German reunification

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country. However, by the spring of 1990, it was apparent that drafting a new constitution would require protracted negotiations that would open up numerous issues in West Germany. Even without this to consider, by the start of 1990 East Germany was in a state of economic and political collapse. In contrast, reunification under Article 23 could be implemented in as little as six months. Ultimately, when the treaty on monetary, economic, and social union was signed, it was decided to use the quicker process of Article 23. By this process, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and to join West Germany, and the area in which the Basic Law was in force was simply extended to include its constituent parts. Thus, while legally East Germany as a whole acceded to the Federal Republic, the constituent parts of East Germany entered into the Federal Republic as five new states, which held their first elections on 14 October 1990.

1288: 2892: 1226: 1276: 1977:(Treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic on the Establishment of German Unity), was approved by large majorities in the legislative chambers of both countries on 20 September 1990 (442–47 in the West German Bundestag and 299–80 in the East German Volkskammer). The Treaty passed the West German Bundesrat on the following day, 21 September 1990. The amendments to the Federal Republic's Basic Law that were foreseen in the Unification Treaty or necessary for its implementation were adopted by the Federal Statute of 23 September 1990, that enacted the incorporation of the Treaty as part of the Law of the Federal Republic of Germany. The said Federal Statute, containing the whole text of the Treaty and its Protocols as an annex, was published in the 2606: 1256: 487: 1210: 1579: 2864:, a critic of NATO, might become Chancellor. Horst Teltschik, Kohl's foreign policy advisor, later recalled that Germany would have paid "100 billion deutschmarks" if the Soviets demanded it. The USSR did not make such great demands, however, with Gorbachev stating in February 1990 that "he Germans must decide for themselves what path they choose to follow". In May 1990, he repeated his remark in the context of NATO membership while meeting Bush, amazing both the Americans and Germans. This removed the last significant roadblock to Germany being free to choose its international alignments, though Kohl made no secret that he intended for the reunified Germany to inherit West Germany's seats in NATO and the EC. 1806: 2169:

this day. As urban planning in Germany is the responsibility of the city government, the integration of East and West Berlin was in part complicated by the fact that the existing planning frameworks became obsolete with the fall of the Wall. Prior to the reunification of the city, the Land Use Plan of 1988 and General Development Plan of 1980 defined the spatial planning criteria for West and East Berlin, respectively. These were replaced by the new, unified Land Use Plan in 1994. Termed "Critical Reconstruction", the new policy aimed to revive Berlin's prewar aesthetic; it was complemented by a strategic planning document for downtown Berlin, entitled "Inner City Planning Framework".

1146: 59: 3207:(Westerners) are usually considered snobbish, dishonest, wealthy, and selfish. East Germans indicate a dissatisfaction with the status quo and cultural alienation from the rest of Germany, and a sense that their cultural heritage is not acknowledged enough in the now unified Germany. The West, on the other hand, has become uninterested in what the East has to say, and this has led to more resentment toward the East, exacerbating the divide. Both the West and the East have failed to sustain an openminded dialogue, and the failure to grasp the effects of the institutional path dependency has increased the frustration each side feels. 1755: 1773: 1166: 2871:, Canada; Genscher persuaded the four powers to treat the two Germanies as equals instead of defeated junior partners and for the six nations to negotiate alone. Although the Dutch, Italians, Spanish, and other NATO powers opposed such a structure, which meant that the alliance's boundaries would change without their participation, the six nations began negotiations in March 1990. After Gorbachev's May agreement on German NATO membership, the Soviets further agreed that Germany would be treated as an ordinary NATO country, with the exception that former East German territory would not have foreign NATO troops or 1822: 2824:, such as control over air travel and its political status. From the onset, the Soviet Union sought to use reunification as a way to push Germany out of NATO into neutrality, removing nuclear weapons from its territory. However, West Germany misinterpreted a 21 November 1989 diplomatic message on the topic to mean that the Soviet leadership already anticipated reunification only two weeks after the Wall's collapse. This belief, and the worry that his rival Genscher might act first, encouraged Kohl on 28 November to announce a detailed "Ten Point Program for Overcoming the Division of Germany and 271: 3018: 3674:, with the rest saying they were not sure. Life satisfaction in both the East and West has substantially increased since 1991, with 15 percent of East Germans placing their life satisfaction somewhere between 7 and 10 on a 0 to 10 scale in 1991, changing to 59 percent in 2019. For West Germans, this change over the same time period was from 52 to 64 percent. However, the 2019 annual reunification report by the German government found that 57% East Germans felt like second-class citizens, and 38% saw the reunification as a success – this figure declined to 20% amongst people under 40. 3741: 3642: 2944:

and pending the final ratification of the Two Plus Four Treaty, pursuant to a declaration signed in New York on 1 October 1990 by the foreign ministers of the four Allied Powers, that was witnessed by ministers of the two German states then in existence, and that was appended text of the Two Plus Four Treaty. However, the Soviets cited their occupation rights for the last time as late as on 13 March 1991, just two days before the Treaty became effective, when the Honeckers were enabled by Soviet hardliners to flee Germany on a military jet to Moscow from the Soviet-controlled

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and collective wage and salary agreements became increasingly uncommon. As the result, average nominal compensation per employee in East Germany "fell to very low levels" after the unification. Labour reforms implemented after the unification focused on reducing costs for companies and dismantled East German wage and social security regulations in favour of incentivizing employers to create jobs. The low-wage sector in Germany expanded, and the share of employees in low-paid employment amounted to 20% of the workforce by 2009.

3413: 3390: 3231: 1785: 2916: 3321: 626: 2952: 3652:) in order to rebuild the east German infrastructure. In addition, the immensely advantageous exchange rate of 1:1 between the West German Deutschmark to the East German mark meant that East Germans could trade in their almost worthless marks for and receive wages in West German currency. This dealt a major blow to the West German budget in the coming few years. The cost of German reunification for the federal government is estimated to be between 1.5 and 2 trillion euros. 1917: 9013: 115: 3717: 256: 2934:

Germany (after the unification, as the united Germany) and by the four Allied states. The entry into force of that treaty (also known as the "Two Plus Four Treaty", in reference to the two German states and four Allied governments that signed it) put an end to the then-remaining limitations on German sovereignty and the ACC that resulted from the post-World War II arrangements. After the Americans intervened, both the United Kingdom and France ratified the

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Republic of Germany. East and West Berlin were reunited as the third full-fledged federated city-state of the enlarged Federal Republic. The reunited city became the capital of the enlarged Federal Republic. Under this model, the Federal Republic of Germany, now enlarged to include the five states of the former GDR plus the reunified Berlin, continued to exist under the same legal personality that was founded in May 1949.

9055: 2562:'s opposition to the first unification of Germany in 1871: Goethe wrote: "Frankfurt, Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck are large and brilliant, and their impact on the prosperity of Germany is incalculable. Yet, would they remain what they are if they were to lose their independence and be incorporated as provincial cities into one great German Empire? I have reason to doubt this." Grass also condemned the unification as 9027: 1101: 2701: 3347: 1956:, by means of a letter dated 25 August 1990. Thus, formally, the procedure of reunification by means of the accession of East Germany to West Germany, and of East Germany's acceptance of the Basic Law already in force in West Germany, was initiated as the unilateral, sovereign decision of East Germany, as allowed by the provisions of article 23 of the West German Basic Law as it then existed. 3313: 7599: 3211:

between the East and the West lies in the Western labor unions' demand for high-wage pacts in an attempt to prevent "low-wage zones". This caused many Germans from the East to be outpriced in the market, adding to the slump in businesses in eastern Germany as well as the rising unemployment. The former East German area has often been compared to the underdeveloped

2059:), but the city's administrative merger and inclusion in the enlarged Federal Republic as its capital, effective on 3 October 1990, had been greenlit by the four Allies, and were formally approved in the final meeting of the Allied Control Council on 2 October 1990. In an emotional ceremony, at the stroke of midnight on 3 October 1990, the 3381:

pensions rose from 40 percent to 79 percent. Unemployment reached double the western level as well. West German cities close to the former border of East and West Germany experienced a disproportionate loss of market access relative to other West German cities which were not as greatly affected by the reunification of Germany.

7607: 422:, the old German Reich was abolished and Germany was divided by the four Allied countries. There was no peace treaty. Two countries emerged. The American, British, and French zones combined to form the FRG, i.e., West Germany on 23 May 1949. The GDR, i.e., East Germany was established October 1949. The West German state 7224: 1890: 3006:, French President François Mitterrand, and German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, marked the withdrawal of the British, American and French Occupation Forces from Berlin, and the termination of the Allied occupation in Germany. Thus, the removal of the Allied presence took place a few months before the final deadline. 4142: 3701:

The fall of the Berlin Wall proved disastrous for the East German labour unions, whose bargaining power was undermined by labour reforms and companies offshoring production to low-wage East European neighbouring countries. Membership of trade unions and associations sharply declined in the mid-1990s,

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Yet, ultimately, the disparity between East and West portions of Berlin has led to the city achieving a new urban identity. A number of locales of East Berlin, characterized by dwellings of in-between use of abandoned space for little to no rent, have become the focal point and foundation of Berlin's

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on 26 November 1991 and the German Bundestag on 16 December 1991, and entered into force with the exchange of the instruments of ratification on 16 January 1992. The confirmation of the border between Germany and Poland was required of Germany by the four Allied countries in the Two Plus Four Treaty.

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for the rest of us". The two leaders saw no way to prevent reunification, however, as "None of us was going to declare war on Germany". Mitterrand recognized before Thatcher that reunification was inevitable and adjusted his views accordingly; unlike her, he was hopeful that participation in a single

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The unification of Berlin presented legal, political, and technical challenges for the urban environment. The political division and physical separation of the city for more than 30 years saw the East and the West develop their own distinct urban forms, with many of these differences still visible to

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could adhere to the Basic Law by a simple majority vote. The initial 11 joining states of 1949 constituted the Trizone. West Berlin had been proposed as the 12th state, but this was legally inhibited by Allied objections since Berlin as a whole was legally a quadripartite occupied area. Despite this,

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its capital: the high ideological conflict between German politicians and sociologists in their self-governing East-West society was preceded by the influence of higher foreign occupiers, however this only really rose to become official with the birth of the two countries of Germany in the context of

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The fall of the Wall also had economic consequences. Two German systems covering distinctly divergent degrees of economic opportunity suddenly came into intimate contact. Despite development of sites for commercial purposes, Berlin struggled to compete in economic terms with Frankfurt which remained

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in the world again. The practical result of the chosen legal model of the unification (the incorporation of the territory of German Democratic Republic by the Federal Republic of Germany, and the continuation of the legal personality of the now enlarged Federal Republic) is that the expanded Federal

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in September 1990. The Treaty entered into force on 15 March 1991, in accordance with Article 9 of the Two Plus Four Treaty, it entered into force as soon as all ratifications were deposited with the Government of Germany, thus finalizing the reunification for purposes of international law. The last

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reportedly told an aide to Gorbachev, "France by no means wants German reunification, although it realises that in the end, it is inevitable." At the Strasbourg summit, Mitterrand and Thatcher discussed the fluidity of Germany's historical borders. On 20 January 1990, Mitterrand told Thatcher that a

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A poll of four countries in January 1990 found that a majority of surveyed Americans and French supported reunification, while British and Poles were more divided: 69 percent of Poles and 50 percent of French and British stated that they worried about a reunified Germany becoming "the dominant power

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Nevertheless, although the Volkskammer's declaration of accession to the Federal Republic had initiated the process of reunification, the act of reunification itself (with its many specific terms, conditions, and qualifications, some of which required amendments to the Basic Law itself) was achieved

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Under article 45 of the Treaty, it entered into force according to international law on 29 September 1990, upon the exchange of notices regarding the completion of the respective internal constitutional requirements for the adoption of the treaty in both East Germany and West Germany. With that last

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asserts that, while the East undoubtedly improved economically, it was "at a much slower pace than Kohl had predicted". Wealth and income inequality between former East and West Germany continued for decades after reunification. On average, adults in the former West Germany had assets worth 94,000

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Reunification did, however, lead to a large rise in the average standard of living in former East Germany, and a stagnation in the West as $ 2 trillion in public spending was transferred East. Between 1990 and 1995, gross wages in the east rose from 35 percent to 74 percent of western levels, while

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Under the treaty on final settlement (which should not be confused with the Unification Treaty that was signed only between the two German states), the last Allied forces still present in Germany left in 1994, in accordance with article 4 of the treaty, that set 31 December 1994 as the deadline for

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in 1994. While politicians called for acceptance of a new multiethnic society, many were unwilling to "give up its traditional racial definition of German nationality". Feminist groups also opposed the unification, as abortion laws were less restrictive in East Germany than in West Germany, and the

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observes that "an evaluation of the corresponding data in the Deutschland Archiv in 1989 showed that the GDR was perceived by a large portion of the younger generation as a foreign nation with a different social order which was no longer a part of Germany". Winkler argues that the reunification was

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Tens of thousands of the media-informed East Germans now made their way to Hungary, which was no longer ready to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use force of arms. By the end of September 1989, more than 30,000 East German citizens had escaped to the West before

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of former East Germany following the reunification required large amounts of public funding which turned some areas into boom regions, although overall unemployment remains higher than in the former West. Unemployment was part of a process of deindustrialization starting rapidly after 1990. Causes

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the old West Germany signed prior to the moment of reunification. The Basic Law and statutory laws that were in force in the Federal Republic, as amended in accordance with the Unification Treaty, continued automatically in force but now applied to the expanded territory. Also, the same President,

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and German Chancellor Kohl. Although the bulk of the British, American, and French Forces had left Germany even before the departure of the Russians, the Western Allies kept a presence in Berlin until the completion of the Russian withdrawal, and the ceremony marking the departure of the remaining

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of the USSR only gave its approval to the ratification of the treaty on 4 March 1991, after a hefty debate. Even prior to the ratification of the Treaty, the operation of all quadripartite Allied institutions in Germany was suspended, with effect from the reunification of Germany on 3 October 1990

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made a united Germany's continued NATO membership a requirement for supporting reunification. Kohl agreed, although less than 20 percent of West Germans supported remaining within NATO. Kohl also wished to avoid a neutral Germany, as he believed that would destroy NATO, cause the United States and

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feared further displacement or assimilationist policies; the Sorbs had received legal protection in the GDR and feared that the rights granted to them in East Germany would not be included in the law of an eventual united Germany. Ultimately, no provision on the protection of ethnic minorities was

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According to Stephen Brockmann, German reunification was feared and opposed by ethnic minorities, particularly those of East Germany. He observes that "right-wing violence was on the rise throughout 1990 in the GDR, with frequent instances of beatings, rapes, and fights connected with xenophobia",

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observed that "the sense of oneness felt by East Germans and West Germans in the euphoric period after the fall of the wall proved all too transitory", as the old divisions persisted and Germans not only still saw themselves as two separate people, but also acted in accordance with their separate,

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noted that "virtually none of the demonstrators interviewed by Western reporters said they wanted unification with the Federal Republic". In West Germany, once it became clear that a course of quick unification was negotiated, the public responded with concern. In February 1990, two-thirds of West

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government audit office." Opinion on reunification was not only highly partisan, but polarised along many social divides—Germans aged 35 or younger were opposed to unification, whereas older respondents were more supportive; likewise, low-income Germans tended to oppose reunification, whereas more

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The other option was set out in Article 146, which provided a mechanism for a permanent constitution for a reunified Germany. This route would have entailed a formal union between two German states that then would have had, among other things, to create a new constitution for the newly-established

1942:) of the German Democratic Republic to the Federal Republic of Germany, and the extension of the field of application of the Federal Republic's Basic Law to the territory of East Germany as allowed by Article 23 of the West German Basic Law, effective 3 October 1990. This Declaration of Accession ( 1899:

replacing the East German mark as the official currency of East Germany. The Deutsche Mark had a very high reputation among the East Germans and was considered stable. While the GDR transferred its financial policy sovereignty to West Germany, the West started granting subsidies for the GDR budget

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legacy, though some remnants were preserved, with walkways and bicycle paths established along the border strip to preserve the memory of the Wall. In the center of East Berlin, much of the modernist heritage of the East German state was gradually removed. Unification of Berlin saw the removal of

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The economy of eastern Germany has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east. Economically, eastern Germany has had a sharp rise of 10 percent to West Germany's 5 percent. Western Germany also still holds 56 percent of the GDP. Part of this disparity

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questioned the German right to self-determination. They shared Britain's and France's concerns over a return to German militarism and the economic power of a reunified country. The consensus opinion was that reunification, if it must occur, should not occur until at least 1995 and preferably much

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Legally, the reunification did not create a third state out of the two. Rather, West Germany effectively absorbed East Germany. Accordingly, on Unification Day, 3 October 1990, the German Democratic Republic ceased to exist, and five new federated states on its former territory joined the Federal

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by the constitutionally required two-thirds majorities, effecting on the one hand, the extinction of the GDR, and on the other, the agreed amendments to the Basic Law of the Federal Republic. Hence, although the GDR declared its accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the Basic Law,

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increase as well. Incomes for this group increased at an average rate of 8.8 percent over the same six-year period following reunification. Similarly, those in the East who possessed connections to the West saw their household income increase at a positive rate in each of the six years following

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Mikhail Gorbachev that neither the United Kingdom nor, according to her, Western Europe, wanted the reunification of Germany. Thatcher also clarified that she wanted the Soviet leader to do what he could to stop it, telling Gorbachev, "We do not want a united Germany". Although she welcomed East

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back on 12 September 1990 by the two German states that then existed (East and West Germany) on one side and by the four principal Allied powers (the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States) on the other—entered into force, having been ratified by the Federal Republic of

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in West Germany on 20 June of the same year) from 20 June 1948 to 12 May 1949 although later the USSR could not force the three Western Allies withdraw from West Berlin as they wanted; consequently, the foundation of a new German state became impossible. The Federal Republic of Germany or "West

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in 1985, she now argued that Germany's allies only supported reunification because they did not believe it would ever happen. Thatcher favored a transition period of five years for reunification, during which the two Germanies would remain separate states. Although she gradually softened her

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managed by East Germany, East Germany originally also wanted to gain West Berlin and make the unified Berlin become its capital. The Western Allies and West Germany rejected the Soviet Union's idea of neutral reunification in 1952 resulting in the two German governments continuing to exist

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from East Berlin and East Germany, producing a large labor supply shock in the West. Emigration from the East, totaling 870,000 people between 1989 and 1992 alone, led to worse employment outcomes for the least-educated workers, for blue-collar workers, for men, and for foreign nationals.

2526:, urging East Germans to oppose "capitalist annexation" in favour of a democratic socialist society. Writers in both East and West were concerned about the destruction of the East German or West German cultural identity respectively; in "Goodbye to the Literature of the Federal Republic", 2172:

Following the dissolution of the GDR on 3 October 1990, all planning projects under the socialist-totalitarian regime were abandoned. Vacant lots, open areas, and empty fields in East Berlin were subject to redevelopment, in addition to space previously occupied by the Wall and associated

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stationed in Hungary the command to intervene. But, with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the nonintervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. Thus, the bracket of the Eastern Bloc was broken.

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To facilitate this process and to reassure other countries, fundamental changes were made to the German constitution. The Preamble and Article 146 were amended, and Article 23 was replaced, but the deleted former Article 23 was applied as the constitutional model to be used for the 1990

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in the "Daily Mirror" of 19 August 1989 showed the public in East and West that there had been a loss of power by the Eastern European communist rulers in their own sphere of power, and that they were no longer the designers of what was happening: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into

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and the Holocaust had deprived Germany of its right to exist as a unified nation state: he wrote: "Historical responsibility dictates opposition to reunification, no matter how inevitable it may seem." He also claimed that "national victory threatens a cultural defeat", as "blooming of

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to the East experienced a six percent average increase in their wealth in the six years following the fall of the Wall, which more than doubled that of households who did not possess the same connections. Entrepreneurs who worked in areas with strong social ties to the East saw their

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Placard found in all roads between western and eastern Germany that were blocked during division. Text translated as: "Here, Germany and Europe were divided until 10 December 1989 at 10:15 am". The date and time vary according to the actual moment when a particular crossing was

2322:, stating that despite his belief in German national unity, it would not mean a "return to the nation-state of earlier times". In the 1980s, opposition to a united German country and support for lasting peaceful coexistence between the two German countries were very common amongst 438:

with the four Allies, both East and West Germany committed to the principle that their joint pre-1990 boundary constituted the entire territory that could be claimed by a government of Germany, and hence that there were no further lands outside this boundary that were parts of

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reunification. Hence, prior to the five "New Länder" of East Germany joining, the Basic Law was amended to indicate that all parts of Germany would then be unified such that Germany could now no longer consider itself constitutionally open to further extension to include the

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or Basic Law) of 1949 to facilitate eventual reunification. The Basic Law stated that it was only intended for temporary use until a permanent constitution could be adopted by the German people as a whole. Under that document's (then existing) Article 23, any new prospective

1711:, on which the East German holiday makers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West." In particular, it was examined by Habsburg and the Hungarian Minister of State 3670:, 89 percent of Germans living in both the West and East believe that reunification was good for Germany, with slightly more in East than West Germany supporting it. Around 83 percent of East Germans approve of and 13 percent disapprove of eastern Germany's transition to a 7231: 3293:) in case of internal reorganization like the merger of two states. While this latter option was chosen as the most feasible one, the first option was partly regarded as a means to foster the "inner reunification". A public manifestation of coming to terms with the past ( 2851:. It was a good friend, it was a member of NATO. Any issues that existed in 1945, it seemed perfectly reasonable to lay them to rest. For us, the question wasn't should Germany unify? It was how and under what circumstances? We had no concern about a resurgent Germany... 3409:, two halves of a single city that had ignored one another for the better part of 40 years, finally "in confrontation with one another". There was a belief in the city that, after 40 years of division, the unified city would be well placed to become a major metropolis. 4146: 2679:

to show others the "German problem", feared that Germany's "national character", size, and central location in Europe would cause it to be a "destabilizing rather than a stabilizing force in Europe". In December 1989, she warned fellow European Community leaders at a

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Vast differences between former East Germany and West Germany in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs, and other matters remain, and it is therefore still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. It is often referred to as the "wall in the head"

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in Europe, and the emergence of another German state was also seen as possibly dangerous to the West German democracy. A German publicist Peter Bender wrote in 1981: "Considering the role Germany played in the origins of both World Wars, Europe cannot, and the

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swept throughout the Eastern Bloc that year. In May 1989, Hungary removed their border fence. However, the dismantling of the old Hungarian border facilities did not open the borders nor were the previous strict controls removed, and the isolation by the

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in 1949: it was named a "basic law" instead of a "constitution" because it was considered provisional. The second way was more technical: the implementation of the constitution in the East, using a paragraph originally designed for the West German states

2883:. To oppose German reunification, the British insisted to the end, against Soviet opposition, that NATO be allowed to hold maneuvers in the former East Germany. Thatcher later wrote that her opposition to reunification had been an "unambiguous failure". 2413:, a "psychological wall" still existed between East and West Germans. Augustine argues that despite resistance to the political regime of East Germany, it still represented the history and identity of East Germans. Unification caused backlash, and the 3239:

Politicians and scholars have frequently called for a process of "inner reunification" of the two countries and asked whether there is "inner unification or continued separation". "The process of German unity has not ended yet", proclaimed Chancellor

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remarked that there was "an influential view found largely, but by no means only, on the German and international left" which saw "the drive for unification as either sinister, masking a revival of aggressive nationalist aspirations, or materialist".

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later on 18 March 1990 and then to the negotiations between the two countries that culminated in a Unification Treaty. Other negotiations between the two Germanies and the four occupying powers in Germany produced the so-called "Two Plus Four Treaty"

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and infrastructure underwent a swift and near-total collapse. Although East Germany was long reckoned as having the most robust economy in the Soviet bloc, the removal of Communist hegemony revealed the ramshackle foundations of that system. The

3604:, "the best that Berlin has to offer, its unique creativity. Creativity is Berlin's future." Overall, the Berlin government's engagement in creativity is strongly centered on marketing and promotional initiatives instead of creative production. 6229:

Throughout the fall, two-thirds of all respondents welcomed the GDR refugees; in December 1989, however, barely one-quarter expressed full understanding for people still emigrating, and the support quickly dwindled to just 11 percent by April

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became more common. The term generally refers to the events (mostly in Eastern Europe) that led up to the actual reunification, and loosely translates to "the turning point". Anti-communist activists from Eastern Germany rejected the term

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Moreover, Germany is the only one of these countries that has managed to achieve a peaceful reunification without subsequent violent conflict. For instance, Vietnam achieved reunification after the war under the communist government of

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Immediately following the fall of the Wall, Berlin experienced a boom in the construction industry. Redevelopment initiatives saw Berlin turn into one of the largest construction sites in the world through the 1990s and early 2000s.

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for this process are disputed in political conflicts up to the present day. Most times bureaucracy and lack of efficiency of the East German economy are highlighted and the deindustrialization is seen as an inevitable outcome of the

4479: 3643: 2499:, child care and financial support were "all less impressive or non-existent in the West". Opposition was also prevalent amongst Jewish circles, who had special status and rights in East Germany. Some Jewish intellectuals such as 3920:

In addition, prior to 1965 the IOC only recognized the Olympic committee for Germany, so the separate Olympic committees of Saarland, the Federal Republic of Germany, and the German Democratic Republic were not recognized by the

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Germans considered the pace of unification as "too fast". West Germans were also hostile towards the newcomers from the East—according to an April 1990 poll, only 11% of West Germans welcomed the refugees from East Germany.

8706: 8675: 3500:. The intensive building activity directed by planning policy resulted in the over-expansion of office space, "with a high level of vacancies in spite of the move of most administrations and government agencies from Bonn". 7291: 3244:, who grew up in East Germany, in 2009. Nevertheless, the question of this "inner reunification" has been widely discussed in the German public, politically, economically, culturally, and also constitutionally since 1989. 6957: 2360:

not a product of popular opinion, but rather "crisis management on the highest level". Support for unified Germany fell once the prospect of it became a tangible reality in the fall of 1989. A December 1989 poll by

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West Berlin's political affiliation was with West Germany, and, in many fields, it functioned de facto as if it were a component state of West Germany. On 1 January 1957, before the reunification, the territory of

2027:. These states were the five original states of East Germany, but were abolished in 1952 in favor of a centralized system. As part of the 18 May treaty, the five East German states were reconstituted on 23 August. 3463:

Another key priority was reestablishing Berlin as the seat of government of Germany, and this required buildings to serve government needs, including the "redevelopment of sites for scores of foreign embassies".

2879:, and accept the postwar Oder–Neisse line as Germany's eastern border. In addition, Germany agreed to pay about 55 billion deutschmarks to the Soviet Union in gifts and loans, the equivalent of eight days of the 1379:

were annexed by the USSR), Germany's border decision came under pressure from the dictator Stalin of the Soviet Union. During and after the war, many ethnic Germans who lived in the traditionally German lands in

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supported Grass' criticism of the unification process, warning East Germans: "We will be a nation without dreams, we will lose our memories, our past, and therefore also our ability to hope." British historian

3966:(Danzig) and a number of neighboring cities and municipalities, had never been claimed by any official side because West Germany followed the legal position of Germany in its borders of 1937, thus before the 2672:

German democracy, Thatcher worried that a rapid reunification might weaken Gorbachev, and she favored Soviet troops staying in East Germany as long as possible to act as a counterweight to a united Germany.

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Discussions immediately began on an emergency merger of the German economies. On 18 May 1990, the two German states signed a treaty agreeing on monetary, economic, and social union. This treaty is called

1971:" (Reunification Treaty), that had been negotiated between the two German states since 2 July 1990, was signed by representatives of the two governments on 31 August 1990. This Treaty, officially titled 5240: 2602:"will try to do it again", was one of the few world leaders to publicly oppose it. As reunification became a realistic possibility, however, significant NATO and European opposition emerged in private. 1444:

formed by the US and UK zones on 1 January 1947 before the participation of the French one, the Trizone did not include West Berlin which was also occupied by three Western Allies although the city was

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With respect to redefining the city's identity, emphasis was placed on restoring Berlin's traditional landscape. "Critical Reconstruction" policies sought to disassociate the city's identity from its

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in Dublin in April 1990 to calm the fears held of fellow members of the EEC. Haughey saw similarities between Ireland and Germany, and said "I have expressed a personal view that coming as we do from

2109:(1947–1956), united with West Germany (and thus rejoined Germany) as the 11th state of the Federal Republic; this was called "Little Reunification" although the Saar Protectorate itself was only one 1741:

at the night of 9 November 1989, with East and West Germany subsequently entering into negotiations toward eliminating the division that had been imposed upon Germans more than four decades earlier.

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to ask "How dangerous are the Germans?", and the French ambassador in London reported that Thatcher told him, "France and Great Britain should pull together today in the face of the German threat."

2530:

states that the literature of both states had been central to the consciousness and unique identity of both nations, with this newly developed culture being now endangered by looming reunification.

2157:, in addition to a wealth of new opportunity and the symbolism of two former independent states being rejoined, the reunification of Berlin presented numerous challenges. The city underwent massive 1727:

Even then, many people within and outside Germany still believed that real reunification between the two countries would never happen in the foreseeable future. The turning point in Germany, called

3979:

In fact, a new constitution was drafted by a "round table" of dissidents and delegates from East German civil society only to be discarded later, a fact that upset many East German intellectuals.

1991:) giving effect to the Treaty was also published on 28 September 1990. With the adoption of the Treaty as part of its Constitution, East Germany legislated its own abolition as a separate state. 4354: 1895:("Treaty Establishing a Monetary, Economic and Social Union between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany"); it came into force on 1 July 1990, with the West German 1995:

step, and in accordance with article 1 of the Treaty, and in conformity with East Germany's Declaration of Accession presented to the Federal Republic, Germany was officially reunited at 00:00

8737: 5127: 4469: 3280:) provided two pathways for unification. The first was the implementation of a new all-German constitution, safeguarded by a popular referendum. Actually, this was the original idea of the 1534:– that no one has the right to give up a policy whose goal is the eventual reunification of Germany. But in a realistic view of the world, this is a goal that could take generations beyond 3512:

euros in 2014 as compared to the adults in the former communist East Germany which had just over 40,000 euros in assets. The fall of the Berlin Wall and the factors described above led to

2740:

currency and other European institutions could control a united Germany. Mitterrand still wanted Thatcher to publicly oppose unification, however, to obtain more concessions from Germany.

4569: 2145:

While the Basic Law was modified, rather than replaced by a constitution as such, it still permits the adoption of a formal constitution by the German people at some time in the future.

2314:

Throughout the entire Cold War and until 1990, reunification did not appear likely, and the existence of two German countries was commonly regarded as an established, unalterable fact.

1179: 569:

noted that the terminology of an annexation can be interpreted from backgrounds across the political spectrum. In 2015, a Russian proposal was made that classified it as an annexation.

8911:

Joebges, Heike; Zwiener, Rudolf; Albu, Nora (2022). "The long-term effects of German unification on wages, employment and growth: a trigger for a shift to a new market constellation".

3147:

Republic of Germany inherited the old West Germany's seats at the UN, NATO, the European Communities, and other international organizations. It also continued to be a party to all the

11734: 3152:

Chancellor (Prime Minister), and Government of the Federal Republic remained in office, but their jurisdiction now included the newly acquired territory of the former East Germany.

2185: 1491:

and later border in Berlin was physically fortified and tightly controlled by East Germany in 1952 and 1961, respectively. The flags of the two German countries were originally the

8698: 8667: 2209:

To commemorate the day that marks the official unification of the former East and West Germany in 1990, 3 October has since then been the official national holiday of Germany, the

378:

and the indecisive reaction of the rulers of the Eastern Bloc set in motion an irreversible movement. It allowed an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany via

9068:

Blumenau, Bernhard, 'German Foreign Policy and the ‘German Problem’ During and After the Cold War: Changes and Continuities'. in: B Blumenau, J Hanhimäki & B Zanchetta (eds),

8309: 7361: 5712: 9940: 4436: 2514:

stressed the need to forge an East German identity, while "citizens' initiatives, church groups, and intellectuals of the first hour began issuing dire warnings about a possible

7330: 6916: 2711:

The pace of events surprised the French, whose Foreign Ministry had concluded in October 1989 that reunification "does not appear realistic at this moment". A representative of

8510: 4285: 4177: 9181: 6948: 5365: 4588: 3520:

At the close of the century, it became evident that despite significant investment and planning, Berlin was unlikely to retake "its seat between the European Global Cities of

1510:. The East German government also had encouraged two-state status after initially denying the existence of the West German state with the influence from the Soviet policy of " 2860:

Canada to leave Europe, and cause Britain and France to form an anti-German alliance. The United States increased its support of Kohl's policies, as it feared that otherwise

2545:

in 1999, also expressed his vehement opposition to the unification of Germany, citing his tragic memories of World War II as the reason. According to Grass, the emergence of

2352:

affluent responders were likely to support it. Ultimately, a poll in July 1990 found that the main motivation for reunification was economic concern rather than nationalism.

13323: 13069: 7677: 5308: 4208: 3401:

had broad economic, political, and social impacts globally, it also had significant consequence for the local urban environment. In fact, the events of 9 November 1989 saw

1618: 1598: 2625:

becoming too powerful. While British, French, and Americans favored Germany remaining a member of NATO, a majority of Poles supported neutrality for the reunified state.

2461:

in 1989 because of its support for German unification, was repulsed by the universal support for unification amongst most major parties, stating that it reminded him of "

1506:

nor East Germany, but later eventually recognized the border in 1972 (with the 1970 Treaty of Warsaw) and East Germany in 1973 (with the 1972 Basic Treaty) when applying

458:, but an enlarged continuation of the 1949–1990 West German state. The enlarged Federal Republic of Germany retained the West German seats in the governing bodies of the 2227:. An alternative date to commemorate the reunification could have been the day the Berlin Wall came down, 9 November (1989), which coincided with the anniversary of the 506:

The term "German reunification" was given to the process of the German Democratic Republic joining the Federal Republic of Germany with full German sovereignty from the

1880:

had been almost worthless outside East Germany for some time before the events of 1989–1990, and the collapse of the East German economy further magnified the problem.

7576: 7014: 5409: 5335: 1186:, a communist party that would dominate the future East German state, with a symbolic handshake. Walter Ulbricht is seated in the foreground to the right of Grotewohl. 6705: 2518:

of the GDR by the Federal Republic". Many East German oppositionists and reformers advocated for a "third path" of an independent, democratic socialist East Germany.

9345: 3256: 2575:

made a similar argument, criticizing the unification as driven solely by "consumerist appetites whetted by years of watching West German television advertisements".

3009:

Article 5 banned the deployment of nuclear weapons in the territory previously controlled by the GDR and well as a ban on stationing non-German military personnel.

2503:

expressed concern of Jews being portrayed as part of the East German socialist elites, given that the Jews had unique rights, such as being allowed to travel west.

1555: 8636: 7960: 1682:

had disintegrated. Extensive advertising for the planned picnic was made by posters and flyers among the GDR holidaymakers in Hungary. The Austrian branch of the

4681: 4608: 1985:(the official journal for the publication of the laws of the Federal Republic) on 28 September 1990. In the German Democratic Republic, the constitutional law ( 8379: 7115: 5470: 5248: 2935: 2926: 2394: 2056: 396: 2138:

this did not imply its acceptance of the Basic Law as it then stood, but rather of the Basic Law as subsequently amended in line with the Unification Treaty.

11920: 7756: 3818:

still struggle with high political tensions and huge economic and social disparities, making a possible reunification an enormous challenge. With China, the

2355:

Opinion polls in the late 1980s showed that young East Germans and West Germans saw each other as foreign, and did not regard themselves as a single nation.

5180:"Vertrag über die Schaffung einer Währungs-, Wirtschafts- und Sozialunion zwischen der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik und der Bundesrepublik Deutschland" 11351: 4851: 1132: 7384: 1892:

Vertrag über die Schaffung einer Währungs-, Wirtschafts- und Sozialunion zwischen der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik und der Bundesrepublik Deutschland

8790: 5270: 2481:

which led to a police lockdown in Leipzig on the night of reunification. Tensions with Poland were high, and many internal ethnic minorities such as the

1690:, distributed thousands of brochures inviting them to a picnic near the border at Sopron. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the 9108: 8976: 7145: 11399: 7448: 5042: 4338: 2828:". While his speech was very popular within West Germany, it caused concern among other European governments, with whom he had not discussed the plan. 7646: 6564: 1518:

the United Nations as two separate country members in 1973 and East Germany abandoned its goal of reunification with their compatriots in the West in

10164: 8015: 5636: 3711: 367: 9920: 4023:"EinigVtr – Vertrag zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik über die Herstellung der Einheit Deutschlands" 3989: 2370:

members were overrepresented amongst the responders, constituting 13% of the population, but 23% of those polled. Reporting on a student protest in

14280: 14265: 13054: 12581: 11331: 8729: 5157: 3938: 2375: 1296: 8331:

Kubicek, Paul (2011), Gerstenberger, Katharina; Braziel, Jana Evans (eds.), "The Diminishing Relevance of Ostalgie 20 Years after Reunification",

7172: 5111: 3834: 13490: 13333: 10898: 9383: 7266: 1385: 1287: 1011: 4384: 2445:). They considered the social and political dynamics of 1980s and 1990s Germany to be comparable to those of the 1930s, denouncing the emerging 565:

Some people have stated that the reunification can be classified as an annexation of the GDR by the FRG. Scholar Ned Richardson-Little from the

13140: 10649: 10458: 8579: 6846: 4564: 3993: 2724: 2075: 1515: 6812: 5742: 1641:

and allow the Eastern European countries to freely determine their own internal affairs. In early 1989, under a new era of Soviet policies of

13695: 7810: 7202: 3822:

makes Chinese unification more difficult. East and West Germany today also still have differences in economy and social ideology, similar to

3325: 2621:

in Europe". Those surveyed stated several concerns, including Germany again attempting to expand its territory, a revival of Nazism, and the

2487: 2121:

constitutionally by the subsequent Unification Treaty of 31 August 1990; that is, through a binding agreement between the former GDR and the

2084: 1218: 8472: 5179: 3176:

as Germany's permanent eastern border. These amendments to the Basic Law were mandated by Article I, section 4 of the Two Plus Four Treaty.

296:, which took place between 9 November 1989 and 15 March 1991. The "Unification Treaty" entered into force on 3 October 1990, dissolving the 13130: 8812: 4560: 4030: 1514:". The mutual recognition of the two Germanies paved the way for both countries to be widely recognized internationally. The two Germanies 9229: 4947: 4509: 2165:, which ran directly through the very heart of the city, had consequences for the urban environment that planning still needs to address. 13104: 11991: 10087: 9260: 8196: 9220: 7353: 3476:

politically motivated street names and monuments in the East in an attempt to reduce the socialist legacy from the face of East Berlin.

2891: 13094: 9788: 8728:

Wike, Richard; Poushter, Jacob; Silver, Laura; Devlin, Kat; Fetterolf, Janell; Alex; Castillo, ra; Huang, Christine (15 October 2019).

8697:

Wike, Richard; Poushter, Jacob; Silver, Laura; Devlin, Kat; Fetterolf, Janell; Castillo, Alexandra; Huang, Christine (9 October 2019).

8666:

Wike, Richard; Poushter, Jacob; Silver, Laura; Devlin, Kat; Fetterolf, Janell; Castillo, Alexandra; Huang, Christine (9 October 2019).

7831: 6480: 5613: 4414: 3306: 1974:

Vertrag zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik über die Herstellung der Einheit Deutschlands

8074: 7425: 7322: 2269: 13183: 8889: 7778: 4277: 4169: 3786:(1955–1975) respectively, which caused heavy economic and civilian damage. However, German separation did not result in another war. 1860: 5926: 5536: 5376: 4909: 4583: 2855:

The United States wished to ensure, however, that Germany would stay within NATO. In December 1989, the administration of President

2477:'s declaration of his foreign policy." Several thousand people joined the Anti-Germans' 1990 protests against German reunification. 14255: 13981: 13221: 13135: 11168: 9976: 8947: 6924: 6654: 3902:

The Saarland was de facto separated from occupied Germany to become a protectorate in 1947, it became part of West Germany in 1957.

1544: 1125: 7669: 6988: 5300: 1840:

announced a 10-point program calling for the two Germanies to expand their cooperation with a view toward eventual reunification.

1482:; however it was only considered provisional due to the West German target of Berlin which had been divided with the eastern part 14162: 12571: 11215: 7052: 5662: 5440: 4200: 3252: 3220: 2972: 2688:

which Kohl attended, "We defeated the Germans twice! And now they're back!". Although Thatcher had stated her support for German

2648: 1844: 1225: 684: 10092: 7385:"UPHEAVAL IN THE EAST: KOHL'S POLITICAL MATH; His Evasions on Poland's Border Are Seen As an Attempt to Avoid Alienating Voters" 13064: 11336: 9471: 9408: 6882: 5278: 3926: 3823: 3070: 2055:. Berlin was still formally under Allied occupation (that would only be terminated later, as a result of the provisions of the 7478:

Schweiger, Christian (2019). "Deutschland einig Vaterland?: East-West Cleavages in Germany Thirty Years After Reunification".

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that did not leave room for East German enterprises to adapt, and that alternatives like a slow transition had been possible.

13455: 13059: 10994: 10681: 10659: 10184: 10016: 9996: 9971: 9873: 9818: 9107:

Schemper, Lukas. "Diasporas and American debates on German unification." Journal of Transatlantic Studies 15.1 (2017): 41–60

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Krätke, S (2004). "City of talents? Berlin's regional economy, socio-spatial fabric and "worst practice" urban governance".

7568: 7022: 4316: 2161:, involving the political, economic, and cultural environment of both East and West Berlin. However, the "scar" left by the 14235: 13762: 11901: 11826: 11486: 11086: 10036: 10026: 8123:

Grésillon, B (April 1999). "Berlin, cultural metropolis: Changes in the cultural geography of Berlin since reunification".

8096:

Grésillon, B (April 1999). "Berlin, cultural metropolis: Changes in the cultural geography of Berlin since reunification".

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the GDR denied travel to Hungary, leaving Czechoslovakia as the only neighboring state to which East Germans could escape.

1519: 2998:

Forces of the Western Allies was the last to take place: on 8 September 1994, a Farewell Ceremony in the courtyard of the

13609: 13592: 13425: 13099: 11506: 10639: 10072: 9403: 5088: 4255: 2282: 1702:

to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary. The media reaction of

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The key ally was the United States. Although some top American officials opposed quick unification, Secretary of State

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to a reunified German state, whose two parts were previously bound by a number of limitations stemming from their post-

348: 9137: 4673: 1678:

on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the

1209: 522:

that took place from 18 August 1866 to 18 January 1871, 3 October 1990 was the day when Germany again became a single

390:

including a series of protests by the East German citizens, led to the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 and

13949: 13853: 13690: 12273: 11836: 11106: 11047: 9315: 9300: 8009: 4837: 4659: 3227:. While the economy of eastern Germany has recovered recently, the differences between East and West remain present. 2985: 2939:

party to ratify the treaty was the Soviet Union, that deposited its instrument of ratification on 15 March 1991. The

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could be said to represent "Germany as a whole" for this purpose. In the context of the successful and international

412: 391: 173: 10844: 7107: 1904:

system. At the same time, many West German laws came into force in the GDR. This created a suitable framework for a

11976: 11971: 11466: 11429: 11158: 10604: 10361: 10062: 10046: 9320: 6373: 6322: 4674:"Gesetz zur Änderung des Gesetzes über das Staatswappen und die Staatsflagge der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik" 3838:

Signing the German-German Cultural Agreement between the two countries, East Germany and West Germany on 6 May 1986

3248: 2426: 2417:, an agency created to carry out privatization, was blamed for creating mass unemployment and poverty in the East. 2367: 2228: 1848: 1183: 675: 359: 11654: 11516: 11200: 9233: 6772: 6276: 6216: 6165: 6029: 2667:

was one of the most vehement opponents of German reunification. Before the fall of the Berlin Wall, Thatcher told

726: 13815: 13415: 12696: 12077: 12006: 11906: 11784: 11556: 11546: 11133: 10520: 10269: 10199: 9950: 9833: 9828: 9434: 9253: 9146: 6103: 3853: 3440: 1843:

Initially, no timetable was proposed. However, events rapidly came to a head in early 1990. First, in March, the

1762: 1654: 1339:(US, UK, and the USSR) on 2 August 1945, Germany was divided by the Allies into occupation zones, each under the 837: 702: 379: 11471: 11358: 11346: 5462: 5336:"Bundesarchiv – Digitalisierung und Onlinestellung des Bestandes DA 1 Volkskammer der DDR, Teil 10. Wahlperiode" 3945:

says that Bush fully trusted Kohl and made the United States his most important ally in the unification process.

2816:

The victors of World War II—France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, comprising the

1461:

which declared itself not the successor of the German Reich a legal-former German state, was established in the

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Tölle, A (2010). "Urban identity policies in Berlin: From critical reconstruction to reconstructing the Wall".

1805: 1708: 706: 665: 17: 11796: 11526: 11037: 10809: 8780: 6595: 3160:, that were now parts of Poland and Russia (the German territory the former USSR annexed was a part of Russia- 14250: 14245: 14230: 14092: 13868: 13730: 13634: 13533: 13074: 12089: 12042: 11806: 11729: 11461: 10279: 9878: 9863: 9114:

Spohr, Kristina. "German Unification: Between Official History, Academic Scholarship, and Political Memoirs"

8969: 2012: 1959:

In the wake of that resolution of accession, the "German reunification treaty", commonly known in German as "

419: 196: 11521: 11230: 11153: 10824: 8608: 443:

occupied. East Germany re-established the federated states on its soil and subsequently dissolved itself on

14270: 14112: 13840: 13710: 13214: 12107: 12067: 12037: 11986: 11846: 11764: 11760: 11631: 11561: 11326: 11143: 10909: 10804: 10736: 10189: 10154: 10144: 10102: 9915: 7630: 6556: 5017:"Wissenschaft und Schwärmerei. Der Pfarrer Johann August Steinhofer und die Somnambule Anna Barbara Straub" 3819: 3340: 3118: 3102: 2220: 1996: 1734: 1268: 698: 8371: 7999: 7292:"Resources for The 1990 reunification – Historical events in the European integration process (1945–2014)" 6526: 3296: 1920:

The two original copies of the Unification Treaty signed on 31 August 1990. West German Interior Minister

1407:

withdraw from the ACC on 20 March 1948 (four occupying countries restored the act of the ACC in 1971) and

304:, DDR, or East Germany) and integrating its recently re-established constituent federated states into the 13907: 13820: 13272: 13079: 12551: 12546: 12263: 11941: 11669: 11414: 11373: 11317: 11220: 11101: 11059: 10964: 10489: 10443: 10169: 10082: 9935: 9808: 8403:"Book Reviews: Eric Owen Smith 'The German Economy' Routledge, London, 1994, pp. 592, ISBN 0-415-06288-8" 7456: 3393:

Crowds at the Brandenburg Gate on 1 December 1989. The entrance to the Western side was still not opened.

2876: 2875:. In exchange, Kohl agreed to reduce the sizes of the militaries of both West and East Germany, renounce 2774: 2343:

should not, want a new German Reich, a sovereign nation-state. That is the logic of history which is, as

2224: 1980: 1280: 718: 670: 655: 650: 605: 459: 451:

was formed when the new states joined the FRG while East and West Berlin were united into a single city.

218: 214:

East German Länder join West Germany on 3 October 1990 under the Unification Treaty signed 31 August 1990

5149: 1295:

signed an agreement on transit fees with the head of department in the East German Ministry of Finance,

179:

East and West Germany establish a monetary union from a treaty signed 18 May 1990, effective 1 July 1990

58: 13830: 13742: 13720: 13639: 13624: 13440: 13420: 13262: 12916: 12137: 12122: 12112: 11966: 11566: 11054: 10857: 10624: 10234: 9888: 9883: 9246: 7256: 7168: 6587: 6199:(1). Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Association for Public Opinion Research: 53–76. 6012:(1). Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Association for Public Opinion Research: 53–76. 2559: 1381: 1145: 897: 867: 640: 8251:

Häußermann, Hartmut; Kapphan, Andreas (31 December 2013), "Berlin: From Divided to Fragmented City?",

2785:

many of us would have sympathy with any wish of the people of the two German States for unification".

14082: 13267: 13145: 13021: 12966: 12786: 11774: 11481: 11042: 10654: 10571: 10249: 4376: 3431:, among other figures, take part in the official opening of the Brandenburg Gate on 22 December 1989. 3122: 3055: 2976: 2542: 2393:

in April 1993 found that only 22% of West Germans and 11% of East Germans felt they were one nation.

1503: 714: 710: 645: 526:. However, for political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term " 9210: 9199: 8165:"The Effect of Migration on Natives' Employment Outcomes: Evidence from the Fall of the Berlin Wall" 6890: 6838: 3105:

since 1932 were held, resulting in an increased majority for the coalition government of Chancellor

2979:

on 12 July 1994, an event that was marked by a casing of the colors ceremony witnessed by President

1629:

had stood as an icon for the political and economic division between East and West, a division that

14240: 14059: 14021: 13858: 13629: 12771: 12338: 11601: 11491: 11245: 10789: 10264: 10214: 9853: 9843: 9612: 9373: 8453:"Constructing the creative neighborhood: Hopes and limitations of creative city policies in Berlin" 6804: 4474: 3878: 3636: 3528:", primarily due to the fact that Germany's financial and commercial capital is located elsewhere ( 2668: 1245: 1217:

which contained recommendations for the establishment new state and formed a working basis for the

722: 12511: 9710: 8609:"From Reunification to Economic Integration: Productivity and the Labor Market in Eastern Germany" 7807: 7194: 1821: 1772: 14195: 14069: 14049: 14026: 14006: 13966: 13929: 13878: 13752: 13715: 13485: 13207: 12001: 11946: 11931: 11871: 11679: 11659: 11419: 11096: 10701: 10315: 10254: 10194: 10097: 10021: 9981: 9848: 9838: 9617: 9534: 9466: 9378: 8452: 5959: 5183: 3799: 3744: 3398: 3363: 3351: 2399: 2356: 1936:, the Parliament of East Germany, passed a resolution on 23 August 1990 declaring the accession ( 1872: 1738: 1165: 1150: 989: 690: 507: 440: 408: 227: 152: 10904: 5871:

Urban, F (2007). "Designing the past in East Berlin before and after the German Reunification".

4022: 13996: 13971: 13934: 13793: 13725: 13554: 13445: 13435: 12791: 12295: 11689: 11363: 10839: 10599: 10594: 10387: 10219: 10031: 9602: 9449: 7749:"Gastbeitrag: Nicht für die Ewigkeit – Staat und Recht – Politik" 7600:"After the fall 20 years ago this week, the crumbling of the Berlin Wall began an empire's end" 4501: 3843: 3768: 3421: 3216: 2817: 2791:

later described other European leaders' opinion of reunification at the time as "icy". Italy's

2661: 2584: 2470: 2331: 2219:). It replaced the previous national holiday held in West Germany on 17 June commemorating the 1376: 1324: 1320: 855: 749: 511: 491: 355: 31: 13001: 5683: 5681: 5679: 4756: 4729: 3751:

Germany was not the only country that had been divided into two states (1949–1990) due to the

3017: 2715: 2693:

opposition, as late as March 1990, Thatcher summoned historians and diplomats to a seminar at

2277: 1908:

by diminishing the huge gap between the two existing political, social, and economic systems.

14157: 13976: 13961: 13924: 13026: 12310: 12305: 12072: 11961: 11916: 11876: 11811: 11755: 11674: 11456: 11270: 11148: 11066: 10974: 10939: 10849: 10794: 10691: 10532: 10320: 10274: 10259: 10224: 10011: 9955: 9544: 9310: 5648: 5241:"Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany London – A short history of German reunification" 3094: 2999: 2968: 2177:. Many of these sites were positioned in central, strategic locations of the reunified city. 1834: 1606: 1213:

West German prime ministers and mayors received the British, American, and French occupiers'

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Die Präambel macht den Unterschied. Zur Landesverfassung des Saarlands und ihrer Geschichte.

4406: 3484:

the financial capital of the country, as well as with other key West German centers such as

1856: 1236: 13939: 13883: 13767: 13705: 13700: 13670: 13602: 13580: 13430: 12566: 12333: 12188: 12142: 12052: 11851: 11750: 11699: 11694: 11586: 11541: 11496: 11434: 11265: 11240: 11190: 11118: 11032: 10882: 10484: 10463: 9730: 9725: 9685: 9554: 9539: 9188: 8494: 7417: 6729:"German Unification: Between Official History, Academic Scholarship, and Political Memoirs" 5757: 5676: 3911:

The sentence "Germany as a whole" was recorded in the Potsdam Agreement to mention Germany.

3868: 3508: 3425: 3173: 3039: 3021: 2782: 2523: 2390: 1949: 1758: 1754: 1622: 1511: 1496: 1368: 875: 862: 754: 566: 435: 9499: 8851: 8506: 7786: 6259:(3). Johns Hopkins University Press on behalf of the German Studies Association: 563–578. 2989:) was completed on 31 August 1994, and the event was marked by a military ceremony in the 1921: 1440:

occupied by three Western Allies and established on 1 August 1948, its forerunner was the

8: 14122: 14016: 13991: 13986: 13863: 13808: 13747: 13653: 13384: 13318: 13011: 12926: 12921: 12821: 12684: 12481: 12365: 12280: 12168: 12021: 12016: 11996: 11981: 11891: 11886: 11791: 11724: 11714: 11626: 11621: 11611: 11511: 11451: 11424: 11250: 11235: 11205: 11183: 10969: 10959: 10686: 10609: 10579: 10563: 10174: 10149: 9945: 9930: 9529: 9269: 9154: 9018: 8261: 5918: 5528: 3959: 3858: 3848: 3725: 3698:

reunification. Those in their regions who lacked the same ties did not see this benefit.

3667: 3504: 2948:, with the German Federal Government being notified of this in advance of just one hour. 2945: 2904: 2762: 2454: 1675: 1662: 1602: 1488: 1340: 1214: 431: 423: 387: 383: 375: 147: 142: 50: 46: 13480: 11866: 11779: 9660: 8931: 5761: 2805: 2755: 2235:

in 1923. However, 9 November was also the anniversary of the first large-scale Nazi-led

1319:

abolished as well as Germany was occupied by four countries representing the victorious

270: 14188: 14181: 14036: 14001: 13888: 13873: 13803: 13781: 13757: 13685: 13619: 13549: 13460: 13379: 13348: 13257: 13234: 13165: 12961: 12946: 12871: 12851: 12846: 12831: 12678: 12426: 12178: 12062: 11816: 11719: 11704: 11616: 11606: 11581: 11576: 11341: 11295: 11210: 11195: 11138: 10954: 10877: 10753: 10644: 10634: 10117: 10006: 10001: 9991: 9986: 8430: 8354: 8188: 8140: 8066: 7941: 7892: 7730: 7538: 7495: 6980: 6764: 6756: 6646: 6457: 6412: 6365: 6314: 6268: 6208: 6157: 6149: 6095: 6021: 5975: 5773: 4901: 4812: 4437:"Russia's bizarre proposal to condemn West Germany's 1989 'annexation' of East Germany" 3883: 3764: 3740: 3721: 3688:

households who already had ties with the West. Those who lived in West Germany and had

3444: 3260: 3224: 3035: 3003: 2880: 2689: 2546: 2527: 2434: 2348: 2110: 1548: 1399:

Among the Allies, geo-political tension between the Soviet Union and Western Allies in

1332: 842: 802: 774: 614: 519: 495: 12861: 12690: 9476: 7044: 5432: 3373:. But many critics from East Germany point out that it was the shock-therapy style of 3002:, with the presence of British Prime Minister John Major, American Secretary of State 2773:, supported German reunification and he took advantage of Ireland's presidency of the 2437:, arguing that an emergence of a united German state would also result in a return of 1323:

signing the agreement (US, UK, France, and the USSR), the declaration also formed the

230:

signed 12 September 1990 restores full sovereignty to Germany, effective 15 March 1991

14275: 14142: 14117: 14064: 14011: 13825: 13597: 13389: 13178: 13031: 12976: 12951: 12906: 12836: 12811: 12776: 12766: 12735: 12622: 12506: 12476: 12213: 12203: 12117: 12011: 11856: 11571: 11368: 11225: 11178: 11076: 11027: 11001: 10979: 10819: 10799: 10743: 10731: 10545: 10380: 10295: 9925: 9813: 9770: 9765: 9715: 9509: 9504: 9285: 9073: 8937: 8881: 8584: 8549: 8539: 8434: 8422: 8358: 8344: 8299: 8266: 8234: 8180: 8144: 8058: 8005: 7968: 7945: 7933: 7896: 7884: 7734: 7722: 7636: 7542: 7528: 7499: 7392: 7261: 6748: 6697: 6638: 6161: 5902: 5812: 5777: 5702: 5652: 5603: 5119: 5080: 5070: 5032: 4985: 4905: 4893: 4843: 4833: 4762: 4735: 4708: 4655: 4444: 4346: 4247: 4237: 4124: 4072: 4056: 3955: 3942: 3756: 3684:

Additionally, German reunification was useful in generating wealth for those Eastern

3302: 3086: 2919: 2856: 2844: 2831:

The Americans did not share the Europeans' and Soviets' historical fears over German

2664: 2633: 2555: 2380: 2344: 2126: 2106: 1826: 1699: 1695: 1687: 1683: 1638: 1630: 1594: 1563: 1535: 1417: 1393: 1260: 1158: 807: 730: 574: 570: 13155: 12826: 8699:"Most in former Eastern Bloc approve of shift to multiparty and free market systems" 8192: 8070: 6768: 4068: 2566:

and purely materialist, calling it "the monetary fetish, by now devoid of all joy."

2506:

There was also a significant opposition to the unification in intellectual circles.

1925: 14204: 14152: 14147: 14137: 14132: 14127: 13954: 13919: 13893: 13565: 13369: 13338: 13293: 13288: 12941: 12866: 12796: 12781: 12761: 12708: 12491: 12486: 12466: 12416: 12406: 12233: 12198: 12183: 12132: 11861: 11801: 11641: 11300: 11280: 10989: 10931: 10925: 10892: 10872: 10862: 10711: 10512: 10504: 10244: 10112: 9745: 9650: 9597: 9519: 9454: 9335: 9129: 9090: 8871: 8863: 8502: 8464: 8414: 8336: 8291: 8256: 8230: 8172: 8132: 8105: 8050: 7923: 7874: 7712: 7520: 7487: 7074: 6740: 6689: 6630: 6449: 6404: 6357: 6260: 6200: 6141: 6087: 6013: 5884: 5880: 5850: 5765: 5694: 5644: 5595: 5024: 4977: 4939: 4885: 4114: 4064: 3412: 3082: 2955: 2861: 2836: 2792: 2712: 2681: 2572: 2366:

indicated strong support for preserving East Germany as a separate state. However,

2232: 2210: 2064: 1877: 1814: 1789: 1766: 1614: 1449:

part of the West German state; the German Democratic Republic or "East Germany", a

1400: 769: 764: 759: 444: 318: 64: 6249:"The Impact of Two Reunification-Era Debates on the East German Sense of Identity" 5213: 3771:(1954–1976) were or remain separated through the establishment of "Western-(free) 3247:

Politically, since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the successor party of the former

2567: 2500: 1953: 14107: 14102: 14097: 14044: 13470: 13160: 13016: 13006: 12991: 12971: 12956: 12931: 12876: 12641: 12609: 12501: 12461: 12223: 12218: 12158: 12099: 11831: 11709: 11536: 11501: 11409: 11404: 11128: 11022: 10696: 10629: 10619: 10584: 10540: 10527: 10479: 10310: 10300: 10159: 10067: 9388: 9363: 9340: 9150: 8760: 8637:"Interview with Former German Finance Minister : 'Germans Will Have to Pay'" 7814: 5854: 5436: 4592: 4578: 4573: 4308: 3622: 3618: 3455: 3198: 3074: 2872: 2848: 2770: 2613: 2414: 2060: 1905: 1694:

was built in 1961. After the picnic, which was based on an idea by Karl's father

1492: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1408: 1202: 1190: 939: 455: 434:

against the communist states, including the GDR; on 12 September 1990, under the

363: 293: 11123: 9655: 8828:"What's 'wrong' with east Germany? Look to its long neglect by the wealthy west" 8402: 7632:

National Identity in Eastern Germany: Inner Unification Or Continued Separation?

5016: 4782: 3503:

Berlin was marred by disjointed economic restructuring, associated with massive

3309:, which collects and maintains the files of the East German security apparatus. 2538: 1244:

of the Saarland into the Federal Republic of Germany on 1 January 1957 with the

426:

in 1955. In 1990, a range of opinions continued to be maintained over whether a

14209: 14087: 14074: 13737: 13495: 12986: 12911: 12901: 12896: 12756: 12496: 12285: 12208: 11936: 11841: 11591: 11531: 11163: 11081: 10984: 10944: 10914: 10814: 10769: 10335: 10239: 9755: 9735: 9514: 9295: 9125: 9032: 9004: 8785: 8418: 8136: 8109: 7421: 6557:"Russia and German reunification: Opposing views on Mikhail Gorbachev's legacy" 5566: 5405: 5028: 3863: 3826:, a legacy of the separation that the German government is trying to equalize. 3795: 3671: 3601: 3569: 3513: 3448: 3389: 3330: 3212: 3121:

between the two countries which took effect on 16 January 1992 and ensured the

3043: 2940: 2728: 2723:

had". He predicted that "bad" Germans would reemerge, who might seek to regain

2645: 2629: 2622: 2587: 2551: 2511: 2496: 2154: 1777: 1703: 1348: 1171: 1105: 1091: 832: 471: 463: 8970:"The European dimension of German-Taiwanese relations – a critical assessment" 8468: 8285: 6744: 6361: 5769: 5688: 4969: 3459:

Traffic crossing the site of the former Wall near the Brandenburg Gate in 2016

2522:

argued that the preservation of the GDR was necessary to achieve the ideal of

1801:("How now") over the sign warning the public that they are leaving West Berlin 1670:

was still intact over its entire length. The opening of a border gate between

1327:(ACC) of these 4 countries ruling Germany and confirmed German borders before 1292: 14224: 13450: 13150: 12996: 12891: 12856: 12841: 12801: 12343: 12173: 11911: 11821: 11684: 11664: 11551: 11312: 11290: 11255: 10834: 10829: 10784: 10706: 10666: 10415: 10340: 10330: 10325: 10209: 10077: 9760: 9740: 9720: 9700: 9675: 9632: 9574: 9564: 9393: 8885: 8426: 8295: 8184: 8062: 7972: 7937: 7888: 7726: 7396: 6752: 6701: 6642: 6346:"The Legal Status of the Sorbian Minority in the Federal Republic of Germany" 5743:"Planning reunification: the planning history of the fall of the Berlin Wall" 5698: 5123: 5084: 4981: 4897: 4448: 4350: 4251: 4233:

Totalliquidierung in zwei Akten : [juristische Annexion der DDR]

4128: 3791: 3565: 3428: 3374: 3241: 3230: 3165: 3161: 3126: 2915: 2911:

spilled over into East Germany after its state-owned auto industry collapsed.

2796: 2609: 2595: 2450: 2241: 2194: 2190: 2158: 2020: 1896: 1784: 1716: 1610: 1559: 1392:, was separated from Germany when its own constitution took effect to become 1344: 1241: 1175: 919: 536:(roughly: "the turning point"). The 1990 treaty defines the official term as 527: 515: 204: 8668:"Germans view unification positively but feel the East has been left behind" 8553: 7779:"Horst Dreier | Das Grundgesetz – eine Verfassung auf Abruf?" 7491: 7137: 4931: 4847: 4671: 3497: 1833:

On 28 November 1989—two weeks after the fall of the Berlin Wall—West German

13835: 13510: 13505: 13475: 13374: 13328: 12936: 12886: 12816: 12806: 12660: 12648: 12635: 12441: 12268: 11769: 11017: 10867: 10726: 10721: 10716: 10422: 10204: 9823: 9750: 9705: 9439: 9330: 9305: 9060: 9046: 8038: 7928: 7911: 7879: 7862: 7717: 7700: 7514: 5589: 4943: 3873: 3098: 3090: 2990: 2980: 2951: 2832: 2800: 2720: 2591: 2583:

For decades, West Germany's allies stated their support for reunification.

2563: 2507: 2446: 2122: 1810: 1712: 1679: 1667: 1634: 1412: 1356: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1028: 1024: 959: 949: 910: 797: 523: 478:(WP) and other international organizations to which East Germany belonged. 404: 371: 329: 305: 297: 263: 259: 132: 120: 27:

1989–1991 unification process of Germany with its full sovereignty returned

8340: 8164: 8054: 8039:"The Costs of Remoteness: Evidence from German Division and Reunification" 7524: 5599: 4231: 4119: 4102: 3320: 1916: 1469:

did not include East Berlin occupied by the Soviets although the city was

625: 13845: 13559: 13394: 13343: 12981: 12586: 12556: 12411: 12401: 12300: 12163: 11956: 11445: 11275: 11260: 11071: 10919: 10887: 10774: 10589: 10494: 10433: 9803: 9690: 9665: 9607: 9569: 9559: 9429: 8867: 8852:"The Economic Impact of Social Ties: Evidence from German Reunification*" 8533: 8176: 7171:. Translated by Jeremiah Riemer. German History in Documents and Images. 6949:"Margaret Thatcher was 'horrified' by the prospect of a reunited Germany" 6693: 6433: 4827: 4705:

An encyclopedic dictionary of conflict and conflict resolution, 1945–1996

3807: 3803: 3783: 3729: 3716: 3689: 3417: 3406: 3402: 3275: 3143: 3106: 2886: 2787: 2558:

is possible only at times of fruitful national disunity", and also cited

2531: 2519: 2410: 2371: 2362: 2315: 2174: 2162: 2130: 2032: 2028: 2008: 1933: 1837: 1691: 1649: 1626: 1571: 1531: 1336: 1229: 812: 475: 400: 337: 333: 237: 233: 192: 167: 9221:"Unfriendly, even dangerous"? Margaret Thatcher and German Unification, 9085:

When the World Seemed New: George H. W. Bush and the End of the Cold War

9070:

New Perspectives on the End of the Cold War: Unexpected Transformations?

8876: 7961:"Help for Poorer Neighbors: Designing a Transfer Union to Save the Euro" 6677: 6650: 6369: 6318: 5979: 4873: 3798:, and Yemen achieved peaceful reunification in 1990 but then suffered a 3197:(Easterners) are stereotyped as racist, poor, and largely influenced by 2899:

vehicles were abandoned in Germany after 1989 (this one photographed in

2223:

and the national holiday on 7 October in the GDR, that commemorated the

1999:

on 3 October 1990. East Germany joined the Federal Republic as the five

14054: 13675: 12740: 12451: 12421: 12375: 12290: 12258: 12250: 12193: 11881: 11596: 11285: 11173: 10779: 10305: 10179: 9793: 9579: 9524: 9494: 9424: 9143: 6805:"The Iron Lady's Views on German Reunification/'The Germans Are Back!'" 6760: 6728: 6461: 6437: 6345: 6302: 6272: 6212: 6188: 6153: 6129: 6025: 6001: 5963: 4889: 3779: 3772: 3760: 3435: 2908: 2685: 2466: 2044: 1637:". Gorbachev announced in 1988 that the Soviet Union would abandon the 1601:

since 1985 with the fact that the Soviet Union experienced a period of

1507: 1359:(USSR). The agreement also modified Germany's border, with the country 1198: 882: 559: 255: 11394: 9238: 9119: 8580:"Ost-Förderung: Deutsche Einheit kostet 2.000.000.000.000 Euro - WELT" 6618: 6416: 6396: 6248: 6099: 3112:

As for the German–Polish Border Treaty, it was approved by the Polish

3051: 2962:, national symbol of present-day Germany and its reunification in 1990 2425:

An influential part of the reunification opponents were the so-called

13665: 13313: 13036: 12881: 12730: 12703: 12516: 12471: 12380: 12348: 12328: 12320: 11649: 11439: 10345: 10139: 9858: 9798: 9680: 9290: 9102:

Destiny and Power: The American Odyssey of George Herbert Walker Bush

7383:

Schmemann, Serge; Times, Special To the New York (28 February 1990).

6634: 6075: 5809:

Urban Planning and Cultural Inclusion Lessons from Belfast and Berlin

5372: 5064: 4107:

TATuP: Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis

3967: 3685: 3577: 3573: 3529: 3493: 3472: 3355: 3336: 3073:, finalizing Germany's eastern boundary as permanent along the Oder–( 3047: 2766: 2599: 2515: 2323: 2134: 2024: 1729: 1508:

a common policy to reconcile with the communist countries in the East

1499:. The West German government initially did not recognize the new and 1328: 578: 532: 208: 81: 9040: 6453: 6264: 6145: 3963: 3541: 2002: 1388:

to German post-war and Austrian territory. Saarland, an area in the

187: 13199: 12615: 12456: 12353: 12228: 12047: 11951: 11091: 10949: 10403: 9695: 9670: 9627: 9461: 9444: 9368: 8730:"European Public Opinion Three Decades After the Fall of Communism" 6839:"Thatcher told Gorbachev Britain did not want German reunification" 6408: 6204: 6189:"The Road to German Unity: Mass Sentiment in East and West Germany" 6091: 6017: 6002:"The Road to German Unity: Mass Sentiment in East and West Germany" 5591:

The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany

5150:"Helmut Kohl's Ten-Point Plan for German Unity (November 28, 1989)" 3752: 3661: 3561: 3443:

was demolished in 2006 to make space for the reconstruction of the

3169: 3148: 2808:, joked "I love Germany so much that I prefer to see two of them". 2736: 2694: 2245:), so the day was considered inappropriate for a national holiday. 2202: 2102: 1901: 1793: 1658: 1643: 1475: 1249: 176:

in East Germany return a pro-unification government (18 March 1990)

11735:

Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union

7045:"Special Meeting of the European Council – Presidency Conclusions" 5964:"Rebuilding of a Nation: The Germans before and after Unification" 2429:. Emerging from the student Left, Anti-Germans were supportive of 247:

Withdrawal of Soviet, then Russian troops completed 31 August 1994

13944: 13364: 13308: 13230: 12561: 12446: 12436: 12385: 11926: 10671: 9622: 8913:

European Journal of Economics and Economic Policies: Intervention

8765: 6619:"The Politics of Diplomacy, Revolution: War and Peace, 1989–1992" 6588:"The Times Poll : One Germany: U.S. Unfazed, Europeans Fret" 6130:"A Wall Destroyed: The Dynamics of German Unification in the GDR" 5366:"United States and Soviet Union Sign German Reunification Treaty" 4727: 3549: 3532:) than the administrative one (Berlin), in resemblance of Italy ( 3489: 3078: 3062: 3025: 2994: 2900: 2896: 2732: 2492: 2438: 2389:

After unification, the national divide persisted—a survey by the

2340: 2052: 1864: 1671: 1587: 1437: 1264: 977: 779: 448: 427: 313: 289: 274: 9095:

Dissolution: The Crisis of Communism and the End of East Germany

8761:"30 years after fall of Berlin Wall, East Germans feel inferior" 8372:"Germany's wealth distribution most unequal in euro zone: study" 7808:

DDR-Geschichte: Merkel will Birthler-Behörde noch lange erhalten

5402:"Merkel to mark 20th anniversary of German reunification treaty" 5066:

Deutschland einig Vaterland die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung

2983:. The withdrawal of the last Russian troops (the Russian Army's 12629: 12431: 12370: 11305: 9549: 9200:"Germany's Eastern Burden: The Price of a Failed Reunification" 9054: 4672:

Government of the German Democratic Republic (1 October 1959).

4339:"Reunification Controversy: Was East Germany Really 'Annexed?'" 3996:

pointed out that the currency union as such had come too early.

3815: 3694: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3557: 3553: 3521: 3485: 3066: 3029: 2959: 2930: 2868: 2825: 2821: 2474: 2442: 2430: 2334:. The division of Germany was considered necessary to maintain 2236: 2048: 2040: 2016: 1567: 1441: 1352: 499: 340: 241: 200: 7912:"Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung" 7863:"Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung" 7701:"Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung" 4758:

Germany: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present

4550:. Center of Military History, United States Army. p. 114. 3778:

Korea and Vietnam suffered severely from this division in the

2700: 2409:("wall in the head"), suggesting that despite the fall of the 1948:) was formally presented by the President of the Volkskammer, 1776:

The end of East Germany became clear after the resignation of

1653:(economic restructuring), and taken further by Gorbachev, the 13324:

Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples

13303: 13114: 13070:

American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation

12576: 12359: 10438: 9134:

Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft

3811: 3733: 3533: 3525: 3358:

party, in the 2017 federal election in Germany, final results

2482: 2335: 2125:

now recognizing each another as separate sovereign states in

2083:

The process chosen was one of the two options set out in the

1372: 5843:

Institute of Socio-Economic Geography and Spatial Management

5463:"Opening of the Berlin Wall and Unification: German History" 4654:, Munich: Beck, 1981, (Beck'sche Schwarze Reihe; Vol. 235), 3617:

The subsequent economic restructuring and reconstruction of

3251:

has become a major force in German politics. It was renamed

1599:

General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

1371:

to Poland and the Soviet Union (most for Poland because the

30:

For the unification of most German states in the 1800s, see

12654: 12536: 10428: 10372: 8246: 8244: 7670:"Umfrage: Ost- und Westdeutsche entfernen sich voneinander" 6303:"At Issue: "The Anti-Germans" – The Pro-Israel German Left" 3677:

In 2023, a poll found that 40% of East Germans identify as

3545: 3537: 3468: 3346: 3312: 3113: 2971:

left Germany on 25 June 1994 with a military parade of the

2967:

the withdrawal of the remaining Allied forces. The bulk of

1479: 1303:

On 5 June 1945, with the Berlin Declaration, the defeat of

222: 5588:

Kommers, Donald P.; Miller, Russell A. (9 November 2012).

3600:

burgeoning creative activities. According to Berlin Mayor

3077:) Neisse line, and thus, renouncing any claims to most of 2907:

can be seen parked in the background. Private brands like

2636:

provided strong and decisive support to Kohl's proposals.

530:" during the runup to what Germans frequently refer to as 13109: 13089: 13084: 9346:

Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe

9325: 6981:"Germany's neighbors try to redeem their 1989 negativity" 5899:

European Civil War Films: Memory, Conflict, and Nostalgia

5433:"Soviet Legislature Ratifies German Reunification Treaty" 3922: 2063:—now the flag of a reunited Germany—was raised above the 1403:

as part of their tension in the world led the Soviets to

8933:

Preparing for the Possibility of a North Korean Collapse

8727: 8696: 8665: 8241: 7323:"Allies' Departure Leaves Berlin Without Foreign Troops" 7225:"Treaty on the Final Settlement with respect to Germany" 2749:

I love Germany so much that I prefer to see two of them.

2612:

Mikhail Gorbachev had initially called for a united but

93:

9 November 1989 – 15 March 1991

8495:"Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung (BPA)" 8216: 8214: 8037:

Redding, Stephen J; Sturm, Daniel M (1 November 2008).

6917:"London and Paris were shocked by German reunification" 5023:, Brill | Schöningh, pp. 158–190, 1 January 2014, 4652:

Chronik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1945/49 bis 1981

3962:, annexed by Poland in 1945 and comprising the city of 3775:" and "Eastern-Communist" zones or former occupations. 2405:

regional interests. This state of mind became known as

1924:

signed for the FRG and the East German State Secretary

558:

as it had been introduced by the SED Secretary General

211:

reestablished to become states of the reunified Germany

8850:

Burchardi, Konrad B; Hassan, Tarek A (1 August 2013).

7354:"Did NATO Promise Not to Enlarge? Gorbachev Says "No"" 2936:

Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany

2927:

Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany

2887:

German sovereignty and withdrawal of the Allied Forces

1384:, including territories east of the Oder–Neisse line, 466:/EU) and in international organizations including the 397:

Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany

182:

East Germany dissolves itself effective 3 October 1990

9198:

Berg, Stefan, Steffen Winter and Andreas Wassermann,

6440:. The New Europe: Revolution in East-West Relations. 5836: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5828: 5112:"Despite New Stirrings, Dream of 'One Germany' Fades" 3316:

Soviet and GDR Memorabilia for sale in Berlin in 2006

3172:

respectively. The changes effectively formalized the

2129:. This treaty was then voted into effect by both the 2079:

Fireworks at Brandenburg Gate after the reunification

1335:

between the three main Allies defeating the European

332:

in Germany since 1991. As part of the reunification,

328:), and has thereafter been celebrated each year as a 8994: 8223:

International Journal of Urban and Regional Research

8211: 6520: 6518: 6313:(1/2). Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs: 95–106. 4470:"Beitritt zur BRD: Vom Westen "überrannt"? | MDR.DE" 3625:, which paid large sums of money in the form of the 3255:, and, later, merged with the Western leftist party 2491:

progress that the GDR had made in regard to women's

2113:, as its existence was opposed by the Soviet Union. 542:("German unity"); this is commonly used in Germany. 164:

Reunification of Germany under the Federal Republic

8116: 6876: 6874: 6872: 6870: 6868: 6866: 6864: 6516: 6514: 6512: 6510: 6508: 6506: 6504: 6502: 6500: 6498: 4754: 4548:

The US Army and the Occupation of Germany 1944–1946

4201:"War die deutsche Wiedervereinigung eine Annexion?" 4096: 4094: 2975:in Berlin. This was followed by the closure of the 2754:Giulio Andreotti, Prime Minister of Italy, quoting 2039:part of West Germany, in order to form the city of 512:

process of unification of most of the German states

9211:"An Inside Look at the Reunification Negotiations" 8910: 6972: 6947: 6798: 6796: 6794: 6792: 6790: 6527:"An Inside Look at the Reunification Negotiations" 6474: 6350:International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 5825: 5736: 5734: 5732: 5730: 4734:. Britanncia Educational Publishing. p. 193. 4017: 4015: 4013: 3089:, and the southern area of the former province of 2993:in Berlin, with the presence of Russian President 2719:unified Germany could "make more ground than even 1765:, prominently visible during protests against the 1291:On 19 December 1975, the permanent representative 9234:Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives 9169:Uniting Germany: Documents and Debates, 1944–1993 8703:Pew Research Center | Global Attitudes and Trends 8672:Pew Research Center | Global Attitudes and Trends 8250: 7997: 6832: 6830: 5802: 5800: 5798: 5796: 5794: 5182:. Die Verfassungen in Deutschland. Archived from 4707:. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p. 543. 3712:List of national border changes since World War I 3272:Constitutionally, the Basic Law of West Germany ( 3054:, a city of Germany which belonged to the former 2578: 2043:, which joined the Federal Republic as its third 1952:, to the President of the West German Bundestag, 1871:, on a platform of speedy reunification. Second, 1170:An East German political event on 21 April 1946: 63:Germans stand on top of the Wall in front of the 14222: 13055:List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States 7008: 7006: 6910: 6908: 6861: 6678:"William Taubman. Gorbachev: His Life and Times" 6495: 6448:(1). The Academy of Political Science: 140–152. 4932:"Division 19 officers August 1989 – August 1990" 4170:"Die DDR als Zankapfel in Forschung und Politik" 4091: 1605:, and correspondingly decreased intervention in 1240:Stamp of the Deutsche Bundespost (1957) for the 374:. The border was still closely guarded, but the 11492:North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972 10899:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 9384:Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union 9182:The Unification Treaty (Berlin, 31 August 1990) 9153:, Online Project about German reunification of 9118:43#3 (2000), pp. 869–888, at p. 876. 8849: 7169:"Helmut Kohl's Ten-Point Plan for German Unity" 7080:. Dublin: The European Council. 28 April 1990. 6915:Anne-Laure, Mondesert (AFP) (31 October 2009). 6787: 6585: 6579: 6442:Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science 5727: 5559:"Germany Today – The German Unification Treaty" 5424: 5172: 4976:, Routledge, pp. 43–50, 27 November 2014, 4539: 4050: 4048: 4010: 2727:and would likely dominate Hungary, Poland, and 2725:former German territory lost after World War II 2486:included in the post-unification reform of the 1657:took hold in Poland. Further inspired by other 1625:" which prevent freedom of movement in Berlin. 10165:Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria 9171:(1994), primary sources in English translation 9167:Jarausch, Konrad H., and Volker Gransow, eds. 8734:Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project 8158: 8156: 8154: 7382: 7012: 6836: 6827: 5791: 5394: 4721: 4613:Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe 4055:Brait, Andrea; Gehler, Michael (6 July 2014), 3655: 3621:resulted in significant costs, especially for 2675:Thatcher, who carried in her handbag a map of 2067:, marking the moment of German reunification. 1911: 1825:Berlin Wall, October 1990, saying "Thank you, 589: 368:removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria 13215: 10388: 9254: 8721: 8535:Postwar : a history of Europe since 1945 7821:(15 January 2009). Retrieved 19 October 2010. 7667: 7512: 7003: 6905: 6617:Watson, Geoffrey K.; Baker, James A. (1996). 6069: 6067: 5637:"The Wall Comes Down: A Punctuational Moment" 5587: 4808:Kohl Says He'd Bring ‘Sounder’ Policy in Bonn 4748: 3929:in the Winter and Summer Olympics until 1968. 3447:, which was finished in 2020, but houses the 2847:—recognized that Germany went through a long 2286:that contextualizes different points of view. 2272:to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies 2031:, the capital of East Germany, reunited with 1520:a constitutional amendment the following year 1219:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany 1126: 411:, though only on 31 August 1994 did the last 316:. This date has been chosen as the customary 13131:Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War 10682:Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council 9184:website of CVCE (Centre of European Studies) 8781:"Former East Germany still lags behind west" 8036: 7513:Peterson, Clarissa; Riley, Emmitt Y (2022). 7187: 7160: 7108:"Germany will 'never forget' Ireland's help" 6242: 6240: 6238: 6065: 6063: 6061: 6059: 6057: 6055: 6053: 6051: 6049: 6047: 5643:, Cornell University Press, pp. 13–25, 4783:"Basic Treaty | 1972 | Britannica" 4637:J. Robert Wegs & Robert Ladrech (1996). 4045: 3626: 3368: 3294: 3288: 3281: 3273: 3264: 3202: 3192: 3186: 2639: 2449:, unification sentiments and reemergence of 2420: 2214: 2095: 2088: 2000: 1986: 1978: 1972: 1966: 1960: 1943: 1937: 1796: 994: 880: 553: 546: 537: 474:(UN), while relinquishing membership in the 366:) started to falter on 2 May 1989, when the 347:united into a single city, which eventually 323: 13334:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) 11992:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 8919:(2). Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.: 278–293. 8151: 7991: 6945: 6616: 6296: 6294: 5995: 5993: 5991: 5989: 5866: 5864: 4054: 1744: 1279:Flags of the two Germanies in front of the 217:East German territories reunify within the 13222: 13208: 13095:United States involvement in regime change 10650:1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine 10395: 10381: 9261: 9247: 7785:(in German). 27 April 2009. Archived from 7144:. Houses of the Oireachtas. 3 March 2022. 7138:"Find a Debate – Houses of the Oireachtas" 6914: 5954: 5952: 5950: 5948: 5946: 5944: 4728:Britannica Educational Publishing (2013). 3307:Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records 1474:the international tension's period of the 1133: 1119: 67:in the days before the Wall was torn down. 57: 8875: 8260: 8122: 8095: 7927: 7909: 7878: 7860: 7716: 7698: 7477: 7195:"I Preferred To See It as an Acquisition" 7075:"Special meeting of the European Council" 6343: 6246: 6235: 6073: 6044: 5806: 5301:"Volkskammer der DDR stimmt für Beitritt" 5235: 5233: 5231: 5109: 4198: 4118: 4100: 3802:which delayed the reunification process. 3129:) were treated better by the government. 3117:The Treaty was later supplemented by the 2302:Learn how and when to remove this message 2274:. The specific problem is: See talk page. 8759:Chambers, Madeline (25 September 2019). 8758: 8606: 8538:. New York: Penguin Press. p. 638. 7661: 6880: 6524: 6477:"The Politics of Johann Wolfgang Goethe" 6428: 6426: 6300: 6291: 6186: 6076:"Introduction: The Reunification Debate" 5999: 5986: 5861: 5358: 4377:"Duma May Slam East German 'Annexation'" 4306: 4229: 3968:13 March 1938 Nazi annexation of Austria 3833: 3739: 3715: 3666:According to a 2019 survey conducted by 3612: 3454: 3434: 3411: 3388: 3345: 3319: 3311: 3229: 3137: 3034: 3016: 2950: 2914: 2890: 2867:During a NATO–Warsaw Pact conference in 2699: 2604: 2326:parties of West Germany, especially the 2318:briefly addressed this issue during the 2184: 2148: 2074: 2070: 1915: 1820: 1804: 1783: 1771: 1753: 1577: 1554: 1286: 1274: 1254: 1235: 1224: 1208: 1197: 1164: 1144: 485: 269: 254: 11221:Transition to the New Order (Indonesia) 9789:Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation 9268: 8930:Bennett, Bruce W. (19 September 2013). 8929: 8634: 8330: 7446: 6802: 6399:. Special Issue on German Unification. 6123: 6121: 5958: 5941: 5634: 5062: 4829:Gorbachev : heretic in the Kremlin 4665: 3097:" by Poland as they were once ruled by 1817:of the Berlin Wall on 22 December 1989. 1609:. In 1987, the United States President 1432:zones on 23 May 1949, West Germany was 1315:was confirmed and the German Reich was 14: 14223: 13065:Russian espionage in the United States 11337:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 9472:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 9409:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 8845: 8843: 8841: 8499:Lexikon des gesamten Buchwesens Online 8446: 8444: 8400: 8382:from the original on 23 September 2015 8220: 7410: 7320: 7105: 6978: 6475:Hans-Hermann Hoppe (1 February 2012). 6403:(52). Duke University Press: 173–191. 6394: 5649:10.7591/cornell/9780801449093.003.0001 5228: 4731:Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland 4702: 4696: 4545: 4530: 4063:, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, pp. 9–44, 3142:The reunification made Germany into a 2248: 2180: 1566:(Soviet Union) at the first Summit in 1149:One map about Germany which shows the 13203: 13060:Soviet espionage in the United States 11216:Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966 10995:Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution 10660:1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight 10376: 9819:Initiative for Peace and Human Rights 9242: 8950:from the original on 30 November 2022 8825: 8617:Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 8560:from the original on 13 February 2024 8513:from the original on 13 February 2024 8507:10.1163/9789004337862_lgbo_com_161075 8450: 8312:from the original on 13 February 2024 8255:, transcript Verlag, pp. 77–94, 8199:from the original on 13 February 2024 8162: 8077:from the original on 13 February 2024 8018:from the original on 13 February 2024 8004:. 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A grand coalition was formed under 1813:wait for the official opening of the 1698:to test the reaction of the USSR and 1478:. The capital of West Germany was in 577:referred to the reunification as an ' 288:) was the process of re-establishing 13229: 13136:Soviet Union–United States relations 11487:1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China 8892:from the original on 7 December 2021 8793:from the original on 29 January 2024 8531: 8262:10.14361/transcript.9783839424780.77 7668:Solms-Laubach, Franz (20 May 2009). 7418:"Breaking Down the Wall in the Head" 7364:from the original on 1 November 2019 7321:Kinzer, Stephen (9 September 1994). 7302:from the original on 21 October 2016 7166: 6960:from the original on 11 January 2022 6837:Michael Binyon (11 September 2009). 6803:Volkery, Carsten (9 November 2009). 6438:"The Politics of German Unification" 6337: 6127: 6118: 5740: 5509:from the original on 7 December 2016 5430: 5311:from the original on 2 December 2013 4761:. 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The following month, the first 2594:that "decided to kill millions of 2201:(German Unity Day festivities) in 1883: 1180:merger of two parties, SPD and KPD 468:North Atlantic Treaty Organization 399:), granting on 15 March 1991 full 25: 14292: 11902:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 11837:United States invasion of Grenada 11107:Guinea-Bissau War of Independence 11048:Expulsion of Soviets from Albania 9316:Eastern Bloc media and propaganda 9301:Criticism of communist party rule 9175: 9136:(Harvard University Press, 1997) 8740:from the original on 6 March 2023 8709:from the original on 6 March 2023 8678:from the original on 6 March 2023 8647:from the original on 6 March 2023 8475:from the original on 8 March 2022 7516:Racial Attitudes in America Today 7167:Kohl, Helmut (29 November 1989). 7087:from the original on 2 April 2012 6849:from the original on 16 July 2011 6775:from the original on 6 March 2022 6598:from the original on 7 April 2022 6376:from the original on 25 June 2023 6325:from the original on 6 March 2023 6279:from the original on 6 March 2023 6219:from the original on 6 March 2023 6168:from the original on 6 March 2023 6106:from the original on 6 March 2023 6032:from the original on 6 March 2023 5539:from the original on 9 March 2023 5045:from the original on 6 March 2022 4950:from the original on 12 June 2018 4854:from the original on 6 March 2022 4619:from the original on 31 July 2019 4387:from the original on 18 July 2023 4319:from the original on 18 July 2023 4307:Lungescu, Oana (1 October 2010). 4288:from the original on 18 July 2023 4180:from the original on 18 July 2023 3925:and Germany was represented by a 3384: 3350:Second vote share percentage for 3249:East German socialist state party 2977:United States Army Berlin command 2743: 2320:1983 West German federal election 1603:economic and political stagnation 11977:United States invasion of Panama 11827:1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War 11467:1971 Turkish military memorandum 11430:Communist insurgency in Thailand 11400:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 11332:Communist insurgency in Malaysia 11159:Assassination of John F. Kennedy 11087:Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation 10605:Restatement of Policy on Germany 10362:Human rights in the Soviet Union 9321:Emigration from the Eastern Bloc 9072:Ch. 5. London: Routledge, 2018. 9053: 9039: 9025: 9011: 8997: 8962: 8923: 8904: 8819: 8805: 8773: 8752: 8690: 8659: 8628: 8600: 8572: 8525: 8487: 8394: 8364: 8324: 8278: 8235:10.1111/j.0309-1317.2004.00533.x 8089: 8030: 7952: 7903: 7854: 7824: 7801: 7771: 7741: 7692: 7622: 7598:Joffe, Josef (8 November 2009). 7591: 7561: 7506: 7471: 7447:Cameron, Abadi (7 August 2009). 7440: 6893:from the original on 27 May 2022 6883:"Margaret Thatcher's German war" 6815:from the original on 18 May 2012 6657:from the original on 28 May 2022 6483:from the original on 6 June 2022 5110:Schmemann, Serge (14 May 1989). 4789:from the original on 16 May 2023 4615:. The University of Luxembourg. 4533:The Nuremberg Military Tribunals 4512:from the original on 29 May 2022 4309:"Germany's reunification plunge" 3982: 3973: 3580:), as opposed to London, Paris, 3341:2017 federal election in Germany 3012: 2843:The United States—and President 2656:Margaret Thatcher, December 1989 2257: 1849:Socialist Unity Party of Germany 1792:on 10 November 1989 showing the 1715:, whether Moscow would give the 1099: 1085: 624: 360:Socialist Unity Party of Germany 312:, BRD, or West Germany) to form 125: 113: 14256:1990 in international relations 13426:German revolutions of 1848–1849 13395:Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation) 12697:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 12078:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 12007:Fall of the inner German border 11907:1988 Black Sea bumping incident 11557:Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 11547:Spanish transition to democracy 11507:1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency 11134:Communist insurgency in Sarawak 10640:Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 10521:Occupation of the Baltic states 10270:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 10200:Fall of the inner German border 8451:Jakob, Doreen (December 2010). 7376: 7345: 7314: 7249: 7217: 7130: 7106:Scally, Derek (29 April 2010). 7099: 7067: 7037: 6979:Knight, Ben (8 November 2009). 6946:Peter Allen (2 November 2009). 6939: 6720: 6669: 6549: 6468: 6388: 6307:Jewish Political Studies Review 6180: 5929:from the original on 5 May 2015 5911: 5891: 5628: 5581: 5551: 5521: 5485: 5455: 5293: 5263: 5198: 5142: 5103: 5056: 5009: 4962: 4924: 4878:Nonprofit Communications Report 4866: 4819: 4801: 4775: 4644: 4554: 4546:Ziemke, Earl Frederick (1990). 4524: 4494: 4462: 4429: 4399: 4381:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 4369: 4331: 4300: 4270: 4103:"Die Welt aus den Angeln heben" 4069:10.7767/boehlau.9783205793236.9 3948: 3932: 3914: 3854:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 3123:few remaining Germans in Poland 2783:a country which is also divided 893:German revolutions of 1848–1849 490:1990 Day of German Unity, with 302:Deutsche Demokratische Republik 13411:Early modern period, 1500–1800 13299:List of early Germanic peoples 11477:Four Power Agreement on Berlin 11112:Mozambican War of Independence 10551:Indonesian National Revolution 10260:Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact 9399:Terrorism and the Soviet Union 8588:(in German). 21 September 2015 7836:Tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de 7832:"Facts about Germany: Society" 7635:. 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In 2010, 508:four Allied-occupied countries 386:, a part of the international 13: 1: 13534:History of Germany since 1990 13075:CIA and the Cultural Cold War 12090:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 12043:Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident 11765:1984 Summer Olympics boycotts 11730:Seven Days to the River Rhine 11462:Corrective Revolution (Egypt) 10749:March 1949 Syrian coup d'état 10677:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 10280:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 9879:Inter-regional Deputies Group 9864:National League for Democracy 8826:Hoyer, Katja (7 March 2024). 8401:Mellor, R.E.H. (April 1996). 7480:German Politics & Society 7013:Folli, Stefano (7 May 2013). 5807:Schwedler, Hanns-Uve (2001). 5212:. 1 July 1990. Archived from 4145:. 9 June 2009. 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Biesinger (2006). 4278:"Unification or annexation?" 3820:Taiwan independence movement 3119:Treaty of Good Neighbourship 2221:East German uprising of 1953 1613:gave a famous speech at the 1530:The principle is written in 1489:border between two Germanies 1269:East German uprising of 1953 1151:four Allied occupation zones 454:The reunited state is not a 7: 14236:Contemporary German history 11942:Korean Air Lines Flight 007 11670:Korean Air Lines Flight 902 11415:Corrective Movement (Syria) 11379:New People's Army rebellion 11374:Sino-Soviet border conflict 11102:Angolan War of Independence 10965:Second Taiwan Strait Crisis 10845:1954 Guatemalan coup d'état 10490:Jamaican political conflict 10235:January Events in Lithuania 10170:Hungarian Round Table Talks 9809:Democratic Party of Albania 9230:Problems with Reunification 8290:. 6 June 2003. p. 20. 7755:(in German). Archived from 6074:Brockmann, Stephen (1991). 5921:Schicksalstag der Deutschen 5342:(in German). 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Archived from 3988:For example, the economist 3829: 3656:Views and life satisfaction 3416:East German Prime Minister 3071:German–Polish Border Treaty 2877:weapons of mass destruction 2775:European Economic Community 2347:noted, more exact than the 2231:in 1918, and the defeat of 1965:" (Unification Treaty) or " 1912:German Reunification Treaty 1686:, which was then headed by 1281:United Nations headquarters 590:Precursors to reunification 510:to distinguish it from the 460:European Economic Community 306:Federal Republic of Germany 219:European Economic Community 10: 14297: 13441:North German Confederation 13421:Confederation of the Rhine 12138:Sino-Indian border dispute 11967:First Nagorno-Karabakh War 11897:1987–1989 JVP insurrection 11655:1976 Argentine coup d'état 11567:Turkish invasion of Cyprus 11517:1973 Uruguayan coup d'état 11201:1964 Brazilian coup d'état 11169:Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964 10858:First Taiwan Strait Crisis 10625:Asian Relations Conference 9889:Hungarian Democratic Forum 9884:Alliance of Free Democrats 9874:Union of Democratic Forces 8607:C. 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Most of the 1382:Central and Eastern Europe 898:North German Confederation 868:Confederation of the Rhine 593: 584: 518:(German Reich) led by the 492:flags of all German states 392:GDR's first free elections 310:Bundesrepublik Deutschland 298:German Democratic Republic 286:Deutsche Wiedervereinigung 78:Deutsche Wiedervereinigung 29: 14175: 14035: 13915: 13906: 13789: 13780: 13661: 13652: 13588: 13579: 13542: 13521: 13403: 13357: 13281: 13250: 13241: 13174: 13123: 13045: 13022:William Appleman Williams 12967:Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. 12749: 12721: 12670: 12602: 12595: 12529: 12394: 12319: 12249: 12242: 12151: 12098: 12030: 11743: 11482:Bangladesh Liberation War 11472:1971 Sudanese coup d'état 11387: 11359:1969 Sudanese coup d'état 11347:1968 Peruvian coup d'état 11010: 10785:Arab Cold War (1952–1979) 10762: 10472: 10410: 10354: 10288: 10250:1991 protests in Belgrade 10130: 10055: 9964: 9906: 9897: 9779: 9641: 9588: 9485: 9417: 9354: 9276: 9189:"The End of East Germany" 9149:17 September 2023 at the 9104:(2015), pp. 397–408. 8469:10.1016/j.ccs.2011.01.005 8457:City, Culture and Society 7051:. Dublin. 28 April 1990. 6745:10.1017/S0018246X99001387 6362:10.1163/15718119620907094 5770:10.1080/02665430500397329 5594:. Duke University Press. 4970:"Das Picknick The picnic" 4609:"The division of Germany" 3297:Vergangenheitsbewältigung 3103:all-German free elections 3056:Province of Lower Silesia 2929:—that had been signed in 2820:—retained authority over 2640:United Kingdom and France 2543:Nobel Prize in Literature 2421:Social groups and figures 2216:Tag der deutschen Einheit 1968:Wiedervereinigungsvertrag 1851:—was heavily defeated in 1420:, was established in the 481: 413:Russian occupation troops 325:Tag der deutschen Einheit 244:as the capital of Germany 170:opened on 9 November 1989 160: 138: 108: 89: 72: 56: 44: 13593:Administrative divisions 11797:1980 Turkish coup d'état 11632:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 11602:1978 Somali coup attempt 11562:Second Iraqi–Kurdish War 11527:1973 Chilean coup d'état 11352:Revolutionary Government 11246:South African Border War 11038:1960 Turkish coup d'état 10955:Iraqi 14 July Revolution 10810:1953 Iranian coup d'état 10790:1952 Egyptian revolution 10240:January Events in Latvia 10230:Reunification of Germany 10215:1990s post-Soviet aliyah 10145:1987–1989 Tibetan unrest 9869:National Salvation Front 9854:Belarusian Popular Front 9844:Popular Front of Estonia 9613:Polish underground press 9374:List of socialist states 9087:(2018) pp. 273–291. 8296:10.1787/9789264101470-en 8043:American Economic Review 6727:Spohr, Kristina (2000). 6301:Erlanger, Simon (2009). 6128:Pond, Elizabeth (1990). 5960:Winkler, Heinrich August 5699:10.1787/9789264101470-en 5063:Andreas, Rödder (1967). 4982:10.4324/9781315756943-11 4703:Jessup, John E. (1998). 4475:Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk 4230:Buchholz, Erich (2009). 3889: 3879:Vietnamese reunification 2799:" and the Netherlands's 2669:Soviet General Secretary 2085:West German constitution 1745:Process of reunification 1659:images of brave defiance 1633:had referred to as the " 1619:Soviet General Secretary 1161:) in Germany (1947–1949) 447:; also on the same day, 40:Reunification of Germany 12002:Fall of the Berlin Wall 11947:People Power Revolution 11932:Central American crisis 11872:1986 Black Sea incident 11522:1973 Afghan coup d'état 11420:Western Sahara conflict 11231:1966 Syrian coup d'état 11154:1963 Syrian coup d'état 11097:Portuguese Colonial War 11060:First Iraqi–Kurdish War 10825:1954 Syrian coup d'état 10702:Annexation of Hyderabad 10645:1947–1949 Palestine war 10316:Economic liberalization 10255:1991 Belarusian strikes 10195:Fall of the Berlin Wall 9849:Public Against Violence 9839:Popular Front of Latvia 9618:Political demonstration 9467:Chinese economic reform 9379:People Power Revolution 8705:. Pew Research Center. 8674:. Pew Research Center. 8169:SSRN Electronic Journal 7629:Staab, Andreas (1998). 7519:. New York: Routledge. 7492:10.3167/gps.2019.370303 5069:(in German). C.H.Beck. 4974:Bringing German to Life 4884:(4): 7. 12 March 2019. 3824:North and South Vietnam 3745:Korean Unification Flag 3399:fall of the Berlin Wall 3364:economic reconstruction 2986:Western Group of Forces 2651:! And now they're back! 2469:(Nazis) in singing the 2357:Heinrich August Winkler 1739:fall of the Berlin Wall 1597:had led the country as 1242:political incorporation 228:Two Plus Four Agreement 153:Fall of the Berlin Wall 13854:Science and technology 13555:History of Brandenburg 13446:Unification of Germany 13436:Frankfurt Constitution 12296:Neoclassical economics 11807:Gulf of Sidra incident 11364:1969 Libyan revolution 11055:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 10840:1954 Geneva Conference 10600:Turkish straits crisis 10595:Corfu Channel incident 9450:New political thinking 8335:, Palgrave Macmillan, 7929:10.21825/br.v10i2.3145 7880:10.21825/br.v10i2.3145 7718:10.21825/br.v10i2.3145 6733:The Historical Journal 6134:International Security 5811:. Palgrave Macmillan. 4944:10.1037/e402342005-008 4143:"DRA: Archivnachweise" 3844:Inner German relations 3839: 3748: 3737: 3627: 3572:) or the Netherlands ( 3460: 3452: 3441:Palace of the Republic 3432: 3422:West German Chancellor 3394: 3369: 3359: 3343: 3317: 3295: 3289: 3282: 3274: 3265: 3236: 3217:Southern United States 3203: 3193: 3187: 3164:) and were settled by 3093:(they are called the " 3058: 3032: 2963: 2925:On 15 March 1991, the 2922: 2912: 2853: 2818:Four-Power Authorities 2760: 2708: 2677:Germany's 1937 borders 2662:British Prime Minister 2659: 2617: 2590:, who speculated that 2585:Israeli Prime Minister 2471:German national anthem 2239:against Jews in 1938 ( 2215: 2206: 2107:protectorate of France 2096: 2089: 2080: 2001: 1987: 1979: 1973: 1967: 1961: 1944: 1938: 1929: 1873:East Germany's economy 1830: 1818: 1802: 1797: 1781: 1769: 1621:Mikhail Gorbachev to " 1591: 1575: 1541: 1465:on 7 October 1949, it 1390:French occupation zone 1386:fled and were expelled 1325:Allied Control Council 1300: 1284: 1272: 1252: 1246:new state coat of arms 1233: 1222: 1206: 1195: 1162: 995: 881: 750:Linear Pottery culture 554: 547: 538: 503: 356:East German government 324: 309: 301: 285: 278: 267: 32:Unification of Germany 14261:National unifications 13491:Flight and expulsions 13146:Russia–NATO relations 13027:Jonathan Reed Winkler 12311:Democratic capitalism 12306:Supply-side economics 12274:American conservatism 12073:Breakup of Yugoslavia 11962:Bougainville conflict 11877:South Yemen civil war 11812:Martial law in Poland 11675:Nicaraguan Revolution 11650:Dirty War (Argentina) 11457:1971 JVP insurrection 11271:Years of Lead (Italy) 11149:North Yemen civil war 11067:Berlin Crisis of 1961 11043:Albanian–Soviet split 10975:1959 Tibetan uprising 10940:Syrian Crisis of 1957 10795:Iraqi Intifada (1952) 10655:1948 Arab–Israeli War 10321:Post-Soviet conflicts 10275:Tajikistani Civil War 10225:Revolution on Granite 10185:Monday Demonstrations 9711:Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 9545:Mengistu Haile Mariam 9311:Eastern Bloc politics 9097:(Princeton UP, 1997). 8789:. 25 September 2019. 8341:10.1057/9780230337756 8333:After the Berlin Wall 8055:10.1257/aer.98.5.1766 7525:10.4324/9781003147473 7201:. 29 September 2010. 6623:International Journal 6253:German Studies Review 5750:Planning Perspectives 5600:10.1515/9780822395386 5307:(in German). BPD.de. 4826:Doder, Dusko (1990). 4572:29 March 2017 at the 4120:10.14512/tatup.19.2.8 3954:The territory of the 3837: 3743: 3719: 3613:Cost of reunification 3458: 3438: 3415: 3392: 3349: 3323: 3315: 3233: 3162:a Soviet member state 3138:International effects 3095:Recovered Territories 3061:On 14 November 1990, 3038: 3020: 3000:Charlottenburg Palace 2969:Russian ground forces 2954: 2918: 2894: 2849:democratic transition 2841: 2747: 2703: 2643: 2608: 2433:and strongly opposed 2280:by rewriting it in a 2188: 2149:Unification of Berlin 2078: 2071:Constitutional merger 1919: 1824: 1808: 1787: 1775: 1757: 1733:, was marked by the " 1607:Eastern Bloc politics 1581: 1558: 1527: 1409:blockaded West Berlin 1396:on 17 December 1947. 1394:a French protectorate 1290: 1278: 1258: 1239: 1228: 1212: 1201: 1168: 1148: 676:Territorial evolution 594:Further information: 545:After 1990, the term 489: 370:opened a hole in the 273: 258: 14251:1990 in West Germany 14246:1990 in East Germany 14231:German reunification 14163:World Heritage Sites 13841:German states by GDP 13431:German Confederation 12567:Non-Aligned Movement 12189:Peaceful coexistence 12143:North Borneo dispute 12058:German reunification 12053:Min Ping Yu No. 5202 11751:Salvadoran Civil War 11700:Grand Mosque seizure 11695:Yemenite War of 1979 11587:Mozambican Civil War 11542:Carnation Revolution 11497:Yemenite War of 1972 11435:1970 Polish protests 11266:1967 Hong Kong riots 11241:Argentine Revolution 11191:Guatemalan Civil War 11119:Cuban Missile Crisis 11033:Bay of Pigs Invasion 10905:1956 Poznań protests 10883:Geneva Summit (1955) 10485:Hukbalahap Rebellion 10464:Non-Aligned Movement 9731:Vytautas Landsbergis 9726:Viacheslav Chornovil 9555:Denis Sassou Nguesso 9217:, 29 September 2010. 8936:. RAND Corporation. 8378:. 26 February 2014. 8177:10.2139/ssrn.1021951 5873:Progress in Planning 5467:germanculture.com.ua 4650:Hans Georg Lehmann, 4284:. 1 September 2010. 4236:. Berlin: Homilius. 3869:Korean reunification 3650:Solidarity Surcharge 3628:Solidaritätszuschlag 3509:Oliver Marc Hartwich 3426:mayor of West Berlin 3044:Western Neisse river 3040:German-Polish border 2524:democratic socialism 2395:Dolores L. Augustine 2391:Allensbach Institute 2374:on 4 November 1989, 2057:Two Plus Four Treaty 1950:Sabine Bergmann-Pohl 1584:Monday demonstration 1562:(United States) and 1512:Peaceful coexistence 1504:German–Polish border 1012:Expulsion of Germans 978:Contemporary Germany 876:German Confederation 567:University of Erfurt 436:Two Plus Four Treaty 282:German reunification 14271:Peaceful Revolution 13799:Automobile industry 13385:Carolingian dynasty 13319:History of the Huns 13012:Alex von Tunzelmann 13002:Vladimir Tismăneanu 12927:Thomas J. McCormick 12922:Jack F. Matlock Jr. 12822:Robert Hugh Ferrell 12685:Crusade for Freedom 12482:Illiberal democracy 12366:Ho Chi Minh Thought 12169:Eisenhower Doctrine 12022:Peaceful Revolution 12017:Romanian Revolution 11997:Revolutions of 1989 11982:1988 Polish strikes 11892:Operation INFEKTION 11887:1987 Lieyu massacre 11792:Eritrean Civil Wars 11775:Peruvian Revolution 11725:1979 Herat uprising 11715:Sino-Vietnamese War 11680:Uganda–Tanzania War 11660:Egyptian–Libyan War 11627:Third Indochina War 11622:Sino-Albanian split 11612:Ethiopian Civil War 11512:Eritrean Civil Wars 11452:Ping-pong diplomacy 11425:Cambodian Civil War 11251:Korean DMZ Conflict 11236:Cultural Revolution 11206:Dominican Civil War 11184:Tlatelolco massacre 10970:1959 Mosul uprising 10960:1958 Lebanon crisis 10687:Al-Wathbah uprising 10610:First Indochina War 10580:Iran crisis of 1946 10175:Pan-European Picnic 10150:1988 Polish strikes 9530:Wojciech Jaruzelski 9270:Revolutions of 1989 9206:, 5 September 2005. 9155:Haus der Geschichte 9019:East Germany portal 8532:Judt, Tony (2005). 7842:on 16 February 2010 7813:9 June 2009 at the 7575:. 6 November 2009. 7329:. Berlin, Germany. 7049:European Commission 6954:The Daily Telegraph 6479:. Mises Institute. 6401:New German Critique 6356:(1). Brill: 41–77. 6080:New German Critique 5762:2006PlPer..21...67L 5493:"Bundesgesetzblatt" 5340:www.bundesarchiv.de 4874:"TV Interview Tips" 4816:, August 17th, 1976 4591:16 May 2023 at the 4582:, 23 January 2013; 4535:. OUP. p. 116. 4383:. 29 January 2015. 3960:Free City of Danzig 3864:Irish reunification 3859:Chinese unification 3849:Inner German border 3668:Pew Research Center 3505:deindustrialisation 2946:Sperenberg Airfield 2716:François Mitterrand 2707:(yellow and orange) 2473:in 1933, following 2467:National Socialists 2455:Hermann L. Gremliza 2249:Domestic opposition 2233:Hitler's first coup 2211:Day of German Unity 2181:Day of German Unity 1928:signed for the GDR. 1788:Berlin Wall at the 1759:Flag of the GDR/DDR 1735:Peaceful Revolution 1676:Pan-European Picnic 1674:and Hungary at the 1663:wave of revolutions 1655:Solidarity movement 1623:tear down this wall 1574:on 19 November 1985 1436:established in the 1373:eastern territories 1341:military government 1215:Frankfurt Documents 826:Early Modern period 813:Eastward settlement 432:Revolutions of 1989 388:Revolutions of 1989 384:Peaceful Revolution 376:Pan-European Picnic 314:present-day Germany 240:to form a reunited 148:Peaceful Revolution 143:Revolutions of 1989 51:end of the Cold War 47:Revolutions of 1989 41: 13869:Telecommunications 13550:History of Prussia 13466:Revolution of 1918 13461:War guilt question 13380:Carolingian Empire 13349:Sack of Rome (410) 13258:History of Germany 13166:Russian Revolution 12962:Mary Elise Sarotte 12947:William B. Pickett 12872:Patrick J. Hearden 12852:Gabriel Gorodetsky 12847:Timothy Garton Ash 12832:Anneli Ute Gabanyi 12427:Ethnic nationalism 12179:Hallstein Doctrine 12063:Yemeni unification 11852:1985 Geneva Summit 11817:Casamance conflict 11720:New Jewel Movement 11705:Iranian Revolution 11690:Chadian–Libyan War 11637:Cambodian conflict 11617:Lebanese Civil War 11607:Western Sahara War 11582:June 1976 protests 11577:Cambodian genocide 11342:17 July Revolution 11296:Nigerian Civil War 11211:Rhodesian Bush War 11196:Colombian conflict 11139:Ramadan Revolution 10878:Bandung Conference 10754:Operation Valuable 10635:Partition of India 9535:Slobodan Milošević 9404:Vatican Opposition 9116:Historical Journal 9083:Engel, Jeffrey A. 8868:10.1093/qje/qjt009 7424:. 3 October 2004. 7389:The New York Times 7265:. 26 August 1991. 7025:on 26 October 2014 6927:on 4 November 2009 6694:10.1093/ahr/rhz834 5641:In Uncertain Times 5346:on 20 October 2015 5271:"Leben in der DDR" 5186:on 29 October 2013 5116:The New York Times 4890:10.1002/npcr.31171 4813:The New York Times 4345:. 31 August 2010. 3884:Yemeni unification 3840: 3749: 3738: 3461: 3453: 3445:Berlin City Palace 3433: 3395: 3360: 3344: 3318: 3237: 3225:American Civil War 3059: 3033: 3004:Warren Christopher 2964: 2923: 2913: 2709: 2690:self-determination 2618: 2547:National Socialism 2528:Frank Schirrmacher 2435:German nationalism 2207: 2153:In the context of 2111:disputed territory 2081: 1945:Beitrittserklärung 1930: 1857:Lothar de Maizière 1831: 1819: 1803: 1782: 1770: 1592: 1576: 1549:The New York Times 1333:Potsdam Conference 1301: 1285: 1273: 1253: 1234: 1223: 1207: 1196: 1163: 1106:History portal 1092:Germany portal 843:Kingdom of Prussia 803:Kingdom of Germany 775:Barbarian kingdoms 520:Kingdom of Prussia 504: 496:Reichstag building 441:Germany as a whole 349:became the capital 279: 268: 39: 14218: 14217: 14171: 14170: 13902: 13901: 13816:Chemical Triangle 13776: 13775: 13763:Political parties 13711:Foreign relations 13648: 13647: 13575: 13574: 13486:Allied occupation 13390:Holy Roman Empire 13197: 13196: 13184:List of conflicts 13032:Rudolph Winnacker 12977:Giles Scott-Smith 12952:Ronald E. Powaski 12907:Melvyn P. Leffler 12837:John Lewis Gaddis 12812:Robert D. English 12777:Warren H. Carroll 12767:Michael Beschloss 12736:Nuclear arms race 12717: 12716: 12623:Neues Deutschland 12525: 12524: 12507:White nationalism 12477:Liberal democracy 12214:Ulbricht Doctrine 12204:Brezhnev Doctrine 12012:Velvet Revolution 11756:Soviet–Afghan War 11572:Angolan Civil War 11369:Goulash Communism 11226:ASEAN Declaration 11179:Mexican Dirty War 11077:Annexation of Goa 11028:1960 U-2 incident 11002:Sino-Soviet split 10980:Laotian Civil War 10820:Bricker Amendment 10800:Mau Mau rebellion 10744:Malayan Emergency 10732:Chinese Civil War 10692:Tito–Stalin split 10546:Division of Korea 10370: 10369: 10296:Colour revolution 10126: 10125: 10093:Congo-Brazzaville 9814:Democratic Russia 9771:Pope John Paul II 9766:George H. W. Bush 9716:Vladimir Bukovsky 9505:Mikhail Gorbachev 9500:Nicolae Ceaușescu 9286:Era of Stagnation 9209:Wiegrefe, Klaus, 9195:, 23 August 2005. 9091:Maier, Charles S. 8943:978-0-8330-8172-8 8545:978-1-59420-065-6 8287:Urban Renaissance 8272:978-3-8376-2448-9 8253:The Berlin Reader 7916:Brood & Rozen 7867:Brood & Rozen 7759:on 3 October 2010 7705:Brood & Rozen 7642:978-0-275-96177-0 7534:978-1-003-14747-3 7486:(3): 18–31, 14p. 7449:"The Berlin fall" 7262:Los Angeles Times 7142:www.oireachtas.ie 6592:Los Angeles Times 5818:978-0-333-79368-8 5690:Urban Renaissance 5658:978-0-8014-4909-3 5609:978-0-8223-9538-6 5382:on 4 October 2013 5076:978-3-406-56281-5 5021:Das Tor zur Seele 4991:978-1-315-75694-3 4936:PsycEXTRA Dataset 4768:978-0-8160-7471-6 4741:978-1-61530-991-7 4678:documentArchiv.de 4243:978-3-89706-406-5 4078:978-3-205-79496-7 4061:Grenzöffnung 1989 3956:League of Nations 3943:Werner Weidenfeld 3767:(1967–1990), and 3734:present-day Yemen 3424:Helmut Kohl, and 3087:Farther Pomerania 2857:George H. W. Bush 2845:George H. W. Bush 2665:Margaret Thatcher 2634:George H. W. Bush 2312: 2311: 2304: 2266:This article may 2127:international law 1988:Verfassungsgesetz 1981:Bundesgesetzblatt 1922:Wolfgang Schäuble 1737:" leading to the 1700:Mikhail Gorbachev 1696:Otto von Habsburg 1688:Karl von Habsburg 1684:Paneuropean Union 1639:Brezhnev Doctrine 1595:Mikhail Gorbachev 1590:, 16 October 1989 1564:Mikhail Gorbachev 1552: 1547:Helmuth Kohl for 1418:liberal democracy 1143: 1142: 1074: 1073: 968: 967: 808:Holy Roman Empire 685:Holy Roman Empire 575:Matthias Platzeck 571:Mikhail Gorbachev 358:dominated by the 292:as a single full 253: 252: 16:(Redirected from 14288: 14198: 14191: 14184: 14148:Prussian virtues 13913: 13912: 13821:Economic history 13787: 13786: 13681: 13659: 13658: 13610:Cities and towns 13586: 13585: 13566:Baden Revolution 13370:Treaty of Verdun 13339:Marcomannic Wars 13294:Migration Period 13289:Germanic peoples 13273:Military history 13248: 13247: 13224: 13217: 13210: 13201: 13200: 12942:David S. Painter 12867:John Earl Haynes 12797:Nicholas J. Cull 12782:Adrian Cioroianu 12762:Thomas A. Bailey 12709:Voice of America 12600: 12599: 12512:White separatism 12492:Social democracy 12487:Guided democracy 12467:Authoritarianism 12417:Ultranationalism 12407:Anti-imperialism 12334:Marxism–Leninism 12247: 12246: 12234:Kinmen Agreement 12199:Johnson Doctrine 12184:Kennedy Doctrine 12100:Frozen conflicts 12083:1991 August Coup 11972:Afghan Civil War 11867:Reykjavík Summit 11862:Somali Rebellion 11802:Ugandan Bush War 11780:Gdańsk Agreement 11301:Protests of 1968 11281:War of Attrition 10990:Cuban Revolution 10926:We will bury you 10893:Cyprus Emergency 10873:Kashmir Princess 10863:Jebel Akhdar War 10712:Western betrayal 10397: 10390: 10383: 10374: 10373: 10245:Transnistria War 9904: 9903: 9746:Aung San Suu Kyi 9661:Alexander Dubček 9598:Civil resistance 9455:Sinatra Doctrine 9435:Demokratizatsiya 9336:Shortage economy 9263: 9256: 9249: 9240: 9239: 9130:Condoleezza Rice 9063: 9058: 9057: 9049: 9044: 9043: 9035: 9030: 9029: 9028: 9021: 9016: 9015: 9014: 9007: 9002: 9001: 9000: 8984: 8983: 8981: 8974: 8966: 8960: 8959: 8957: 8955: 8927: 8921: 8920: 8908: 8902: 8901: 8899: 8897: 8879: 8862:(3): 1219–1271. 8847: 8836: 8835: 8823: 8817: 8816: 8809: 8803: 8802: 8800: 8798: 8777: 8771: 8770: 8756: 8750: 8749: 8747: 8745: 8725: 8719: 8718: 8716: 8714: 8694: 8688: 8687: 8685: 8683: 8663: 8657: 8656: 8654: 8652: 8632: 8626: 8625: 8613: 8604: 8598: 8597: 8595: 8593: 8576: 8570: 8569: 8567: 8565: 8529: 8523: 8522: 8520: 8518: 8491: 8485: 8484: 8482: 8480: 8448: 8439: 8438: 8398: 8392: 8391: 8389: 8387: 8368: 8362: 8361: 8328: 8322: 8321: 8319: 8317: 8282: 8276: 8275: 8264: 8248: 8239: 8238: 8218: 8209: 8208: 8206: 8204: 8160: 8149: 8148: 8120: 8114: 8113: 8093: 8087: 8086: 8084: 8082: 8049:(5): 1766–1797. 8034: 8028: 8027: 8025: 8023: 7995: 7989: 7988: 7986: 7984: 7956: 7950: 7949: 7931: 7907: 7901: 7900: 7882: 7858: 7852: 7851: 7849: 7847: 7838:. 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Archived from 5370: 5362: 5356: 5355: 5353: 5351: 5332: 5321: 5320: 5318: 5316: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5286: 5267: 5261: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5237: 5226: 5225: 5223: 5221: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5191: 5176: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5165: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5098: 5096: 5060: 5054: 5053: 5052: 5050: 5013: 5007: 5006: 5005: 5003: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4955: 4928: 4922: 4921: 4919: 4917: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4861: 4859: 4823: 4817: 4805: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4779: 4773: 4772: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4725: 4719: 4718: 4700: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4689: 4669: 4663: 4648: 4642: 4635: 4629: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4605: 4599: 4597:Landtag-Saar.de. 4558: 4552: 4551: 4543: 4537: 4536: 4528: 4522: 4521: 4519: 4517: 4498: 4492: 4491: 4489: 4487: 4466: 4460: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4424: 4422: 4403: 4397: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4373: 4367: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4335: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4304: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4293: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4263: 4227: 4221: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4196: 4190: 4189: 4187: 4185: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4139: 4133: 4132: 4122: 4098: 4089: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4052: 4043: 4042: 4040: 4038: 4019: 3997: 3992:. The historian 3986: 3980: 3977: 3971: 3952: 3946: 3936: 3930: 3918: 3912: 3909: 3903: 3900: 3782:(1950–1953) and 3763:(1949–present), 3759:(1945–present), 3647: 3646: 3645: 3639: 3634: 3630: 3540:), Switzerland ( 3372: 3334: 3300: 3292: 3285: 3279: 3268: 3206: 3196: 3190: 3180:Domestic effects 3174:Oder–Neisse line 3083:East Brandenburg 3075:Lusatian/Western 3022:Oder–Neisse line 2956:Brandenburg Gate 2862:Oskar Lafontaine 2839:later recalled, 2837:Condoleezza Rice 2812:Final settlement 2806:François Mauriac 2793:Giulio Andreotti 2758: 2756:François Mauriac 2731:, leaving "only 2713:French President 2657: 2573:Richard J. Evans 2463:Social Democrats 2403: 2384: 2307: 2300: 2296: 2293: 2287: 2283:balanced fashion 2261: 2260: 2253: 2218: 2123:Federal Republic 2099: 2092: 2065:Brandenburg Gate 2006: 1990: 1984: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1962:Einigungsvertrag 1947: 1941: 1878:East German mark 1861:East German wing 1859:, leader of the 1815:Brandenburg Gate 1800: 1790:Brandenburg Gate 1767:Communist Regime 1615:Brandenburg Gate 1543: 1532:our Constitution 1401:occupied Germany 1369:Oder–Neisse line 1283:, September 1973 1178:(left) seal the 1135: 1128: 1121: 1108: 1104: 1103: 1102: 1094: 1090: 1089: 1088: 1000: 983: 982: 916: 915: 886: 770:Migration Period 765:Germanic peoples 760:Urnfield culture 628: 618: 600: 599: 557: 550: 541: 539:Deutsche Einheit 462:(EC) (later the 428:reunited Germany 409:occupation zones 330:national holiday 327: 319:German Unity Day 131: 129: 128: 119: 117: 116: 104: 102: 98: 85: 73:Native name 65:Brandenburg Gate 61: 42: 38: 21: 14296: 14295: 14291: 14290: 14289: 14287: 14286: 14285: 14241:1990 in Germany 14221: 14220: 14219: 14214: 14201: 14194: 14187: 14180: 14167: 14031: 13982:Life expectancy 13898: 13772: 13743:Law enforcement 13679: 13644: 13571: 13538: 13517: 13501:Divided Germany 13471:Weimar Republic 13399: 13365:Frankish Empire 13353: 13277: 13243: 13237: 13228: 13198: 13193: 13170: 13161:Second Cold War 13119: 13047: 13041: 13017:Odd Arne Westad 13007:Patrick Vaughan 12992:Athan Theoharis 12972:Ellen Schrecker 12957:Yakov M. Rabkin 12932:Timothy Naftali 12877:Tvrtko Jakovina 12862:Jussi Hanhimäki 12745: 12723: 12713: 12691:Paix et Liberté 12666: 12610:Active measures 12591: 12521: 12502:White supremacy 12462:Totalitarianism 12390: 12315: 12238: 12224:Reagan Doctrine 12219:Carter Doctrine 12159:Truman Doctrine 12147: 12094: 12026: 11921:Soviet reaction 11832:Ndogboyosoi War 11739: 11710:Saur Revolution 11537:1973 oil crisis 11502:Munich massacre 11410:Alcora Exercise 11405:Black September 11383: 11129:Sino-Indian War 11023:Simba rebellion 11006: 10850:Capture of the 10758: 10697:Berlin Blockade 10630:May 1947 crises 10620:Truman Doctrine 10585:Greek Civil War 10574:Blacklist Forty 10541:Gouzenko Affair 10528:Cursed soldiers 10480:Morgenthau Plan 10468: 10406: 10401: 10371: 10366: 10350: 10311:Democratization 10301:Decommunization 10284: 10220:Helsinki Summit 10160:April 9 tragedy 10132: 10122: 10051: 9960: 9908: 9899: 9893: 9781: 9775: 9643: 9637: 9590: 9584: 9540:Mathieu Kérékou 9487: 9481: 9413: 9389:Reagan Doctrine 9364:Active measures 9356: 9350: 9341:Totalitarianism 9278: 9272: 9267: 9178: 9164: 9162:Primary sources 9151:Wayback Machine 9126:Zelikow, Philip 9059: 9052: 9045: 9038: 9031: 9026: 9024: 9017: 9012: 9010: 9003: 8998: 8996: 8993: 8991:Further reading 8988: 8987: 8979: 8972: 8968: 8967: 8963: 8953: 8951: 8944: 8928: 8924: 8909: 8905: 8895: 8893: 8848: 8839: 8824: 8820: 8811: 8810: 8806: 8796: 8794: 8779: 8778: 8774: 8757: 8753: 8743: 8741: 8726: 8722: 8712: 8710: 8695: 8691: 8681: 8679: 8664: 8660: 8650: 8648: 8633: 8629: 8611: 8605: 8601: 8591: 8589: 8578: 8577: 8573: 8563: 8561: 8546: 8530: 8526: 8516: 8514: 8493: 8492: 8488: 8478: 8476: 8449: 8442: 8399: 8395: 8385: 8383: 8370: 8369: 8365: 8351: 8329: 8325: 8315: 8313: 8306: 8284: 8283: 8279: 8273: 8249: 8242: 8219: 8212: 8202: 8200: 8161: 8152: 8121: 8117: 8094: 8090: 8080: 8078: 8035: 8031: 8021: 8019: 8012: 7996: 7992: 7982: 7980: 7957: 7953: 7908: 7904: 7859: 7855: 7845: 7843: 7830: 7829: 7825: 7815:Wayback Machine 7806: 7802: 7792: 7790: 7789:on 18 July 2011 7777: 7776: 7772: 7762: 7760: 7747: 7746: 7742: 7697: 7693: 7683: 7681: 7666: 7662: 7652: 7650: 7643: 7627: 7623: 7613: 7611: 7596: 7592: 7582: 7580: 7567: 7566: 7562: 7552: 7550: 7535: 7511: 7507: 7476: 7472: 7462: 7460: 7445: 7441: 7431: 7429: 7416: 7415: 7411: 7401: 7399: 7381: 7377: 7367: 7365: 7350: 7346: 7336: 7334: 7319: 7315: 7305: 7303: 7290: 7289: 7282: 7272: 7270: 7255: 7254: 7250: 7240: 7238: 7234: 7227: 7223: 7222: 7218: 7208: 7206: 7193: 7192: 7188: 7178: 7176: 7165: 7161: 7151: 7149: 7136: 7135: 7131: 7121: 7119: 7112:The Irish Times 7104: 7100: 7090: 7088: 7084: 7077: 7073: 7072: 7068: 7058: 7056: 7043: 7042: 7038: 7028: 7026: 7011: 7004: 6994: 6992: 6977: 6973: 6963: 6961: 6944: 6940: 6930: 6928: 6913: 6906: 6896: 6894: 6879: 6862: 6852: 6850: 6835: 6828: 6818: 6816: 6801: 6788: 6778: 6776: 6725: 6721: 6711: 6709: 6674: 6670: 6660: 6658: 6615: 6611: 6601: 6599: 6584: 6580: 6570: 6568: 6555: 6554: 6550: 6540: 6538: 6523: 6496: 6486: 6484: 6473: 6469: 6454:10.2307/1173819 6431: 6424: 6393: 6389: 6379: 6377: 6342: 6338: 6328: 6326: 6299: 6292: 6282: 6280: 6265:10.2307/4140983 6245: 6236: 6222: 6220: 6185: 6181: 6171: 6169: 6146:10.2307/2538865 6126: 6119: 6109: 6107: 6072: 6045: 6035: 6033: 5998: 5987: 5957: 5942: 5932: 5930: 5917: 5916: 5912: 5896: 5892: 5869: 5862: 5839: 5826: 5819: 5805: 5792: 5782: 5780: 5745: 5739: 5728: 5718: 5716: 5709: 5693:. 6 June 2003. 5687: 5686: 5677: 5668: 5666: 5659: 5633: 5629: 5619: 5617: 5610: 5586: 5582: 5572: 5570: 5569:on 20 July 2008 5557: 5556: 5552: 5542: 5540: 5527: 5526: 5522: 5512: 5510: 5506: 5495: 5491: 5490: 5486: 5476: 5474: 5461: 5460: 5456: 5446: 5444: 5437:AP News Archive 5429: 5425: 5415: 5413: 5400: 5399: 5395: 5385: 5383: 5379: 5368: 5364: 5363: 5359: 5349: 5347: 5334: 5333: 5324: 5314: 5312: 5299: 5298: 5294: 5284: 5282: 5269: 5268: 5264: 5254: 5252: 5245:London.diplo.de 5239: 5238: 5229: 5219: 5217: 5216:on 25 July 2011 5204: 5203: 5199: 5189: 5187: 5178: 5177: 5173: 5163: 5161: 5148: 5147: 5143: 5133: 5131: 5108: 5104: 5094: 5092: 5077: 5061: 5057: 5048: 5046: 5039: 5015: 5014: 5010: 5001: 4999: 4992: 4968: 4967: 4963: 4953: 4951: 4930: 4929: 4925: 4915: 4913: 4872: 4871: 4867: 4857: 4855: 4840: 4824: 4820: 4806: 4802: 4792: 4790: 4781: 4780: 4776: 4769: 4753: 4749: 4742: 4726: 4722: 4715: 4701: 4697: 4687: 4685: 4670: 4666: 4649: 4645: 4636: 4632: 4622: 4620: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4593:Wayback Machine 4579:Deutschlandfunk 4574:Wayback Machine 4559: 4555: 4544: 4540: 4529: 4525: 4515: 4513: 4500: 4499: 4495: 4485: 4483: 4468: 4467: 4463: 4453: 4451: 4441:Washington Post 4435: 4434: 4430: 4420: 4418: 4405: 4404: 4400: 4390: 4388: 4375: 4374: 4370: 4360: 4358: 4337: 4336: 4332: 4322: 4320: 4305: 4301: 4291: 4289: 4276: 4275: 4271: 4261: 4259: 4244: 4228: 4224: 4214: 4212: 4197: 4193: 4183: 4181: 4166: 4162: 4152: 4150: 4149:on 18 July 2011 4141: 4140: 4136: 4099: 4092: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4053: 4046: 4036: 4034: 4021: 4020: 4011: 4006: 4001: 4000: 3987: 3983: 3978: 3974: 3958:mandate of the 3953: 3949: 3937: 3933: 3919: 3915: 3910: 3906: 3901: 3897: 3892: 3832: 3714: 3708: 3664: 3658: 3641: 3640: 3632: 3623:western Germany 3619:eastern Germany 3615: 3610: 3387: 3328: 3199:Russian culture 3182: 3140: 3135: 3015: 2905:Volkswagen Golf 2889: 2881:West German GDP 2873:nuclear weapons 2814: 2779:European summit 2771:Charles Haughey 2759: 2753: 2746: 2658: 2655: 2642: 2581: 2457:, who left the 2423: 2415:Treuhandanstalt 2397: 2378: 2308: 2297: 2291: 2288: 2278:help improve it 2275: 2262: 2258: 2251: 2183: 2151: 2073: 1914: 1906:political union 1886: 1884:Economic merger 1752: 1747: 1647:(openness) and 1553: 1525: 1451:communist state 1365:its territories 1203:Berlin Blockade 1194: 1191:Avraham Pisarek 1187: 1139: 1100: 1098: 1097: 1086: 1084: 1083: 1076: 1075: 1057: 1036: 1003: 980: 970: 969: 940:Weimar Republic 913: 903: 902: 889: 858: 848: 847: 828: 818: 817: 793: 785: 784: 780:Frankish Empire 755:Únětice culture 745: 737: 736: 681:Historic states 636: 616: 609: 598: 592: 587: 484: 470:(NATO) and the 456:successor state 415:leave Germany. 364:communist party 294:sovereign state 126: 124: 123: 114: 112: 100: 96: 94: 76: 68: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 14294: 14284: 14283: 14278: 14273: 14268: 14263: 14258: 14253: 14248: 14243: 14238: 14233: 14216: 14215: 14213: 14212: 14207: 14200: 14199: 14192: 14185: 14177: 14176: 14173: 14172: 14169: 14168: 14166: 14165: 14160: 14155: 14150: 14145: 14140: 14135: 14130: 14125: 14120: 14115: 14110: 14105: 14100: 14095: 14090: 14085: 14080: 14079:Cultural icons 14077: 14072: 14067: 14062: 14057: 14052: 14047: 14041: 14039: 14033: 14032: 14030: 14029: 14024: 14019: 14014: 14009: 14004: 13999: 13994: 13989: 13984: 13979: 13974: 13969: 13964: 13959: 13958: 13957: 13952: 13942: 13937: 13932: 13927: 13922: 13916: 13910: 13904: 13903: 13900: 13899: 13897: 13896: 13891: 13886: 13881: 13876: 13871: 13866: 13861: 13859:Stock exchange 13856: 13851: 13843: 13838: 13833: 13828: 13823: 13818: 13813: 13812: 13811: 13801: 13796: 13790: 13784: 13778: 13777: 13774: 13773: 13771: 13770: 13765: 13760: 13755: 13750: 13745: 13740: 13735: 13734: 13733: 13728: 13723: 13713: 13708: 13703: 13698: 13693: 13688: 13683: 13673: 13668: 13662: 13656: 13650: 13649: 13646: 13645: 13643: 13642: 13637: 13632: 13627: 13622: 13617: 13612: 13607: 13606: 13605: 13600: 13589: 13583: 13577: 13576: 13573: 13572: 13570: 13569: 13563: 13557: 13552: 13546: 13544: 13540: 13539: 13537: 13536: 13531: 13525: 13523: 13519: 13518: 13516: 13515: 13514: 13513: 13508: 13498: 13496:Denazification 13493: 13488: 13483: 13478: 13473: 13468: 13463: 13458: 13453: 13448: 13443: 13438: 13433: 13428: 13423: 13418: 13413: 13407: 13405: 13401: 13400: 13398: 13397: 13392: 13387: 13382: 13377: 13372: 13367: 13361: 13359: 13355: 13354: 13352: 13351: 13346: 13341: 13336: 13331: 13326: 13321: 13316: 13311: 13306: 13301: 13296: 13291: 13285: 13283: 13279: 13278: 13276: 13275: 13270: 13268:Historiography 13265: 13260: 13254: 13252: 13245: 13239: 13238: 13227: 13226: 13219: 13212: 13204: 13195: 13194: 13192: 13191: 13186: 13181: 13175: 13172: 13171: 13169: 13168: 13163: 13158: 13153: 13148: 13143: 13138: 13133: 13127: 13125: 13121: 13120: 13118: 13117: 13112: 13107: 13102: 13097: 13092: 13087: 13082: 13077: 13072: 13067: 13062: 13057: 13051: 13049: 13043: 13042: 13040: 13039: 13034: 13029: 13024: 13019: 13014: 13009: 13004: 12999: 12994: 12989: 12987:Timothy Snyder 12984: 12979: 12974: 12969: 12964: 12959: 12954: 12949: 12944: 12939: 12934: 12929: 12924: 12919: 12917:Vojtech Mastny 12914: 12912:Geir Lundestad 12909: 12904: 12902:Walter Laqueur 12899: 12897:Walter LaFeber 12894: 12889: 12884: 12879: 12874: 12869: 12864: 12859: 12854: 12849: 12844: 12839: 12834: 12829: 12827:André Fontaine 12824: 12819: 12814: 12809: 12804: 12799: 12794: 12789: 12784: 12779: 12774: 12769: 12764: 12759: 12757:Gar Alperovitz 12753: 12751: 12747: 12746: 12744: 12743: 12738: 12733: 12727: 12725: 12719: 12718: 12715: 12714: 12712: 12711: 12706: 12700: 12699: 12694: 12687: 12682: 12674: 12672: 12668: 12667: 12665: 12664: 12657: 12652: 12645: 12638: 12633: 12626: 12619: 12612: 12606: 12604: 12597: 12593: 12592: 12590: 12589: 12584: 12579: 12574: 12569: 12564: 12559: 12554: 12549: 12544: 12539: 12533: 12531: 12527: 12526: 12523: 12522: 12520: 12519: 12514: 12509: 12504: 12499: 12497:Third-Worldism 12494: 12489: 12484: 12479: 12474: 12469: 12464: 12459: 12454: 12449: 12444: 12439: 12434: 12429: 12424: 12419: 12414: 12409: 12404: 12398: 12396: 12392: 12391: 12389: 12388: 12383: 12378: 12373: 12368: 12363: 12356: 12351: 12346: 12341: 12336: 12331: 12325: 12323: 12317: 12316: 12314: 12313: 12308: 12303: 12298: 12293: 12288: 12286:Libertarianism 12283: 12278: 12277: 12276: 12266: 12264:Chicago school 12261: 12255: 12253: 12244: 12240: 12239: 12237: 12236: 12231: 12226: 12221: 12216: 12211: 12209:Nixon Doctrine 12206: 12201: 12196: 12191: 12186: 12181: 12176: 12171: 12166: 12161: 12155: 12153: 12152:Foreign policy 12149: 12148: 12146: 12145: 12140: 12135: 12130: 12125: 12120: 12115: 12110: 12104: 12102: 12096: 12095: 12093: 12092: 12087: 12086: 12085: 12075: 12070: 12065: 12060: 12055: 12050: 12045: 12040: 12034: 12032: 12028: 12027: 12025: 12024: 12019: 12014: 12009: 12004: 11999: 11994: 11989: 11984: 11979: 11974: 11969: 11964: 11959: 11954: 11949: 11944: 11939: 11937:Operation RYAN 11934: 11929: 11924: 11914: 11909: 11904: 11899: 11894: 11889: 11884: 11879: 11874: 11869: 11864: 11859: 11854: 11849: 11844: 11842:Able Archer 83 11839: 11834: 11829: 11824: 11819: 11814: 11809: 11804: 11799: 11794: 11789: 11788: 11787: 11777: 11772: 11767: 11758: 11753: 11747: 11745: 11741: 11740: 11738: 11737: 11732: 11727: 11722: 11717: 11712: 11707: 11702: 11697: 11692: 11687: 11682: 11677: 11672: 11667: 11662: 11657: 11652: 11647: 11639: 11634: 11629: 11624: 11619: 11614: 11609: 11604: 11599: 11594: 11592:Oromo conflict 11589: 11584: 11579: 11574: 11569: 11564: 11559: 11554: 11549: 11544: 11539: 11534: 11532:Yom Kippur War 11529: 11524: 11519: 11514: 11509: 11504: 11499: 11494: 11489: 11484: 11479: 11474: 11469: 11464: 11459: 11454: 11449: 11442: 11437: 11432: 11427: 11422: 11417: 11412: 11407: 11402: 11397: 11391: 11389: 11385: 11384: 11382: 11381: 11376: 11371: 11366: 11361: 11356: 11355: 11354: 11344: 11339: 11334: 11329: 11324: 11315: 11310: 11309: 11308: 11298: 11293: 11288: 11283: 11278: 11273: 11268: 11263: 11258: 11253: 11248: 11243: 11238: 11233: 11228: 11223: 11218: 11213: 11208: 11203: 11198: 11193: 11188: 11187: 11186: 11176: 11171: 11166: 11164:Aden Emergency 11161: 11156: 11151: 11146: 11141: 11136: 11131: 11126: 11121: 11116: 11115: 11114: 11109: 11104: 11094: 11089: 11084: 11082:Papua conflict 11079: 11074: 11069: 11064: 11063: 11062: 11052: 11051: 11050: 11040: 11035: 11030: 11025: 11020: 11014: 11012: 11008: 11007: 11005: 11004: 10999: 10998: 10997: 10987: 10985:Kitchen Debate 10982: 10977: 10972: 10967: 10962: 10957: 10952: 10947: 10945:Sputnik crisis 10942: 10937: 10929: 10922: 10917: 10915:Polish October 10912: 10907: 10902: 10895: 10890: 10885: 10880: 10875: 10870: 10865: 10860: 10855: 10847: 10842: 10837: 10832: 10827: 10822: 10817: 10815:Pact of Madrid 10812: 10807: 10802: 10797: 10792: 10787: 10782: 10777: 10772: 10770:Bamboo Curtain 10766: 10764: 10760: 10759: 10757: 10756: 10751: 10746: 10741: 10740: 10739: 10729: 10724: 10719: 10714: 10709: 10704: 10699: 10694: 10689: 10684: 10679: 10674: 10669: 10664: 10663: 10662: 10657: 10652: 10642: 10637: 10632: 10627: 10622: 10617: 10612: 10607: 10602: 10597: 10592: 10587: 10582: 10577: 10569: 10561: 10553: 10548: 10543: 10538: 10530: 10525: 10524: 10523: 10518: 10510: 10497: 10492: 10487: 10482: 10476: 10474: 10470: 10469: 10467: 10466: 10461: 10456: 10451: 10446: 10441: 10436: 10431: 10426: 10419: 10411: 10408: 10407: 10400: 10399: 10392: 10385: 10377: 10368: 10367: 10365: 10364: 10358: 10356: 10352: 10351: 10349: 10348: 10343: 10338: 10336:Post-communism 10333: 10328: 10323: 10318: 10313: 10308: 10303: 10298: 10292: 10290: 10286: 10285: 10283: 10282: 10277: 10272: 10267: 10262: 10257: 10252: 10247: 10242: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10222: 10217: 10212: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10192: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10172: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10152: 10147: 10142: 10136: 10134: 10128: 10127: 10124: 10123: 10121: 10120: 10115: 10110: 10105: 10100: 10095: 10090: 10085: 10080: 10075: 10070: 10065: 10059: 10057: 10053: 10052: 10050: 10049: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10019: 10014: 10009: 10004: 9999: 9994: 9989: 9984: 9979: 9974: 9968: 9966: 9962: 9961: 9959: 9958: 9953: 9948: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9926:Czechoslovakia 9923: 9918: 9912: 9910: 9909:Eastern Europe 9901: 9895: 9894: 9892: 9891: 9886: 9881: 9876: 9871: 9866: 9861: 9856: 9851: 9846: 9841: 9836: 9831: 9826: 9821: 9816: 9811: 9806: 9801: 9796: 9791: 9785: 9783: 9777: 9776: 9774: 9773: 9768: 9763: 9758: 9756:Isaias Afwerki 9753: 9748: 9743: 9738: 9736:Zianon Pazniak 9733: 9728: 9723: 9718: 9713: 9708: 9703: 9698: 9693: 9688: 9683: 9678: 9673: 9668: 9663: 9658: 9653: 9647: 9645: 9639: 9638: 9636: 9635: 9630: 9625: 9620: 9615: 9610: 9605: 9600: 9594: 9592: 9586: 9585: 9583: 9582: 9577: 9572: 9567: 9562: 9557: 9552: 9547: 9542: 9537: 9532: 9527: 9522: 9517: 9515:Erich Honecker 9512: 9507: 9502: 9497: 9491: 9489: 9483: 9482: 9480: 9479: 9474: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9458: 9457: 9452: 9447: 9442: 9437: 9427: 9421: 9419: 9415: 9414: 9412: 9411: 9406: 9401: 9396: 9391: 9386: 9381: 9376: 9371: 9366: 9360: 9358: 9352: 9351: 9349: 9348: 9343: 9338: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9313: 9308: 9303: 9298: 9296:Anti-communism 9293: 9288: 9282: 9280: 9274: 9273: 9266: 9265: 9258: 9251: 9243: 9237: 9236: 9227: 9218: 9207: 9196: 9187:Hessler, Uwe, 9185: 9177: 9176:External links 9174: 9173: 9172: 9163: 9160: 9159: 9158: 9144:Sites of Unity 9141: 9123: 9112: 9105: 9100:Meacham, Jon. 9098: 9088: 9081: 9078:978-1138731349 9065: 9064: 9050: 9036: 9033:History portal 9022: 9008: 9005:Germany portal 8992: 8989: 8986: 8985: 8961: 8942: 8922: 8903: 8837: 8818: 8804: 8786:Deutsche Welle 8772: 8751: 8720: 8689: 8658: 8627: 8599: 8571: 8544: 8524: 8486: 8463:(4): 193–198. 8440: 8413:(2): 185–186. 8393: 8363: 8350:978-0230337756 8349: 8323: 8305:978-9264101463 8304: 8277: 8271: 8240: 8229:(3): 511–529. 8210: 8150: 8115: 8104:(3): 284–294. 8088: 8029: 8010: 7990: 7951: 7902: 7853: 7823: 7800: 7770: 7740: 7691: 7660: 7641: 7621: 7610:on 7 July 2011 7590: 7560: 7533: 7505: 7470: 7453:Foreign Policy 7439: 7422:Deutsche Welle 7409: 7375: 7344: 7313: 7280: 7248: 7237:on 9 July 2017 7216: 7186: 7159: 7129: 7098: 7066: 7036: 7019:Il Sole 24 Ore 7002: 6985:Deutsche Welle 6971: 6938: 6921:Calgary Herald 6904: 6860: 6826: 6786: 6739:(3): 869–888. 6719: 6668: 6629:(3): 214–216. 6609: 6578: 6548: 6494: 6467: 6422: 6409:10.2307/488195 6387: 6336: 6290: 6234: 6205:10.1086/269295 6179: 6117: 6092:10.2307/488182 6043: 6018:10.1086/269295 5985: 5974:(1): 107–127. 5940: 5910: 5890: 5860: 5849:(5): 348–357. 5824: 5817: 5790: 5726: 5708:978-9264101463 5707: 5675: 5657: 5627: 5608: 5580: 5550: 5520: 5484: 5454: 5423: 5412:on 16 May 2013 5406:Deutschland.de 5393: 5357: 5322: 5292: 5262: 5251:on 7 June 2010 5227: 5197: 5171: 5141: 5102: 5075: 5055: 5038:978-3657779352 5037: 5008: 4990: 4961: 4923: 4865: 4838: 4818: 4800: 4774: 4767: 4747: 4740: 4720: 4714:978-0313281129 4713: 4695: 4664: 4643: 4630: 4600: 4553: 4538: 4523: 4508:. 5 May 2022. 4493: 4461: 4428: 4398: 4368: 4330: 4299: 4269: 4242: 4222: 4191: 4160: 4134: 4090: 4077: 4044: 4008: 4007: 4005: 4002: 3999: 3998: 3981: 3972: 3947: 3939:Kristina Spohr 3931: 3913: 3904: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3887: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3831: 3828: 3812:Mainland China 3747:(1991–present) 3736:on 22 May 1990 3707: 3704: 3672:market economy 3657: 3654: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3602:Klaus Wowereit 3570:Washington, DC 3556:), Australia ( 3514:mass migration 3449:Humboldt Forum 3386: 3385:Unified Berlin 3383: 3324:Percentage of 3305:-Behörde, the 3221:Reconstruction 3213:Southern Italy 3181: 3178: 3139: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3050:of Poland and 3014: 3011: 2941:Supreme Soviet 2888: 2885: 2813: 2810: 2751: 2745: 2744:Rest of Europe 2742: 2729:Czechoslovakia 2653: 2641: 2638: 2632:and President 2630:James A. Baker 2623:German economy 2588:Yitzhak Shamir 2580: 2577: 2552:German culture 2541:, who won the 2512:Manfred Stolpe 2497:legal equality 2422: 2419: 2376:Elizabeth Pond 2310: 2309: 2265: 2263: 2256: 2250: 2247: 2193:and President 2182: 2179: 2155:urban planning 2150: 2147: 2072: 2069: 1926:Günther Krause 1913: 1910: 1885: 1882: 1778:Erich Honecker 1751: 1748: 1746: 1743: 1704:Erich Honecker 1617:, challenging 1542: 1459:public economy 1349:United Kingdom 1343:of either the 1329:having Austria 1297:Hans Nimmerich 1188: 1182:, to form the 1172:Otto Grotewohl 1169: 1157:not including 1141: 1140: 1138: 1137: 1130: 1123: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1110: 1109: 1095: 1078: 1077: 1072: 1071: 1068: 1066:Modern history 1062: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1055: 1050: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1034: 1021: 1018: 1017: 1014: 1008: 1007: 1006:1945–1949/1952 1004: 1002: 1001: 992: 986: 981: 976: 975: 972: 971: 966: 965: 962: 956: 955: 952: 946: 945: 942: 936: 935: 932: 926: 925: 922: 914: 909: 908: 905: 904: 901: 900: 895: 890: 888: 887: 878: 872: 870: 865: 859: 854: 853: 850: 849: 846: 845: 840: 835: 829: 824: 823: 820: 819: 816: 815: 810: 805: 800: 794: 791: 790: 787: 786: 783: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 746: 743: 742: 739: 738: 735: 734: 688: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 646:Historiography 643: 637: 634: 633: 630: 629: 621: 620: 611: 610: 603: 591: 588: 586: 583: 483: 480: 472:United Nations 464:European Union 449:modern Germany 445:3 October 1990 308:(FRG; German: 300:(GDR; German: 277:(1990–present) 251: 250: 249: 248: 245: 231: 225: 215: 212: 183: 180: 177: 174:Free elections 171: 162: 158: 157: 156: 155: 150: 140: 136: 135: 110: 106: 105: 91: 87: 86: 74: 70: 69: 62: 54: 53: 26: 18:German reunion 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14293: 14282: 14279: 14277: 14274: 14272: 14269: 14267: 14264: 14262: 14259: 14257: 14254: 14252: 14249: 14247: 14244: 14242: 14239: 14237: 14234: 14232: 14229: 14228: 14226: 14211: 14208: 14206: 14203: 14202: 14197: 14193: 14190: 14186: 14183: 14179: 14178: 14174: 14164: 14161: 14159: 14156: 14154: 14151: 14149: 14146: 14144: 14141: 14139: 14136: 14134: 14131: 14129: 14126: 14124: 14121: 14119: 14116: 14114: 14111: 14109: 14106: 14104: 14101: 14099: 14096: 14094: 14091: 14089: 14086: 14084: 14081: 14078: 14076: 14073: 14071: 14068: 14066: 14063: 14061: 14058: 14056: 14053: 14051: 14048: 14046: 14043: 14042: 14040: 14038: 14034: 14028: 14025: 14023: 14022:Social issues 14020: 14018: 14015: 14013: 14010: 14008: 14005: 14003: 14000: 13998: 13995: 13993: 13990: 13988: 13985: 13983: 13980: 13978: 13975: 13973: 13970: 13968: 13965: 13963: 13960: 13956: 13953: 13951: 13950:Ethnic groups 13948: 13947: 13946: 13943: 13941: 13938: 13936: 13933: 13931: 13928: 13926: 13923: 13921: 13918: 13917: 13914: 13911: 13909: 13905: 13895: 13892: 13890: 13887: 13885: 13882: 13880: 13877: 13875: 13872: 13870: 13867: 13865: 13862: 13860: 13857: 13855: 13852: 13850: 13848: 13844: 13842: 13839: 13837: 13834: 13832: 13829: 13827: 13824: 13822: 13819: 13817: 13814: 13810: 13807: 13806: 13805: 13802: 13800: 13797: 13795: 13792: 13791: 13788: 13785: 13783: 13779: 13769: 13766: 13764: 13761: 13759: 13756: 13754: 13751: 13749: 13746: 13744: 13741: 13739: 13736: 13732: 13729: 13727: 13724: 13722: 13719: 13718: 13717: 13714: 13712: 13709: 13707: 13704: 13702: 13699: 13697: 13694: 13692: 13689: 13687: 13684: 13682: 13678: 13674: 13672: 13669: 13667: 13664: 13663: 13660: 13657: 13655: 13651: 13641: 13638: 13636: 13633: 13631: 13628: 13626: 13623: 13621: 13618: 13616: 13613: 13611: 13608: 13604: 13601: 13599: 13596: 13595: 13594: 13591: 13590: 13587: 13584: 13582: 13578: 13567: 13564: 13561: 13558: 13556: 13553: 13551: 13548: 13547: 13545: 13541: 13535: 13532: 13530: 13529:Reunification 13527: 13526: 13524: 13520: 13512: 13509: 13507: 13504: 13503: 13502: 13499: 13497: 13494: 13492: 13489: 13487: 13484: 13482: 13479: 13477: 13474: 13472: 13469: 13467: 13464: 13462: 13459: 13457: 13454: 13452: 13451:German Empire 13449: 13447: 13444: 13442: 13439: 13437: 13434: 13432: 13429: 13427: 13424: 13422: 13419: 13417: 13414: 13412: 13409: 13408: 13406: 13402: 13396: 13393: 13391: 13388: 13386: 13383: 13381: 13378: 13376: 13373: 13371: 13368: 13366: 13363: 13362: 13360: 13356: 13350: 13347: 13345: 13342: 13340: 13337: 13335: 13332: 13330: 13327: 13325: 13322: 13320: 13317: 13315: 13312: 13310: 13307: 13305: 13302: 13300: 13297: 13295: 13292: 13290: 13287: 13286: 13284: 13280: 13274: 13271: 13269: 13266: 13264: 13261: 13259: 13256: 13255: 13253: 13249: 13246: 13240: 13236: 13232: 13225: 13220: 13218: 13213: 13211: 13206: 13205: 13202: 13190: 13187: 13185: 13182: 13180: 13177: 13176: 13173: 13167: 13164: 13162: 13159: 13157: 13154: 13152: 13151:War on terror 13149: 13147: 13144: 13142: 13139: 13137: 13134: 13132: 13129: 13128: 13126: 13122: 13116: 13113: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13103: 13101: 13098: 13096: 13093: 13091: 13088: 13086: 13083: 13081: 13078: 13076: 13073: 13071: 13068: 13066: 13063: 13061: 13058: 13056: 13053: 13052: 13050: 13046:Espionage and 13044: 13038: 13035: 13033: 13030: 13028: 13025: 13023: 13020: 13018: 13015: 13013: 13010: 13008: 13005: 13003: 13000: 12998: 12997:Andrew Thorpe 12995: 12993: 12990: 12988: 12985: 12983: 12980: 12978: 12975: 12973: 12970: 12968: 12965: 12963: 12960: 12958: 12955: 12953: 12950: 12948: 12945: 12943: 12940: 12938: 12935: 12933: 12930: 12928: 12925: 12923: 12920: 12918: 12915: 12913: 12910: 12908: 12905: 12903: 12900: 12898: 12895: 12893: 12892:Gabriel Kolko 12890: 12888: 12885: 12883: 12880: 12878: 12875: 12873: 12870: 12868: 12865: 12863: 12860: 12858: 12857:Fred Halliday 12855: 12853: 12850: 12848: 12845: 12843: 12842:Lloyd Gardner 12840: 12838: 12835: 12833: 12830: 12828: 12825: 12823: 12820: 12818: 12815: 12813: 12810: 12808: 12805: 12803: 12802:Norman Davies 12800: 12798: 12795: 12793: 12790: 12788: 12787:John Costello 12785: 12783: 12780: 12778: 12775: 12773: 12770: 12768: 12765: 12763: 12760: 12758: 12755: 12754: 12752: 12748: 12742: 12739: 12737: 12734: 12732: 12729: 12728: 12726: 12722:Technological 12720: 12710: 12707: 12705: 12702: 12701: 12698: 12695: 12693: 12692: 12688: 12686: 12683: 12681: 12680: 12676: 12675: 12673: 12669: 12663: 12662: 12658: 12656: 12653: 12651: 12650: 12646: 12644: 12643: 12639: 12637: 12634: 12632: 12631: 12627: 12625: 12624: 12620: 12618: 12617: 12613: 12611: 12608: 12607: 12605: 12603:Pro-communist 12601: 12598: 12594: 12588: 12585: 12583: 12580: 12578: 12575: 12573: 12570: 12568: 12565: 12563: 12560: 12558: 12555: 12553: 12550: 12548: 12545: 12543: 12540: 12538: 12535: 12534: 12532: 12530:Organizations 12528: 12518: 12515: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12505: 12503: 12500: 12498: 12495: 12493: 12490: 12488: 12485: 12483: 12480: 12478: 12475: 12473: 12470: 12468: 12465: 12463: 12460: 12458: 12455: 12453: 12450: 12448: 12445: 12443: 12440: 12438: 12435: 12433: 12430: 12428: 12425: 12423: 12420: 12418: 12415: 12413: 12410: 12408: 12405: 12403: 12400: 12399: 12397: 12393: 12387: 12384: 12382: 12379: 12377: 12374: 12372: 12369: 12367: 12364: 12362: 12361: 12357: 12355: 12352: 12350: 12347: 12345: 12344:Eurocommunism 12342: 12340: 12337: 12335: 12332: 12330: 12327: 12326: 12324: 12322: 12318: 12312: 12309: 12307: 12304: 12302: 12299: 12297: 12294: 12292: 12289: 12287: 12284: 12282: 12279: 12275: 12272: 12271: 12270: 12267: 12265: 12262: 12260: 12257: 12256: 12254: 12252: 12248: 12245: 12241: 12235: 12232: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12222: 12220: 12217: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12205: 12202: 12200: 12197: 12195: 12192: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12180: 12177: 12175: 12174:Domino theory 12172: 12170: 12167: 12165: 12162: 12160: 12157: 12156: 12154: 12150: 12144: 12141: 12139: 12136: 12134: 12131: 12129: 12128:South Ossetia 12126: 12124: 12121: 12119: 12116: 12114: 12111: 12109: 12106: 12105: 12103: 12101: 12097: 12091: 12088: 12084: 12081: 12080: 12079: 12076: 12074: 12071: 12069: 12066: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12036: 12035: 12033: 12029: 12023: 12020: 12018: 12015: 12013: 12010: 12008: 12005: 12003: 12000: 11998: 11995: 11993: 11990: 11988: 11985: 11983: 11980: 11978: 11975: 11973: 11970: 11968: 11965: 11963: 11960: 11958: 11955: 11953: 11950: 11948: 11945: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11930: 11928: 11925: 11922: 11918: 11915: 11913: 11912:8888 Uprising 11910: 11908: 11905: 11903: 11900: 11898: 11895: 11893: 11890: 11888: 11885: 11883: 11880: 11878: 11875: 11873: 11870: 11868: 11865: 11863: 11860: 11858: 11857:Iran–Iraq War 11855: 11853: 11850: 11848: 11845: 11843: 11840: 11838: 11835: 11833: 11830: 11828: 11825: 11823: 11822:Falklands War 11820: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11810: 11808: 11805: 11803: 11800: 11798: 11795: 11793: 11790: 11786: 11783: 11782: 11781: 11778: 11776: 11773: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11762: 11759: 11757: 11754: 11752: 11749: 11748: 11746: 11742: 11736: 11733: 11731: 11728: 11726: 11723: 11721: 11718: 11716: 11713: 11711: 11708: 11706: 11703: 11701: 11698: 11696: 11693: 11691: 11688: 11686: 11685:NDF Rebellion 11683: 11681: 11678: 11676: 11673: 11671: 11668: 11666: 11665:German Autumn 11663: 11661: 11658: 11656: 11653: 11651: 11648: 11646: 11645: 11640: 11638: 11635: 11633: 11630: 11628: 11625: 11623: 11620: 11618: 11615: 11613: 11610: 11608: 11605: 11603: 11600: 11598: 11595: 11593: 11590: 11588: 11585: 11583: 11580: 11578: 11575: 11573: 11570: 11568: 11565: 11563: 11560: 11558: 11555: 11553: 11552:Metapolitefsi 11550: 11548: 11545: 11543: 11540: 11538: 11535: 11533: 11530: 11528: 11525: 11523: 11520: 11518: 11515: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11503: 11500: 11498: 11495: 11493: 11490: 11488: 11485: 11483: 11480: 11478: 11475: 11473: 11470: 11468: 11465: 11463: 11460: 11458: 11455: 11453: 11450: 11448: 11447: 11443: 11441: 11438: 11436: 11433: 11431: 11428: 11426: 11423: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11413: 11411: 11408: 11406: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11396: 11393: 11392: 11390: 11386: 11380: 11377: 11375: 11372: 11370: 11367: 11365: 11362: 11360: 11357: 11353: 11350: 11349: 11348: 11345: 11343: 11340: 11338: 11335: 11333: 11330: 11328: 11325: 11323: 11321: 11316: 11314: 11313:Prague Spring 11311: 11307: 11304: 11303: 11302: 11299: 11297: 11294: 11292: 11291:Al-Wadiah War 11289: 11287: 11284: 11282: 11279: 11277: 11274: 11272: 11269: 11267: 11264: 11262: 11259: 11257: 11256:12-3 incident 11254: 11252: 11249: 11247: 11244: 11242: 11239: 11237: 11234: 11232: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11219: 11217: 11214: 11212: 11209: 11207: 11204: 11202: 11199: 11197: 11194: 11192: 11189: 11185: 11182: 11181: 11180: 11177: 11175: 11172: 11170: 11167: 11165: 11162: 11160: 11157: 11155: 11152: 11150: 11147: 11145: 11142: 11140: 11137: 11135: 11132: 11130: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11117: 11113: 11110: 11108: 11105: 11103: 11100: 11099: 11098: 11095: 11093: 11090: 11088: 11085: 11083: 11080: 11078: 11075: 11073: 11070: 11068: 11065: 11061: 11058: 11057: 11056: 11053: 11049: 11046: 11045: 11044: 11041: 11039: 11036: 11034: 11031: 11029: 11026: 11024: 11021: 11019: 11016: 11015: 11013: 11009: 11003: 11000: 10996: 10993: 10992: 10991: 10988: 10986: 10983: 10981: 10978: 10976: 10973: 10971: 10968: 10966: 10963: 10961: 10958: 10956: 10953: 10951: 10948: 10946: 10943: 10941: 10938: 10936: 10935: 10930: 10927: 10923: 10921: 10918: 10916: 10913: 10911: 10908: 10906: 10903: 10900: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10886: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10874: 10871: 10869: 10866: 10864: 10861: 10859: 10856: 10854: 10853: 10848: 10846: 10843: 10841: 10838: 10836: 10835:Domino theory 10833: 10831: 10830:Petrov Affair 10828: 10826: 10823: 10821: 10818: 10816: 10813: 10811: 10808: 10806: 10803: 10801: 10798: 10796: 10793: 10791: 10788: 10786: 10783: 10781: 10778: 10776: 10773: 10771: 10768: 10767: 10765: 10761: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10745: 10742: 10738: 10735: 10734: 10733: 10730: 10728: 10725: 10723: 10720: 10718: 10715: 10713: 10710: 10708: 10707:Madiun Affair 10705: 10703: 10700: 10698: 10695: 10693: 10690: 10688: 10685: 10683: 10680: 10678: 10675: 10673: 10670: 10668: 10667:Marshall Plan 10665: 10661: 10658: 10656: 10653: 10651: 10648: 10647: 10646: 10643: 10641: 10638: 10636: 10633: 10631: 10628: 10626: 10623: 10621: 10618: 10616: 10613: 10611: 10608: 10606: 10603: 10601: 10598: 10596: 10593: 10591: 10588: 10586: 10583: 10581: 10578: 10576: 10575: 10570: 10568: 10567: 10562: 10560: 10559: 10554: 10552: 10549: 10547: 10544: 10542: 10539: 10537: 10536: 10531: 10529: 10526: 10522: 10519: 10517: 10516: 10511: 10509: 10508: 10503: 10502: 10501: 10498: 10496: 10493: 10491: 10488: 10486: 10483: 10481: 10478: 10477: 10475: 10471: 10465: 10462: 10460: 10457: 10455: 10452: 10450: 10447: 10445: 10442: 10440: 10437: 10435: 10432: 10430: 10427: 10425: 10424: 10420: 10418: 10417: 10416:United States 10413: 10412: 10409: 10405: 10398: 10393: 10391: 10386: 10384: 10379: 10378: 10375: 10363: 10360: 10359: 10357: 10353: 10347: 10344: 10342: 10341:Yugoslav Wars 10339: 10337: 10334: 10332: 10331:Neo-Stalinism 10329: 10327: 10326:Neo-Sovietism 10324: 10322: 10319: 10317: 10314: 10312: 10309: 10307: 10304: 10302: 10299: 10297: 10294: 10293: 10291: 10287: 10281: 10278: 10276: 10273: 10271: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10261: 10258: 10256: 10253: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10211: 10210:Black January 10208: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10181: 10178: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10161: 10158: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10148: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10137: 10135: 10129: 10119: 10116: 10114: 10111: 10109: 10106: 10104: 10101: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10079: 10076: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10060: 10058: 10054: 10048: 10045: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10013: 10010: 10008: 10005: 10003: 10000: 9998: 9995: 9993: 9990: 9988: 9985: 9983: 9980: 9978: 9975: 9973: 9970: 9969: 9967: 9963: 9957: 9954: 9952: 9949: 9947: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9922: 9919: 9917: 9914: 9913: 9911: 9905: 9902: 9896: 9890: 9887: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9875: 9872: 9870: 9867: 9865: 9862: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9835: 9832: 9830: 9827: 9825: 9822: 9820: 9817: 9815: 9812: 9810: 9807: 9805: 9802: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9790: 9787: 9786: 9784: 9778: 9772: 9769: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9761:Ronald Reagan 9759: 9757: 9754: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9744: 9742: 9741:Zhelyu Zhelev 9739: 9737: 9734: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9724: 9722: 9721:Boris Yeltsin 9719: 9717: 9714: 9712: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9701:Joachim Gauck 9699: 9697: 9694: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9682: 9679: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9664: 9662: 9659: 9657: 9654: 9652: 9649: 9648: 9646: 9640: 9634: 9633:Strike action 9631: 9629: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9619: 9616: 9614: 9611: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9599: 9596: 9595: 9593: 9587: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9575:Todor Zhivkov 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9565:Deng Xiaoping 9563: 9561: 9558: 9556: 9553: 9551: 9548: 9546: 9543: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9533: 9531: 9528: 9526: 9523: 9521: 9518: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9492: 9490: 9484: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9456: 9453: 9451: 9448: 9446: 9443: 9441: 9438: 9436: 9433: 9432: 9431: 9428: 9426: 9423: 9422: 9420: 9416: 9410: 9407: 9405: 9402: 9400: 9397: 9395: 9394:Soviet Empire 9392: 9390: 9387: 9385: 9382: 9380: 9377: 9375: 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9361: 9359: 9355:International 9353: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9289: 9287: 9284: 9283: 9281: 9275: 9271: 9264: 9259: 9257: 9252: 9250: 9245: 9244: 9241: 9235: 9231: 9228: 9226: 9224: 9219: 9216: 9212: 9208: 9205: 9201: 9197: 9194: 9190: 9186: 9183: 9180: 9179: 9170: 9166: 9165: 9156: 9152: 9148: 9145: 9142: 9139: 9135: 9131: 9127: 9124: 9121: 9117: 9113: 9110: 9106: 9103: 9099: 9096: 9092: 9089: 9086: 9082: 9079: 9075: 9071: 9067: 9066: 9062: 9056: 9051: 9048: 9042: 9037: 9034: 9023: 9020: 9009: 9006: 8995: 8978: 8971: 8965: 8949: 8945: 8939: 8935: 8934: 8926: 8918: 8914: 8907: 8891: 8887: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8869: 8865: 8861: 8857: 8853: 8846: 8844: 8842: 8833: 8829: 8822: 8814: 8808: 8792: 8788: 8787: 8782: 8776: 8768: 8767: 8762: 8755: 8739: 8735: 8731: 8724: 8708: 8704: 8700: 8693: 8677: 8673: 8669: 8662: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8631: 8623: 8619: 8618: 8610: 8603: 8587: 8586: 8581: 8575: 8559: 8555: 8551: 8547: 8541: 8537: 8536: 8528: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8500: 8496: 8490: 8474: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8447: 8445: 8436: 8432: 8428: 8424: 8420: 8416: 8412: 8408: 8404: 8397: 8381: 8377: 8373: 8367: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8327: 8311: 8307: 8301: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8288: 8281: 8274: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8254: 8247: 8245: 8236: 8232: 8228: 8224: 8217: 8215: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8166: 8159: 8157: 8155: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8119: 8111: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8092: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8056: 8052: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8033: 8017: 8013: 8011:0-415-14124-9 8007: 8003: 8002: 7994: 7978: 7974: 7970: 7966: 7962: 7955: 7947: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7921: 7917: 7913: 7906: 7898: 7894: 7890: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7857: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7827: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7809: 7804: 7788: 7784: 7780: 7774: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7744: 7736: 7732: 7728: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7695: 7679: 7676:(in German). 7675: 7671: 7664: 7648: 7644: 7638: 7634: 7633: 7625: 7609: 7605: 7604:Anniston Star 7601: 7594: 7578: 7574: 7570: 7564: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7530: 7526: 7522: 7518: 7517: 7509: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7474: 7458: 7454: 7450: 7443: 7427: 7423: 7419: 7413: 7398: 7394: 7390: 7386: 7379: 7363: 7359: 7355: 7348: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7317: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7287: 7285: 7268: 7264: 7263: 7258: 7252: 7233: 7226: 7220: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7190: 7174: 7170: 7163: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7133: 7117: 7113: 7109: 7102: 7083: 7076: 7070: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7040: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7009: 7007: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6975: 6959: 6955: 6950: 6942: 6926: 6922: 6918: 6911: 6909: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6877: 6875: 6873: 6871: 6869: 6867: 6865: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6833: 6831: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6799: 6797: 6795: 6793: 6791: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6723: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6672: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6613: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6582: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6552: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6521: 6519: 6517: 6515: 6513: 6511: 6509: 6507: 6505: 6503: 6501: 6499: 6482: 6478: 6471: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6429: 6427: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6391: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6340: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6297: 6295: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6243: 6241: 6239: 6231: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6183: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6124: 6122: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6070: 6068: 6066: 6064: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6056: 6054: 6052: 6050: 6048: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5996: 5994: 5992: 5990: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5955: 5953: 5951: 5949: 5947: 5945: 5928: 5924: 5922: 5914: 5908: 5904: 5901:. pp. 9–10. 5900: 5894: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5867: 5865: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5837: 5835: 5833: 5831: 5829: 5820: 5814: 5810: 5803: 5801: 5799: 5797: 5795: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5744: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5714: 5710: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5692: 5691: 5684: 5682: 5680: 5664: 5660: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5631: 5615: 5611: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5592: 5584: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5554: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5524: 5505: 5501: 5494: 5488: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5458: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5427: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5397: 5378: 5374: 5367: 5361: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5331: 5329: 5327: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5296: 5280: 5277:(in German). 5276: 5272: 5266: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5236: 5234: 5232: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5201: 5185: 5181: 5175: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5145: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5106: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5072: 5068: 5067: 5059: 5044: 5040: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5012: 4997: 4993: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4965: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4927: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4869: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4839:0-356-19760-3 4835: 4831: 4830: 4822: 4815: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4788: 4784: 4778: 4770: 4764: 4760: 4759: 4751: 4743: 4737: 4733: 4732: 4724: 4716: 4710: 4706: 4699: 4683: 4680:(in German). 4679: 4675: 4668: 4661: 4660:3-406-06035-8 4657: 4653: 4647: 4640: 4634: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4604: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4587: 4586: 4581: 4580: 4575: 4571: 4568: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4549: 4542: 4534: 4527: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4497: 4481: 4478:(in German). 4477: 4476: 4471: 4465: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4432: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4402: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4372: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4334: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4303: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4273: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4239: 4235: 4234: 4226: 4210: 4207:(in German). 4206: 4202: 4195: 4179: 4176:(in German). 4175: 4171: 4164: 4148: 4144: 4138: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4097: 4095: 4080: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4051: 4049: 4032: 4029:(in German). 4028: 4024: 4018: 4016: 4014: 4009: 3995: 3991: 3985: 3976: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3951: 3944: 3940: 3935: 3928: 3924: 3917: 3908: 3899: 3895: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3841: 3836: 3827: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3792:North Vietnam 3787: 3785: 3781: 3776: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3746: 3742: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3703: 3699: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3682: 3680: 3675: 3673: 3669: 3663: 3653: 3651: 3644: 3638: 3629: 3624: 3620: 3605: 3603: 3597: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3566:New York City 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3518: 3515: 3510: 3506: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3481: 3477: 3474: 3470: 3465: 3457: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3437: 3430: 3429:Walter Momper 3427: 3423: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3391: 3382: 3378: 3376: 3375:privatization 3371: 3365: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3342: 3338: 3332: 3327: 3322: 3314: 3310: 3308: 3304: 3299: 3298: 3291: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3270: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3245: 3243: 3242:Angela Merkel 3232: 3228: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3208: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3189: 3188:Mauer im Kopf 3177: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3153: 3150: 3145: 3130: 3128: 3127:Upper Silesia 3124: 3120: 3115: 3110: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3013:Polish border 3010: 3007: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2987: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2928: 2921: 2917: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2893: 2884: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2865: 2863: 2858: 2852: 2850: 2846: 2840: 2838: 2834: 2829: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2809: 2807: 2802: 2798: 2797:pan-Germanism 2794: 2790: 2789: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2757: 2750: 2741: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2714: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2696: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2673: 2670: 2666: 2663: 2652: 2650: 2647: 2637: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2624: 2615: 2611: 2610:Soviet leader 2607: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2596:Jewish people 2593: 2589: 2586: 2576: 2574: 2569: 2568:Heiner Müller 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2504: 2502: 2501:Günter Kunert 2498: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2478: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2451:pan-Germanism 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2418: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2407:Mauer im Kopf 2401: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2364: 2358: 2353: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2306: 2303: 2295: 2285: 2284: 2279: 2273: 2271: 2264: 2255: 2254: 2246: 2244: 2243: 2242:Kristallnacht 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2217: 2212: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2195:Joachim Gauck 2192: 2191:Angela Merkel 2187: 2178: 2176: 2170: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2159:redevelopment 2156: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2118: 2114: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2098: 2091: 2086: 2077: 2068: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2021:Saxony-Anhalt 2018: 2014: 2010: 2005: 2004: 1998: 1992: 1989: 1983: 1982: 1975: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1955: 1954:Rita Süssmuth 1951: 1946: 1940: 1935: 1927: 1923: 1918: 1909: 1907: 1903: 1898: 1897:Deutsche Mark 1894: 1893: 1881: 1879: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1828: 1823: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1786: 1779: 1774: 1768: 1764: 1761:with cut-out 1760: 1756: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1731: 1725: 1721: 1718: 1717:Soviet troops 1714: 1710: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1651: 1646: 1645: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1611:Ronald Reagan 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1589: 1585: 1580: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1560:Ronald Reagan 1557: 1550: 1546: 1540: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1378: 1377:former Poland 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1345:United States 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1282: 1277: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1238: 1231: 1227: 1221:; 1 July 1948 1220: 1216: 1211: 1204: 1200: 1193: 1192: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1176:Wilhelm Pieck 1173: 1167: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1147: 1136: 1131: 1129: 1124: 1122: 1117: 1116: 1114: 1113: 1107: 1096: 1093: 1082: 1081: 1080: 1079: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1059: 1054: 1051: 1049: 1048:Reunification 1046: 1045: 1043: 1042: 1038: 1033: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1020: 1019: 1015: 1013: 1010: 1009: 1005: 999: 998: 993: 991: 988: 987: 985: 984: 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