), p. 90. 2409:Not very many works by 2072:. However, in practice 2013:between 1494 and 1506, 1460:in the old capitals of 1309:that the rebel army of 1270:In the Joseon dynasty, 823:girl of Joseon, in 1910 4258:Joseon white porcelain 4158:Secret royal inspector 4117:Korean literati purges 3966:. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe. 3885:Ideology, culture and 3883:Lee, Younghee (2002). 3797:The Koreans (rev. ed.) 3622:Dance Research Journal 2492:, Jeong Cheol's lover. 2284: 1980:Joseon was founded on 1964: 1963:A Kisaeng girl c. 1910 1956: 1398: 1281:Politics and diplomacy 1039:aristocracy were made 1012: 824: 743:status focused on the 735:women, while women of 4203:Caste system in Korea 3962:Kim, Kichung (1996). 3920:. Seoul: Jimoondang. 3891:. Seoul: Jimoondang. 3321:Hwang 1997, loc. cit. 3302:This was asserted by 2282: 2216:Very few traditional 2188:The 1970s onward saw 1962: 1954: 1586:, while those of the 1396: 998: 965:Joseon class division 816: 492:Emblem of South Korea 487:Emblem of North Korea 2395:New Tales of Gisaeng 2265:In North Korea, all 2262:which endure today. 2134:Kisaeng Tansongnyŏng 1806:Later Three Kingdoms 1740:New History of Korea 1389:Regional differences 1165:continuing education 497:World Heritage Sites 92:Revised Romanization 4263:Korean tea ceremony 4233:Education in Joseon 4029:Tsushima expedition 3777:. Seoul: Sakyejul. 3672:Granta Publications 2612:Contemporary Review 1982:Korean Confucianism 1626:. For example, the 1562:gwan dong byeol gok 1412:Great Yeongnam Road 827:The career of most 652:held the status of 197:Arts and literature 4349:Seungjeongwon ilgi 4292:Cultural heritages 4238:Five Grand Palaces 3820:. Seoul: Jungsim. 2456:, lover of Toegye 2285: 1965: 1957: 1682:Joseon Haeeohwhasa 1515:. In these areas, 1399: 1383:March 1st Movement 1219:In addition, most 1015:Women entered the 1013: 825: 4395: 4394: 4363:Foreign relations 4193:Styles and titles 4168:late 19th century 4055:Treaty of Ganghwa 3953:978-89-7381-474-9 3927:978-89-88095-13-3 3898:978-89-88095-43-0 3875:978-89-7300-116-3 3846:978-89-5639-014-7 3839:. Seoul: 책이있는마을. 3827:978-89-89524-09-0 3808:978-0-312-32609-8 3789:(In two volumes). 3784:978-89-7196-701-0 3708:978-1-85669-485-8 3681:978-1-84708-141-4 3584:978-0-8248-6668-6 3289:978-90-04-34895-0 2871:978-1-880238-53-0 2695:978-0-7425-6717-7 2488:of Jeolla during 2392:in the TV series 1594:could recite the 538: 537: 118: 117: 106:McCune–Reischauer 16:(Redirected from 4435: 4423:Slavery in Korea 4385:Joseon Tongsinsa 4198:Neo-Confucianism 4097: 3995: 3988: 3981: 3972: 3971: 3967: 3957: 3946:. Seoul: Sodam. 3931: 3907:Korea Journal 14 3902: 3879: 3850: 3831: 3812: 3800: 3788: 3760: 3759: 3743: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3733: 3719: 3713: 3712: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3660: 3654: 3653: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3604: 3596: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3521: 3515: 3514: 3498: 3492: 3486: 3480: 3474: 3468: 3465: 3459: 3457: 3444: 3438: 3435: 3429: 3426: 3420: 3417: 3411: 3408: 3402: 3395: 3389: 3386: 3380: 3377: 3371: 3368: 3362: 3351: 3345: 3328: 3322: 3319: 3313: 3311: 3300: 3294: 3293: 3265: 3259: 3256: 3250: 3247: 3241: 3238: 3229: 3226: 3220: 3217: 3211: 3208: 3195: 3188: 3182: 3179: 3173: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3161: 3160: 3151:. Archived from 3141: 3135: 3132: 3126: 3123: 3117: 3114: 3105: 3102: 3096: 3093: 3082: 3079: 3073: 3070: 3064: 3061: 3055: 3052: 3046: 3043: 3037: 3034: 3023: 3020: 3014: 3011: 3002: 2999: 2993: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2972: 2969: 2963: 2960: 2954: 2953: 2951: 2950: 2934: 2928: 2925: 2919: 2916: 2910: 2907: 2896: 2893: 2884: 2883: 2856: 2850: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2830: 2827: 2821: 2818: 2812: 2809: 2803: 2800: 2794: 2791: 2785: 2782: 2776: 2775: 2773: 2772: 2758: 2749: 2732: 2731: 2729: 2728: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2679: 2609: 2597: 2562:Konishi Yukinaga 2503: 2487: 2472:of Seoul during 2471: 2448: 2432:of this period. 2431: 2421: 2414: 2391: 2385: 2375: 2355: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2321: 2307: 2301: 2291: 2270: 2261: 2255: 2249: 2240:house in Korea, 2239: 2233: 2227: 2221: 2212: 2205: 2193: 2175: 2169: 2163: 2157: 2147: 2146: 2141: 2140: 2122: 2116: 2110: 2100: 2077: 2071: 2065: 2055: 2049: 2040: 2034: 2024: 2018: 2005: 1998:Sejong the Great 1995: 1989: 1976: 1942: 1936: 1916:musical styles. 1885: 1879: 1863: 1854: 1840: 1826: 1800: 1794: 1767: 1761: 1747: 1733: 1727: 1726: 1721: 1720: 1714:Joseon miinbogam 1711: 1710: 1705: 1704: 1695: 1694: 1689: 1688: 1679: 1657: 1651: 1645: 1644: 1639: 1638: 1628:Royal Protocols, 1613: 1575: 1574: 1569: 1568: 1560:, memorized the 1551: 1545: 1535: 1529: 1520: 1510: 1503:Sejong the Great 1488:gwan san yung ma 1485: 1479: 1473: 1459: 1450: 1444: 1438: 1428: 1422: 1405: 1380: 1366: 1352: 1335: 1329: 1308: 1302: 1289: 1275: 1262: 1252: 1234: 1224: 1215: 1206: 1200: 1194: 1185: 1175: 1162: 1152: 1146: 1140: 1124: 1118: 1104: 1103: 1098: 1090: 1076: 1067: 1061: 1053: 1044: 1038: 1032: 1026: 1020: 1011: 1008: 1004: 991: 981: 975: 962: 956: 950: 949: 944: 943: 938: 932: 924: 918: 912: 911: 906: 905: 900: 893: 887: 886: 881: 880: 875: 866: 856: 850: 844: 838: 832: 822: 804: 798: 792: 785: 776: 770: 764: 758: 750: 742: 734: 728: 722: 712: 706: 698: 689: 683: 677: 671: 665: 659: 651: 625: 615: 606: 592: 591: 586: 585: 574: 564: 563: 554: 553: 530: 523: 516: 153: 145: 143:Culture of Korea 127: 120: 119: 114: 100: 85: 84: 64: 63: 44: 32: 31: 21: 4443: 4442: 4438: 4437: 4436: 4434: 4433: 4432: 4398: 4397: 4396: 4391: 4358: 4287: 4221: 4179: 4121: 4098: 4089: 4015: 4004: 3999: 3954: 3938: 3936:Further reading 3928: 3899: 3876: 3855:Korea Journal 3 3847: 3828: 3809: 3785: 3769: 3764: 3763: 3744: 3740: 3731: 3729: 3721: 3720: 3716: 3709: 3693: 3689: 3682: 3670:(UK ed.). 3664:Demick, Barbara 3661: 3657: 3634:10.2307/1478550 3618: 3614: 3598: 3597: 3585: 3569: 3565: 3522: 3518: 3499: 3495: 3487: 3483: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3432: 3427: 3423: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3405: 3396: 3392: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3369: 3365: 3352: 3348: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3301: 3297: 3290: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3253: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3198: 3189: 3185: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3158: 3156: 3143: 3142: 3138: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3094: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3012: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2982: 2975: 2970: 2966: 2961: 2957: 2948: 2946: 2936: 2935: 2931: 2926: 2922: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2899: 2894: 2887: 2872: 2858: 2857: 2853: 2846: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2828: 2824: 2819: 2815: 2810: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2779: 2770: 2768: 2756: 2750: 2735: 2726: 2724: 2721:The Korea Times 2715: 2714: 2710: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2627: 2602:Lee Hwajungseon 2598:in South Korea. 2441: 2407: 2277: 2186: 2129: 2027:yakbang gisaeng 1949: 1833: 1754: 1734:. For example, 1606: 1391: 1311:Hong Gyeong-nae 1283: 1243:, although the 1125:, known as the 1111: 1009: 993: 811: 638:Throughout the 636: 634:Social position 575:), also called 534: 448:Paektu Mountain 151: 141: 86: 65: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4441: 4431: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4393: 4392: 4390: 4389: 4388: 4387: 4377: 4372: 4366: 4364: 4360: 4359: 4357: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4334:Hunminjeongeum 4331: 4326: 4316: 4311: 4309:Namhansanseong 4306: 4301: 4295: 4293: 4289: 4288: 4286: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4229: 4227: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4219: 4212: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4189: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4178: 4177: 4172: 4171: 4170: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4129: 4127: 4123: 4122: 4120: 4119: 4114: 4108: 4106: 4100: 4099: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4036: 4031: 4025: 4023: 4017: 4016: 4014: 4013: 4009: 4006: 4005: 3998: 3997: 3990: 3983: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3959: 3952: 3937: 3934: 3933: 3932: 3926: 3913: 3903: 3897: 3880: 3874: 3861: 3851: 3845: 3832: 3826: 3813: 3807: 3790: 3783: 3768: 3765: 3762: 3761: 3738: 3714: 3707: 3687: 3680: 3655: 3612: 3583: 3563: 3516: 3493: 3481: 3469: 3460: 3439: 3430: 3421: 3412: 3403: 3390: 3381: 3372: 3363: 3346: 3323: 3314: 3295: 3288: 3260: 3251: 3242: 3230: 3221: 3212: 3196: 3183: 3174: 3165: 3136: 3127: 3118: 3106: 3097: 3083: 3074: 3065: 3056: 3047: 3038: 3024: 3015: 3003: 2994: 2985: 2973: 2964: 2955: 2929: 2920: 2911: 2897: 2885: 2870: 2851: 2840: 2831: 2822: 2813: 2804: 2795: 2786: 2777: 2733: 2708: 2694: 2673: 2672: 2670: 2667: 2666: 2665: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2639: 2634: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2621: 2615: 2599: 2587: 2578: 2569: 2555: 2545: 2535: 2529: 2524: 2515: 2509: 2493: 2477: 2461: 2440: 2434: 2406: 2400: 2276: 2273: 2185: 2179: 2128: 2125: 1948: 1947:Joseon dynasty 1945: 1894:King Hyeonjong 1832: 1829: 1789:and the later 1753: 1750: 1605: 1602: 1597:Great Learning 1499:military camps 1390: 1387: 1282: 1279: 1110: 1107: 1091:were known as 992: 984: 891:Ilp'ae kisaeng 810: 807: 644:Joseon periods 635: 632: 536: 535: 533: 532: 525: 518: 510: 507: 506: 505: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 479: 474: 473: 472: 462: 461: 460: 450: 445: 438: 428: 427: 423: 422: 421: 420: 415: 414: 413: 406: 401: 391: 390: 389: 382: 370: 365: 360: 355: 354: 353: 348: 335: 334: 330: 329: 328: 327: 322: 321: 320: 315: 310: 305: 297: 296: 295: 290: 280: 279: 278: 268: 267: 266: 261: 256: 246: 245: 244: 239: 229: 224: 223: 222: 217: 207: 199: 198: 194: 193: 192: 191: 186: 184:Names of Korea 181: 176: 175: 174: 164: 156: 155: 147: 146: 138: 137: 129: 128: 116: 115: 108: 102: 101: 94: 88: 87: 75: 73: 67: 66: 59: 57: 51: 50: 46: 45: 37: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4440: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4418:Comfort women 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4405: 4403: 4386: 4383: 4382: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4367: 4365: 4361: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4299:Changdeokgung 4297: 4296: 4294: 4290: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4268:Korean garden 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4236: 4234: 4231: 4230: 4228: 4224: 4218: 4217: 4213: 4211: 4210: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4190: 4188: 4186: 4182: 4176: 4173: 4169: 4166: 4165: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4130: 4128: 4124: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4101: 4096: 4086: 4085:Korean Empire 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4027: 4026: 4024: 4022: 4018: 4011: 4010: 4007: 4003: 3996: 3991: 3989: 3984: 3982: 3977: 3976: 3973: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3939: 3929: 3923: 3919: 3914: 3912: 3909:(2), 40–43. ( 3908: 3904: 3900: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3881: 3877: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3860: 3857:(11), 33–36. 3856: 3852: 3848: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3823: 3819: 3814: 3810: 3804: 3799: 3798: 3791: 3786: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3770: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3728: 3724: 3718: 3710: 3704: 3700: 3699: 3691: 3683: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3659: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3616: 3608: 3602: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3580: 3576: 3575: 3567: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3497: 3491: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3464: 3456: 3451: 3450: 3443: 3434: 3425: 3416: 3407: 3400: 3394: 3385: 3376: 3367: 3360: 3356: 3350: 3343: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3318: 3310: 3305: 3299: 3291: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3272: 3264: 3255: 3246: 3237: 3235: 3225: 3216: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3193: 3187: 3178: 3169: 3155:on 2006-02-16 3154: 3150: 3146: 3145:"진주기생들의 만세의거" 3140: 3131: 3122: 3113: 3111: 3101: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3078: 3069: 3060: 3051: 3042: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3019: 3010: 3008: 2998: 2989: 2980: 2978: 2968: 2959: 2945: 2944: 2939: 2933: 2924: 2915: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2892: 2890: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2867: 2863: 2862: 2855: 2849: 2844: 2835: 2826: 2817: 2808: 2799: 2790: 2781: 2766: 2762: 2755: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2722: 2718: 2712: 2697: 2691: 2687: 2686: 2678: 2674: 2663: 2660: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2647: 2643: 2640: 2638: 2635: 2632: 2629: 2628: 2619: 2616: 2613: 2608: 2603: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2588: 2586: 2582: 2579: 2577: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2539: 2536: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2525: 2523: 2519: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2494: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2478: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2455: 2452: 2451: 2450: 2447: 2439: 2433: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2413: 2405: 2399: 2397: 2396: 2390: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2368: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2346: 2340: 2334: 2329: 2325: 2320: 2315: 2313: 2312: 2306: 2300: 2295: 2290: 2281: 2272: 2269: 2263: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2243: 2238: 2232: 2226: 2220: 2214: 2211: 2204: 2199: 2198: 2192: 2184: 2178: 2174: 2168: 2162: 2156: 2151: 2135: 2124: 2121: 2115: 2109: 2104: 2099: 2094: 2089: 2087: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2070: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2048: 2044:In 1650, all 2042: 2039: 2033: 2028: 2023: 2017: 2012: 2007: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1975: 1970: 1961: 1955:Kisaeng, 1890 1953: 1944: 1941: 1935: 1929: 1927: 1922: 1917: 1915: 1914: 1909: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1890: 1884: 1878: 1873: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1856: 1853: 1848: 1844: 1839: 1828: 1825: 1820: 1816: 1811: 1807: 1802: 1799: 1793: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1779: 1774: 1769: 1766: 1760: 1749: 1746: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1715: 1699: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1668:Jeong Yakyong 1665: 1661: 1656: 1650: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1624: 1619: 1618: 1612: 1601: 1599: 1598: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1584: 1579: 1563: 1559: 1558:Mount Kumgang 1555: 1550: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1528: 1522: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1478: 1472: 1467: 1463: 1458: 1452: 1449: 1443: 1437: 1432: 1427: 1421: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1404: 1395: 1386: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1370: 1365: 1360: 1356: 1351: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1316: 1312: 1307: 1301: 1295: 1293: 1288: 1278: 1274: 1268: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1251: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1217: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1199: 1193: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1168: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1151: 1145: 1139: 1134: 1130: 1129: 1123: 1117: 1106: 1097: 1096: 1089: 1084: 1080: 1075: 1069: 1066: 1060: 1059: 1052: 1046: 1043: 1037: 1031: 1025: 1019: 1003: 997: 990: 983: 980: 974: 968: 966: 961: 955: 937: 931: 926: 923: 917: 899: 892: 874: 868: 865: 860: 855: 849: 843: 837: 831: 821: 815: 806: 803: 797: 791: 784: 778: 775: 769: 763: 757: 752: 749: 748: 741: 740: 733: 727: 721: 716: 711: 705: 704: 697: 691: 688: 682: 676: 670: 666:were also of 664: 658: 657: 650: 645: 641: 631: 629: 624: 619: 614: 609: 605: 600: 596: 580: 579: 573: 568: 558: 548: 544: 543: 531: 526: 524: 519: 517: 512: 511: 509: 508: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 470: 469: 467: 463: 458: 457: 455: 451: 449: 446: 444: 443: 439: 436: 432: 431: 430: 429: 425: 424: 419: 416: 412: 411: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 396: 395: 392: 388: 387: 383: 381: 380: 376: 375: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 352: 349: 347: 344: 343: 342: 339: 338: 337: 336: 332: 331: 326: 323: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 300: 298: 294: 291: 289: 286: 285: 284: 281: 277: 274: 273: 272: 269: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 251: 250: 247: 243: 240: 238: 235: 234: 233: 230: 228: 225: 221: 218: 216: 213: 212: 211: 208: 206: 203: 202: 201: 200: 196: 195: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 173: 170: 169: 168: 165: 163: 160: 159: 158: 157: 154: 149: 148: 144: 140: 139: 135: 131: 130: 126: 122: 121: 113: 109: 107: 103: 99: 95: 93: 89: 83: 80: 74: 72: 68: 58: 56: 52: 47: 43: 38: 33: 30: 19: 4344:Nanjung ilgi 4318:Villages of 4273:Sungkyunkwan 4215: 4214: 4208: 4060:Imo Incident 3963: 3943: 3917: 3906: 3888: 3884: 3865: 3854: 3836: 3817: 3796: 3774: 3755: 3751: 3741: 3730:. Retrieved 3726: 3717: 3697: 3690: 3667: 3658: 3625: 3621: 3615: 3577:. Honolulu. 3573: 3566: 3536:(1): 30–46. 3533: 3529: 3519: 3510: 3506: 3496: 3484: 3472: 3463: 3447: 3442: 3433: 3424: 3415: 3406: 3393: 3384: 3375: 3366: 3349: 3339: 3326: 3317: 3304:Yi Neung-hwa 3298: 3270: 3263: 3254: 3245: 3224: 3215: 3186: 3177: 3168: 3157:. Retrieved 3153:the original 3148: 3139: 3130: 3121: 3100: 3077: 3068: 3059: 3050: 3041: 3018: 2997: 2988: 2967: 2958: 2947:. Retrieved 2941: 2932: 2923: 2914: 2860: 2854: 2843: 2834: 2825: 2816: 2807: 2798: 2789: 2780: 2769:. Retrieved 2764: 2760: 2725:. Retrieved 2723:. 2016-02-04 2711: 2699:. 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