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related issue of plasma-wall surface conditions. Reducing hydrogen permeability is seen as crucial to hydrogen recycling and control of the tritium inventory. Materials with the lowest bulk hydrogen solubility and diffusivity provide the optimal candidates for stable barriers. A few pure metals, including tungsten and beryllium, and compounds such as carbides, dense oxides, and nitrides have been investigated. Research has highlighted that coating techniques for preparing well-adhered and perfect barriers are of equivalent importance. The most attractive techniques are those in which an ad-layer is formed by oxidation alone. Alternative methods utilize specific gas environments with strong magnetic and electric fields. Assessment of barrier performance represents an additional challenge. Classical coated membranes gas permeation continues to be the most reliable method to determine hydrogen permeation barrier (HPB) efficiency. In 2021, in response to increasing numbers of designs for fusion power reactors for 2040, the
3069:. The plant will be constructed from 2022 to 2025 and is intended to lead the way for commercial pilot plants in the late 2025s. The plant will be 70% of full scale and is expected to attain a stable plasma of 150 million degrees. In the United States, cost-sharing public-private partnership FPPs appear likely, and in 2022 the DOE announced a new Milestone-Based Fusion Development Program as the centerpiece of its Bold Decadal Vision for Commercial Fusion Energy, which envisages private sector-led teams delivering FPP pre-conceptual designs, defining technology roadmaps, and pursuing the R&D necessary to resolve critical-path scientific and technical issues towards an FPP design. Compact reactor technology based on such demonstration plants may enable commercialization via a fleet approach from the 2030s if early markets can be located.
3077:
3775:(W7-X). The W7-X stellarator began Operational phase 1 (OP1.1) on 10 December 2015, successfully producing helium plasma. The objective was to test vital systems and understand the machine's physics. By February 2016, hydrogen plasma was achieved, with temperatures reaching up to 100 million Kelvin. The initial tests used five graphite limiters. After over 2,000 pulses and achieving significant milestones, OP1.1 concluded on 10 March 2016. An upgrade followed, and OP1.2 in 2017 aimed to test an uncooled divertor. By June 2018, record temperatures were reached. W7-X concluded its first campaigns with limiter and island divertor tests, achieving notable advancements by the end of 2018. It soon produced helium and hydrogen plasmas lasting up to 30 minutes.
2338:
Unless the tritons are quickly removed, most of the tritium produced is burned in the reactor, which reduces the handling of tritium, with the disadvantage of producing more, and higher-energy, neutrons. The neutron from the second branch of the D-D reaction has an energy of only 2.45 MeV (0.393 pJ), while the neutron from the D-T reaction has an energy of 14.1 MeV (2.26 pJ), resulting in greater isotope production and material damage. When the tritons are removed quickly while allowing the He to react, the fuel cycle is called "tritium suppressed fusion". The removed tritium decays to He with a 12.5 year half life. By recycling the He decay into the reactor, the fusion reactor does not require materials resistant to fast neutrons.
1485:: hydrogen is ionized and accelerated by an electric field to form a charged beam that is shone through a source of neutral hydrogen gas towards the plasma which itself is ionized and contained by a magnetic field. Some of the intermediate hydrogen gas is accelerated towards the plasma by collisions with the charged beam while remaining neutral: this neutral beam is thus unaffected by the magnetic field and so reaches the plasma. Once inside the plasma the neutral beam transmits energy to the plasma by collisions which ionize it and allow it to be contained by the magnetic field, thereby both heating and refueling the reactor in one operation. The remainder of the charged beam is diverted by magnetic fields onto cooled beam dumps.
3863:(DOE) provided a grant of $ 46 million to eight companies across seven states to support fusion power plant design and research efforts. This funding, under the Milestone-Based Fusion Development Program, aligns with objectives to demonstrate pilot-scale fusion within a decade and to develop fusion as a carbon-neutral energy source by 2050. The granted companies are tasked with addressing the scientific and technical challenges to create viable fusion pilot plant designs in the next 5–10 years. The recipient firms include Commonwealth Fusion Systems, Focused Energy Inc., Princeton Stellarators Inc., Realta Fusion Inc., Tokamak Energy Inc., Type One Energy Group, Xcimer Energy Inc., and Zap Energy Inc.
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O.; Harder, N.; Hartmann, D.; Helander, P.; Heinemann, B.; Hirsch, M.; Höfel, U.; Hopf, C.; Ida, K.; Isobe, M.; Jakubowski, M. W.; Kazakov, Y. O.; Killer, C.; Klinger, T.; Knauer, J.; König, R.; Krychowiak, M.; Langenberg, A.; Laqua, H. P.; Lazerson, S.; McNeely, P.; Marsen, S.; Marushchenko, N.; Nocentini, R.; Ogawa, K.; Orozco, G.; Osakabe, M.; Otte, M.; Pablant, N.; Pasch, E.; Pavone, A.; Porkolab, M.; Puig Sitjes, A.; Rahbarnia, K.; Riedl, R.; Rust, N.; Scott, E.; Schilling, J.; Schroeder, R.; Stange, T.; von
Stechow, A.; Strumberger, E.; Sunn Pedersen, T.; Svensson, J.; Thomson, H.; Turkin, Y.; Vano, L.; Wauters, T.; Wurden, G.; Yoshinuma, M.; Zanini, M.; Zhang, D. (August 1, 2019).
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launched its Socio-Economic
Studies and Prospective Research and Development strands to investigate how such factors might affect commercialization pathways and timetables. Similarly, in April 2023 Japan announced a national strategy to industrialise fusion. Thus, fusion power may work in tandem with other renewable energy sources rather than becoming the primary energy source. In some applications, fusion power could provide the base load, especially if including integrated thermal storage and cogeneration and considering the potential for retrofitting coal plants.
897:, which is about one-millionth atmospheric density. This means that the temperature and/or confinement time must increase. Fusion-relevant temperatures have been achieved using a variety of heating methods that were developed in the early 1970s. In modern machines, as of 2019, the major remaining issue was the confinement time. Plasmas in strong magnetic fields are subject to a number of inherent instabilities, which must be suppressed to reach useful durations. One way to do this is to simply make the reactor volume larger, which reduces the rate of leakage due to
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3197:. However, technological developments and private sector involvement has raised concerns over intellectual property, regulatory administration, global leadership; equity, and potential weaponization. These challenge ITER's peace-building role and led to calls for a global commission. Fusion power significantly contributing to climate change by 2050 seems unlikely without substantial breakthroughs and a space race mentality emerging, but a contribution by 2100 appears possible, with the extent depending on the type and particularly cost of technology pathways.
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been perfected. However, the operating environment of a commercial fusion reactor will be harsher for diagnostic systems than in a scientific reactor because continuous operations may involve higher plasma temperatures and higher levels of neutron irradiation. In many proposed approaches, commercialization will require the additional ability to measure and separate diverter gases, for example helium and impurities, and to monitor fuel breeding, for instance the state of a tritium breeding liquid lithium liner. The following are some basic techniques.
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908:, the initial frozen hydrogen fuel load has a density less than water that is increased to about 100 times the density of lead. In these conditions, the rate of fusion is so high that the fuel fuses in the microseconds it takes for the heat generated by the reactions to blow the fuel apart. Although NIF is also large, this is a function of its "driver" design, not inherent to the fusion process.
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Each power circuit includes 154 individual magnets, and should a quench event occur, the entire combined stored energy of these magnets must be dumped at once. This energy is transferred into massive blocks of metal that heat up to several hundred degrees
Celsius—because of resistive heating—in seconds. A magnet quench is a "fairly routine event" during the operation of a particle accelerator.
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more tritium, limiting its availability for fusion and increasing the risk of hazardous accumulation, complicating tritium management. Furthermore, the chemical and physical sputtering of SiC remains significant, contributing to tritium buildup through co-deposition over time and with increasing particle fluence. As a result, carbon-based materials have been excluded from
2669:. It requires precise and controlled temperature, pressure and magnetic field parameters to produce net energy, and any damage or loss of required control would rapidly quench the reaction. Fusion reactors operate with seconds or even microseconds worth of fuel at any moment. Without active refueling, the reactions immediately quench.
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two months to start production and at least an additional week to generate a significant amount. This was considered to be enough time to detect a military use and to react with diplomatic or military means. To stop the production, a military destruction of parts of the facility while leaving out the reactor would be sufficient.
2937:. The underlying redesign could be detected by regular design information verification. In the (technically more feasible) case of solid breeder blanket modules, it would be necessary for incoming components to be inspected for the presence of fertile material, otherwise plutonium for several weapons could be produced each year.
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protects the outer portions of the reactor from the neutron flux. Newer designs, the advanced tokamak in particular, use lithium inside the reactor core as a design element. The plasma interacts directly with the lithium, preventing a problem known as "recycling". The advantage of this design was demonstrated in the
2405:. Theoretically, the most reactive aneutronic fuel is He. However, obtaining reasonable quantities of He implies large scale extraterrestrial mining on the Moon or in the atmosphere of Uranus or Saturn. Therefore, the most promising candidate fuel for such fusion is fusing the readily available protium (i.e. a
13403:
Wolf, R. C.; Alonso, A.; Äkäslompolo, S.; Baldzuhn, J.; Beurskens, M.; Beidler, C. D.; Biedermann, C.; Bosch, H.-S.; Bozhenkov, S.; Brakel, R.; Braune, H.; Brezinsek, S.; Brunner, K.-J.; Damm, H.; Dinklage, A.; Drewelow, P.; Effenberg, F.; Feng, Y.; Ford, O.; Fuchert, G.; Gao, Y.; Geiger, J.; Grulke,
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and serious radiation damage to reactor components. Additionally, naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare. While the hope is that fusion reactors can breed their own tritium, tritium self-sufficiency is extremely challenging, not least because tritium is difficult to contain (tritium has leaked
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First generation fusion plants are expected to use the deuterium-tritium fuel cycle. This will require the use of lithium for breeding of the tritium. It is not known for how long global lithium supplies will suffice to supply this need as well as those of the battery and metallurgical industries. It
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Ceramic materials such as silicon carbide (SiC) have similar issues like graphite. Tritium retention in silicon carbide plasma-facing components is approximately 1.5-2 times higher than in graphite, resulting in reduced fuel efficiency and heightened safety risks in fusion reactors. SiC tends to trap
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under Uri
Shumlak investigated the use of sheared-flow stabilization to smooth out the instabilities of Z-pinch reactors. This involves accelerating neutral gas along the axis of the pinch. Experimental machines included the FuZE and Zap Flow Z-Pinch experimental reactors. In 2017, British technology
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Multiple approaches have been proposed to capture the energy that fusion produces. The simplest is to heat a fluid. The commonly targeted D-T reaction releases much of its energy as fast-moving neutrons. Electrically neutral, the neutron is unaffected by the confinement scheme. In most designs, it is
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If reactors can be made to operate using only deuterium fuel, then the tritium replenishment issue is eliminated and neutron radiation damage may be reduced. However, the probabilities of deuterium-deuterium reactions are about 20 times lower than for deuterium-tritium. Additionally, the temperature
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handling. In
January and March 2021, NRC hosted two public meetings on regulatory frameworks. A public-private cost-sharing approach was endorsed in the 27 December H.R.133 Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021, which authorized $ 325 million over five years for a partnership program to build fusion
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However, fusion power may still have a role filling energy gaps left by renewables, depending on how administration priorities for energy and environmental justice influence the market. In the 2020s, socioeconomic studies of fusion that began to consider these factors emerged, and in 2022 EUROFusion
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Fusion reactors create far less radioactive material than fission reactors. Further, the material it creates is less damaging biologically, and the radioactivity dissipates within a time period that is well within existing engineering capabilities for safe long-term waste storage. In specific terms,
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The same constraints prevent runaway reactions. Although the plasma is expected to have a volume of 1,000 m (35,000 cu ft) or more, the plasma typically contains only a few grams of fuel. By comparison, a fission reactor is typically loaded with enough fuel for months or years, and no
2627:
amounting to many meters per year, requiring redeposition of the sputtered material. The redeposition site generally does not exactly match the sputter site, allowing net erosion that may be prohibitive. An even larger problem is that tritium is redeposited with the redeposited graphite. The tritium
2425:
is not used for energy transfer and material activation is reduced several thousand-fold. The optimum temperature for this reaction of 123 keV is nearly ten times higher than that for pure hydrogen reactions, and energy confinement must be 500 times better than that required for the D-T reaction. In
1084:: A number of magnetic mirrors are arranged end-to-end in a toroidal ring. Any fuel ions that leak out of one are confined in a neighboring mirror, permitting the plasma pressure to be raised arbitrarily high without loss. An experimental facility, the ELMO Bumpy Torus or EBT was built and tested at
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Internal rings: Stellarators create a twisted plasma using external magnets, while tokamaks do so using a current induced in the plasma. Several classes of designs provide this twist using conductors inside the plasma. Early calculations showed that collisions between the plasma and the supports for
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impact other substances, typically a surface of the device, and transfer a portion of their kinetic energy to the other atoms. The rate of conduction is also based on the temperature and density. Radiation is energy that leaves the cloud as light. Radiation also increases with temperature as well as
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in the laboratory on August 8, 2021, for the first time in the 60+ year history of the ICF program. The shot yielded 1.3 MJ of fusion energy, an over 8X improvement on tests done in spring of 2021. NIF estimates that 230 kJ of energy reached the fuel capsule, which resulted in an almost 6-fold
3103:
Fuel costs are low, but economists suggest that the energy cost for a one-gigawatt plant would increase by $ 16.5 per MWh for every $ 1 billion increase in the capital investment in construction. There is also the risk that easily obtained lithium will be used up making batteries. Obtaining it from
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of the surrounding regions. This pushes those regions into the normal state as well, which leads to more heating in a chain reaction. The entire magnet rapidly becomes normal over several seconds, depending on the size of the superconducting coil. This is accompanied by a loud bang as the energy in
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Assuming complete tritium burn-up, the reduction in the fraction of fusion energy carried by neutrons would be only about 18%, so that the primary advantage of the D-D fuel cycle is that tritium breeding is not required. Other advantages are independence from lithium resources and a somewhat softer
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are low because of competing physical effects, such as energy loss in the form of light radiation. Designs have been proposed to avoid the problems associated with the cage, by generating the field using a non-neutral cloud. These include a plasma oscillating device, a magnetically shielded-grid, a
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The diagnostics of a fusion scientific reactor are extremely complex and varied. The diagnostics required for a fusion power reactor will be various but less complicated than those of a scientific reactor as by the time of commercialization, many real-time feedback and control diagnostics will have
885:
plasma has to generate enough energy to overcome its energy losses. The amount of energy released in a given volume is a function of the temperature, and thus the reaction rate on a per-particle basis, the density of particles within that volume, and finally the confinement time, the length of time
3650:
3585:
Laser advances included frequency-tripling crystals that transformed infrared laser beams into ultraviolet beams and "chirping", which changed a single wavelength into a full spectrum that could be amplified and then reconstituted into one frequency. Laser research cost over one billion dollars in
2940:
Prioritizing weapon-grade material regardless of secrecy: The fastest way to produce weapon-usable material was seen in modifying a civil fusion power station. No weapons-compatible material is required during civil use. Even without the need for covert action, such a modification would take about
2506:
In a plasma that is embedded in a magnetic field (known as a magnetized plasma) the fusion rate scales as the magnetic field strength to the 4th power. For this reason, many fusion companies that rely on magnetic fields to control their plasma are trying to develop high temperature superconducting
13662:
Molodyk, A.; Samoilenkov, S.; Markelov, A.; Degtyarenko, P.; Lee, S.; Petrykin, V.; Gaifullin, M.; Mankevich, A.; Vavilov, A.; Sorbom, B.; Cheng, J.; Garberg, S.; Kesler, L.; Hartwig, Z.; Gavrilkin, S.; Tsvetkov, A.; Okada, T.; Awaji, S.; Abraimov, D.; Francis, A.; Bradford, G.; Larbalestier, D.;
2768:
unexpectedly quenched during start-up operations in 2008, destroying multiple magnets. In order to prevent a recurrence, the LHC's superconducting magnets are equipped with fast-ramping heaters that are activated when a quench event is detected. The dipole bending magnets are connected in series.
2604:
is widely regarded as the optimal material for plasma-facing components in next-generation fusion devices due to its unique properties and potential for enhancements. Its low sputtering rates and high melting point make it particularly suitable for the high-stress environments of fusion reactors,
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Structural material stability is a critical issue. Materials that can survive the high temperatures and neutron bombardment experienced in a fusion reactor are considered key to success. The principal issues are the conditions generated by the plasma, neutron degradation of wall surfaces, and the
2337:
This reaction is also common in research. The optimum energy to initiate this reaction is 15 keV, only slightly higher than that for the D-T reaction. The first branch produces tritium, so that a D-D reactor is not tritium-free, even though it does not require an input of tritium or lithium.
1216:
A current travels in the z-direction through the plasma. The current generates a magnetic field that compresses the plasma. Pinches were the first method for human-made controlled fusion. The z-pinch has inherent instabilities that limit its compression and heating to values too low for practical
872:
Fusion trapping (left) against temperature (bottom) for various fusion approaches as of 2021, assuming DT fuel Solid line corresponds to Q = ∞ for IFC (inertial confinement fusion). Dashed line corresponds to Q = 0.01 for IFC. Colored contours correspond to Q factors for MFC (magnetic confinement
2816:
tend to be less than those from fission, so that the hazard decreases more rapidly. Whereas fission reactors produce waste that remains radioactive for thousands of years, the radioactive material in a fusion reactor (other than tritium) would be the reactor core itself and most of this would be
3236:
the US announced a US global strategy to commercialize fusion energy. Then, in April 2024, Japan and the US announced a similar partnership, and in May of the same year, the G7 announced a G7 Working Group on Fusion Energy to promote international collaborations to accelerate the development of
1835:
Inertial confinement is the use of rapid implosion to heat and confine plasma. A shell surrounding the fuel is imploded using a direct laser blast (direct drive), a secondary x-ray blast (indirect drive), or heavy beams. The fuel must be compressed to about 30 times solid density with energetic
1234:
A current circles around the outside of a plasma column, in the theta direction. This induces a magnetic field running down the center of the plasma, as opposed to around it. The early theta-pinch device Scylla was the first to conclusively demonstrate fusion, but later work demonstrated it had
1004:
Approaches to fusion, in color coded families: Pinch Family (orange), Mirror Family (red), Cusp
Systems (violet), Tokamaks & Stellarators (Green), Plasma Structures (gray), Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (dark yellow), Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF, blue), Plasma Jet Magneto Inertial
13345:
Pedersen, T. Sunn; Otte, M.; Lazerson, S.; Helander, P.; Bozhenkov, S.; Biedermann, C.; Klinger, T.; Wolf, R. C.; Bosch, H. -S.; Abramovic, Ivana; Äkäslompolo, Simppa; Aleynikov, Pavel; Aleynikova, Ksenia; Ali, Adnan; Alonso, Arturo; Anda, Gabor; Andreeva, Tamara; Ascasibar, Enrique; Baldzuhn,
2647:
Tungsten's sputtering rate is orders of magnitude smaller than carbon's, and tritium is much less incorporated into redeposited tungsten. However, tungsten plasma impurities are much more damaging than carbon impurities, and self-sputtering can be high, requiring the plasma in contact with the
2283:
In a production setting, the neutrons would react with lithium in the breeding blanket composed of lithium ceramic pebbles or liquid lithium, yielding tritium. The energy of the neutrons ends up in the lithium, which would then be transferred to drive electrical production. The lithium blanket
344:
The fusion reaction rate increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off. The deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvin) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion
3855:
reported that researchers at the
National Ignition Facility had achieved a net energy gain from a fusion reaction. The reaction of hydrogen fuel at the facility produced about 3.15 MJ of energy while consuming 2.05 MJ of input. However, while the fusion reactions may have produced more than 3
3054:
prototype tokamak reactors and development of new supply chains, a problem which will affect any kind of fusion reactor. Tokamak designs appear to be labour-intensive, while the commercialization risk of alternatives like inertial fusion energy is high due to the lack of government resources.
3053:
as bringing online the first commercial reactors around 2050 and a rapid expansion after mid-century. Some scenarios emphasized "fusion nuclear science facilities" as a step beyond ITER. However, the economic obstacles to tokamak-based fusion power remain immense, requiring investment to fund
2676:
In magnetic containment, strong fields develop in coils that are mechanically held in place by the reactor structure. Failure of this structure could release this tension and allow the magnet to "explode" outward. The severity of this event would be similar to other industrial accidents or an
2592:
For long term use, each atom in the wall is expected to be hit by a neutron and displaced about 100 times before the material is replaced. High-energy neutrons produce hydrogen and helium via nuclear reactions that tend to form bubbles at grain boundaries and result in swelling, blistering or
1779:
effect. If a particle follows the field line and enters a region of higher field strength, the particles can be reflected. Several devices apply this effect. The most famous was the magnetic mirror machines, a series of devices built at LLNL from the 1960s to the 1980s. Other examples include
8252:
Roth, Joachim; Tsitrone, E.; Loarte, A.; Loarer, Th.; Counsell, G.; Neu, R.; Philipps, V.; Brezinsek, S.; Lehnen, M.; Coad, P.; Grisolia, Ch.; Schmid, K.; Krieger, K.; Kallenbach, A.; Lipschultz, B.; Doerner, R.; Causey, R.; Alimov, V.; Shu, W.; Ogorodnikova, O.; Kirschner, A.; Federici, G.;
5948:
Steinetz, Bruce M.; Benyo, Theresa L.; Chait, Arnon; Hendricks, Robert C.; Forsley, Lawrence P.; Baramsai, Bayarbadrakh; Ugorowski, Philip B.; Becks, Michael D.; Pines, Vladimir; Pines, Marianna; Martin, Richard E.; Penney, Nicholas; Fralick, Gustave C.; Sandifer, Carl E. (April 20, 2020).
2966:
J/yr (= 1 × 10 J/yr) and that this does not increase in the future, which is unlikely, then known current lithium reserves would last 3000 years. Lithium from sea water would last 60 million years, however, and a more complicated fusion process using only deuterium would have fuel for
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Another study concluded "...large fusion reactors—even if not designed for fissile material breeding—could easily produce several hundred kg Pu per year with high weapon quality and very low source material requirements." It was emphasized that the implementation of features for intrinsic
2932:
Commercial facility: The production potential is significant. But no fertile or fissile substances necessary for the production of weapon-usable materials needs to be present at a civil fusion system at all. If not shielded, detection of these materials can be done by their characteristic
3168:, to regulate and commercialize fusion, respectively. Then, in April 2023, in a decision likely to influence other nuclear regulators, the NRC announced in a unanimous vote that fusion energy would be regulated not as fission but under the same regulatory regime as particle accelerators.
3836:
reported receiving $ 500 million in Series E funding for its seventh-generation
Polaris device, designed to demonstrate net electricity production, with an additional $ 1.7 billion of commitments tied to specific milestones, while Commonwealth Fusion Systems raised an additional $
1827:
1340:
A beam of high energy particles fired at another beam or target can initiate fusion. This was used in the 1970s and 1980s to study the cross sections of fusion reactions. However beam systems cannot be used for power because keeping a beam coherent takes more energy than comes from
5093:
Bagryansky, P. A.; Shalashov, A. G.; Gospodchikov, E. D.; Lizunov, A. A.; Maximov, V. V.; Prikhodko, V. V.; Soldatkina, E. I.; Solomakhin, A. L.; Yakovlev, D. V. (May 18, 2015). "Threefold
Increase of the Bulk Electron Temperature of Plasma Discharges in a Magnetic Mirror Device".
13287:
Sunn
Pedersen, T.; Andreeva, T.; Bosch, H. -S; Bozhenkov, S.; Effenberg, F.; Endler, M.; Feng, Y.; Gates, D. A.; Geiger, J.; Hartmann, D.; Hölbe, H.; Jakubowski, M.; König, R.; Laqua, H. P.; Lazerson, S.; Otte, M.; Preynas, M.; Schmitz, O.; Stange, T.; Turkin, Y. (November 2015).
3465:
Over time, the "advanced tokamak" concept emerged, which included non-circular plasma, internal diverters and limiters, superconducting magnets, operation in the "H-mode" island of increased stability, and the compact tokamak, with the magnets on the inside of the vacuum chamber.
1855:. This device has a cathode inside an anode wire cage. Positive ions fly towards the negative inner cage, and are heated by the electric field in the process. If they miss the inner cage they can collide and fuse. Ions typically hit the cathode, however, creating prohibitory high
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deuterium-uranium tritium-generating heavywater nuclear plants and even build new ones, guaranteeing a supply of tritium into the 2070s, while the UKAEA would test breeder materials and simulate how tritium could be captured, purified, and injected back into the fusion reaction.
3012:
source began to attract a raft of companies and investors. Over two dozen start-up companies attracted over one billion dollars from roughly 2000 to 2020, mainly from 2015, and a further three billion in funding and milestone related commitments in 2021, with investors including
70:
combine to form a heavier nucleus, while releasing energy. Devices designed to harness this energy are known as fusion reactors. Research into fusion reactors began in the 1940s, but as of 2024, no device has reached net power, although net positive reactions have been achieved.
3300:
Fusion power has a number of disadvantages. Because 80 percent of the energy in any reactor fueled by deuterium and tritium appears in the form of neutron streams, such reactors share many of the drawbacks of fission reactors. This includes the production of large quantities of
3277:
is expected that second generation plants will move on to the more formidable deuterium-deuterium reaction. The deuterium-helium-3 reaction is also of interest, but the light helium isotope is practically non-existent on Earth. It is thought to exist in useful quantities in the
3159:
Subsequently, the UK Regulatory Horizons Council published a report calling for a fusion regulatory framework by early 2022 in order to position the UK as a global leader in commercializing fusion power. This call was met by the UK government publishing in October 2021 both its
1432:-based reactor. The system was able to manipulate the magnetic coils to manage the plasma. The system was able to continuously adjust to maintain appropriate behavior (more complex than step-based systems). In 2014, Google began working with California-based fusion company
2707:
The likelihood of small industrial accidents, including the local release of radioactivity and injury to staff, are estimated to be minor compared to fission. They would include accidental releases of lithium or tritium or mishandling of radioactive reactor components.
3820:
revealed its projectile fusion project, which fires an aluminum disc at a fusion target, accelerated by a 9 mega-amp electrical pulse, reaching speeds of 20 kilometres per second (12 mi/s). The resulting fusion generates neutrons whose energy is captured as heat.
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Although tritium is volatile and biologically active, the health risk posed by a release is much lower than that of most radioactive contaminants, because of tritium's short half-life (12.32 years) and very low decay energy (~14.95 keV), and because it does not
3176:
the UK is working with Canada and Japan in this regard. Meanwhile, in February 2024 the US House of Representatives passed the Atomic Energy Advancement Act, which includes the Fusion Energy Act, which establishes a regulatory framework for fusion energy systems.
3072:
The widespread adoption of non-nuclear renewable energy has transformed the energy landscape. Such renewables are projected to supply 74% of global energy by 2050. The steady fall of renewable energy prices challenges the economic competitiveness of fusion power.
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is an abnormal termination of magnet operation that occurs when part of the superconducting coil exits the superconducting state (becomes normal). This can occur because the field inside the magnet is too large, the rate of change of field is too large (causing
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devices. The process converts a large fraction of the random energy of the fusion products into directed motion. The particles are then collected on electrodes at various large electrical potentials. This method has demonstrated an experimental efficiency of 48
353:, denoted σ, measures the probability that a fusion reaction will happen. This depends on the relative velocity of the two nuclei. Higher relative velocities generally increase the probability, but the probability begins to decrease again at very high energies.
3228:'s design and R&D work on DEMO, and EUROfusion confirmed it was proceeding with its Roadmap to Fusion Energy, beginning the conceptual design of DEMO in partnership with the European fusion community, suggesting an EU-backed machine had entered the race.
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Then, in October 2023 the UK government, in enacting the Energy Act 2023, made the UK the first country to legislate for fusion separately from fission, to support planning and investment, including the UK's planned prototype fusion power plant for 2040;
3260:
In 2024, both South Korea and Japan announced major initiatives to accelerate their national fusion strategies, by building electricity-generating public-private fusion plants in the 2030s, aiming to begin operations in the 2040s and 2030s respectively.
2628:
inventory in the wall and dust could build up to many kilograms, representing a waste of resources and a radiological hazard in case of an accident. Graphite found favor as material for short-lived experiments, but appears unlikely to become the primary
3273:) exists abundantly in the ocean: about 1 in 6500 hydrogen atoms in seawater is deuterium. Although this is only about 0.015%, seawater is plentiful and easy to access, implying that fusion could supply the world's energy needs for millions of years.
2345:
Assuming complete removal of tritium and He recycling, only 6% of the fusion energy is carried by neutrons. The tritium-suppressed D-D fusion requires an energy confinement that is 10 times longer compared to D-T and double the plasma temperature.
2817:
radioactive for about 50 years, with other low-level waste being radioactive for another 100 years or so thereafter. The fusion waste's short half-life eliminates the challenge of long-term storage. By 500 years, the material would have the same
15503:
6449:
Park, Jaeyoung; Krall, Nicholas A.; Sieck, Paul E.; Offermann, Dustin T.; Skillicorn, Michael; Sanchez, Andrew; Davis, Kevin; Alderson, Eric; Lapenta, Giovanni (June 1, 2014). "High Energy Electron Confinement in a Magnetic Cusp Configuration".
2392:
of the reactor housing and potentially allowing more efficient energy harvesting (via any of several pathways). In practice, D-D side reactions produce a significant number of neutrons, leaving p-B as the preferred cycle for aneutronic fusion.
1100:: Similar to a field-reversed configuration, a semi-stable plasma structure made by using the plasmas' self-generated magnetic field. A spheromak has both toroidal and poloidal fields, while a field-reversed configuration has no toroidal field.
5230:
D. A. Sutherland, T. R. Jarboe et al., "The dynomak: An advanced spheromak reactor concept with imposed-dynamo current drive and next-generation nuclear power technologies", Fusion Engineering and Design, Volume 89, Issue 4, April 2014, pp.
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Ion Beams: Ion beams replace laser beams to heat the fuel. The main difference is that the beam has momentum due to mass, whereas lasers do not. As of 2019 it appears unlikely that ion beams can be sufficiently focused spatially and in
2812:, the neutron flux turns the structural materials radioactive. The amount of radioactive material at shut-down may be comparable to that of a fission reactor, with important differences. The half-lives of fusion and neutron activation
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considers the energy balance between the energy produced in fusion reactions to the energy being lost to the environment. In order to generate usable energy, a system would have to produce more energy than it loses. Lawson assumed an
458:
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Engineering assurance for fusion materials—providing irradiated sample data and modelled predictions such that plant designers, operators and regulators have confidence that materials are suitable for use in future commercial power
165:), and increased safety. However, the necessary combination of temperature, pressure, and duration has proven to be difficult to produce in a practical and economical manner. A second issue that affects common reactions is managing
1278:
An electric field heats ions to fusion conditions. The machine typically uses two spherical cages, a cathode inside the anode, inside a vacuum. These machines are not considered a viable approach to net power because of their high
3416:. Tuck had been involved in the Manhattan project, but had switched to working on fusion in the early 1950s. He applied for funding for the project as part of a White House sponsored contest to develop a fusion reactor along with
3314:). The higher temperatures and lower reaction rates thus significantly complicate the engineering challenges. In any case, other drawbacks remain, for instance reactors requiring only deuterium fueling will have greatly enhanced
12046:. Laboratorium voor Plasmafysica – Laboratoire de Physique des Plasmas Koninklijke Militaire School – École Royale Militaire; Laboratorium voor Natuurkunde, Universiteit Gent. pp. Section III.B. and Table VI. Archived from
2752:
In practice, magnets usually have safety devices to stop or limit the current when a quench is detected. If a large magnet undergoes a quench, the inert vapor formed by the evaporating cryogenic fluid can present a significant
3435:, which used deuterium to pass a current around the outside of its cylinder to create a magnetic force in the center. After the success of Scylla I, Los Alamos went on to build multiple pinch machines over the next few years.
309:—the diameter of a proton or neutron. The fuel atoms must be supplied enough kinetic energy to approach one another closely enough for the strong force to overcome the electrostatic repulsion in order to initiate fusion. The "
8642:
Gonzalez de Vicente, Sehila M.; Smith, Nicholas A.; El-Guebaly, Laila; Ciattaglia, Sergio; Di Pace, Luigi; Gilbert, Mark; Mandoki, Robert; Rosanvallon, Sandrine; Someya, Youji; Tobita, Kenji; Torcy, David (August 1, 2022).
130:, to allow them to reach the Lawson criterion requirements with less extreme conditions. Most designs aim to heat their fuel to around 100 million kelvins, which presents a major challenge in producing a successful design.
12141:. Washington, DC; Springfield, Va.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of Management, Scientific and Technical Information Program; [For sale by the National Technical Information Service [distributor.
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In laser-driven inertial containment the larger size of the reaction chamber reduces the stress on materials. Although failure of the reaction chamber is possible, stopping fuel delivery prevents catastrophic failure.
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neutron spectrum. The disadvantage of D-D compared to D-T is that the energy confinement time (at a given pressure) must be 30 times longer and the power produced (at a given pressure and volume) is 68 times less.
1028:, with an internal current. When completed, ITER will become the world's largest tokamak. As of September 2018 an estimated 226 experimental tokamaks were either planned, decommissioned or operating (50) worldwide.
3231:
In October 2023, the UK-oriented Agile Nations group announced a fusion working group. One month later, the UK and the US announced a bilateral partnership to accelerate fusion energy. Then, in December 2023 at
3048:
Scenarios developed in the 2000s and early 2010s discussed the effects of the commercialization of fusion power on the future of human civilization. Using nuclear fission as a guide, these saw ITER and later
1705:
pass charged helium atoms at several megavolts and just coming off the fusion reaction through a tube with a coil of wire around the outside. This passing charge at high voltage pulls electricity through the
1078:. A series of mirror machines were built by the US government in the 1970s and 1980s, principally at LLNL. However, calculations in the 1970s estimated it was unlikely these would ever be commercially useful.
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The size of the investments and time lines meant that fusion research was traditionally almost exclusively publicly funded. However, starting in the 2010s, the promise of commercializing a paradigm-changing
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proliferation resistance might only be possible at an early phase of research and development. The theoretical and computational tools needed for hydrogen bomb design are closely related to those needed for
3045:. In 2021, Commonwealth Fusion Systems (CFS) obtained $ 1.8 billion in scale-up funding, and Helion Energy obtained a half-billion dollars with an additional $ 1.7 billion contingent on meeting milestones.
3003:
has allocated $ US367M–$ US671M every year since 2010, peaking in 2020, with plans to reduce investment to $ US425M in its FY2021 Budget Request. About a quarter of this budget is directed to support ITER.
3874:, successfully operated for 102 seconds in a high-containment mode (H-mode) containing high ion temperatures of more than 100 million degrees in plasma tests conducted from December 2023 to February 2024.
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with a much smaller radius. It used a single large conductor in the center, with magnets as half-rings off of this conductor. The aspect ratio fell to as low as 1.2. Peng's advocacy caught the interest of
2449:, reported a new fusion rate record for proton-boron fusion, with an estimated 80 million fusion reactions during a 1.5 nanosecond laser fire, 100 times greater than reported in previous experiments.
4325:"Scientists Achieve Nuclear Fusion Breakthrough With Blast of 192 Lasers – The advancement by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory researchers will be built on to further develop fusion energy research"
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Neutron blankets: These neutrons can regenerate spent fission fuel. Tritium can be produced using a breeder blanket of liquid lithium or a helium cooled pebble bed made of lithium-bearing ceramic pebbles.
3204:
FPP. On 24 September 2020, the United States House of Representatives approved a research and commercialization program. The Fusion Energy Research section incorporated a milestone-based, cost-sharing,
1575:: a loop of wire is inserted into the magnetic field. As the field passes through the loop, a current is made. The current measures the total magnetic flux through that loop. This has been used on the
11091:
2227:, but does not consume the neutron. Neutron multiplication reactions are required to replace the neutrons lost to absorption by other elements. Leading candidate neutron multiplication materials are
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Jürgen; Banduch, Martin; Barbui, Tullio; Beidler, Craig; Benndorf, Andree; Beurskens, Marc; Biel, Wolfgang; Birus, Dietrich; Blackwell, Boyd; Blanco, Emilio; Blatzheim, Marko; et al. (2016).
1755:: The loss of material must be sufficiently slow. The plasma carries energy off with it, so rapid loss of material will disrupt fusion. Material can be lost by transport into different regions or
599:
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Nicholas, T. E. G.; Davis, T. P.; Federici, F.; Leland, J. E.; Patel, B. S.; Vincent, C.; Ward, S. H. (February 2021). "Re-examining the Role of Nuclear Fusion in a Renewables-Based Energy Mix".
3813:
TAE Technologies announced results for its Norman device, holding a temperature of about 60 MK for 30 milliseconds, 8 and 10 times higher, respectively, than the company's previous devices.
11120:
3870:, Japan. The reactor is a joint project between Japan and the European Union. The reactor had achieved its first plasma in October 2023. Subsequently, South Korea's fusion reactor project, the
1822:
1617:. In ICF systems, firing a second beam into a gold foil adjacent to the target makes x-rays that traverse the plasma. In tokamaks, this can be done using mirrors and detectors to reflect light.
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Because the confinement properties of the tokamak and laser pellet fusion are marginal, most proposals for aneutronic fusion are based on radically different confinement concepts, such as the
3057:
Scenarios since 2010 note computing and material science advances enabling multi-phase national or cost-sharing "Fusion Pilot Plants" (FPPs) along various technology pathways, such as the UK
3844:
In April 2022, First Light announced that their hypersonic projectile fusion prototype had produced neutrons compatible with fusion. Their technique electromagnetically fires projectiles at
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Kessel, C. E.; Blanchard, J. P.; Davis, A.; El-Guebaly, L.; Ghoniem, N.; Humrickhouse, P. W.; Malang, S.; Merrill, B. J.; Morley, N. B.; Neilson, G. H.; Rensink, M. E. (September 1, 2015).
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tungsten not be too hot (a few tens of eV rather than hundreds of eV). Tungsten also has issues around eddy currents and melting in off-normal events, as well as some radiological issues.
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1184:: This combines a laser pulse with a magnetic pinch. The pinch community refers to it as magnetized liner inertial fusion while the ICF community refers to it as magneto-inertial fusion.
1174:
Fast ignition: This method uses two laser blasts. The first blast compresses the fusion fuel, while the second ignites it. As of 2019 this technique had lost favor for energy production.
6794:. Innovative Nuclear Energy Systems for Sustainable Development of the World. Proceedings of the Second COE-INES International Symposium, INES-2, November 26–30, 2006, Yokohama, Japan.
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150 billion years. To put this in context, 150 billion years is close to 30 times the remaining lifespan of the Sun, and more than 10 times the estimated age of the universe.
1900:
or produced by other nuclear reactions. Ultimately, researchers hope to adopt the protium–boron-11 reaction, because it does not directly produce neutrons, although side reactions can.
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Lerner, Eric J.; Murali, S. Krupakar; Shannon, Derek; Blake, Aaron M.; Van Roessel, Fred (March 23, 2012). "Fusion reactions from >150 keV ions in a dense plasma focus plasmoid".
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is the name for the resultant bare nucleus. The result of this ionization is plasma, which is a heated cloud of ions and free electrons that were formerly bound to them. Plasmas are
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in its nucleus, it requires the least effort to attain fusion, and yields the most net energy output. Also since it has one electron, hydrogen is the easiest fuel to fully ionize.
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Taccetti, J. M.; Intrator, T. P.; Wurden, G. A.; Zhang, S. Y.; Aragonez, R.; Assmus, P. N.; Bass, C. M.; Carey, C.; deVries, S. A.; Fienup, W. J.; Furno, I. (September 25, 2003).
3760:(REBCO) superconducting tapes to produce high-magnetic field coils that it claimed could produce comparable magnetic field strength in a smaller configuration than other designs.
1194:: Sends an electric current through thin tungsten wires, heating them sufficiently to generate x-rays. Like the indirect drive approach, these x-rays then compress a fuel capsule.
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surrounding the reactor core. When struck by a high-energy neutron, the blanket heats up. It is then actively cooled with a working fluid that drives a turbine to produce power.
294:, requiring an input of energy. The heavy nuclei bigger than iron have many more protons resulting in a greater repulsive force. For nuclei lighter than iron-56, the reaction is
208:(NIF) laser in the United States. Researchers are also studying other designs that may offer less expensive approaches. Among these alternatives, there is increasing interest in
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wire for fusion reactors. This new wire was shown to conduct between 700 and 2000 Amps per square millimeter. The company was able to produce 186 miles of wire in nine months.
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began operation. NIF achieved net energy gain in 2013, as defined in the very limited sense as the hot spot at the core of the collapsed target, rather than the whole target.
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Labik, George; Brown, Tom; Johnson, Dave; Pomphrey, Neil; Stratton, Brentley; Viola, Michael; Zarnstorff, Michael; Duco, Mike; Edwards, John; Cole, Mike; Lazarus, Ed (2007).
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beams. Direct drive can in principle be efficient, but insufficient uniformity has prevented success. Indirect drive uses beams to heat a shell, driving the shell to radiate
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Fusion has been initiated by man, using uncontrolled fission explosions to stimulate fusion. Early proposals for fusion power included using bombs to initiate reactions. See
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Key, M.H. (1985). "Highlights of laser fusion related research by United Kingdom universities using the SERC Central Laser Facility at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory".
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inductive voltage spikes and arcing. Permanent damage to the magnet is rare, but components can be damaged by localized heating, high voltages, or large mechanical forces.
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SuperOx was able to produce over 186 miles of YBCO wire in nine months for use in fusion reactor magnets, dramatically surpassing the company's previous production targets.
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reaction, release much more of their energy in the form of charged particles. In these cases, power extraction systems based on the movement of these charges are possible.
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fusion): Q = ∞ (brown), Q = 10 (red), Q = 2 (yellow), Q = 1 (green), Q = 0.1 (strong blue), Q = 0.01 (lighter blue), Q = 0.001 (even lighter blue), Q = 0.0001 (faint blue).
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Wurzel, Samuel E., and Scott C. Hsu. "Progress toward fusion energy breakeven and gain as measured against the Lawson criterion." arXiv preprint arXiv:2105.10954 (2021).
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Menard, J. E.; Bromberg, L.; Brown, T.; Burgess, T.; Dix, D.; El-Guebaly, L.; Gerrity, T.; Goldston, R. J.; Hawryluk, R. J.; Kastner, R.; Kessel, C. (October 1, 2011).
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commercial energy and promote R&D between countries, as well as rationalize fusion regulation. Later the same year, the US partnered with the IAEA to launch the
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Emerging nuclear energy systems 1989: proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Emerging Nuclear Energy Systems, Karlsruhe, F.R. Germany, July 3–6, 1989
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Nuckolls, John; Wood, Lowell; Thiessen, Albert; Zimmerman, George (1972). "Laser Compression of Matter to Super-High Densities: Thermonuclear (CTR) Applications".
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Delivering 2.05 megajoules (MJ) of light energy to the target, resulting in 3.15 MJ of fusion energy output from appr. 400 MJ electric energy to drive the lasers.
3061:, within the 2030–2040 time frame. Notably, in June 2021, General Fusion announced it would accept the UK government's offer to host the world's first substantial
5458:
3722:
Private and public research accelerated in the 2010s. General Fusion developed plasma injector technology and Tri Alpha Energy tested its C-2U device. The French
12355:
Kusama, Y. (2002), Stott, Peter E.; Wootton, Alan; Gorini, Giuseppe; Sindoni, Elio (eds.), "Requirements for Diagnostics in Controlling Advanced Tokamak Modes",
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required to move the fuel atoms near enough. Atoms can be heated to extremely high temperatures or accelerated in a particle accelerator to produce this energy.
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is extremely rare on earth, having a half life of only ~12.3 years. Consequently, during the operation of envisioned fusion reactors, known as breeder reactors,
98:
provides extremely long confinement times that reach the conditions needed for fusion energy production. Proposed fusion reactors generally use heavy hydrogen
947:(LLNL) in the 1980s as a method to maintain a voltage directly using fusion reaction products. This has demonstrated energy capture efficiency of 48 percent.
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6301:
McGuire, Thomas. Heating Plasma for Fusion Power Using Magnetic Field Oscillations. Baker Botts LLP, assignee. Issued: 4/2/14, Patent 14/243,447. N.d. Print.
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Hsu, S. C.; Awe, T. J.; Brockington, S.; Case, A.; Cassibry, J. T.; Kagan, G.; Messer, S. J.; Stanic, M.; Tang, X.; Welch, D. R.; Witherspoon, F. D. (2012).
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On November 8, in an invited talk to the 63rd Annual Meeting of the APS Division of Plasma Physics, the National Ignition Facility claimed to have triggered
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passes a current down the center of a plasma, which makes a magnetic force around the outside which squeezes the plasma to fusion conditions. Scylla I was a
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energy output from the capsule. A researcher from Imperial College London stated that the majority of the field agreed that ignition had been demonstrated.
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Example of a stellarator design: A coil system (blue) surrounds plasma (yellow). A magnetic field line is highlighted in green on the yellow plasma surface.
3641:
In 1997, JET produced a peak of 16.1 MW of fusion power (65% of heat to plasma), with fusion power of over 10 MW sustained for over 0.5 sec.
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of 12.32 years, it is hard to find, store, produce, and is expensive. Consequently, the deuterium-tritium fuel cycle requires the breeding of tritium from
1763:
To produce self-sustaining fusion, part of the energy released by the reaction must be used to heat new reactants and maintain the conditions for fusion.
1514:. Reconnection helps fusion because it instantly dumps energy into a plasma, heating it quickly. Up to 45% of the magnetic field energy can heat the ions.
1094:: This device traps plasma in a self-organized quasi-stable structure; where the particle motion makes an internal magnetic field which then traps itself.
932:. In these systems, the power output is enhanced by the fission events, and power is extracted using systems like those in conventional fission reactors.
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11454:"The place of peace in the ITER machine assembly launch: Thematic analysis of the political speeches in the world's largest science diplomacy experiment"
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2413:. Their fusion releases no neutrons, but produces energetic charged alpha (helium) particles whose energy can directly be converted to electrical power:
1116:: Here the plasma moves inside a ring. It has an internal magnetic field. Moving out from the center of this ring, the magnetic field reverses direction.
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In 1996, Tore Supra created a plasma for two minutes with a current of almost 1 million amperes, totaling 280 MJ of injected and extracted energy.
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retention through co-deposition and implantation is essential in fusion contexts, as it helps to minimize the accumulation of this radioactive isotope.
1040:: Twisted rings of hot plasma. The stellarator attempts to create a natural twisted plasma path, using external magnets. Stellarators were developed by
372:. In this case, it is useful to use the average particle cross section over the velocity distribution. This is entered into the volumetric fusion rate:
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Cohen, Sam, and B. Berlinger. "Long-pulse Operation of the PFRC-2 Device." The Joint US-Japan Compact Torus. Wisconsin, Madison. 22 Aug. 2016. Lecture.
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Hedditch, John; Bowden-Reid, Richard; Khachan, Joe (October 2015). "Fusion in a magnetically-shielded-grid inertial electrostatic confinement device".
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Menard, J. E.; Brown, T.; El-Guebaly, L.; Boyer, M.; Canik, J.; Colling, B.; Raman, R.; Wang, Z.; Zhai, Y.; Buxton, P.; Covele, B. (October 1, 2016).
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Proceedings of the second United Nations International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy held in Geneva 1 September – 13 September 1958
1784:. Because the mirror machines were straight, they had some advantages over ring-shaped designs. The mirrors were easier to construct and maintain and
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3249:
13874:
10214:
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Esarey, Eric; Ride, Sally K.; Sprangle, Phillip (September 1, 1993). "Nonlinear Thomson scattering of intense laser pulses from beams and plasmas".
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Fusion power promises to provide more energy for a given weight of fuel than any fuel-consuming energy source currently in use. The fuel (primarily
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against the surrounding plasma. The metal collects charged particles, drawing a current. As the voltage changes, the current changes. This makes an
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Ono, Y.; Tanabe, H.; Yamada, T.; Gi, K.; Watanabe, T.; Ii, T.; Gryaznevich, M.; Scannell, R.; Conway, N.; Crowley, B.; Michael, C. (May 1, 2015).
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Koller, Markus T.; Davis, James W.; Goodland, Megan E.; Abrams, Tyler; Gonderman, Sean; Herdrich, Georg; Frieß, Martin; Zuber, Christian (2019).
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from 48 of 65 nuclear sites in the US). In any case the reserve and start-up tritium inventory requirements are likely to be unacceptably large.
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Small-scale fusion station: As a result of much higher power consumption, heat dissipation and a more recognizable design compared to enrichment
2219:
The reactant neutron is supplied by the D-T fusion reaction shown above, and the one that has the greatest energy yield. The reaction with Li is
1808:, especially the field-reversed configuration and the spheromak, attempt to combine the advantages of toroidal magnetic surfaces with those of a
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The repulsive electrostatic interaction between nuclei operates across larger distances than the strong force, which has a range of roughly one
14397:
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materials are also low-activation, are strong and light, and are promising for laser-inertial reactors where a magnetic field is not required.
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Visible, IR, UV, and X-rays are emitted anytime a particle changes velocity. If the reason is deflection by a magnetic field, the radiation is
1416:
Many approaches, equipment, and mechanisms are employed across multiple projects to address fusion heating, measurement, and power production.
1250:, together with physicists Brian Nelson and Uri Shumlak, co-founded Zap Energy to attempt to commercialize the technology for power production.
6237:
Yamada, M.; Chen, L.-J.; Yoo, J.; Wang, S.; Fox, W.; Jara-Almonte, J.; Ji, H.; Daughton, W.; Le, A.; Burch, J.; Giles, B. (December 6, 2018).
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Even on smaller production scales, the containment apparatus is blasted with matter and energy. Designs for plasma containment must consider:
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Glaser, A.; Goldston, R. J. (2012). "Proliferation risks of magnetic fusion energy: Clandestine production, covert production and breakout".
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Developments from late 2020 onwards have led to talk of a "new space race" with multiple entrants, pitting the US against China and the UK's
3139:
consulted with private fusion companies to consider a national pilot plant. The following month, the United States Department of Energy, the
1525:
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In contrast, inertial confinement systems approach useful triple product values via higher density, and have short confinement intervals. In
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Molodyk, A., et al. "Development and large volume production of extremely high current density YBa2Cu3O7 superconducting wires for fusion."
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tritium. Tritium may leak from reactors. Some estimates suggest that this would represent a substantial environmental radioactivity release.
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Spitzer continued his stellarator research at Princeton. While fusion did not immediately transpire, the effort led to the creation of the
2304:
Fusing two deuterium nuclei is the second easiest fusion reaction. The reaction has two branches that occur with nearly equal probability:
11777:
3668:(EAST) test reactor was completed. It was the first tokamak to use superconducting magnets to generate both toroidal and poloidal fields.
3424:. However, it turned out that the neutrons they had detected were from beam-target interactions, not fusion, and they withdrew the claim.
15884:
3221:, recommending a market-driven, cost-sharing plant for 2035–2040, and the launch of the Congressional Bipartisan Fusion Caucus followed.
13465:"Experimental confirmation of efficient island divertor operation and successful neoclassical transport optimization in Wendelstein 7-X"
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injected into a mass of fusion fuel can induce thermonuclear reactions. This possibility as a method of spacecraft propulsion, known as
1148:
light. These x-rays heat a fuel pellet, causing it to collapse inward to compress the fuel. The largest system using this method is the
16740:
12137:
Schulze, Norman R.; United States; National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Scientific and Technical Information Program (1991).
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Hanaor, D. A. H.; Kolb, M. H. H.; Gan, Y.; Kamlah, M.; Knitter, R. (2014). "Solution based synthesis of mixed-phase materials in the Li
5722:
US patent 5,160,695, Robert W. Bussard, "Method and apparatus for creating and controlling nuclear fusion reactions", issued 1992-11-03
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at Los Alamos National Laboratory called Scylla I at the start of 1958. The team that achieved it was led by a British scientist named
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megajoules of energy—more than was delivered to the target—NIF's 192 lasers consumed 322 MJ of grid energy in the conversion process.
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Confinement refers to all the conditions necessary to keep a plasma dense and hot long enough to undergo fusion. General principles:
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13962:
11501:"Potential contribution of fusion power generation to low-carbon development under the Paris Agreement and associated uncertainties"
11405:"Towards Fusion Energy in the Industry 5.0 and Society 5.0 Context: Call for a Global Commission for Urgent Action on Fusion Energy"
9914:"Socioeconomic and environmental impacts of bringing the sun to earth: A sustainability analysis of a fusion power plant deployment"
7981:
Neu, R.; et al. (2005). "Tungsten: an option for divertor and main chamber plasma facing components in future fusion devices".
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devices as of the mid-1990s. The regime allowing thermonuclear ignition with high gain lies near the upper right corner of the plot.
1517:
Magnetic oscillations: varying electric currents can be supplied to magnetic coils that heat plasma confined within a magnetic wall.
332:
and magnetically controlled because the charges are separated. This is used by several fusion devices to confine the hot particles.
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Magnetic mirrors suffered from end losses, requiring high power, complex magnetic designs, such as the baseball coil pictured here.
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that energy stays within the volume. This is known as the "triple product": the plasma density, temperature, and confinement time.
11704:
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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (U.S.). Committee on a Strategic Plan for U.S. Burning Plasma Research.
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is 2500 times lower than for D-T, although per unit mass of fuel, this is still considerably higher compared to fission reactors.
2235:, but the Li reaction helps to keep the neutron population high. Natural lithium is mainly Li, which has a low tritium production
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Structural materials able to retain their strength under neutron bombardment at high operating temperatures (over 550 degrees C);
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of hydrogen and is commonly available. The large mass ratio of the hydrogen isotopes makes their separation easy compared to the
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12166:. Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. January 1, 1995. pp. 1–46.
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Jarboe, T. R., et al. "Spheromak formation by steady inductive helicity injection." Physical Review Letters 97.11 (2006): 115003
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11803:
8544:
5839:"5 Big ideas for fusion power: Startups, universities, and major companies are vying to commercialize a nuclear fusion reactor"
4379:
4089:
3764:
3551:
3245:
2828:
The choice of materials is less constrained than in conventional fission, where many materials are required for their specific
2465:
1788:
energy capture was easier to implement. Poor confinement has led this approach to be abandoned, except in the polywell design.
944:
14584:
9083:
7597:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
6718:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical or Physical Character
3135:
As fusion pilot plants move within reach, legal and regulatory issues must be addressed. In September 2020, the United States
2469:
1605:: "Light scatters" from plasma can be used to reconstruct plasma behavior, including density and temperature. It is common in
675:{\displaystyle P_{\text{out}}=\eta _{\text{capture}}\left(P_{\text{fusion}}-P_{\text{conduction}}-P_{\text{radiation}}\right)}
16667:
15442:
13644:
12233:"Physics and technology considerations for the deuterium-tritium fuel cycle and conditions for tritium fuel self sufficiency"
9132:
8135:"Plasma–surface interaction in the stellarator W7-X: Conclusions drawn from operation with graphite plasma-facing components"
3093:
13573:
12021:
11678:
10092:"Assessment on Tokamak Fusion Power Plant to Contribute to Global Climate Stabilization in the Framework of Paris Agreement"
2673:
additional fuel is necessary to continue the reaction. This large fuel supply is what offers the possibility of a meltdown.
2507:
devices. In 2021, SuperOx, a Russian and Japanese company, developed a new manufacturing process for making superconducting
1831:
The Electra Laser at Naval Research Laboratory demonstrates 90,000 shots in 10 hours, repetition needed for IFE power plant.
17489:
13665:"Development and large volume production of extremely high current density YBa 2 Cu 3 O 7 superconducting wires for fusion"
9076:
Strong Neutron Sources – How to cope with weapon material production capabilities of fusion and spallation neutron sources?
6826:
2999:
for sustainable energy research, putting research into fusion power well ahead of that of any single rival technology. The
1493:
10188:
9302:
7971:"Thermal response of nanostructured tungsten". Shin Kajita, et al., January 2014, Nuclear Fusion 54 (2014) 033005 (10 pp.)
4643:
2866:, but it can be produced in other ways. The energetic neutrons from a fusion reactor could be used to breed weapons-grade
985:
can generate its own internal magnetic field. This can reject an externally applied magnetic field, making it diamagnetic.
18237:
18210:
17406:
16952:
16917:
15354:
11920:
8059:
Neu, R.; et al. (2016). "Advanced tungsten materials for plasma-facing components of DEMO and fusion power plants".
4618:
3439:
2858:
In some scenarios, fusion power technology could be adapted to produce materials for military purposes. A huge amount of
2825:. Nonetheless, classification as intermediate level waste rather than low-level waste may complicate safety discussions.
1167:
facilities. Good implosions require fuel pellets with close to a perfect shape in order to generate a symmetrical inward
15685:
12659:
Y-K Martin Peng, "Spherical Torus, Compact Fusion at Low Yield". Oak Ridge National Laboratory/FEDC-87/7 (December 1984)
6786:
Ishiyama, Shintaro; Muto, Yasushi; Kato, Yasuyoshi; Nishio, Satoshi; Hayashi, Takumi; Nomoto, Yasunobu (March 1, 2008).
1840:, which then implode the pellet. The beams are commonly laser beams, but ion and electron beams have been investigated.
1445:
860:
the mass of the ions. Fusion power systems must operate in a region where the rate of fusion is higher than the losses.
18104:
17688:
15171:
14689:
14670:
14651:
14633:
14578:
14519:
14498:
14479:
12997:
12952:
12909:
12876:
12730:
12539:
12372:
12331:
12179:
11351:
11163:
10148:
9500:
9450:
9330:
8827:
Nicholas, T. E. G.; Davis, T. P.; Federici, F.; Leland, J.; Patel, B. S.; Vincent, C.; Ward, S. H. (February 1, 2021).
8711:
8645:"Overview on the management of radioactive waste from fusion facilities: ITER, demonstration machines and power plants"
8615:
8587:
8472:
8438:
8375:
7862:
7703:
7347:
7322:
7297:
7025:
6762:
6688:
6663:
6425:
6375:
6109:
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5430:
5311:
5207:
5174:
5049:
4774:
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3148:
3000:
1848:
1596:
1465:
1404:
1266:
369:
213:
17:
14415:
3076:
2661:
Accident potential and effect on the environment are critical to social acceptance of nuclear fusion, also known as a
979:
Self-organizing plasma conducts electric and magnetic fields. Its motions generate fields that can in turn contain it.
261:. Iron-56 has the highest, making it the most stable. Nuclei to the left are likely to release energy when they fuse (
18399:
16768:
16647:
14848:
12833:
12585:
12202:
11628:
8775:
4324:
2482:
Magnets and insulators that are resistant to irradiation from fusion reactions—especially under cryogenic conditions;
2479:
Compounds that can be used within the power plant to optimise breeding of tritium fuel to sustain the fusion process;
86:
in which fusion can occur. The combination of these figures that results in a power-producing system is known as the
14376:
13548:
11041:
7050:
3241:, to collaboratively crowdsource ideas to accelerate commercial fusion energy, in line with the US COP28 statement.
2280:, the vacuum vessel was sufficiently radioactive that it required remote handling for the year following the tests.
1654:
Neutron blankets absorb neutrons, which heats the blanket. Power can be extracted from the blanket in various ways:
1024:: the most well-developed and well-funded approach. This method drives hot plasma around in a magnetically confined
504:
17998:
17863:
16398:
15702:
15128:
14227:
8398:
7888:"Hydrogen permeation barriers: Basic requirements, materials selection, deposition methods, and quality evaluation"
4884:"An Eulerian MHD model for the analysis of magnetic flux compression by expanding diamagnetic fusion plasma sphere"
4172:
3620:
2272:
expected in a commercial D-T fusion reactor is about 100 times that of fission power reactors, posing problems for
1181:
1052:
the conductors would remove energy faster than fusion reactions could replace it. Modern variations, including the
7129:"Stable, thermal equilibrium, large-amplitude, spherical plasma oscillations in electrostatic confinement devices"
5466:
2620:) have been proposed, e.g., by injection of 1–5 mm thick streams flowing at 10 m/s on solid substrates.
1378:
can cause fusion. As of 2007 producing muons required more energy than can be obtained from muon-catalyzed fusion.
17941:
17775:
17377:
17255:
16912:
16773:
16368:
16210:
15344:
14007:
Gardner, Timothy (June 1, 2023). "US announces $ 46 million in funds to eight nuclear fusion companies". Reuters.
13615:
8524:
7571:
4714:
Barr, W. L.; Moir, R. W.; Hamilton, G. W. (1982). "Experimental results from a beam direct converter at 100 kV".
3488:
The Novette target chamber (metal sphere with diagnostic devices protruding radially), which was reused from the
3066:
2662:
1160:
176:
Fusion researchers have investigated various confinement concepts. The early emphasis was on three main systems:
12754:
Jarvis, O. N. (June 16, 2006). "Neutron measurements from the preliminary tritium experiment at JET (invited)".
9582:
9011:
3420:. The previous year, 1957, the British had claimed that they had achieved thermonuclear fusion reactions on the
1881:
1624:
1159:
Direct drive: Lasers directly heat the fuel pellet. Notable direct drive experiments have been conducted at the
18384:
18230:
17931:
17780:
17238:
15758:
14101:
7086:
6333:
6239:"The two-fluid dynamics and energetics of the asymmetric magnetic reconnection in laboratory and space plasmas"
3757:
3111:
levelized cost of energy estimates are substantially lower. For instance, the 2019 levelized cost of energy of
3062:
15889:
13663:
Senatore, C.; Bonura, M.; Pantoja, A. E.; Wimbush, S. C.; Strickland, N. M.; Vasiliev, A. (January 22, 2021).
3848:
19 at a caged fuel pellet. The deuterium fuel is compressed at Mach 204, reaching pressure levels of 100 TPa.
18477:
18364:
17705:
17538:
16962:
16890:
15697:
15605:
14773:
13836:
12674:"High β produced by neutral beam injection in the START (Small Tight Aspect Ratio Tokamak) spherical tokamak"
3654:
3140:
1529:
1085:
14440:
14125:
7656:
5393:. Proceedings of 2011 Particle Accelerator Conference. New York, New York, USA. p. 1386. Archived from
3427:
Scylla I was a classified machine at the time, so the achievement was hidden from the public. A traditional
2862:
could be produced by a fusion power station; tritium is used in the trigger of hydrogen bombs and in modern
2732:
More rarely a magnet defect can cause a quench. When this happens, that particular spot is subject to rapid
2564:
Depending on the approach, these effects may be higher or lower than fission reactors. One estimate put the
1641:
radiation at high speeds. If the reason is deflection by another particle, plasma radiates X-rays, known as
720:
18048:
17785:
17494:
17248:
16745:
16185:
16124:
15032:
13269:
11540:
Nicholas, T. E. G.; Davis, T. P.; Federici, F.; Leland, J.; Patel, B. S.; Vincent, C.; Ward, S. H. (2021).
10664:
7229:"A biased probe analysis of potential well formation in an electron only, low beta Polywell magnetic field"
6503:
Mott-Smith, H. M.; Langmuir, Irving (September 1, 1926). "The Theory of Collectors in Gaseous Discharges".
5512:
3136:
2832:. Fusion reactors can be designed using "low activation", materials that do not easily become radioactive.
1909:
1691:
1091:
778:
6788:"Study of steam, helium and supercritical CO2 turbine power generations in prototype fusion power reactor"
807:
18504:
18198:
18111:
18083:
18040:
18005:
17843:
17670:
17608:
17433:
17337:
17223:
16691:
16391:
16139:
16061:
16031:
15371:
15364:
15251:
15156:
15143:
15024:
10172:
9896:
9301:
DOE/CF-0167 – Department of Energy FY 2021 Congressional Budget Request, Budget in Brief, February 2020.
8024:
Philipps, V.; et al. (2011). "Tungsten as material for plasma-facing components in fusion devices".
6714:"IX. A dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium. Part III. relations with material media"
4929:
Post, R. F. (1958). United Nations International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (ed.).
3791:
3555:
3396:
The UK claimed that it had gotten fusion first in 1957 on ZETA, but this claim had to later be withdrawn.
3144:
3050:
2947:
2257:
80% of the resultant energy is carried off by neutrons, which limits the use of direct energy conversion.
1739:
1606:
1425:
1324:(piston compression with liquid metal liner), HyperJet Fusion (plasma jet compression with plasma liner).
1126:
1015:
960:
590:
193:
10177:. Washington, DC: American Physical Society Division of Plasma Physics Community Planning Process. 2020.
7638:
5699:
2017:
This reaction is common in research, industrial and military applications, usually as a neutron source.
18032:
17891:
17570:
17088:
17045:
16897:
16195:
15743:
15610:
15349:
15240:
15216:
14843:
14838:
14793:
5586:
Srivastava, Krishna M.; Vyas, D. N. (1982). "Non-linear analysis of the stability of the Screw Pinch".
5072:
Proceedings of the second United Nations International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy
4289:
3983:
3672:
3616:
3458:
developed the concept of the tokamak, combining a low-power pinch device with a low-power stellarator.
3206:
2983:
represents an investment of over twenty billion dollars, and possibly tens of billions more, including
2285:
1382:
1149:
905:
749:
551:
469:
205:
14768:
13254:
9913:
8949:"Conceptual Design of Low Activation Target Chamber and Components for the National Ignition Facility"
8828:
8254:
8214:
8175:
3080:
Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for various sources of energy including wind, solar and nuclear energy
2421:
Side reactions are likely to yield neutrons that carry only about 0.1% of the power, which means that
18286:
18186:
17868:
17477:
17260:
16119:
15968:
15282:
14886:
13989:
13932:
11945:"Gov't to chase 'artificial sun' with $ 866 million investment in nuclear fusion reactor development"
10992:"NRC Hosts Virtual Public Meeting on Developing Options for a Regulatory Framework for Fusion Energy"
8703:
Principles of Fusion Energy: An Introduction to Fusion Energy for Students of Science and Engineering
6787:
5249:
Jarboe, T. R., et al. "Recent results from the HIT-SI experiment." Nuclear Fusion 51.6 (2011): 063029
4254:
4058:
4003:
3350:
3327:
3104:
seawater would be very costly and might require more energy than the energy that would be generated.
2641:
2569:
1796:
Magnetic loops bend the field lines back on themselves, either in circles or more commonly in nested
14561:
14394:
14333:
14175:
Obenschain, Stephen; et al. (2015). "High-energy krypton fluoride lasers for inertial fusion".
13289:
10033:
9702:
9158:
8973:
7450:"Impact of tritium removal and He-3 recycling on structure damage parameters in a D–D fusion system"
5394:
4686:
2605:
allowing it to withstand intense conditions without rapid degradation. Additionally, tungsten's low
1221:, was the last major experiment of the sort. The problems in z-pinch led to the tokamak design. The
691:
18435:
18430:
18301:
18116:
17958:
17858:
17770:
16979:
16865:
16825:
16637:
16036:
15938:
15644:
15133:
13990:"There is no "breakthrough": NIF fusion power still consumes 130 times more energy than it creates"
13759:
12823:
11261:
9766:"Economic aspects of the deployment of fusion energy: the valley of death and the innovation cycle"
6598:
6406:"National Compact Stellarator Experiment Vacuum Vessel External Flux Loops Design and Installation"
5029:
4498:
4274:
3702:
The preamplifiers of the National Ignition Facility. In 2012, the NIF achieved a 500-terawatt shot.
3097:
1785:
1671:
1311:
1242:
1071:
940:
889:
In magnetic confinement, the density is low, on the order of a "good vacuum". For instance, in the
357:
209:
14256:
14152:"Breaking New Ground: JET Tokamak's Latest Fusion Energy Record Shows Mastery of Fusion Processes"
13764:. 63rd Annual Meeting of the APS Division of Plasma Physics, November 8–12, 2021; Pittsburgh, PA.
12393:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
10911:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
9973:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
9835:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
9770:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
5637:
Rider, Todd H. (1995). "A general critique of inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion systems".
3558:
experiments using began as early as 1965. Several laser systems were built at LLNL, including the
3151:(IAEA) began working with various nations to create safety standards such as dose regulations and
1070:) in the 1960s. Magnetic mirrors reflect plasma back and forth in a line. Variations included the
18450:
18440:
18404:
18379:
18369:
18341:
18021:
17988:
17963:
17577:
17354:
17160:
17083:
17040:
17023:
16984:
16907:
16346:
16092:
16021:
15980:
15748:
15120:
15005:
14980:
14936:
14707:
14469:
14019:
10244:
7595:
Feldbacher, Rainer; Heindler, Manfred (1988). "Basic cross section data for aneutronic reactor".
6126:
3852:
3698:
3284:
Fusion power could be used for so-called "deep space" propulsion within the solar system and for
2573:
1880:
The fuels considered for fusion power have all been light elements like the isotopes of hydrogen—
1191:
1177:
350:
329:
278:
Fusion reactions occur when two or more atomic nuclei come close enough for long enough that the
243:
17946:
14753:
11999:
11017:"NRC Hosts Second Virtual Public Meeting on Developing a Regulatory Framework for Fusion Energy"
8215:"Deuterium retention in silicon carbide, SiC ceramic matrix composites, and SiC coated graphite"
5929:
Baramsai, Bayardadrakh; Benyo, Theresa; Forsley, Lawrence; Steinetz, Bruce (February 27, 2022).
4456:"Thermal Discrete Element Analysis of EU Solid Breeder Blanket Subjected to Neutron Irradiation"
2476:
Novel materials to minimize the amount of activation in the structure of the fusion power plant;
1591:, a metal object placed in a plasma, can be employed. A potential is applied to it, giving it a
18409:
17853:
17140:
16684:
15907:
15287:
15054:
15000:
14985:
14556:
13900:"WSJ News Exclusive | Nuclear-Fusion Startup Lands $ 1.8 Billion as Investors Chase Star Power"
13629:
11969:
9012:"Proliferation Risks of Fusion Energy: Clandestine Production, Covert Production, and Breakout"
8968:
4566:
Lawson, J. D. (December 1, 1956). "Some Criteria for a Power Producing Thermonuclear Reactor".
3405:
2863:
2629:
2273:
1809:
1735:
1724:
1720:
1482:
1469:
1204:
1044:
in 1950 and evolved into four designs: Torsatron, Heliotron, Heliac and Helias. One example is
964:
170:
14509:
13406:"Performance of Wendelstein 7-X stellarator plasmas during the first divertor operation phase"
12902:
The physics of inertial fusion : beam plasma interaction, hydrodynamics, hot dense matter
12232:
11128:. London, UK: UK Government, Department for Business, Energy, & Industrial Strategy. 2021.
9611:
8577:
8428:
8365:
7267:
3462:'s group constructed the first tokamaks, achieving the first quasistationary fusion reaction.
2958:
Fusion power commonly proposes the use of deuterium as fuel and many current designs also use
2446:
1056:, use a solid superconducting torus that is magnetically levitated inside the reactor chamber.
18499:
18336:
18281:
18253:
18147:
17883:
17838:
17300:
17228:
17155:
17150:
17115:
16902:
16870:
16657:
16584:
15943:
15639:
15359:
15221:
15204:
14786:
13898:
Journal, Jennifer Hiller | Photographs by Tony Luong for The Wall Street (December 1, 2021).
13348:"Confirmation of the topology of the Wendelstein 7-X magnetic field to better than 1:100,000"
13152:
Clery, Daniel (April 28, 2017). "Private fusion machines aim to beat massive global effort".
12271:
12161:
12069:
11067:"U.K Serious About Fusion: New Report On Regulation Recommends Proportionate, Agile Approach"
9912:
Banacloche, Santacruz; Gamarra, Ana R.; Lechon, Yolanda; Bustreo, Chiara (October 15, 2020).
6599:"Thomson scattering system on the TEXTOR tokamak using a multi-pass laser beam configuration"
3421:
2853:
2829:
2765:
2236:
1896:
reaction requires helium-3, an isotope of helium so scarce on Earth that it would have to be
1748:: The plasma must be constructed so that disturbances will not lead to the plasma dispersing.
1511:
1507:
1476:
1461:
1345:
1218:
929:
39:
12047:
9107:
8701:
5599:
4669:
2498:
1599:. The IV-curve can be used to determine the local plasma density, potential and temperature.
18058:
17833:
17818:
17135:
17093:
16929:
16835:
16763:
15953:
15822:
15569:
15064:
14995:
14948:
14925:
14896:
14548:
14184:
14066:
13799:
13476:
13417:
13359:
13301:
13161:
13085:
12969:"People's Daily Online – China to build world's first "artificial sun" experimental device"
12790:
12685:
12400:
11741:
11563:
11512:
10918:
10836:
10779:
10768:"The commercialisation of fusion for the energy market: a review of socio-economic studies"
10701:
10630:
10544:
10487:
10303:
10103:
10045:
9980:
9925:
9842:
9777:
9714:
9648:
9257:
9231:
9192:
9036:
8960:
8905:
8850:
8656:
8317:
8262:
8226:
8187:
8064:
8033:
7990:
7899:
7773:
Interaction of atomic hydrogen with materials used for plasma-facing wall in fusion devices
7604:
7520:
7457:
7355:
7240:
7193:
7140:
6982:
6939:
6892:
6725:
6610:
6555:
6512:
6469:
6250:
6193:
6138:
5962:
5792:
5745:
5646:
5595:
5348:
5268:
5194:. Lecture Notes in Energy. Vol. 19. London, England: Springer London. pp. 30–40.
5113:
4895:
4807:
4723:
4575:
4525:
3941:
3807:
3730:
3632:
3599:
3401:
2790:
2682:
2296:
2277:
2224:
1437:
1316:
Confines hot plasma using a magnetic field and squeezes it using inertia. Examples include
1297:
1280:
1113:
956:
453:{\displaystyle P_{\text{fusion}}=n_{A}n_{B}\langle \sigma v_{A,B}\rangle E_{\text{fusion}}}
119:
44:
13322:
13233:
8282:
8085:
6049:
6016:
3999:
Over 90K shots over 10 hours; Over 11 million pulse power shots at 10 Hz for over 12 days;
1812:(non-toroidal) machine, resulting in a mechanically simpler and smaller confinement area.
1131:
543:
is the cross section of that reaction, average over all the velocities of the two species
8:
18389:
18374:
18326:
18296:
18157:
17968:
17753:
17347:
17215:
17193:
17018:
16875:
16642:
16604:
16437:
15763:
15226:
14739:
14529:
13967:
13313:
10057:
9726:
9282:
5361:
5336:
3413:
3120:
3038:
2577:
2220:
1702:
898:
283:
250:
14552:
14188:
14070:
14038:"S. Korea's artificial sun project KSTAR achieves longest operation time of 102 seconds"
13856:"National Ignition Facility experiment puts researchers at threshold of fusion ignition"
13803:
13480:
13421:
13363:
13305:
13165:
13089:
12976:
12794:
12689:
12630:
12404:
11745:
11567:
11516:
10922:
10840:
10783:
10766:
Griffiths, Thomas; Pearson, Richard; Bluck, Michael; Takeda, Shutaro (October 1, 2022).
10705:
10634:
10548:
10491:
10307:
10107:
10049:
9984:
9929:
9846:
9781:
9718:
9652:
9637:"The Fusion Nuclear Science Facility, the Critical Step in the Pathway to Fusion Energy"
9235:
9196:
9048:
9040:
8964:
8909:
8854:
8660:
8321:
8266:
8230:
8191:
8068:
8037:
7994:
7903:
7608:
7524:
7461:
7359:
7244:
7197:
7144:
6986:
6943:
6896:
6729:
6622:
6614:
6597:
Kantor, M. Yu; Donné, A. J. H.; Jaspers, R.; van der Meiden, H. J. (February 26, 2009).
6559:
6516:
6473:
6254:
6197:
6142:
5966:
5796:
5780:
5749:
5650:
5352:
5272:
5117:
4899:
4811:
4727:
4579:
4455:
3498:
2401:
Both material science problems and non-proliferation concerns are greatly diminished by
839:, depends on the temperature and density of the plasma. The plasma loses energy through
265:); those to the far right are likely to be unstable and release energy when they split (
18137:
17873:
17710:
17637:
17448:
17098:
17068:
17052:
17035:
16679:
16569:
16517:
16467:
16414:
15845:
15591:
15546:
15415:
15327:
15059:
14082:
14042:
13817:
13689:
13664:
13504:
13445:
13380:
13347:
13327:
13193:
12882:
12642:
12512:
12477:
12429:
12389:"Compact steady-state tokamak performance dependence on magnet and core physics limits"
12388:
12252:
11759:
11587:
11553:
11481:
11434:
10944:
10862:
10805:
10646:
10620:
10513:
10421:"Congress Would Fund Fusion Cost-Share Program in Committee-Passed Appropriations Bill"
10376:
10327:
10293:
10069:
10009:
9968:
9949:
9873:
9830:
9811:
9746:
9680:
9561:
9506:
9456:
9303:
https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2020/02/f72/doe-fy2021-budget-in-brief_0.pdf
9052:
8929:
8874:
8840:
8803:
8756:
8682:
8341:
8156:
8006:
7823:
7544:
7289:
The Physics of Inertial Fusion: BeamPlasma Interaction, Hydrodynamics, Hot Dense Matter
7183:
6908:
6882:
6634:
6485:
6459:
6431:
6381:
6279:
6238:
6162:
5978:
5930:
5866:
5816:
5680:
5619:
5284:
5145:
5103:
4864:
4823:
4747:
4470:
4329:
3817:
3795:
3753:
3285:
3026:
2530:
2438:
2422:
2389:
2251:
2026:
1695:
1602:
1558:
1510:: when plasma gets dense, its electromagnetic properties can change, which can lead to
1501:
1457:
1375:
1222:
840:
16285:
14778:
14622:
Nuttall, William J., Konishi, Satoshi, Takeda, Shutaro, and Webbe-Wood, David (2020).
14151:
12802:
12465:
12171:
10965:
9323:
Commercialising fusion energy : how small businesses are transforming big science
8791:
8199:
7469:
6150:
4859:
3723:
3392:
3355:
3092:. Moreover, operation and maintenance are likely to be costly. While the costs of the
1153:
145:
As a source of power, nuclear fusion has a number of potential advantages compared to
17205:
16998:
16885:
16860:
16798:
16755:
16599:
16594:
16589:
16432:
15110:
15091:
14958:
14858:
14853:
14712:
14685:
14666:
14647:
14629:
14605:
14574:
14515:
14494:
14475:
14200:
14086:
13907:
13821:
13694:
13508:
13449:
13385:
13197:
13185:
13177:
13109:
13101:
12948:
12915:
12905:
12886:
12872:
12839:
12829:
12806:
12736:
12726:
12703:
12634:
12545:
12535:
12516:
12508:
12481:
12469:
12434:
12416:
12368:
12337:
12327:
12304:
12256:
12175:
12142:
11763:
11591:
11579:
11485:
11473:
11438:
11426:
11375:
11357:
11347:
10948:
10936:
10866:
10854:
10809:
10797:
10719:
10650:
10562:
10517:
10505:
10380:
10368:
10331:
10319:
10249:
10154:
10144:
10121:
10061:
10014:
9996:
9953:
9941:
9878:
9860:
9815:
9803:
9795:
9750:
9738:
9730:
9684:
9672:
9664:
9565:
9553:
9510:
9496:
9460:
9446:
9336:
9326:
9208:
8986:
8933:
8921:
8878:
8866:
8795:
8760:
8748:
8707:
8686:
8674:
8621:
8611:
8583:
8478:
8468:
8434:
8371:
8345:
8333:
8286:
8160:
8002:
7917:
7858:
7827:
7815:
7811:
7776:
7709:
7699:
7620:
7616:
7577:
7567:
7548:
7536:
7473:
7424:
7328:
7318:
7293:
7209:
7156:
7113:
Ion flow and fusion reactivity characterization of a spherically convergent ion focus
7092:
7082:
7031:
7021:
6998:
6955:
6807:
6768:
6758:
6694:
6684:
6659:
6638:
6626:
6579:
6571:
6528:
6489:
6421:
6385:
6371:
6329:
6284:
6266:
6219:
6166:
6154:
6105:
6082:
6072:
6024:
5982:
5911:
5901:
5870:
5858:
5808:
5781:"Spherically Imploding Plasma Liners as a Standoff Driver for Magnetoinertial Fusion"
5761:
5672:
5623:
5611:
5436:
5426:
5366:
5317:
5307:
5304:
How to Build a Star: the science of nuclear fusion and the quest to harness its power
5213:
5203:
5170:
5149:
5137:
5129:
5075:
5045:
4934:
4911:
4883:
4868:
4780:
4770:
4751:
4739:
4591:
4587:
4539:
3734:
3611:
3359:
3194:
3152:
3116:
3009:
2962:. Assuming a fusion energy output equal to the 1995 global power output of about 100
2809:
2802:
2581:
2565:
2526:
2442:
2402:
2385:
2300:
Deuterium fusion cross section (in square meters) at different ion collision energies
1856:
1756:
1752:
1620:
1554:
1355:
1031:
936:
321:
162:
115:
13331:
12646:
12290:
10849:
10824:
10073:
10034:"Prospects for pilot plants based on the tokamak, spherical tokamak and stellarator"
9056:
8807:
8076:
8010:
6912:
6653:
6069:
Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion : fundamentals and applications
5820:
5734:"FRX-L: A field-reversed configuration plasma injector for magnetized target fusion"
5684:
5288:
4907:
18394:
18331:
18321:
18316:
18053:
17108:
17073:
16830:
16820:
16708:
16696:
16537:
16532:
16522:
16512:
16507:
16273:
16009:
15850:
15481:
15339:
15161:
15037:
14906:
14891:
14566:
14334:"Wendelstein 7-X fusion reactor keeps its cool en route to record-breaking results"
14192:
14074:
13807:
13684:
13676:
13494:
13484:
13435:
13425:
13375:
13367:
13317:
13309:
13169:
13093:
12940:
12864:
12798:
12782:
12763:
12693:
12626:
12565:"When peer review fails: The Roots of the National Ignition Facility (NIF) Debacle"
12504:
12461:
12424:
12408:
12360:
12296:
12244:
12167:
12024:. Laboratory for Space Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis. Archived from
11749:
11571:
11520:
11465:
11416:
10926:
10844:
10787:
10709:
10638:
10552:
10495:
10358:
10311:
10111:
10053:
10004:
9988:
9933:
9868:
9850:
9785:
9722:
9703:"Fusion nuclear science facilities and pilot plants based on the spherical tokamak"
9656:
9545:
9488:
9438:
9239:
9200:
9044:
8978:
8947:
Streckert, H. H.; Schultz, K. R.; Sager, G. T.; Kantncr, R. D. (December 1, 1996).
8913:
8858:
8787:
8740:
8664:
8526:
Interim Summary Report on the Analysis of the 19 September 2008 Incident at the LHC
8325:
8278:
8270:
8234:
8195:
8146:
8113:
8080:
8072:
8041:
7998:
7907:
7850:
7807:
7612:
7528:
7465:
7449:
7248:
7201:
7148:
6990:
6947:
6900:
6799:
6733:
6618:
6563:
6520:
6477:
6435:
6413:
6363:
6319:
6274:
6258:
6209:
6201:
6146:
6127:"Electron cyclotron resonance heating and current drive in toroidal fusion plasmas"
5970:
5850:
5800:
5753:
5662:
5654:
5603:
5356:
5276:
5195:
5125:
5121:
5037:
4903:
4854:
4827:
4815:
4731:
4583:
4529:
4480:
4284:
4034:
3866:
In December 2023, the largest and most advanced tokamak JT-60SA was inaugurated in
3679:
3193:, fusion science has traditionally been seen as an integral part of peace-building
3108:
3085:
2666:
2388:
fuel cycle, most of the reaction energy is released as charged particles, reducing
2240:
1745:
1584:
1433:
1053:
1034:: also known as spherical torus. A variation on the tokamak with a spherical shape.
882:
878:
856:
585:
135:
87:
83:
55:
31:
14511:
Search for the Ultimate Energy Source: A History of the U.S. Fusion Energy Program
11897:"G7 Puts Fusion Forward At The Climate, Energy And Environment Ministers' Meeting"
11852:"At COP28, John Kerry unveils nuclear fusion strategy as a source of clean energy"
10141:
Final report of the Committee on a Strategic Plan for U.S. Burning Plasma Research
9480:
9430:
9136:
8274:
8045:
7842:
7727:
6904:
6803:
6355:
6181:
5733:
5423:
Sun in a bottle: the strange history of fusion and the science of wishful thinking
3782:'s fifth-generation plasma machine went into operation. The UK's Tokamak Energy's
3384:
2781:, which is harmless to life. Hazardous tritium is difficult to retain completely.
1287:
losses. They are simple enough to build that amateurs have fused atoms using them.
924:
Another design proposed to use the neutrons to breed fission fuel in a blanket of
17951:
17911:
17365:
17179:
17103:
17078:
16924:
16717:
16619:
16609:
16574:
16452:
16442:
16190:
15994:
15855:
15581:
15522:
15486:
15332:
15042:
14990:
14876:
14641:
14624:
14533:
14401:
14359:"China's Artificial Sun Just Broke a Record for Longest Sustained Nuclear Fusion"
13761:
Session AR01: Review: Creating A Burning Plasma on the National Ignition Facility
13173:
13097:
12025:
11541:
11499:
Gi, Keii; Sano, Fuminori; Akimoto, Keigo; Hiwatari, Ryoji; Tobita, Kenji (2020).
10714:
10689:
9937:
9492:
9442:
9309:
9018:
7935:
7854:
7287:
7111:
6994:
6367:
5951:"Novel nuclear reactions observed in bremsstrahlung-irradiated deuterated metals"
5950:
5164:
4294:
4269:
4112:
3838:
3825:
3772:
3571:
3459:
3455:
3186:
2934:
2837:
2786:
2701:
2693:
1897:
1776:
1687:
1683:
1630:
1407:, avoiding the confined high-temperature plasmas used in other methods of fusion.
1400:
1371:
1296:
Attempts to combine magnetic confinement with electrostatic fields, to avoid the
1063:
1059:
1045:
988:
955:
Plasma is an ionized gas that conducts electricity. In bulk, it is modeled using
310:
266:
185:
146:
17443:
14625:
Commercialising Fusion Energy: How Small Businesses are Transforming Big Science
14037:
13462:
12564:
12532:
Inertial confinement nuclear fusion : a historical approach by its pioneers
12364:
11575:
10642:
10281:
8862:
7795:
7409:
6833:
6417:
6324:
5974:
4670:"ITER and the International ITER and the International Scientific Collaboration"
3706:
18414:
18356:
18311:
17906:
17901:
17896:
17646:
17553:
17522:
17504:
17028:
16934:
16880:
16845:
16778:
16725:
16579:
16472:
16457:
16447:
16107:
15673:
14881:
14833:
14825:
14734:
14730:
14597:
14570:
13680:
13489:
13464:
12858:
12248:
11421:
11404:
10792:
10767:
10533:"Characterizing fusion market entry via an agent-based power plant fleet model"
10500:
10475:
10363:
10346:
10315:
9534:"Nuclear Fusion Diffusion: Theory, Policy, Practice, and Politics Perspectives"
9533:
8729:"Nuclear Fusion Diffusion: Theory, Policy, Practice, and Politics Perspectives"
8728:
8669:
8644:
8151:
8134:
6405:
6311:
6262:
5854:
5838:
4647:
4378:
Vogt, Adrienne; Hayes, Mike; Nilsen, Ella; Hammond, Elise (December 13, 2022).
4194:
3783:
3687:
3683:
3661:"Fast ignition" saved power and moved ICF into the race for energy production.
3603:
3537:
3278:
3214:
3190:
2926:
2580:, and mechanical strength matter. Materials must also not end up as long-lived
2547:
1805:
1675:
1642:
1588:
1562:
1550:
1489:
1392:
1321:
972:
968:
365:
361:
314:
262:
258:
254:
225:
67:
63:
17926:
12868:
12740:
11525:
11500:
11361:
10688:
Entler, Slavomir; Horacek, Jan; Dlouhy, Tomas; Dostal, Vaclav (June 1, 2018).
10557:
10532:
10158:
9340:
8893:
8625:
8238:
7912:
7887:
7532:
6481:
5321:
5199:
4622:
3714:
3244:
Specifically to resolve the tritium supply problem, in February 2024, the UK (
2793:
of 7 to 14 days). ITER incorporates total containment facilities for tritium.
1715:
18493:
18346:
18091:
17382:
16788:
16629:
16341:
16175:
16129:
15622:
15393:
15322:
15151:
14943:
14871:
14763:
14726:
14609:
13911:
13738:
13521:
13181:
13105:
12843:
12810:
12707:
12638:
12611:
12549:
12473:
12420:
12341:
11754:
11729:
11583:
11477:
11430:
11164:"UK government publishes fusion strategy – Nuclear Engineering International"
10882:"Japan adopts national strategy on nuclear fusion as competition intensifies"
10858:
10801:
10723:
10566:
10509:
10323:
10253:
10125:
10065:
10000:
9945:
9864:
9799:
9734:
9668:
9557:
9549:
9243:
9226:
Kramer, David (2018). "ITER disputes DOE's cost estimate of fusion project".
9212:
8990:
8982:
8925:
8917:
8870:
8752:
8744:
8678:
8482:
8337:
8290:
7921:
7819:
7780:
7713:
7624:
7540:
7477:
7428:
7332:
7213:
7160:
7035:
6959:
6811:
6772:
6698:
6630:
6575:
6567:
6532:
6270:
6223:
6158:
6086:
6028:
5915:
5862:
5812:
5804:
5765:
5676:
5615:
5487:
5440:
5370:
5217:
5133:
5079:
4938:
4915:
4784:
4743:
4595:
4263:
4240:
4025:
3867:
3833:
3779:
3563:
3417:
3409:
3253:
2818:
2813:
2733:
2726:
2717:
2534:
2427:
1662:
1658:
1331:
1107:
1041:
1000:
925:
286:
pushing them apart, fusing them into heavier nuclei. For nuclei heavier than
279:
246:
transforms lighter elements into heavier elements with the release of energy.
154:
150:
13005:
12919:
12828:. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
12824:
European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation (2004).
12529:
12146:
11238:"Agile Nations: UK, Japan and Canada joint recommendations on fusion energy"
10451:"Department of Energy Announces Milestone Public-Private Partnership Awards"
8641:
7581:
7363:
7096:
6182:"High power heating of magnetic reconnection in merging tokamak experiments"
3678:
In the 2000s, privately backed fusion companies entered the race, including
3610:
tokamaks were built in the 1980s. In 1984, Martin Peng of ORNL proposed the
3238:
2472:, focusing on five priority areas, with a focus on tokamak family reactors:
1488:
Radio frequency heating: a radio wave causes the plasma to oscillate (i.e.,
17657:
16793:
16735:
16614:
16484:
16314:
16302:
16205:
15926:
14973:
14963:
14204:
13812:
13787:
13698:
13389:
13189:
13113:
12934:
12438:
12412:
10940:
10931:
10906:
10372:
10116:
10091:
10018:
9992:
9882:
9855:
9807:
9790:
9765:
9187:"ITER governing council pushes schedule back five years and trims budget".
8948:
8799:
8118:
8101:
7002:
6738:
6713:
6524:
6288:
5141:
3579:
3112:
3089:
2841:
2754:
2722:
2551:
2541:
2354:
A second-generation approach to controlled fusion power involves combining
2269:
2261:
1914:
1865:
1781:
1075:
982:
12944:
12589:
12210:
11730:"Academies urge public–private effort to build a pilot fusion-power plant"
11542:"Re-examining the role of nuclear fusion in a renewables-based energy mix"
11092:"UK Regulatory Horizons Council Issues Report on Fusion Energy Regulation"
8829:"Re-examining the role of nuclear fusion in a renewables-based energy mix"
7508:
6951:
6832:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, LLNL-JRNL-463536. Archived from
6583:
3337:
18068:
17715:
17305:
16812:
16783:
16215:
16180:
16170:
15817:
15721:
15081:
15069:
15047:
14196:
13837:"Major nuclear fusion milestone reached as "ignition" triggered in a lab"
13499:
13440:
11140:"Government sets out vision for UK's rollout of commercial fusion energy"
9353:
4977:"The first plasma: the Wendelstein 7-X fusion device is now in operation"
4161:
3845:
3768:
3575:
3567:
3559:
3525:
3489:
3432:
3388:
Early photo of plasma inside a pinch machine (Imperial College 1950–1951)
3096:
are not well known, an EU DEMO fusion concept was projected to feature a
3018:
2737:
2223:, providing a small energy gain for the reactor. The reaction with Li is
1638:
1229:
1081:
1037:
291:
200:. Both designs are under research at very large scales, most notably the
181:
75:
74:
Fusion processes require fuel and a confined environment with sufficient
59:
18222:
13933:"Oxford spinoff demonstrates world-first hypersonic "projectile fusion""
13371:
11996:"Conventional Fusion FAQ Section 2/11 (Energy) Part 2/5 (Environmental)"
11705:"Road map to U.S. fusion power plant comes into clearer focus – sort of"
11453:
11403:
Carayannis, Elias G.; Draper, John; Bhaneja, Balwant (October 2, 2020).
11262:"Fusion Caucus Celebrates House Passage of Bipartisan Fusion Energy Act"
9204:
8406:
6927:
5667:
18445:
17421:
16200:
14308:
13523:
11469:
10280:
Handley, Malcolm C.; Slesinski, Daniel; Hsu, Scott C. (July 10, 2021).
9660:
9363:. Washington: Department of Energy Fusion Energy Sciences. pp. ii.
8305:
6825:
Anklam, T.; Simon, A. J.; Powers, S.; Meier, W. R. (December 2, 2010).
5607:
5001:
4976:
4735:
4484:
4429:
3595:
3505:
3225:
3022:
3014:
2929:, this choice would be much easier to detect and therefore implausible.
2742:
2624:
1521:
1168:
499:
is the number density of species A or B, of the particles in the volume
306:
295:
14253:"World Highest Fusion Triple Product Marked in High-βp H-mode Plasmas"
14078:
13430:
13405:
12767:
12723:
Nuclear fusion: half a century of magnetic confinement fusion research
12083:
11190:"NRC Decision Separates Fusion Energy Regulation from Nuclear Fission"
9742:
9676:
8465:
Safety, environmental impact, and economic prospects of nuclear fusion
8329:
7252:
7205:
7128:
6214:
6205:
5757:
5092:
5041:
5036:, Conference Proceedings, Thomas Telford Publishing, pp. 99–111,
4798:
Alfvén, H. (1942). "Existence of electromagnetic-hydrodynamic waves".
4543:
3531:
Shiva laser, 1977, the largest ICF laser system built in the seventies
2681:
machine quench/explosion, and could be effectively contained within a
868:
18063:
17426:
17416:
16544:
16497:
16462:
16383:
16238:
15879:
15376:
15096:
15015:
15010:
14953:
14547:. Vol. 11. Washington: US Department of Energy. pp. 23–59.
14416:"Tokamak Energy achieves temperature threshold for commercial fusion"
13661:
13598:"Italy's Eni defies sceptics, may up stake in nuclear fusion project"
12698:
12673:
12308:
9969:"Factors influencing the commercialization of inertial fusion energy"
9636:
7152:
6973:
Booth, William (October 9, 1987). "Fusion's $ 372-Million Mothball".
6100:
Kunkel, W. B. (1981). "Neutral-beam injection". In Teller, E. (ed.).
5658:
5537:
5280:
4819:
4380:"December 13, 2022 US officials announce nuclear fusion breakthrough"
3738:
3469:
3451:
3270:
3147:
co-hosted a public forum to begin the process. In November 2020, the
3042:
2867:
2359:
2228:
2034:
2018:
1931:
1885:
1738:: The forces acting on the plasma must be balanced. One exception is
1634:
1572:
1546:
1284:
1164:
1097:
844:
103:
17921:
14758:
14441:"KSTAR fusion reactor sets record with 30-second plasma confinement"
13714:"With "smoke ring" technology, fusion startup marks steady progress"
13645:"MIT and newly formed company launch novel approach to fusion power"
13574:"The UK Just Switched on an Ambitious Fusion Reactor – And It Works"
13028:"Hollywood, Silicon Valley and Russia Join Forces on Nuclear Fusion"
11828:"US, Japan Team Up for Commercialization of Fusion Energy | Rigzone"
9073:
Englert, Matthias; Franceschini, Giorgio; Liebert, Wolfgang (2011).
8501:"Fusion as a Future Power Source: Recent Achievements and Prospects"
7936:"American Elements Creates Detection Window for EPFL Fusion Reactor"
7228:
5562:"Chevron announces investment in nuclear fusion start-up Zap Energy"
4842:
4534:
4354:"DOE National Laboratory Makes History by Achieving Fusion Ignition"
3649:
2623:
Graphite features a gross erosion rate due to physical and chemical
2384:
This reaction produces He and a high-energy proton. As with the p-B
1256:
This method combines a theta and z-pinch for improved stabilization.
18152:
17795:
17790:
17730:
17399:
17327:
17310:
17295:
17270:
17013:
16502:
16290:
15508:
15184:
13286:
12300:
12206:
11679:"An aggressive market-driven model for US fusion power development"
11558:
10825:"Prospective research and development for fusion commercialisation"
10625:
10298:
8845:
8552:
7561:
7313:
Velarde, Guillermo; Martínez-Val, José María; Ronen, Yigal (1993).
7188:
4299:
3156:
demonstration facilities, with a 100% match from private industry.
2950:, but have very little in common with magnetic confinement fusion.
2833:
2822:
2746:
2601:
2434:
2355:
1893:
1869:
1580:
1497:
1441:
1396:
1363:
1351:
1291:
1141:
852:
91:
79:
13524:"Wendelstein 7-X fusion device produces its first hydrogen plasma"
13522:
Max Planck Institute for Experimental Physics (February 3, 2016).
10240:"Fusion Startups Step In to Realize Decades-Old Clean Power Dream"
7346:
Iiyoshi, A; Momota, H.; Motojima, O.; et al. (October 1993).
6887:
6464:
5306:. Place of publication not identified: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
5108:
4475:
3837:
1.8 billion in Series B funding to construct and operate its
3806:
In January 2021, SuperOx announced the commercialization of a new
991:
can reflect plasma when it moves from a low to high density field.
18291:
18121:
18073:
17936:
17916:
17315:
17290:
16730:
16561:
16549:
16527:
16492:
16078:
15649:
15262:
15101:
15086:
15074:
14901:
14377:"China's "Artificial Sun" Fusion Reactor Just Set a World Record"
14129:
13963:"What you need to know about the U.S. fusion energy breakthrough"
13875:"Helion Energy Raises $ 500 Million On The Fusion Power Of Stars"
11316:"The race to give nuclear fusion a role in the climate emergency"
11214:"New laws passed to bolster energy security and deliver net zero"
10215:"Nuclear Fusion Could Rescue the Planet from Climate Catastrophe"
8255:"Recent analysis of key plasma wall interactions issues for ITER"
7664:
5030:"Mirror systems: fuel cycles, loss reduction and energy recovery"
4234:
4094:
Fusion was not observed. Discharge time is not confinement time.
3749:
3428:
3030:
2984:
2959:
2871:
2859:
2697:
2613:
2606:
2038:
2030:
2022:
1994:
1952:
1889:
1801:
1800:
surfaces. The most highly developed systems of this type are the
1679:
1610:
1592:
1533:
1429:
1359:
1211:
1103:
1021:
918:
340:
287:
189:
177:
166:
158:
139:
131:
127:
107:
99:
95:
14217:"Krypton Fluoride (KrF) Laser Driver for Inertial Fusion Energy"
13212:
10476:"U.S. Fusion Energy Development via Public-Private Partnerships"
10395:"A Historic Decision: To Demonstrate Practical Fusion at Culham"
10174:
A Community Plan for Fusion Energy and Discovery Plasma Sciences
9376:"Fueled By Billionaire Dollars, Nuclear Fusion Enters A New Age"
7315:
Nuclear fusion by inertial confinement: a comprehensive treatise
6596:
5516:
4405:"US scientists repeat fusion ignition breakthrough for 2nd time"
3482:
3084:
Some economists suggest fusion power is unlikely to match other
2777:
The natural product of the fusion reaction is a small amount of
1374:. Their greater mass compresses the nuclei enough such that the
1235:
inherent limits that made it uninteresting for power production.
17725:
17720:
17700:
17680:
17665:
17548:
17285:
17265:
17233:
15661:
15627:
15469:
12160:"Principles of Fusion Energy Utilization in Space Propulsion".
11376:"Will China beat the world to nuclear fusion and clean energy?"
10907:"Political and commercial prospects for inertial fusion energy"
7639:"Nuclear Fusion: Laser-Beam Experiment Yields Exciting Results"
6658:. Library Genesis. Washington, DC : Taylor & Francis.
3841:, the single largest investment in any private fusion company.
3635:
achieved the world's first controlled release of fusion power.
3310:
needed is about 3 times higher than for deuterium-tritium (see
3288:
exploration where solar energy is not available, including via
3281:, and is abundant in the atmospheres of the gas giant planets.
2778:
2745:
fluid boils away. The abrupt decrease of current can result in
2523:
A heating and cooling cycle, up to a 10 MW/m thermal load.
2406:
1973:
1837:
299:
298:, releasing energy when they fuse. Since hydrogen has a single
230:
123:
14020:"World's largest nuclear fusion reactor comes online in Japan"
9911:
9898:
The Fusion Industry Supply Chain: Opportunities and Challenges
9634:
9006:
9004:
9002:
9000:
4769:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
3492:
project and two newly built laser chains visible in background
975:
behave. Fusion exploits several plasma properties, including:
18142:
18099:
17762:
17618:
17411:
17275:
16261:
15867:
15805:
15780:
15534:
15498:
15464:
15459:
15209:
15179:
14309:"Successful second round of experiments with Wendelstein 7-X"
13402:
13076:
Clery, Daniel (July 25, 2014). "Fusion's restless pioneers".
12530:
Verlarde, G.; Carpintero–Santamaría, Natividad, eds. (2007).
12224:
11921:"UK and Canada team up to solve nuclear fusion fuel shortage"
11878:"US, Japan announce partnership to accelerate nuclear fusion"
10738:"Levelized Cost of Energy and Levelized Cost of Storage 2019"
9831:"Engineering challenges for accelerated fusion demonstrators"
8700:
Harms, A. A.; Schoepf, Klaus F.; Kingdon, David Ross (2000).
8132:
7843:"Hydrogen Recycling and Wall Equilibration in Fusion Devices"
7490:
J. Kesner, D. Garnier, A. Hansen, M. Mauel, and L. Bromberg,
6827:"LIFE: The Case for Early Commercialization of Fusion Energy"
5258:
4216:
4049:
3607:
3252:) announced an agreement by which Canada could refurbish its
3088:
costs. Fusion plants are expected to face large start up and
2410:
2033:
is a natural isotope of hydrogen, but because it has a short
1860:
1852:
1797:
1742:, where the fusion must occur faster than the dispersal time.
1614:
1273:
1145:
1106:
is a spheromak that is formed and sustained using continuous
1025:
863:
197:
13630:"MIT Aims To Bring Nuclear Fusion To The Market In 10 Years"
13344:
11654:"US must make an infrastructure investment in fusion energy"
10189:"US Plasma Science Strategic Planning Reaches Pivotal Phase"
9532:
Carayannis, Elias G.; Draper, John; Iftimie, Ion A. (2020).
9159:"Fusion For Energy – Bringing the power of the sun to earth"
8946:
8727:
Carayannis, Elias G.; Draper, John; Iftimie, Ion A. (2020).
6755:
Diagnostics for experimental thermonuclear fusion reactors 2
5928:
2729:
in the copper support matrix), or a combination of the two.
1926:
The easiest nuclear reaction, at the lowest energy, is D+T:
802:
is the conduction losses as energetic mass leaves the plasma
356:
In a plasma, particle velocity can be characterized using a
17623:
17512:
17322:
17280:
15452:
15277:
14968:
13053:"The secretive, billionaire-backed plans to harness fusion"
11607:"Reviewing fusion energy to address climate change by 2050"
11605:
Carayannis, Elias; Draper, John; Crumpton, Charles (2022).
11539:
10765:
10610:
9166:
9082:. 7th INMM/Esarda Workshop, Aix-en-Provence. Archived from
8997:
8826:
8556:
8462:
5947:
5731:
4952:
3210:
2980:
2963:
2761:
2637:
2508:
2246:
Drawbacks commonly attributed to D-T fusion power include:
2232:
1919:
1367:
1317:
1067:
890:
239:
201:
111:
11778:"FIA Congratulates Congressional Bipartisan Fusion Caucus"
11122:
Towards Fusion Energy: The UK Government's Fusion Strategy
10531:
Spangher, Lucas; Vitter, J. Scott; Umstattd, Ryan (2019).
10031:
9700:
9072:
8102:"Fusion Materials Development at Forschungszentrum Jülich"
7796:"Plasma surface interactions in controlled fusion devices"
7173:
6752:
3554:(LLNL), shortly after the invention of the laser in 1960.
2572:. Depending on the approach, other considerations such as
17596:
17460:
14271:"Measuring Progress in Fusion Energy: The Triple Product"
13290:"Plans for the first plasma operation of Wendelstein 7-X"
12720:
12452:
Kaw, P. K. (1999). "Steady state operation of tokamaks".
11291:"Fusion energy needs smart federal government regulation"
10687:
8569:
8212:
7752:
Klueh, R. L. "Metals in the nuclear-fusion environment".
7509:"A Review of Confinement Requirements for Advanced Fuels"
6403:
4690:
3787:
3745:
3515:
3034:
2678:
2617:
1048:, a German device. It is the world's largest stellarator.
848:
325:
235:
14056:
13004:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Archived from
12783:"Actively cooled plasma facing components in Tore Supra"
11604:
9068:
9066:
8251:
7312:
7286:
Atzeni, Stefano; Meyer-ter-Vehn, Jürgen (June 3, 2004).
7279:
6753:
Stott PE, Gorini G, Prandoni P, Sindoni E, eds. (1998).
3508:
during the 1980s was a key driver of fusion development.
1851:
devices use electrostatic fields. The best known is the
173:
many common materials used within the reaction chamber.
142:
fluxes to generate tritium to complete the fuel cycle.
14808:
14536:; Nagel, David; Chubb, Talbot; Hekman, Randall (2004).
13739:"Clean energy from the fastest moving objects on earth"
13129:"The British reality TV star building a fusion reactor"
12272:"Highlights in early stellarator research at Princeton"
11402:
9531:
9023:
9th IAEA Technical Meeting on Fusion Power Plant Safety
8726:
8608:
ITER: the giant fusion reactor: bringing a sun to Earth
7385:"Nuclear Fusion : WNA – World Nuclear Association"
6448:
5452:
5450:
4722:(2). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 131–143.
3767:
in Greifswald, Germany, completed building the largest
3224:
In December 2020, an independent expert panel reviewed
3185:
Given the potential of fusion to transform the world's
935:
Designs that use other fuels, notably the proton-boron
773:
is the rate of energy generated by the fusion reactions
744:
is the efficiency of capturing the output of the fusion
320:
An atom loses its electrons once it is heated past its
169:
that are released during the reaction, which over time
14643:
Kinetic Simulations of Ion Transport in Fusion Devices
10530:
9612:"Nuclear Fusion Energy – Mankind's Giant Step Forward"
8494:
8492:
8458:
8456:
8359:
8357:
8355:
7018:
Containment in cusped plasma systems (classic reprint)
6824:
6785:
6050:"DeepMind Has Trained an AI to Control Nuclear Fusion"
6017:"DeepMind Has Trained an AI to Control Nuclear Fusion"
5416:
5414:
4377:
881:
argues that a machine holding a thermalized and quasi-
14729:, "Fusion's False Promise: Despite a recent advance,
12826:
Fusion Research: An Energy Option for Europe's Future
12357:
Advanced Diagnostics for Magnetic and Inertial Fusion
12203:"Radioactive tritium leaks found at 48 US nuke sites"
11876:
Renshaw, Jarrett; Gardner, Timothy (April 10, 2024).
11498:
11452:
Carayannis, Elias G.; Draper, John (April 22, 2021).
9583:"White House Sets Sights on Commercial Fusion Energy"
9063:
8176:"Deuterium retention in carbides and doped graphites"
7849:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 195–201,
7693:
7345:
5778:
5337:"Status of the US program in magneto-inertial fusion"
4933:. Vol. 32. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations.
4524:
Miley, G. H.; Towner, H.; Ivich, N. (June 17, 1974).
3217:. In February 2021, the National Academies published
1260:
1066:
and teams at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (
810:
781:
752:
723:
694:
602:
554:
507:
472:
381:
14661:
Nagamine, Kanetada (2003). "Muon Catalyzed Fusion".
12139:
Fusion energy for space missions in the 21st century
10960:
10958:
9901:. Washington, DC: Fusion Industry Association. 2023.
7967:
7965:
7657:"Record proton-boron fusion rate achieved – FuseNet"
7562:
von Möllendorff, Ulrich; Goel, Balbir, eds. (1989).
7447:
7285:
6926:
Barr, William L.; Moir, Ralph W. (January 1, 1983).
5877:
5447:
4230:
3550:
Laser fusion was suggested in 1962 by scientists at
2921:
A study conducted in 2011 assessed three scenarios:
2874:
for an atomic bomb (for example by transmutation of
16364:
International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility
14174:
13781:
13779:
13777:
13775:
12904:. Meyer-ter-Vehn, Jürgen. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
12066:"The importance of European fusion energy research"
12063:
11629:"National Academies calls for a fusion pilot plant"
10279:
9320:
8699:
8489:
8453:
8352:
8173:
7448:Sawan, M. E.; Zinkle, S. J.; Sheffield, J. (2002).
6856:
5411:
5252:
3741:fusion reactions per second over a 24-hour period.
3631:In 1991, the Preliminary Tritium Experiment at the
2459:
International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility
1665:
that turns into steam, driving electric generators.
1627:
can record the rate at which neutrons are produced.
1140:Indirect drive: Lasers heat a structure known as a
17146:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
13616:"MIT Aims to Harness Fusion Power Within 15 years"
9354:Fusion Energy Sciences Advisory Committee (2021).
9283:"A Brief History of U.S. Funding of Fusion Energy"
8773:
7594:
6545:
6502:
5900:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
5566:Power Technology | Energy News and Market Analysis
2836:, for example, becomes much less radioactive than
2760:A large section of the superconducting magnets in
2757:hazard to operators by displacing breathable air.
831:is the radiation losses as energy leaves as light.
823:
794:
765:
736:
707:
674:
567:
535:
485:
452:
14528:
14491:Oliphant, the life and times of Sir Mark Oliphant
13463:Sunn Pedersen, Thomas; et al. (April 2022).
12563:McKinzie, Matthew; Paine, Christopher E. (2000).
11398:
11396:
10955:
10275:
10273:
10271:
10269:
9479:Pearson, Richard J.; Nuttall, William J. (2020),
8637:
8635:
8605:
7962:
7502:
7500:
7348:"Innovative Energy Production in Fusion Reactors"
7076:
6554:(4). American Physical Society (APS): 3003–3021.
6236:
6179:
6124:
5387:Inertial Fusion Driven by Intense Heavy-Ion Beams
5069:
2741:the magnetic field is converted to heat, and the
2587:
1804:, the stellarator, and the reversed field pinch.
493:is the energy made by fusion, per time and volume
18491:
14232:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
13772:
12292:The Evolution of Stellarator Theory at Princeton
11683:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
11451:
10822:
10657:
10090:Hiwatari, Ryoji; Goto, Takuya (March 19, 2019).
9696:
9694:
8498:
6066:
5006:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
4713:
4523:
3872:Korean Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research
2696:as a coolant and to convert stray neutrons into
2540:High energy ions leaving at tens to hundreds of
1475:Electrostatic heating: an electric field can do
14488:
14471:A Piece of the Sun: The Quest for Fusion Energy
13956:
13954:
13952:
12667:
12665:
12068:. The European Physical Society. Archived from
11458:Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology
11344:A piece of the sun: the quest for fusion energy
10690:"Approximation of the economy of fusion energy"
9577:
9575:
8133:Brezɩnsek, S.; et al. (December 2, 2021).
7265:
6678:
6511:(4). American Physical Society (APS): 727–763.
4881:
4318:
4316:
3213:'s COTS program, which launched the commercial
3025:, as well as institutional investors including
1198:
575:is the energy released by that fusion reaction.
14924:
14682:An Introduction to Inertial Confinement Fusion
13213:"PW 2012: fusion laser on track for 2012 burn"
12936:An Introduction to Inertial Confinement Fusion
11875:
11804:"Expert panel approves next DEMO design phase"
11393:
11284:
11282:
10606:
10604:
10602:
10600:
10598:
10596:
10594:
10266:
9605:
9603:
9478:
9399:
9397:
9395:
9026:
8632:
8499:Hamacher, T.; Bradshaw, A. M. (October 2001).
8363:
8306:"Achieving a social license for fusion energy"
8023:
7881:
7879:
7728:"Roadmap highlights materials route to fusion"
7497:
7079:An introduction to inertial confinement fusion
7072:
7070:
6410:2007 IEEE 22nd Symposium on Fusion Engineering
6125:Erckmann, V; Gasparino, U (December 1, 1994).
5585:
5023:
5021:
4568:Proceedings of the Physical Society. Section B
4453:
1690:, in the late 1960s. It has been proposed for
536:{\displaystyle \langle \sigma v_{A,B}\rangle }
18238:
17849:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
16399:
14824:
14794:
14128:. Culham Centre Fusion Energy. Archived from
12612:"Tokamak foundation in USSR/Russia 1950–1990"
12562:
12084:"Space propulsion | Have fusion, will travel"
11341:
9691:
9527:
9525:
9429:Pearson, Richard J.; Takeda, Shutaro (2020),
9428:
9156:
7847:Hydrogen Recycling at Plasma Facing Materials
7696:Structural Materials in Nuclear Power Systems
6353:
5383:
5156:
4709:
4707:
4076:Discharge time (field reversed configuration)
3666:Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak
3504:Inertial confinement fusion implosion on the
2995:(in addition to ITER funding), compared with
2651:
2514:
1526:antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion
27:Electricity generation through nuclear fusion
13949:
13255:"The Alectryon High Yield Neutron Generator"
12662:
10089:
9572:
8894:"Reuse of Vanadium Alloys in Power Reactors"
8463:Brunelli, B.; Knoepfel, Heinz, eds. (1990).
8174:Mayer, M.; Balden, M.; Behrisch, R. (1998).
7840:
7689:
7687:
7685:
7683:
7681:
7317:. Boca Raton; Ann Arbor; London: CRC Press.
7081:. New York: Taylor & Francis/CRC Press.
6651:
6354:Pearson, Richard J; Takeda, Shutaro (2020),
6071:. Murali, S. Krupakar. Dordrecht: Springer.
5070:Berowitz, J. L; Grad, H.; Rubin, H. (1958).
4313:
3810:with more than 700 A/mm current capability.
3790:announced a $ 50 million investment in
2789:(it cycles out of the body as water, with a
2493:
1843:
530:
508:
437:
415:
14357:Magazine, Smithsonian; Gamillo, Elizabeth.
14356:
14017:
13234:"Nuclear fusion milestone passed at US lab"
13210:
12359:, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 31–38,
11279:
10591:
10282:"Potential Early Markets for Fusion Energy"
10085:
10083:
9600:
9538:IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management
9392:
8891:
8733:IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management
8433:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 474.
7876:
7226:
7126:
7103:
7067:
5018:
5002:"MIT tests unique approach to fusion power"
4882:Sijoy, C. D.; Chaturvedi, Shashank (2012).
4764:
2685:similar to those used in fission reactors.
2239:compared to Li so most reactor designs use
1479:on charged ions or electrons, heating them.
1217:fusion. The largest such machine, the UK's
18472:
18245:
18231:
16406:
16392:
14801:
14787:
14743:, vol. 328, no. 6 (June 2023), p. 86.
14595:
14538:"New Physical Effects in Metal Deuterides"
14489:Cockburn, Stewart; Ellyard, David (1981).
14395:"The Development of the Spherical Tokamak"
13987:
13270:"A small, modular, efficient fusion plant"
12038:
10212:
9522:
8575:
7352:National Institute for Fusion Science NIFS
7051:"Magnetic mirror holds promise for fusion"
6928:"Test Results on Plasma Direct Converters"
6104:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
4704:
4519:
4517:
4515:
4348:
4346:
3543:The Tandem Mirror Experiment (TMX) in 1979
3315:
864:Triple product: density, temperature, time
18252:
14560:
14514:. Springer Science & Business Media.
13811:
13766:Bulletin of the American Physical Society
13688:
13571:
13498:
13488:
13439:
13429:
13379:
13321:
12998:"What Is the National Ignition Facility?"
12856:
12697:
12428:
12109:"Funding for Fusion for Space Propulsion"
11753:
11557:
11524:
11420:
11337:
11335:
11014:
10989:
10930:
10848:
10791:
10713:
10624:
10556:
10499:
10362:
10297:
10115:
10008:
9872:
9854:
9789:
9764:Cardozo, N. J. Lopes (February 4, 2019).
9357:Powering the Future: Fusion & Plasmas
8972:
8844:
8774:Markandya, Anil; Wilkinson, Paul (2007).
8668:
8545:"Explain it in 60 seconds: Magnet Quench"
8150:
8117:
8084:
8058:
7911:
7793:
7678:
7266:Sieckand, Paul; Volberg, Randall (2017).
7187:
7127:Barnes, D. C.; Nebel, R. A. (July 1998).
6886:
6737:
6683:(4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
6463:
6323:
6278:
6213:
5666:
5360:
5162:
5107:
4858:
4840:
4621:. EFDA. February 25, 2013. Archived from
4533:
4474:
3786:generated "first plasma". The next year,
2596:
2560:Light radiation (IR, visible, UV, X-ray).
1815:
1766:
1661:can be driven by heat transferred into a
1444:has also developed a control scheme with
1144:that becomes so hot it begins to radiate
216:, and new variations of the stellarator.
17761:
14679:
14660:
14149:
13651:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
13642:
13549:"Nuclear Fusion Updated project reviews"
13267:
12932:
12324:Nuclear power: a very short introduction
12022:"Relative Abundances of Stable Isotopes"
11894:
10237:
10080:
9258:"The Sixth Framework Programme in brief"
9124:
8601:
8599:
8542:
7770:
6925:
5895:
5883:
5456:
5328:
5074:. Vol. 31. Geneva: United Nations.
4999:
4561:
4559:
4557:
4555:
4553:
4181:Temperature (compact spherical tokamak)
3713:
3705:
3697:
3648:
3468:
3400:The first machine to achieve controlled
3391:
3383:
3075:
2847:
2497:
2295:
1913:
1819:
1714:
1130:
999:
867:
339:
249:
229:
47:(JET) magnetic fusion experiment in 1991
38:
14018:Dobberstein, Laura (December 4, 2023).
14006:
13897:
13834:
13786:Wright, Katherine (November 30, 2021).
13050:
12609:
12288:
12106:
11802:Vries, Gieljan de (December 15, 2020).
11313:
11187:
11089:
11039:
10904:
10665:"Lazard LCOE Levelized Cost Of Energy+"
10418:
9763:
9431:"Review of approaches to fusion energy"
9010:R. J. Goldston, A. Glaser, A. F. Ross:
8390:
8364:McCracken, Garry; Stott, Peter (2012).
7885:
7109:
6356:"Review of approaches to fusion energy"
6014:
5832:
5830:
5301:
4512:
4343:
4141:Discharge time x temperature (tokamak)
3316:nuclear weapons proliferation potential
3059:Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production
1577:National Compact Stellarator Experiment
1120:
1009:
14:
18492:
17776:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
16413:
14639:
14438:
14413:
14331:
14099:
13860:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
13853:
13785:
13736:
13268:Chandler, David L. (August 10, 2015).
12899:
12753:
12386:
12354:
12321:
12289:Johnson, John L. (November 16, 2001).
12019:
11727:
11332:
10990:Slesinski, Daniel (January 28, 2021).
10448:
9966:
9828:
9225:
8582:. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 430.
8506:. World Energy Council. Archived from
8426:
8099:
7980:
7506:
6711:
6655:Measurement and detection of radiation
6099:
5941:
5836:
5697:
4797:
4565:
4526:Fusion cross sections and reactivities
4090:Princeton Field Reversed Configuration
3765:Max Planck Institute of Plasma Physics
3552:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
3516:First inertial confinement experiments
3450:In the early 1950s, Soviet physicists
3302:
2466:United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority
2349:
2041:using one of the following reactions:
1370:—more massive particles with the same
1171:that produces the high-density plasma.
945:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
737:{\displaystyle \eta _{\text{capture}}}
188:. The current leading designs are the
18226:
18018:
17781:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
17190:
17177:
16387:
14782:
14646:. Springer International Publishing.
14545:11th Condensed Matter Nuclear Science
14467:
14118:
13988:Hartsfield, Tom (December 13, 2022).
13960:
13930:
13788:"Ignition First in a Fusion Reaction"
13711:
13151:
12780:
12671:
12556:
12534:. London: Foxwell & Davies (UK).
12230:
11801:
11064:
10905:Holland, Andrew (November 13, 2020).
10879:
10238:Michaels, Daniel (February 6, 2020).
9406:"The New Space Race Is Fusion Energy"
9403:
9130:
8596:
8396:
8303:
7407:
6972:
6966:
5931:"NASA's New Shortcut to Fusion Power"
5636:
5420:
5341:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
5189:
4667:
4646:. EFDA. June 20, 2014. Archived from
4550:
4499:"Fission and fusion can yield energy"
4454:Gan, Y; Hernandez, F; et, al (2017).
4322:
3657:became operational in the UK in 1999.
3094:China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor
2665:. Fusion reactors are not subject to
2656:
2470:UK Fusion Materials Roadmap 2021–2040
2452:
1903:
1872:, and the F1 cathode driver concept.
1135:Plot of NIF results from 2012 to 2022
795:{\displaystyle P_{\text{conduction}}}
242:, is a natural fusion reactor, where
18205:
17178:
14596:Hutchinson, Alex (January 8, 2006).
14507:
13961:Osaka, Shannon (December 12, 2022).
13546:
13126:
13025:
12721:Braams, C. M.; Stott, P. E. (2002).
12610:Smirnov, V. P. (December 30, 2009).
12567:. National Resources Defense Council
12269:
12200:
11998:. Fused.web.llnl.gov. Archived from
11970:"核融合発電、30年代実証へ国家戦略改定 高市早苗経済安全保障相が表明"
11042:"Fusion Legislation Signed into Law"
11015:Slesinski, Daniel (March 30, 2021).
10344:
8892:Cheng, E. T.; Muroga, Takeo (2001).
8370:. Academic Press. pp. 198–199.
7015:
6603:Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion
6131:Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion
5827:
5334:
5027:
4928:
4323:Chang, Kenneth (December 13, 2022).
3882:Fusion records continue to advance:
3794:, to attempt to commercialize MIT's
3710:The Wendelstein7X under construction
3671:In March 2009, the laser-driven ICF
3379:
3331:
3119:was estimated at $ 29-$ 56/MWh, and
2796:
1678:of a particle can be converted into
1494:electron cyclotron resonance heating
824:{\displaystyle P_{\text{radiation}}}
17786:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
14150:Tischler, Karl (February 8, 2024).
13854:Bishop, Breanna (August 18, 2021).
13835:Dunning, Hayley (August 17, 2021).
12933:Pfalzner, Susanne (March 2, 2006).
12494:
12451:
12326:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
11702:
11314:Turrell, Arthur (August 28, 2021).
11288:
11040:Holland, Andrew (January 5, 2021).
10823:Kembleton, R.; Bustreo, C. (2022).
10473:
9280:
8776:"Electricity generation and health"
7116:. University of Wisconsin, Madison.
7048:
6850:
6681:Radiation detection and measurement
6047:
6015:Katwala, Amit (February 16, 2022).
5785:IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science
4402:
3440:Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory
3115:was estimated to be $ 40-$ 46/MWh,
2991:, nuclear fusion research received
2736:from the current, which raises the
2396:
1649:
1419:
579:
90:. In stars the most common fuel is
82:, and confinement time to create a
66:. In a fusion process, two lighter
24:
17595:
16746:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
14774:U.S. Fusion Energy Science Program
14699:
14439:Lavars, Nick (November 24, 2021).
14332:Lavars, Nick (November 26, 2018).
13737:Morris, Ben (September 30, 2021).
12387:Menard, J. E. (February 4, 2019).
11993:
11188:Holland, Andrew (April 14, 2023).
10345:Ball, Philip (November 17, 2021).
9967:Koepke, M. E. (January 25, 2021).
9609:
9373:
9025:(accessible at no cost, 2013) and
8420:
8367:Fusion: The Energy of the Universe
6712:Larmor, Joseph (January 1, 1897).
5384:Sharp, W. M.; et al. (2011).
5000:Chandler, David (March 19, 2008).
4280:Inertial electrostatic confinement
3861:United States Department of Energy
3311:
3149:International Atomic Energy Agency
3001:United States Department of Energy
2441:. In 2013, a research team led by
2250:The supply of neutrons results in
1771:
1625:Several types of neutron detectors
1466:Inertial electrostatic confinement
1440:(JET) to predict plasma behavior.
1428:system has been used to control a
1267:Inertial electrostatic confinement
1261:Inertial electrostatic confinement
950:
282:pulling them together exceeds the
214:inertial electrostatic confinement
25:
18516:
18400:Research in lithium-ion batteries
16769:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
16668:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
14747:
14640:Molina, Andrés de Bustos (2013).
13872:
13643:Chandler, David (March 9, 2018).
12172:10.2514/5.9781600866357.0001.0046
12163:Fusion Energy in Space Propulsion
12107:Holland, Andrew (June 15, 2021).
11703:Cho, Adrian (February 19, 2021).
11633:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
11611:Journal of Energy and Development
10670:. Lazard. June 2024. p. 16.
10581:"Global Energy Perspectives 2019"
10419:Holland, Andrew (July 15, 2021).
9321:Nuttall, William J., ed. (2020).
7751:
5698:Clynes, Tom (February 14, 2012).
3239:Fusion Energy Solutions Taskforce
3029:, and energy companies including
2557:Electrons leaving at high energy.
2276:. After a series of D-T tests at
1791:
1399:-saturated metals are exposed to
1225:is a possibly superior variation.
1054:Levitated Dipole Experiment (LDX)
917:captured in a thick "blanket" of
911:
893:device the fuel density is about
766:{\displaystyle P_{\text{fusion}}}
568:{\displaystyle E_{\text{fusion}}}
486:{\displaystyle P_{\text{fusion}}}
136:helium cooled pebble beds (HCPBs)
18471:
18204:
18193:
18192:
18180:
17869:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
16335:
16308:
16296:
16279:
16267:
16255:
16232:
16164:
16113:
16101:
16072:
16055:
16015:
16003:
15974:
15962:
15932:
15920:
15873:
15861:
15839:
15811:
15799:
15774:
15737:
15691:
15679:
15667:
15655:
15633:
15616:
15599:
15575:
15563:
15540:
15528:
15516:
15492:
15475:
15436:
15404:
15387:
15316:
15304:
14769:Princeton Satellite Systems News
14754:Fusion Device Information System
14705:
14432:
14414:Szondy, David (March 13, 2022).
14407:
14387:
14369:
14350:
14325:
14301:
14292:
14263:
14245:
14220:
14211:
14168:
14143:
14093:
14050:
14030:
14011:
14000:
13981:
13924:
13891:
13866:
13847:
13828:
13752:
13730:
13705:
13655:
13636:
13622:
13608:
13590:
13565:
13540:
13515:
13456:
13396:
13338:
13280:
13261:
13247:
13226:
13204:
13145:
13127:Gray, Richard (April 19, 2017).
13120:
13069:
13044:
13019:
12990:
12961:
12926:
12893:
12850:
12817:
12774:
12756:Review of Scientific Instruments
12747:
12714:
12653:
12603:
12578:
12523:
12488:
12445:
12380:
12348:
12315:
12282:
12263:
12194:
12153:
12130:
12100:
12076:
12057:
12032:
12013:
11987:
11962:
11937:
11913:
11888:
11869:
11844:
11820:
11795:
11770:
11728:Kramer, David (March 10, 2021).
11721:
11696:
11671:
11646:
11621:
11598:
11533:
11492:
11445:
11409:Journal of the Knowledge Economy
11368:
11346:. New York: Overlook Duckworth.
11307:
11254:
11230:
11206:
11181:
11156:
11132:
11113:
11090:Holland, Andrew (June 1, 2021).
11083:
11058:
11033:
11008:
10983:
10898:
10880:Otake, Tomoko (April 14, 2023).
10873:
10816:
10759:
10730:
10681:
10677:from the original on 2024-08-28.
10573:
10524:
10467:
10442:
10412:
10387:
10338:
10231:
10206:
10181:
10165:
10132:
10025:
9960:
9905:
9889:
9822:
9757:
9628:
9472:
9422:
9367:
9347:
9314:
9295:
9274:
9250:
9219:
9180:
9150:
9093:
8940:
8885:
8820:
8767:
8720:
8693:
8536:
8517:
8297:
8245:
8206:
8167:
8126:
8093:
8052:
8017:
7974:
7949:
7928:
7834:
7787:
7764:
7745:
7410:"Remote Handling JET Experience"
5998:Government Reports Announcements
5738:Review of Scientific Instruments
5700:"The Boy Who Played With Fusion"
5645:(6). AIP Publishing: 1853–1872.
5335:Thio, Y. C. F. (April 1, 2008).
5166:Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy
4247:
4233:
4173:Small Tight Aspect Ratio Tokamak
3621:Small Tight Aspect Ratio Tokamak
3536:
3524:
3497:
3481:
3445:
3336:
3295:
3219:Bringing Fusion to the U.S. Grid
2953:
2711:
1849:Electrostatic confinement fusion
1532:in connection with the proposed
1239:Sheared Flow Stabilized Z-Pinch:
1182:Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion
959:, which is a combination of the
901:. This is why ITER is so large.
364:, the distribution looks like a
335:
157:, ample fuel supplies (assuming
153:in operation, little high-level
114:), which react more easily than
16958:Historical stockpiles and tests
16369:ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility
14461:
14100:Halper, Mark (March 28, 2012).
13712:Clery, Daniel (April 8, 2021).
12231:Abdou, M.; et al. (2020).
11994:Heeter, Robert F.; et al.
10850:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2022.113069
9829:Surrey, E. (February 4, 2019).
9481:"Pioneers of commercial fusion"
8543:Peterson, Tom (November 2008).
8077:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2016.01.027
7720:
7649:
7631:
7588:
7566:. Singapore: World Scientific.
7555:
7507:Nevins, W. M. (March 1, 1998).
7484:
7441:
7401:
7377:
7339:
7306:
7259:
7220:
7167:
7120:
7042:
7009:
6919:
6818:
6779:
6746:
6705:
6672:
6652:Tsoulfanidis, Nicholas (1995).
6645:
6590:
6539:
6496:
6442:
6397:
6347:
6304:
6295:
6230:
6173:
6118:
6093:
6060:
6041:
6008:
5989:
5922:
5889:
5772:
5725:
5716:
5691:
5630:
5579:
5554:
5530:
5505:
5480:
5377:
5295:
5243:
5234:
5224:
5183:
5086:
5063:
5028:Post, R. F. (January 1, 1970),
4993:
4969:
4945:
4922:
4908:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2011.10.012
4875:
4843:"Field reversed configurations"
4834:
4791:
4767:Plasma physics: an introduction
4758:
4689:. Life.llnl.gov. Archived from
4679:
4661:
4636:
4611:
4602:
4501:. Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
3763:In October, researchers at the
3067:Culham Centre for Fusion Energy
3065:fusion demonstration plant, at
2632:(PFM) in a commercial reactor.
2568:at 100 times that of a typical
1411:
1161:Laboratory for Laser Energetics
18385:Lithium iron phosphate battery
17859:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
16741:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
14665:. Cambridge University Press.
14598:"The Year in Science: Physics"
14404:, ICPP, Fukuoka September 2008
13547:Wang, Brian (August 1, 2018).
13323:11858/00-001M-0000-0029-04EB-D
13314:10.1088/0029-5515/55/12/126001
12860:ITER: The Giant Fusion Reactor
12781:Garin, Pascal (October 2001).
10449:Sailer, Sandy (May 31, 2023).
10058:10.1088/0029-5515/51/10/103014
9727:10.1088/0029-5515/56/10/106023
8283:11858/00-001M-0000-0026-F442-2
8106:Advanced Engineering Materials
8086:11858/00-001M-0000-002B-3142-7
7694:Roberts, J. T. Adrian (1981).
7292:. OUP Oxford. pp. 12–13.
7227:Carr, M.; Khachan, J. (2013).
5588:Astrophysics and Space Science
5362:10.1088/1742-6596/112/4/042084
5190:Dolan, Thomas J., ed. (2013).
5169:. Cambridge University Press.
5163:Freidberg, Jeffrey P. (2007).
5126:10.1103/physrevlett.114.205001
4687:"Laser Inertial Fusion Energy"
4491:
4447:
4430:"Fuelling the fusion reaction"
4422:
4396:
4371:
3758:rare-earth barium-copper oxide
3180:
2588:Plasma-wall surface conditions
1710:
1540:
835:The rate of fusion, and thus P
708:{\displaystyle P_{\text{out}}}
370:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
13:
1:
18365:Compressed-air energy storage
18187:Nuclear technology portal
14708:"The chase for fusion energy"
13572:MacDonald, Fiona (May 2017).
13257:. Phoenix Nuclear Labs. 2013.
12803:10.1016/s0920-3796(01)00242-3
12787:Fusion Engineering and Design
12631:10.1088/0029-5515/50/1/014003
12041:"Energy for Future Centuries"
11266:U.S. Representative Don Beyer
10829:Fusion Engineering and Design
10474:Hsu, Scott C. (May 5, 2023).
10347:"The chase for fusion energy"
10213:Asmundssom, Jon; Wade, Will.
9641:Fusion Science and Technology
9485:Commercialising Fusion Energy
9435:Commercialising Fusion Energy
9131:Christian, Eric; et al.
9101:"Energy for Future Centuries"
9049:10.1088/0029-5515/52/4/043004
8792:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61253-7
8275:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2009.01.037
8200:10.1016/S0022-3115(97)00299-7
8061:Fusion Engineering and Design
8046:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2011.01.110
7470:10.1016/s0920-3796(02)00104-7
7454:Fusion Engineering and Design
6905:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2014.09.028
6804:10.1016/j.pnucene.2007.11.078
6623:10.1088/0741-3335/51/5/055002
6360:Commercialising Fusion Energy
5594:(1). Springer Nature: 71–89.
5347:(4). IOP Publishing: 042084.
4888:Fusion Engineering and Design
4765:Fitzpatrick, Richard (2014).
4463:Fusion Science and Technology
4306:
4203:Temperature x time (tokamak)
3655:Mega Ampere Spherical Tokamak
3264:
3250:Canadian Nuclear Laboratories
3141:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
3130:
2987:. Under the European Union's
2692:Most reactor designs rely on
1692:Field-Reversed Configurations
1530:Pennsylvania State University
1300:losses generated by the cage.
1086:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
219:
18049:Field-reversed configuration
17659:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
15033:Field-reversed configuration
14684:. US: Taylor & Francis.
13931:Blain, Loz (April 6, 2022).
13768:. Vol. 66, no. 13.
13174:10.1126/science.356.6336.360
13098:10.1126/science.345.6195.370
12725:. Institute of Physics Pub.
12201:Donn, Jeff (June 21, 2011).
11976:(in Japanese). July 19, 2024
11949:koreajoongangdaily.joins.com
10715:10.1016/j.energy.2018.03.130
9938:10.1016/j.energy.2020.118460
9493:10.1088/978-0-7503-2719-0ch7
9443:10.1088/978-0-7503-2719-0ch2
8259:Journal of Nuclear Materials
8219:Nuclear Materials and Energy
8180:Journal of Nuclear Materials
8026:Journal of Nuclear Materials
7892:Nuclear Materials and Energy
7855:10.1007/978-94-011-4331-8_23
7841:Mioduszewski, Peter (2000),
7617:10.1016/0168-9002(88)91125-4
7110:Thorson, Timothy A. (1996).
7049:Lee, Chris (June 22, 2015).
6995:10.1126/science.238.4824.152
6875:Journal of Nuclear Materials
6368:10.1088/978-0-7503-2719-0ch2
6318:, IOP Publishing Ltd, 2002,
5515:. Zap Energy. Archived from
5492:Aeronautics and Astronautics
4099:Discharge time (stellarator)
3137:National Academy of Sciences
3123:was approximately $ 92/MWh.
2970:
2772:
2291:
1719:Parameter space occupied by
1682:. It was first suggested by
1637:radiation at low speeds and
1403:or ion beams, such as in an
1387:Lattice confinement fusion (
1199:Magnetic or electric pinches
1092:Field-reversed configuration
715:is the net power from fusion
273:
7:
18006:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
17191:
16953:States with nuclear weapons
14764:Fusion Industry Association
14733:is not the solution to the
12466:10.1088/0029-5515/39/11/411
12365:10.1007/978-1-4419-8696-2_5
11901:Fusion Industry Association
11895:Caroline (April 30, 2024).
11782:Fusion Industry Association
11576:10.1016/j.enpol.2020.112043
10643:10.1016/j.enpol.2020.112043
10455:Fusion Industry Association
8863:10.1016/j.enpol.2020.112043
8576:Petrangeli, Gianni (2006).
7698:. Boston, MA: Springer US.
6932:Nuclear Technology – Fusion
6418:10.1109/FUSION.2007.4337935
6151:10.1088/0741-3335/36/12/001
5975:10.1103/physrevc.101.044610
4860:10.1088/0029-5515/28/11/008
4574:(1). IOP Publishing: 6–10.
4226:
3792:Commonwealth Fusion Systems
3556:Inertial confinement fusion
3349:to comply with Knowledge's
3145:Fusion Industry Association
2948:inertial confinement fusion
2529:, which over time leads to
1607:Inertial confinement fusion
1426:deep reinforcement learning
1127:Inertial confinement fusion
1016:Magnetic confinement fusion
10:
18521:
18019:
17844:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
16968:Tests in the United States
14680:Pfalzner, Susanne (2006).
14602:Discover Magazine (Online)
14571:10.1142/9789812774354_0003
13681:10.1038/s41598-021-81559-z
12857:Claessens, Michel (2020).
12509:10.1088/0029-5515/25/9/063
11422:10.1007/s13132-020-00695-5
11382:. BBC News. April 18, 2018
10501:10.1007/s10894-023-00357-9
10364:10.1038/d41586-021-03401-w
10316:10.1007/s10894-021-00306-4
10096:Plasma and Fusion Research
9610:Lee, Sing; Saw, Sor Heoh.
8606:Claessens, Michel (2019).
8467:. New York: Plenum Press.
8427:Angelo, Joseph A. (2004).
8003:10.1088/0029-5515/45/3/007
7812:10.1088/0029-5515/37/3/413
7775:(Doctorate). Ljubljana: .
7077:Pfalzner, Susanne (2006).
6792:Progress in Nuclear Energy
6312:"Towards a fusion reactor"
6263:10.1038/s41467-018-07680-2
5855:10.1109/MSPEC.2020.8976899
5488:"Flow Z-Pinch Experiments"
5192:Magnetic Fusion Technology
4588:10.1088/0370-1301/70/1/303
4290:List of fusion experiments
3877:
3851:On December 13, 2022, the
3325:
3321:
3207:public-private partnership
3063:public-private partnership
2851:
2800:
2652:Safety and the environment
2515:Containment considerations
2456:
2286:Lithium Tokamak Experiment
1907:
1759:through a solid or liquid.
1544:
1455:
1451:
1383:Lattice confinement fusion
1264:
1246:investor and entrepreneur
1202:
1150:National Ignition Facility
1124:
1074:, magnetic bottle and the
1013:
1005:Fusion (PJMIF, dark pink).
995:
223:
206:National Ignition Facility
204:tokamak in France and the
161:breeding or some forms of
29:
18467:
18423:
18355:
18287:Artificial photosynthesis
18274:
18267:
18260:
18174:
18130:
18082:
18039:
18029:
17981:
17969:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
17882:
17864:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
17829:
17812:
17752:
17679:
17671:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
17645:
17636:
17588:
17568:
17521:
17503:
17459:
17364:
17346:
17214:
17201:
17186:
17173:
17128:
17061:
17006:
16997:
16945:
16853:
16844:
16811:
16754:
16716:
16707:
16628:
16560:
16483:
16425:
16421:
16359:
16327:
16247:
16224:
16156:
16149:
16138:
16091:
16047:
15993:
15952:
15915:
15906:
15831:
15789:
15729:
15720:
15555:
15426:
15296:
15270:
15261:
15250:
15239:
15197:
15170:
15142:
15119:
15023:
14935:
14915:
14887:Fusion energy gain factor
14817:
14663:Introductory Muon Science
14508:Dean, Stephen O. (2013).
12869:10.1007/978-3-030-27581-5
12064:EPS Executive Committee.
12039:Ongena, J.; Van Oost, G.
11526:10.1016/j.esr.2019.100432
10585:Energy Insights- Mckinsey
10558:10.1016/j.esr.2019.100404
8239:10.1016/j.nme.2019.100704
7913:10.1016/j.nme.2019.04.001
7886:Nemanič, Vincenc (2019).
7794:McCracken, G. M. (1997).
7275:. Fusion One Corporation.
6482:10.1103/PhysRevX.5.021024
6325:10.1887/0750307056/b888c9
6067:Miley, George H. (2013).
5898:Introductory muon science
5200:10.1007/978-1-4471-5556-0
4953:"All-the-Worlds-Tokamaks"
4619:"Lawson's three criteria"
4255:Nuclear technology portal
4121:Discharge time (tokamak)
4059:Fusion energy gain factor
4004:Naval Research Laboratory
3816:In October, Oxford-based
3328:History of nuclear fusion
2989:Sixth Framework Programme
2570:pressurized water reactor
2494:Superconducting materials
2254:of the reactor materials.
2021:is a naturally occurring
1844:Electrostatic confinement
1520:Antiproton annihilation:
1492:). This is also known as
847:. Conduction occurs when
126:nucleus and an energized
18436:Battery electric vehicle
18431:Alternative fuel vehicle
18302:Concentrated solar power
17874:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
17490:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
16826:Electron-beam processing
14275:www.fusionenergybase.com
13490:10.1088/1741-4326/ac2cf5
12900:Atzeni, Stefano (2004).
12322:Irvine, Maxwell (2014).
12249:10.1088/1741-4326/abbf35
11755:10.1063/PT.6.2.20210310a
10793:10.1088/2516-1083/ac84bf
10480:Journal of Fusion Energy
10286:Journal of Fusion Energy
9550:10.1109/TEM.2020.2982101
9325:. Institute of Physics.
9244:10.1063/PT.6.2.20180416a
8983:10.13182/FST96-A11962981
8918:10.13182/fst01-a11963369
8745:10.1109/TEM.2020.2982101
8670:10.1088/1741-4326/ac62f7
8399:"Who is afraid of ITER?"
8152:10.1088/1741-4326/ac3508
7513:Journal of Fusion Energy
6679:Knoll, Glenn F. (2010).
6568:10.1103/physreve.48.3003
5805:10.1109/TPS.2012.2186829
5457:Phillips, James (1983).
5302:Turrell, Arthur (2021).
4849:(Submitted manuscript).
4716:Journal of Fusion Energy
4275:High beta fusion reactor
4266:, for production of Li-6
3801:
3737:that could sustain 5×10
3693:
3644:
3626:
3589:
3362:may contain suggestions.
3347:may need to be rewritten
3098:levelized cost of energy
2644:, and similar devices.
2612:Liquid metals (lithium,
1910:Deuterium–tritium fusion
1898:mined extraterrestrially
1875:
1859:losses. Fusion rates in
1312:Magnetized target fusion
1304:
1243:University of Washington
941:Direct energy conversion
358:probability distribution
210:magnetized target fusion
149:. These include reduced
64:nuclear fusion reactions
30:Not to be confused with
18441:Hybrid electric vehicle
18370:Flywheel energy storage
18342:Space-based solar power
17989:Organic nuclear reactor
17161:Nuclear power phase-out
17084:Nuclear decommissioning
17024:Reactor-grade plutonium
16774:Targeted alpha-particle
16653:Accidents and incidents
14812:, processes and devices
14228:"New record for fusion"
14026:. Situation Publishing.
13051:Frochtzwajg, Jonathan.
12276:Helical System Research
11505:Energy Strategy Reviews
10537:Energy Strategy Reviews
10245:The Wall Street Journal
8304:Hoedl, Seth A. (2022).
7771:Založnik, Anže (2016).
7533:10.1023/A:1022513215080
5600:1982Ap&SS..86...71S
5465:: 64–67. Archived from
5421:Seife, Charles (2008).
5096:Physical Review Letters
5034:Nuclear fusion reactors
4411:. No. Dec 13, 2022
4358:US Department of Energy
3853:US Department of Energy
2864:boosted fission weapons
2574:electrical conductivity
2550:leaving at millions of
1350:This approach replaces
1178:Magneto-inertial fusion
961:Navier–Stokes equations
928:, a concept known as a
330:electrically conducting
244:stellar nucleosynthesis
18410:Thermal energy storage
14474:. The Overlook Press.
14468:Clery, Daniel (2014).
14400:July 22, 2011, at the
13813:10.1103/Physics.14.168
12413:10.1098/rsta.2017.0440
11342:Clery, Daniel (2014).
10932:10.1098/rsta.2020.0008
10117:10.1585/pfr.14.1305047
9993:10.1098/rsta.2020.0020
9856:10.1098/rsta.2017.0442
9791:10.1098/rsta.2017.0444
9135:. NASA. Archived from
8397:Dulon, Krista (2012).
8253:Kukushkin, A. (2009).
8119:10.1002/adem.201901376
8063:. 109–111: 1046–1052.
7269:Fusion One Corporation
6757:. New York: Springer.
6739:10.1098/rsta.1897.0020
6525:10.1103/physrev.28.727
4841:Tuszewski, M. (1988).
3950:Tokamak fusion energy
3719:
3711:
3703:
3658:
3474:
3397:
3389:
3081:
2830:neutron cross-sections
2808:except in the case of
2630:plasma-facing material
2597:Selection of materials
2503:
2301:
1923:
1832:
1728:
1725:magnetic fusion energy
1721:inertial fusion energy
1528:, was investigated at
1483:Neutral beam injection
1470:Neutral beam injection
1205:Pinch (plasma physics)
1152:, followed closely by
1136:
1006:
874:
825:
796:
767:
738:
709:
676:
569:
537:
487:
454:
346:
270:
247:
54:is a proposed form of
48:
18337:Photovoltaic pavement
18282:Airborne wind turbine
18254:Emerging technologies
17151:Anti-nuclear movement
14102:"Fusion breakthrough"
13553:www.nextbigfuture.com
13352:Nature Communications
12945:10.1201/9781420011845
12020:Stadermann, Frank J.
9374:Helman, Christopher.
8100:Coenen, J.W. (2020).
7754:Materials Engineering
7408:Rolfe, A. C. (1999).
7389:www.world-nuclear.org
7016:Grad, Harold (2016).
6952:10.13182/FST83-A20820
6243:Nature Communications
5896:Nagamine, K. (2007).
4546:– via Osti.gov.
4002:Electra laser at the
3717:
3709:
3701:
3652:
3472:
3412:and included a young
3395:
3387:
3100:(LCOE) of $ 121/MWh.
3079:
2985:in kind contributions
2854:Nuclear proliferation
2848:Nuclear proliferation
2766:Large Hadron Collider
2667:catastrophic meltdown
2578:magnetic permeability
2501:
2457:Further information:
2299:
1917:
1830:
1780:magnetic bottles and
1718:
1512:magnetic reconnection
1508:Magnetic reconnection
1462:Magnetic reconnection
1346:Muon-catalyzed fusion
1134:
1003:
963:governing fluids and
930:fission-fusion hybrid
871:
826:
797:
768:
739:
710:
677:
570:
538:
488:
455:
343:
313:" is the quantity of
253:
233:
42:
18059:Reversed field pinch
17854:Traveling-wave (TWR)
17338:Supercritical (SCWR)
16836:Gemstone irradiation
14949:Triple-alpha process
14897:Magnetohydrodynamics
14849:List of technologies
14530:Hagelstein, Peter L.
14363:Smithsonian Magazine
14197:10.1364/AO.54.00F103
12672:Sykes, Alan (1997).
12295:(Technical report).
12270:Stix, T. H. (1998).
12113:Fusion Industry Assn
11295:The Washington Times
11194:Fusion Industry Assn
11096:Fusion Industry Assn
11065:Windridge, Melanie.
11046:Fusion Industry Assn
11021:Fusion Industry Assn
10996:Fusion Industry Assn
10425:Fusion Industry Assn
9404:Windridge, Melanie.
8706:. World Scientific.
5837:Clynes, Tom (2020).
5538:"Board of Directors"
5425:. New York: Viking.
4668:Chiocchio, Stefano.
4528:(Technical Report).
3808:superconducting wire
3731:Phoenix Nuclear Labs
3675:became operational.
3633:Joint European Torus
3402:thermonuclear fusion
2975:The EU spent almost
2791:biological half-life
2683:containment building
1892:. The deuterium and
1816:Inertial confinement
1767:Magnetic confinement
1740:inertial confinement
1703:Traveling-wave tubes
1686:in conjunction with
1496:, using for example
1438:Joint European Torus
1121:Inertial confinement
1114:Reversed field pinch
1088:(ORNL) in the 1970s.
1010:Magnetic confinement
957:magnetohydrodynamics
808:
779:
750:
721:
692:
600:
552:
505:
470:
379:
194:inertial confinement
58:that would generate
45:Joint European Torus
18405:Silicon–air battery
18390:Molten-salt battery
18380:Lithium–air battery
18375:Grid energy storage
18327:Molten salt reactor
18297:Carbon-neutral fuel
17224:Aqueous homogeneous
17019:Reprocessed uranium
16692:Safety and security
16027:Lockheed Martin CFR
14981:Proton–proton chain
14844:List of experiments
14740:Scientific American
14553:2006cmns...11...23H
14189:2015ApOpt..54F.103O
14071:2012PhPl...19c2704L
13968:The Washington Post
13904:Wall Street Journal
13804:2021PhyOJ..14..168W
13481:2022NucFu..62d2022S
13422:2019PhPl...26h2504W
13372:10.1038/ncomms13493
13364:2016NatCo...713493P
13306:2015NucFu..55l6001P
13166:2017Sci...356..360C
13090:2014Sci...345..370C
13026:Kanellos, Michael.
12795:2001FusED..56..117G
12690:1997PhPl....4.1665S
12405:2019RSPTA.37770440M
11808:www.euro-fusion.org
11784:. February 19, 2021
11746:2021PhT..2021b.310.
11685:. February 24, 2021
11658:Washington Examiner
11568:2021EnPol.14912043N
11517:2020EneSR..2700432G
11268:. February 29, 2024
11168:www.neimagazine.com
10923:2020RSPTA.37800008H
10841:2022FusED.17813069K
10784:2022PrEne...4d2008G
10706:2018Ene...152..489E
10635:2021EnPol.14912043N
10549:2019EneSR..2600404S
10492:2023JFuE...42...12H
10308:2021JFuE...40...18H
10108:2019PFR....1405047H
10050:2011NucFu..51j3014M
9985:2021RSPTA.37900020K
9930:2020Ene...20918460B
9847:2019RSPTA.37770442S
9782:2019RSPTA.37770444C
9719:2016NucFu..56j6023M
9653:2015FuST...68..225K
9236:2018PhT..2018d4990K
9205:10.1063/pt.5.029905
9197:2016PhT..2016f8171.
9157:Fusion For Energy.
9041:2012NucFu..52d3004G
8965:1996FuTec..30..448S
8910:2001FuTec..39..981C
8855:2021EnPol.14912043N
8661:2022NucFu..62h5001G
8322:2022PhPl...29i2506H
8267:2009JNuM..390....1R
8231:2019NMEne..2000704K
8192:1998JNuM..252...55M
8069:2016FusED.109.1046N
8038:2011JNuM..415S...2P
7995:2005NucFu..45..209N
7938:. American Elements
7904:2019NMEne..19..451N
7734:. September 9, 2021
7609:1988NIMPA.271...55F
7525:1998JFuE...17...25N
7462:2002FusED..61..561S
7360:1993iepf.rept.....I
7245:2013PhPl...20e2504C
7198:2015PhPl...22j2705H
7145:1998PhPl....5.2498B
7020:. Forgotten Books.
6987:1987Sci...238..152B
6944:1983NucTF...3...98B
6897:2015JNuM..456..151H
6730:1897RSPTA.190..205L
6615:2009PPCF...51e5002K
6560:1993PhRvE..48.3003E
6517:1926PhRv...28..727M
6474:2015PhRvX...5b1024P
6255:2018NatCo...9.5223Y
6198:2015PhPl...22e5708O
6143:1994PPCF...36.1869E
5967:2020PhRvC.101d4610S
5797:2012ITPS...40.1287H
5750:2003RScI...74.4314T
5651:1995PhPl....2.1853R
5353:2008JPhCS.112d2084T
5273:1972Natur.239..139N
5118:2015PhRvL.114t5001B
4900:2012FusED..87..104S
4812:1942Natur.150..405A
4728:1982JFuE....2..131B
4580:1957PPSB...70....6L
4360:. December 13, 2022
3887:
3414:Marshall Rosenbluth
3209:program modeled on
3027:Legal & General
2979:through the 1990s.
2447:École Polytechnique
2350:Deuterium, helium-3
965:Maxwell's equations
899:classical diffusion
360:. If the plasma is
284:electrostatic force
62:by using heat from
18505:Sustainable energy
18138:Dense plasma focus
17053:Actinide chemistry
16518:Isotope separation
16415:Nuclear technology
15060:Dense plasma focus
14759:Fusion Energy Base
14628:. IOP Publishing.
14234:. October 14, 2016
14059:Physics of Plasmas
14043:Aju Business Daily
13669:Scientific Reports
13410:Physics of Plasmas
13276:. MIT News Office.
12789:. 56–57: 117–123.
12678:Physics of Plasmas
12399:(2141): 20170440.
11858:. December 5, 2023
11470:10.1037/pac0000559
10966:"Safety in Fusion"
10917:(2184): 20200008.
10772:Progress in Energy
10143:. Washington, DC.
9979:(2189): 20200020.
9841:(2141): 20170442.
9776:(2141): 20170444.
9661:10.13182/FST14-953
9617:. HPlasmafocus.net
9487:, IOP Publishing,
9437:, IOP Publishing,
9308:2021-07-18 at the
9017:2014-02-27 at the
8610:. Cham: Springer.
8430:Nuclear Technology
8310:Physics of Plasmas
7959:11.1 (2021): 1–11.
7957:Scientific Reports
7645:. October 8, 2013.
7456:. 61–62: 561–567.
7233:Physics of Plasmas
7176:Physics of Plasmas
7133:Physics of Plasmas
6362:, IOP Publishing,
6186:Physics of Plasmas
5996:"Plasma Physics".
5639:Physics of Plasmas
5608:10.1007/bf00651831
5494:. November 7, 2014
5463:Los Alamos Science
4736:10.1007/bf01054580
4485:10.13182/FST13-727
4403:Gardner, Timothy.
4330:The New York Times
3908:Plasma temperature
3885:
3832:In November 2021,
3818:First Light Fusion
3754:ARC fusion reactor
3733:sold a high-yield
3720:
3712:
3704:
3659:
3475:
3422:Zeta pinch machine
3398:
3390:
3286:interstellar space
3162:Fusion Green Paper
3082:
3041:, and the Chinese
2657:Accident potential
2531:neutron activation
2504:
2453:Material selection
2439:Dense Plasma Focus
2423:neutron scattering
2302:
2252:neutron activation
2243:with enriched Li.
2027:uranium enrichment
1924:
1904:Deuterium, tritium
1833:
1729:
1696:Dense Plasma Focus
1603:Thomson scattering
1559:Thomson scattering
1502:dielectric heating
1458:Dielectric heating
1376:strong interaction
1356:diatomic molecules
1223:dense plasma focus
1137:
1007:
983:Diamagnetic plasma
875:
821:
792:
763:
734:
705:
672:
565:
533:
483:
450:
347:
290:, the reaction is
271:
248:
112:mixture of the two
110:(and especially a
49:
18:Fusion Pilot Plant
18487:
18486:
18463:
18462:
18459:
18458:
18220:
18219:
18170:
18169:
18166:
18165:
18117:Magnetized-target
18014:
18013:
17977:
17976:
17808:
17807:
17804:
17803:
17748:
17747:
17632:
17631:
17564:
17563:
17169:
17168:
17124:
17123:
16993:
16992:
16980:Weapon-free zones
16807:
16806:
16799:Radiopharmacology
16381:
16380:
16377:
16376:
16355:
16354:
16323:
16322:
16274:Asterix IV (PALS)
16087:
16086:
15989:
15988:
15902:
15901:
15716:
15715:
15235:
15234:
15193:
15192:
15152:Bubble (acoustic)
15134:Magnetized target
15111:Toroidal solenoid
14867:
14866:
14183:(31): F103–F122.
14079:10.1063/1.3694746
14046:. March 21, 2024.
13841:Science X Network
13604:. April 13, 2018.
13431:10.1063/1.5098761
13211:SPIE Europe Ltd.
13160:(6336): 360–361.
13084:(6195): 370–375.
12768:10.1063/1.1143707
12762:(10): 4511–4516.
12460:(11): 1605–1607.
11289:Holland, Andrew.
11170:. October 5, 2021
10357:(7885): 352–366.
9281:Margraf, Rachel.
9191:(6): 8171. 2016.
8959:(3P2A): 448–451.
8953:Fusion Technology
8898:Fusion Technology
8786:(9591): 979–990.
8549:Symmetry Magazine
8330:10.1063/5.0091054
7253:10.1063/1.4804279
7206:10.1063/1.4933213
6981:(4824): 152–155.
6548:Physical Review E
6452:Physical Review X
6206:10.1063/1.4920944
6137:(12): 1869–1962.
5955:Physical Review C
5758:10.1063/1.1606534
5744:(10): 4314–4323.
5568:. August 13, 2020
5459:"Magnetic Fusion"
5267:(5368): 139–142.
5042:10.1680/nfr.44661
4853:(11): 2033–2092.
4806:(3805): 405–406.
4224:
4223:
3970:ICF fusion energy
3859:In May 2023, the
3735:neutron generator
3664:In 2006, China's
3612:spherical tokamak
3380:Early experiments
3377:
3376:
3351:quality standards
3303:radioactive waste
3290:antimatter-fusion
3195:science diplomacy
3153:radioactive waste
3010:low-carbon energy
2810:aneutronic fusion
2803:Radioactive waste
2797:Radioactive waste
2582:radioactive waste
2527:Neutron radiation
2443:Christine Labaune
2417:p + B → 3 He
2403:aneutronic fusion
2386:aneutronic fusion
2380:
2379:
2333:
2332:
2241:breeding blankets
1828:
1786:direct conversion
1672:Direct conversion
1621:Neutron detectors
1555:Neutron detection
1032:Spherical tokamak
943:was developed at
937:aneutronic fusion
818:
789:
760:
731:
702:
664:
651:
638:
623:
610:
562:
480:
447:
389:
322:ionization energy
138:are subjected to
118:(the most common
16:(Redirected from
18512:
18475:
18474:
18395:Nanowire battery
18322:Methanol economy
18317:Hydrogen economy
18272:
18271:
18265:
18264:
18247:
18240:
18233:
18224:
18223:
18208:
18207:
18196:
18195:
18185:
18184:
18183:
18095:
18054:Levitated dipole
18024:
18016:
18015:
17964:Helium gas (GFR)
17827:
17826:
17822:
17759:
17758:
17643:
17642:
17593:
17592:
17586:
17585:
17581:
17580:
17362:
17361:
17358:
17357:
17196:
17188:
17187:
17180:Nuclear reactors
17175:
17174:
17074:High-level (HLW)
17004:
17003:
16851:
16850:
16831:Food irradiation
16821:Atomic gardening
16714:
16713:
16697:Nuclear meltdown
16523:Nuclear material
16513:Fissile material
16508:Fertile material
16423:
16422:
16408:
16401:
16394:
16385:
16384:
16340:
16339:
16338:
16313:
16312:
16311:
16301:
16300:
16299:
16284:
16283:
16282:
16272:
16271:
16270:
16260:
16259:
16258:
16237:
16236:
16235:
16169:
16168:
16167:
16154:
16153:
16147:
16146:
16118:
16117:
16116:
16106:
16105:
16104:
16093:Magneto-inertial
16077:
16076:
16075:
16060:
16059:
16058:
16020:
16019:
16018:
16008:
16007:
16006:
15979:
15978:
15977:
15967:
15966:
15965:
15937:
15936:
15935:
15925:
15924:
15923:
15913:
15912:
15893:
15878:
15877:
15876:
15866:
15865:
15864:
15851:Wendelstein 7-AS
15844:
15843:
15842:
15816:
15815:
15814:
15804:
15803:
15802:
15779:
15778:
15777:
15742:
15741:
15740:
15727:
15726:
15696:
15695:
15694:
15684:
15683:
15682:
15672:
15671:
15670:
15660:
15659:
15658:
15638:
15637:
15636:
15621:
15620:
15619:
15604:
15603:
15602:
15595:
15580:
15579:
15578:
15568:
15567:
15566:
15545:
15544:
15543:
15533:
15532:
15531:
15521:
15520:
15519:
15512:
15497:
15496:
15495:
15480:
15479:
15478:
15441:
15440:
15439:
15419:
15409:
15408:
15407:
15392:
15391:
15390:
15345:Electric Tokamak
15321:
15320:
15319:
15309:
15308:
15307:
15268:
15267:
15259:
15258:
15248:
15247:
15129:Magnetized liner
15121:Magneto-inertial
15038:Levitated dipole
14933:
14932:
14922:
14921:
14892:Lawson criterion
14822:
14821:
14803:
14796:
14789:
14780:
14779:
14723:
14721:
14720:
14695:
14676:
14657:
14619:
14617:
14616:
14591:
14589:
14583:. Archived from
14564:
14542:
14534:McKubre, Michael
14525:
14504:
14485:
14455:
14454:
14452:
14451:
14436:
14430:
14429:
14427:
14426:
14411:
14405:
14391:
14385:
14384:
14373:
14367:
14366:
14354:
14348:
14347:
14345:
14344:
14329:
14323:
14322:
14320:
14319:
14305:
14299:
14296:
14290:
14289:
14287:
14286:
14277:. Archived from
14267:
14261:
14260:
14255:. Archived from
14249:
14243:
14242:
14240:
14239:
14224:
14218:
14215:
14209:
14208:
14172:
14166:
14165:
14163:
14162:
14147:
14141:
14140:
14138:
14137:
14122:
14116:
14115:
14113:
14112:
14097:
14091:
14090:
14054:
14048:
14047:
14034:
14028:
14027:
14015:
14009:
14008:
14004:
13998:
13997:
13985:
13979:
13978:
13976:
13975:
13958:
13947:
13946:
13944:
13943:
13928:
13922:
13921:
13919:
13918:
13895:
13889:
13888:
13886:
13885:
13870:
13864:
13863:
13851:
13845:
13844:
13832:
13826:
13825:
13815:
13783:
13770:
13769:
13756:
13750:
13749:
13747:
13746:
13734:
13728:
13727:
13725:
13724:
13709:
13703:
13702:
13692:
13659:
13653:
13652:
13640:
13634:
13633:
13632:. March 9, 2018.
13626:
13620:
13619:
13618:. April 3, 2018.
13612:
13606:
13605:
13594:
13588:
13587:
13585:
13584:
13569:
13563:
13562:
13560:
13559:
13544:
13538:
13537:
13535:
13534:
13519:
13513:
13512:
13502:
13492:
13460:
13454:
13453:
13443:
13433:
13400:
13394:
13393:
13383:
13342:
13336:
13335:
13325:
13284:
13278:
13277:
13265:
13259:
13258:
13251:
13245:
13244:
13242:
13241:
13230:
13224:
13223:
13221:
13220:
13208:
13202:
13201:
13149:
13143:
13142:
13140:
13139:
13124:
13118:
13117:
13073:
13067:
13066:
13064:
13063:
13048:
13042:
13041:
13039:
13038:
13023:
13017:
13016:
13014:
13013:
12994:
12988:
12987:
12985:
12984:
12975:. Archived from
12965:
12959:
12958:
12930:
12924:
12923:
12897:
12891:
12890:
12854:
12848:
12847:
12821:
12815:
12814:
12778:
12772:
12771:
12751:
12745:
12744:
12718:
12712:
12711:
12701:
12699:10.1063/1.872271
12684:(5): 1665–1671.
12669:
12660:
12657:
12651:
12650:
12616:
12607:
12601:
12600:
12598:
12597:
12588:. Archived from
12582:
12576:
12575:
12573:
12572:
12560:
12554:
12553:
12527:
12521:
12520:
12503:(9): 1351–1353.
12492:
12486:
12485:
12449:
12443:
12442:
12432:
12384:
12378:
12377:
12352:
12346:
12345:
12319:
12313:
12312:
12286:
12280:
12279:
12267:
12261:
12260:
12228:
12222:
12221:
12219:
12218:
12209:. Archived from
12198:
12192:
12191:
12189:
12188:
12157:
12151:
12150:
12134:
12128:
12127:
12125:
12124:
12115:. Archived from
12104:
12098:
12097:
12095:
12094:
12080:
12074:
12073:
12061:
12055:
12054:
12052:
12045:
12036:
12030:
12029:
12017:
12011:
12010:
12008:
12007:
11991:
11985:
11984:
11982:
11981:
11966:
11960:
11959:
11957:
11956:
11941:
11935:
11934:
11932:
11931:
11925:Science|Business
11917:
11911:
11910:
11908:
11907:
11892:
11886:
11885:
11873:
11867:
11866:
11864:
11863:
11848:
11842:
11841:
11839:
11838:
11824:
11818:
11817:
11815:
11814:
11799:
11793:
11792:
11790:
11789:
11774:
11768:
11767:
11757:
11725:
11719:
11718:
11716:
11715:
11700:
11694:
11693:
11691:
11690:
11675:
11669:
11668:
11666:
11665:
11650:
11644:
11643:
11641:
11640:
11635:. April 14, 2021
11625:
11619:
11618:
11602:
11596:
11595:
11561:
11537:
11531:
11530:
11528:
11496:
11490:
11489:
11449:
11443:
11442:
11424:
11415:(4): 1891–1904.
11400:
11391:
11390:
11388:
11387:
11372:
11366:
11365:
11339:
11330:
11329:
11327:
11326:
11311:
11305:
11304:
11302:
11301:
11286:
11277:
11276:
11274:
11273:
11258:
11252:
11251:
11249:
11248:
11234:
11228:
11227:
11225:
11224:
11210:
11204:
11203:
11201:
11200:
11185:
11179:
11178:
11176:
11175:
11160:
11154:
11153:
11151:
11150:
11136:
11130:
11129:
11127:
11117:
11111:
11110:
11108:
11107:
11098:. Archived from
11087:
11081:
11080:
11078:
11077:
11062:
11056:
11055:
11053:
11052:
11037:
11031:
11030:
11028:
11027:
11012:
11006:
11005:
11003:
11002:
10987:
10981:
10980:
10978:
10977:
10962:
10953:
10952:
10934:
10902:
10896:
10895:
10893:
10892:
10877:
10871:
10870:
10852:
10820:
10814:
10813:
10795:
10763:
10757:
10756:
10754:
10753:
10744:. Archived from
10734:
10728:
10727:
10717:
10685:
10679:
10678:
10676:
10669:
10661:
10655:
10654:
10628:
10608:
10589:
10588:
10577:
10571:
10570:
10560:
10528:
10522:
10521:
10503:
10471:
10465:
10464:
10462:
10461:
10446:
10440:
10439:
10437:
10436:
10427:. Archived from
10416:
10410:
10409:
10407:
10406:
10391:
10385:
10384:
10366:
10342:
10336:
10335:
10301:
10277:
10264:
10263:
10261:
10260:
10235:
10229:
10228:
10226:
10225:
10210:
10204:
10203:
10201:
10200:
10185:
10179:
10178:
10169:
10163:
10162:
10136:
10130:
10129:
10119:
10087:
10078:
10077:
10029:
10023:
10022:
10012:
9964:
9958:
9957:
9909:
9903:
9902:
9893:
9887:
9886:
9876:
9858:
9826:
9820:
9819:
9793:
9761:
9755:
9754:
9698:
9689:
9688:
9632:
9626:
9625:
9623:
9622:
9616:
9607:
9598:
9597:
9595:
9594:
9589:. April 25, 2022
9579:
9570:
9569:
9544:(4): 1237–1251.
9529:
9520:
9519:
9518:
9517:
9476:
9470:
9469:
9468:
9467:
9426:
9420:
9419:
9417:
9416:
9401:
9390:
9389:
9387:
9386:
9371:
9365:
9364:
9362:
9351:
9345:
9344:
9318:
9312:
9299:
9293:
9292:
9290:
9289:
9278:
9272:
9271:
9269:
9268:
9262:
9254:
9248:
9247:
9223:
9217:
9216:
9184:
9178:
9177:
9175:
9174:
9165:. Archived from
9154:
9148:
9147:
9145:
9144:
9128:
9122:
9121:
9119:
9118:
9112:
9106:. Archived from
9105:
9097:
9091:
9090:
9088:
9081:
9070:
9061:
9060:
9008:
8995:
8994:
8976:
8944:
8938:
8937:
8904:(2P2): 981–985.
8889:
8883:
8882:
8848:
8824:
8818:
8817:
8815:
8814:
8771:
8765:
8764:
8739:(4): 1237–1251.
8724:
8718:
8717:
8697:
8691:
8690:
8672:
8639:
8630:
8629:
8603:
8594:
8593:
8573:
8567:
8566:
8564:
8563:
8540:
8534:
8533:
8531:
8521:
8515:
8514:
8512:
8505:
8496:
8487:
8486:
8460:
8451:
8450:
8448:
8447:
8424:
8418:
8417:
8415:
8414:
8405:. Archived from
8394:
8388:
8387:
8385:
8384:
8361:
8350:
8349:
8301:
8295:
8294:
8261:. 390–391: 1–9.
8249:
8243:
8242:
8210:
8204:
8203:
8171:
8165:
8164:
8154:
8130:
8124:
8123:
8121:
8097:
8091:
8090:
8088:
8056:
8050:
8049:
8021:
8015:
8014:
7978:
7972:
7969:
7960:
7953:
7947:
7946:
7944:
7943:
7932:
7926:
7925:
7915:
7883:
7874:
7873:
7872:
7871:
7838:
7832:
7831:
7791:
7785:
7784:
7768:
7762:
7761:
7749:
7743:
7742:
7740:
7739:
7724:
7718:
7717:
7691:
7676:
7675:
7673:
7672:
7663:. Archived from
7653:
7647:
7646:
7635:
7629:
7628:
7592:
7586:
7585:
7559:
7553:
7552:
7504:
7495:
7488:
7482:
7481:
7445:
7439:
7438:
7436:
7435:
7414:
7405:
7399:
7398:
7396:
7395:
7381:
7375:
7374:
7372:
7371:
7362:. Archived from
7343:
7337:
7336:
7310:
7304:
7303:
7283:
7277:
7276:
7274:
7263:
7257:
7256:
7224:
7218:
7217:
7191:
7171:
7165:
7164:
7153:10.1063/1.872933
7139:(7): 2498–2503.
7124:
7118:
7117:
7107:
7101:
7100:
7074:
7065:
7064:
7062:
7061:
7046:
7040:
7039:
7013:
7007:
7006:
6970:
6964:
6963:
6923:
6917:
6916:
6890:
6854:
6848:
6847:
6845:
6844:
6838:
6831:
6822:
6816:
6815:
6783:
6777:
6776:
6750:
6744:
6743:
6741:
6709:
6703:
6702:
6676:
6670:
6669:
6649:
6643:
6642:
6594:
6588:
6587:
6543:
6537:
6536:
6500:
6494:
6493:
6467:
6446:
6440:
6439:
6412:. pp. 1–3.
6401:
6395:
6394:
6393:
6392:
6351:
6345:
6344:
6343:
6342:
6327:
6308:
6302:
6299:
6293:
6292:
6282:
6234:
6228:
6227:
6217:
6177:
6171:
6170:
6122:
6116:
6115:
6097:
6091:
6090:
6064:
6058:
6057:
6045:
6039:
6038:
6036:
6035:
6012:
6006:
6005:
5993:
5987:
5986:
5985:– via APS.
5945:
5939:
5938:
5926:
5920:
5919:
5893:
5887:
5881:
5875:
5874:
5834:
5825:
5824:
5791:(5): 1287–1298.
5776:
5770:
5769:
5729:
5723:
5720:
5714:
5713:
5711:
5710:
5695:
5689:
5688:
5670:
5659:10.1063/1.871273
5634:
5628:
5627:
5583:
5577:
5576:
5574:
5573:
5558:
5552:
5551:
5549:
5548:
5534:
5528:
5527:
5525:
5524:
5509:
5503:
5502:
5500:
5499:
5484:
5478:
5477:
5475:
5474:
5454:
5445:
5444:
5418:
5409:
5408:
5406:
5405:
5399:
5392:
5381:
5375:
5374:
5364:
5332:
5326:
5325:
5299:
5293:
5292:
5281:10.1038/239139a0
5256:
5250:
5247:
5241:
5238:
5232:
5228:
5222:
5221:
5187:
5181:
5180:
5160:
5154:
5153:
5111:
5090:
5084:
5083:
5067:
5061:
5060:
5059:
5058:
5025:
5016:
5015:
5013:
5012:
4997:
4991:
4990:
4988:
4987:
4973:
4967:
4966:
4964:
4963:
4957:www.tokamak.info
4949:
4943:
4942:
4926:
4920:
4919:
4879:
4873:
4872:
4862:
4838:
4832:
4831:
4820:10.1038/150405d0
4795:
4789:
4788:
4762:
4756:
4755:
4711:
4702:
4701:
4699:
4698:
4683:
4677:
4676:
4674:
4665:
4659:
4658:
4656:
4655:
4644:"Triple product"
4640:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4630:
4615:
4609:
4606:
4600:
4599:
4563:
4548:
4547:
4537:
4521:
4510:
4509:
4507:
4506:
4495:
4489:
4488:
4478:
4460:
4451:
4445:
4444:
4442:
4441:
4426:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4416:
4400:
4394:
4393:
4391:
4390:
4375:
4369:
4368:
4366:
4365:
4350:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4337:
4320:
4285:Levitated dipole
4257:
4252:
4251:
4250:
4243:
4238:
4237:
4212:
4190:
4150:
4130:
4108:
4085:
4045:
4035:Lawson criterion
4021:
3979:
3959:
3937:
3917:
3888:
3884:
3680:TAE Technologies
3619:, who built the
3540:
3528:
3501:
3485:
3372:
3369:
3363:
3340:
3332:
3086:renewable energy
2998:
2994:
2978:
2917:
2915:
2914:
2906:
2904:
2903:
2895:
2893:
2892:
2884:
2882:
2881:
2397:Proton, boron-11
2367:
2366:
2309:
2308:
2260:It requires the
2215:
2214:
2213:
2206:
2205:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2187:
2186:
2177:
2176:
2175:
2168:
2167:
2158:
2157:
2156:
2149:
2148:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2130:
2129:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2110:
2109:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2091:
2090:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2072:
2071:
2062:
2061:
2060:
2053:
2052:
2012:
2010:
2009:
2002:
2001:
1991:
1989:
1988:
1981:
1980:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1960:
1959:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1939:
1938:
1829:
1810:simply connected
1688:magnetic mirrors
1650:Power production
1434:TAE Technologies
1420:Machine learning
1241:Research at the
989:Magnetic mirrors
896:
879:Lawson criterion
830:
828:
827:
822:
820:
819:
816:
801:
799:
798:
793:
791:
790:
787:
772:
770:
769:
764:
762:
761:
758:
743:
741:
740:
735:
733:
732:
729:
714:
712:
711:
706:
704:
703:
700:
681:
679:
678:
673:
671:
667:
666:
665:
662:
653:
652:
649:
640:
639:
636:
625:
624:
621:
612:
611:
608:
586:Lawson criterion
580:Lawson criterion
574:
572:
571:
566:
564:
563:
560:
542:
540:
539:
534:
529:
528:
492:
490:
489:
484:
482:
481:
478:
459:
457:
456:
451:
449:
448:
445:
436:
435:
414:
413:
404:
403:
391:
390:
387:
163:aneutronic fuels
122:) and produce a
120:hydrogen isotope
88:Lawson criterion
56:power generation
32:Fusion of powers
21:
18520:
18519:
18515:
18514:
18513:
18511:
18510:
18509:
18490:
18489:
18488:
18483:
18455:
18419:
18351:
18256:
18251:
18221:
18216:
18181:
18179:
18162:
18126:
18093:
18078:
18035:
18025:
18020:
18010:
17973:
17878:
17823:
17816:
17815:
17800:
17744:
17675:
17650:
17628:
17600:
17582:
17575:
17574:
17573:
17560:
17526:
17517:
17499:
17464:
17455:
17369:
17352:
17351:
17350:
17342:
17256:Natural fission
17210:
17209:
17197:
17192:
17182:
17165:
17141:Nuclear weapons
17120:
17079:Low-level (LLW)
17057:
16989:
16941:
16840:
16803:
16750:
16703:
16624:
16556:
16479:
16417:
16412:
16382:
16373:
16351:
16336:
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16319:
16309:
16307:
16297:
16295:
16280:
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15985:
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15948:
15933:
15931:
15921:
15919:
15898:
15887:
15874:
15872:
15862:
15860:
15856:Wendelstein 7-X
15840:
15838:
15827:
15812:
15810:
15800:
15798:
15791:
15785:
15775:
15773:
15738:
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15305:
15303:
15292:
15253:
15242:
15231:
15189:
15166:
15138:
15115:
15043:Magnetic mirror
15019:
15006:Silicon-burning
14991:Lithium burning
14928:
14917:
14911:
14877:Nuclear reactor
14863:
14813:
14807:
14750:
14718:
14716:
14702:
14700:Further reading
14692:
14673:
14654:
14614:
14612:
14587:
14581:
14562:10.1.1.233.5518
14540:
14522:
14501:
14493:. Axiom Books.
14482:
14464:
14459:
14458:
14449:
14447:
14437:
14433:
14424:
14422:
14412:
14408:
14402:Wayback Machine
14392:
14388:
14383:. June 2, 2021.
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13024:
13020:
13011:
13009:
13002:lasers.llnl.gov
12996:
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12014:
12005:
12003:
11992:
11988:
11979:
11977:
11968:
11967:
11963:
11954:
11952:
11951:. July 24, 2024
11943:
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11905:
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11893:
11889:
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11832:www.rigzone.com
11826:
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11796:
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11713:
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11701:
11697:
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11686:
11677:
11676:
11672:
11663:
11661:
11660:. July 13, 2021
11652:
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11534:
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10998:
10988:
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10964:
10963:
10956:
10903:
10899:
10890:
10888:
10886:The Japan Times
10878:
10874:
10821:
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10764:
10760:
10751:
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10731:
10686:
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10663:
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10579:
10578:
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10472:
10468:
10459:
10457:
10447:
10443:
10434:
10432:
10417:
10413:
10404:
10402:
10401:. June 16, 2021
10393:
10392:
10388:
10343:
10339:
10278:
10267:
10258:
10256:
10236:
10232:
10223:
10221:
10211:
10207:
10198:
10196:
10195:. April 7, 2020
10187:
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10166:
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9402:
9393:
9384:
9382:
9372:
9368:
9360:
9352:
9348:
9333:
9319:
9315:
9310:Wayback Machine
9300:
9296:
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9099:
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9064:
9019:Wayback Machine
9009:
8998:
8974:10.1.1.582.8236
8945:
8941:
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8825:
8821:
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7706:
7692:
7679:
7670:
7668:
7655:
7654:
7650:
7643:LiveScience.com
7637:
7636:
7632:
7593:
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7574:
7560:
7556:
7505:
7498:
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7485:
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7412:
7406:
7402:
7393:
7391:
7383:
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7344:
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7311:
7307:
7300:
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7280:
7272:
7264:
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7125:
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7014:
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6751:
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6710:
6706:
6691:
6677:
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6666:
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6646:
6595:
6591:
6544:
6540:
6505:Physical Review
6501:
6497:
6447:
6443:
6428:
6402:
6398:
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6388:
6378:
6352:
6348:
6340:
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6310:
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6300:
6296:
6235:
6231:
6178:
6174:
6123:
6119:
6112:
6098:
6094:
6079:
6065:
6061:
6048:Katwala, Amit.
6046:
6042:
6033:
6031:
6013:
6009:
5995:
5994:
5990:
5946:
5942:
5927:
5923:
5908:
5894:
5890:
5882:
5878:
5835:
5828:
5777:
5773:
5730:
5726:
5721:
5717:
5708:
5706:
5704:Popular Science
5696:
5692:
5635:
5631:
5584:
5580:
5571:
5569:
5560:
5559:
5555:
5546:
5544:
5536:
5535:
5531:
5522:
5520:
5511:
5510:
5506:
5497:
5495:
5486:
5485:
5481:
5472:
5470:
5455:
5448:
5433:
5419:
5412:
5403:
5401:
5397:
5390:
5382:
5378:
5333:
5329:
5314:
5300:
5296:
5257:
5253:
5248:
5244:
5239:
5235:
5229:
5225:
5210:
5188:
5184:
5177:
5161:
5157:
5091:
5087:
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5064:
5056:
5054:
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5026:
5019:
5010:
5008:
4998:
4994:
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4959:
4951:
4950:
4946:
4927:
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4880:
4876:
4839:
4835:
4796:
4792:
4777:
4763:
4759:
4712:
4705:
4696:
4694:
4685:
4684:
4680:
4672:
4666:
4662:
4653:
4651:
4642:
4641:
4637:
4628:
4626:
4617:
4616:
4612:
4607:
4603:
4564:
4551:
4535:10.2172/4014032
4522:
4513:
4504:
4502:
4497:
4496:
4492:
4458:
4452:
4448:
4439:
4437:
4428:
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4414:
4412:
4401:
4397:
4388:
4386:
4376:
4372:
4363:
4361:
4352:
4351:
4344:
4335:
4333:
4321:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4295:Magnetic mirror
4270:Fusion ignition
4253:
4248:
4246:
4239:
4232:
4229:
4210:
4188:
4148:
4128:
4113:Wendelstein 7-X
4106:
4083:
4043:
4019:
4012:Plasma pressure
3977:
3957:
3935:
3915:
3880:
3826:fusion ignition
3804:
3773:Wendelstein 7-X
3724:Laser Mégajoule
3696:
3647:
3629:
3592:
3548:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3544:
3541:
3533:
3532:
3529:
3518:
3513:
3512:
3511:
3510:
3509:
3502:
3494:
3493:
3486:
3448:
3382:
3373:
3367:
3364:
3354:
3341:
3330:
3324:
3298:
3292:hybrid drives.
3267:
3187:energy industry
3183:
3166:Fusion Strategy
3133:
2996:
2992:
2976:
2973:
2956:
2935:gamma radiation
2927:gas centrifuges
2913:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2908:
2902:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2897:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2856:
2850:
2838:stainless steel
2805:
2799:
2775:
2714:
2702:perimeter fence
2694:liquid hydrogen
2659:
2654:
2599:
2593:embrittlement.
2590:
2548:Alpha particles
2517:
2496:
2461:
2455:
2399:
2352:
2294:
2274:material design
2212:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2198:
2193:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2174:
2172:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2136:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2116:
2114:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2078:
2076:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2008:
2006:
2005:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1958:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1918:Diagram of the
1912:
1906:
1878:
1846:
1820:
1818:
1806:Compact toroids
1794:
1777:Magnetic mirror
1774:
1772:Magnetic Mirror
1769:
1713:
1684:Richard F. Post
1652:
1631:X-ray detectors
1565:
1545:Main articles:
1543:
1472:
1456:Main articles:
1454:
1436:to control the
1422:
1414:
1401:gamma radiation
1391:) is a type of
1372:electric charge
1320:FRX-L machine,
1307:
1269:
1263:
1207:
1201:
1154:Laser Mégajoule
1129:
1123:
1064:Richard F. Post
1062:: Developed by
1060:Magnetic mirror
1046:Wendelstein 7-X
1018:
1012:
998:
973:electric fields
953:
951:Plasma behavior
914:
894:
866:
838:
815:
811:
809:
806:
805:
786:
782:
780:
777:
776:
757:
753:
751:
748:
747:
728:
724:
722:
719:
718:
699:
695:
693:
690:
689:
661:
657:
648:
644:
635:
631:
630:
626:
620:
616:
607:
603:
601:
598:
597:
593:, shown below.
582:
559:
555:
553:
550:
549:
518:
514:
506:
503:
502:
477:
473:
471:
468:
467:
444:
440:
425:
421:
409:
405:
399:
395:
386:
382:
380:
377:
376:
338:
311:Coulomb barrier
276:
228:
222:
186:magnetic mirror
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
18518:
18508:
18507:
18502:
18485:
18484:
18482:
18481:
18468:
18465:
18464:
18461:
18460:
18457:
18456:
18454:
18453:
18451:Wireless power
18448:
18443:
18438:
18433:
18427:
18425:
18421:
18420:
18418:
18417:
18415:Ultracapacitor
18412:
18407:
18402:
18397:
18392:
18387:
18382:
18377:
18372:
18367:
18361:
18359:
18353:
18352:
18350:
18349:
18344:
18339:
18334:
18329:
18324:
18319:
18314:
18312:Home fuel cell
18309:
18304:
18299:
18294:
18289:
18284:
18278:
18276:
18269:
18262:
18258:
18257:
18250:
18249:
18242:
18235:
18227:
18218:
18217:
18215:
18214:
18202:
18190:
18175:
18172:
18171:
18168:
18167:
18164:
18163:
18161:
18160:
18155:
18150:
18148:Muon-catalyzed
18145:
18140:
18134:
18132:
18128:
18127:
18125:
18124:
18119:
18114:
18109:
18108:
18107:
18097:
18088:
18086:
18080:
18079:
18077:
18076:
18071:
18066:
18061:
18056:
18051:
18045:
18043:
18037:
18036:
18030:
18027:
18026:
18012:
18011:
18009:
18008:
18003:
18002:
18001:
17996:
17985:
17983:
17979:
17978:
17975:
17974:
17972:
17971:
17966:
17961:
17956:
17955:
17954:
17949:
17944:
17939:
17934:
17929:
17924:
17919:
17914:
17909:
17904:
17899:
17888:
17886:
17880:
17879:
17877:
17876:
17871:
17866:
17861:
17856:
17851:
17846:
17841:
17839:Integral (IFR)
17836:
17830:
17824:
17813:
17810:
17809:
17806:
17805:
17802:
17801:
17799:
17798:
17793:
17788:
17783:
17778:
17773:
17767:
17765:
17756:
17750:
17749:
17746:
17745:
17743:
17742:
17741:
17740:
17735:
17734:
17733:
17728:
17723:
17718:
17703:
17698:
17697:
17696:
17685:
17683:
17677:
17676:
17674:
17673:
17668:
17663:
17654:
17652:
17648:
17640:
17634:
17633:
17630:
17629:
17627:
17626:
17621:
17616:
17611:
17605:
17603:
17598:
17590:
17583:
17569:
17566:
17565:
17562:
17561:
17559:
17558:
17557:
17556:
17551:
17546:
17541:
17530:
17528:
17524:
17519:
17518:
17516:
17515:
17509:
17507:
17501:
17500:
17498:
17497:
17492:
17487:
17486:
17485:
17480:
17469:
17467:
17462:
17457:
17456:
17454:
17453:
17452:
17451:
17446:
17441:
17436:
17431:
17430:
17429:
17424:
17419:
17409:
17404:
17403:
17402:
17397:
17394:
17391:
17388:
17374:
17372:
17367:
17359:
17344:
17343:
17341:
17340:
17335:
17334:
17333:
17330:
17325:
17320:
17319:
17318:
17313:
17303:
17298:
17293:
17288:
17283:
17278:
17273:
17268:
17258:
17253:
17252:
17251:
17246:
17241:
17236:
17226:
17220:
17218:
17212:
17211:
17203:
17202:
17199:
17198:
17184:
17183:
17171:
17170:
17167:
17166:
17164:
17163:
17158:
17156:Uranium mining
17153:
17148:
17143:
17138:
17132:
17130:
17126:
17125:
17122:
17121:
17119:
17118:
17113:
17112:
17111:
17106:
17096:
17091:
17086:
17081:
17076:
17071:
17065:
17063:
17059:
17058:
17056:
17055:
17050:
17049:
17048:
17038:
17033:
17032:
17031:
17029:Minor actinide
17026:
17021:
17010:
17008:
17001:
16995:
16994:
16991:
16990:
16988:
16987:
16982:
16977:
16972:
16971:
16970:
16965:
16955:
16949:
16947:
16943:
16942:
16940:
16939:
16938:
16937:
16927:
16922:
16921:
16920:
16915:
16905:
16900:
16895:
16894:
16893:
16883:
16878:
16873:
16868:
16863:
16857:
16855:
16848:
16842:
16841:
16839:
16838:
16833:
16828:
16823:
16817:
16815:
16809:
16808:
16805:
16804:
16802:
16801:
16796:
16791:
16786:
16781:
16776:
16771:
16766:
16760:
16758:
16752:
16751:
16749:
16748:
16743:
16738:
16733:
16728:
16726:Autoradiograph
16722:
16720:
16711:
16705:
16704:
16702:
16701:
16700:
16699:
16689:
16688:
16687:
16677:
16676:
16675:
16665:
16660:
16655:
16650:
16645:
16640:
16634:
16632:
16626:
16625:
16623:
16622:
16617:
16612:
16607:
16602:
16597:
16592:
16587:
16582:
16577:
16572:
16566:
16564:
16558:
16557:
16555:
16554:
16553:
16552:
16547:
16542:
16541:
16540:
16535:
16520:
16515:
16510:
16505:
16500:
16495:
16489:
16487:
16481:
16480:
16478:
16477:
16476:
16475:
16470:
16460:
16455:
16450:
16448:Atomic nucleus
16445:
16440:
16435:
16429:
16427:
16419:
16418:
16411:
16410:
16403:
16396:
16388:
16379:
16378:
16375:
16374:
16372:
16371:
16366:
16360:
16357:
16356:
16353:
16352:
16350:
16349:
16344:
16331:
16329:
16325:
16324:
16321:
16320:
16318:
16317:
16305:
16293:
16288:
16276:
16264:
16251:
16249:
16245:
16244:
16242:
16241:
16228:
16226:
16222:
16221:
16219:
16218:
16213:
16208:
16203:
16198:
16193:
16188:
16183:
16178:
16173:
16160:
16158:
16151:
16144:
16136:
16135:
16133:
16132:
16127:
16122:
16110:
16097:
16095:
16089:
16088:
16085:
16084:
16082:
16081:
16069:
16064:
16051:
16049:
16045:
16044:
16042:
16041:
16040:
16039:
16029:
16024:
16012:
15999:
15997:
15991:
15990:
15987:
15986:
15984:
15983:
15971:
15958:
15956:
15950:
15949:
15947:
15946:
15941:
15929:
15916:
15910:
15904:
15903:
15900:
15899:
15897:
15896:
15895:
15894:
15870:
15858:
15853:
15848:
15835:
15833:
15829:
15828:
15826:
15825:
15820:
15808:
15795:
15793:
15787:
15786:
15784:
15783:
15771:
15766:
15761:
15756:
15751:
15746:
15733:
15731:
15724:
15718:
15717:
15714:
15713:
15711:
15710:
15705:
15700:
15688:
15676:
15664:
15652:
15647:
15642:
15630:
15625:
15613:
15608:
15596:
15584:
15572:
15559:
15557:
15553:
15552:
15550:
15549:
15537:
15525:
15513:
15501:
15489:
15484:
15472:
15467:
15462:
15457:
15456:
15455:
15445:
15432:
15430:
15424:
15423:
15421:
15420:
15401:
15396:
15384:
15379:
15374:
15369:
15368:
15367:
15362:
15352:
15347:
15342:
15337:
15336:
15335:
15325:
15313:
15300:
15298:
15294:
15293:
15291:
15290:
15285:
15280:
15274:
15272:
15265:
15256:
15245:
15237:
15236:
15233:
15232:
15230:
15229:
15224:
15222:Muon-catalyzed
15219:
15214:
15213:
15212:
15205:Colliding beam
15201:
15199:
15195:
15194:
15191:
15190:
15188:
15187:
15182:
15176:
15174:
15168:
15167:
15165:
15164:
15159:
15154:
15148:
15146:
15140:
15139:
15137:
15136:
15131:
15125:
15123:
15117:
15116:
15114:
15113:
15108:
15107:
15106:
15105:
15104:
15094:
15084:
15079:
15078:
15077:
15072:
15067:
15065:Reversed field
15062:
15052:
15051:
15050:
15040:
15035:
15029:
15027:
15021:
15020:
15018:
15013:
15008:
15003:
15001:Oxygen-burning
14998:
14993:
14988:
14986:Carbon-burning
14983:
14978:
14977:
14976:
14966:
14961:
14956:
14951:
14946:
14941:
14939:
14930:
14919:
14913:
14912:
14910:
14909:
14904:
14899:
14894:
14889:
14884:
14882:Atomic nucleus
14879:
14874:
14868:
14865:
14864:
14862:
14861:
14856:
14851:
14846:
14841:
14836:
14834:Burning plasma
14830:
14828:
14826:Nuclear fusion
14819:
14815:
14814:
14806:
14805:
14798:
14791:
14783:
14777:
14776:
14771:
14766:
14761:
14756:
14749:
14748:External links
14746:
14745:
14744:
14735:climate crisis
14731:nuclear fusion
14727:Oreskes, Naomi
14724:
14706:Ball, Philip.
14701:
14698:
14697:
14696:
14691:978-0750307017
14690:
14677:
14672:978-0521038201
14671:
14658:
14653:978-3319004211
14652:
14637:
14634:978-0750327176
14620:
14593:
14590:on 2007-01-06.
14580:978-9812566409
14579:
14526:
14521:978-1461460374
14520:
14505:
14500:978-0959416404
14499:
14486:
14481:978-1468310412
14480:
14463:
14460:
14457:
14456:
14431:
14406:
14386:
14368:
14349:
14324:
14313:www.ipp.mpg.de
14300:
14291:
14262:
14259:on 2013-01-06.
14244:
14219:
14210:
14177:Applied Optics
14167:
14142:
14117:
14092:
14049:
14029:
14010:
13999:
13980:
13948:
13923:
13890:
13873:Conca, James.
13865:
13846:
13827:
13771:
13751:
13729:
13718:Science | AAAS
13704:
13654:
13635:
13621:
13607:
13589:
13564:
13539:
13528:www.ipp.mpg.de
13514:
13469:Nuclear Fusion
13455:
13395:
13337:
13300:(12): 126001.
13294:Nuclear Fusion
13279:
13260:
13246:
13225:
13203:
13144:
13119:
13068:
13043:
13018:
12989:
12960:
12954:978-0429148156
12953:
12925:
12911:978-0198562641
12910:
12892:
12878:978-3030275808
12877:
12849:
12834:
12816:
12773:
12746:
12732:978-0367801519
12731:
12713:
12661:
12652:
12619:Nuclear Fusion
12602:
12577:
12555:
12541:978-1905868100
12540:
12522:
12497:Nuclear Fusion
12487:
12454:Nuclear Fusion
12444:
12379:
12374:978-1441986962
12373:
12347:
12333:978-0199584970
12332:
12314:
12301:10.2172/792587
12281:
12262:
12237:Nuclear Fusion
12223:
12193:
12181:978-1563471841
12180:
12152:
12129:
12099:
12075:
12072:on 2008-10-08.
12056:
12053:on 2011-07-27.
12031:
12028:on 2011-07-20.
12012:
11986:
11961:
11936:
11912:
11887:
11868:
11843:
11819:
11794:
11769:
11720:
11695:
11670:
11645:
11620:
11597:
11532:
11491:
11464:(4): 665–668.
11444:
11392:
11367:
11353:978-1468310412
11352:
11331:
11306:
11278:
11253:
11229:
11205:
11180:
11155:
11131:
11112:
11082:
11057:
11032:
11007:
10982:
10972:. May 28, 2021
10954:
10897:
10872:
10815:
10758:
10729:
10680:
10656:
10590:
10572:
10523:
10466:
10441:
10411:
10399:General Fusion
10386:
10337:
10265:
10230:
10205:
10180:
10164:
10150:978-0309487443
10149:
10131:
10079:
10044:(10): 103014.
10038:Nuclear Fusion
10024:
9959:
9904:
9888:
9821:
9756:
9713:(10): 106023.
9707:Nuclear Fusion
9690:
9647:(2): 225–236.
9627:
9599:
9571:
9521:
9502:978-0750327190
9501:
9471:
9452:978-0750327190
9451:
9421:
9391:
9366:
9346:
9332:978-0750327176
9331:
9313:
9294:
9273:
9263:. ec.europa.eu
9249:
9218:
9179:
9149:
9123:
9092:
9089:on 2014-02-24.
9062:
9029:Nuclear Fusion
8996:
8939:
8884:
8819:
8766:
8719:
8713:978-9812380333
8712:
8692:
8649:Nuclear Fusion
8631:
8617:978-3030275815
8616:
8595:
8589:978-0750667234
8588:
8579:Nuclear Safety
8568:
8535:
8516:
8513:on 2004-05-06.
8488:
8474:978-1461306191
8473:
8452:
8440:978-1573563369
8439:
8419:
8389:
8377:978-0123846563
8376:
8351:
8296:
8244:
8205:
8166:
8139:Nuclear Fusion
8125:
8112:(6): 1901376.
8092:
8051:
8016:
7989:(3): 209–218.
7983:Nuclear Fusion
7973:
7961:
7948:
7927:
7875:
7864:978-0792366300
7863:
7833:
7806:(3): 427–429.
7800:Nuclear Fusion
7786:
7763:
7744:
7719:
7705:978-1468471960
7704:
7677:
7661:www.fusenet.eu
7648:
7630:
7587:
7572:
7554:
7496:
7483:
7440:
7417:Nuclear Energy
7400:
7376:
7338:
7324:978-0849369261
7323:
7305:
7299:978-0191524059
7298:
7278:
7258:
7219:
7182:(10): 102705.
7166:
7119:
7102:
7087:
7066:
7041:
7027:978-1333477035
7026:
7008:
6965:
6918:
6870:
6866:
6862:
6858:
6849:
6817:
6798:(2): 325–332.
6778:
6764:978-1461553533
6763:
6745:
6704:
6690:978-0470131480
6689:
6671:
6665:978-1560323174
6664:
6644:
6589:
6538:
6495:
6441:
6427:978-1424411931
6426:
6396:
6377:978-0750327190
6376:
6346:
6334:
6316:Nuclear Fusion
6303:
6294:
6229:
6172:
6117:
6111:978-0126852417
6110:
6092:
6078:978-1461493389
6077:
6059:
6040:
6007:
5988:
5940:
5921:
5907:978-0521038201
5906:
5888:
5876:
5826:
5771:
5724:
5715:
5690:
5629:
5578:
5553:
5529:
5504:
5479:
5446:
5432:978-0670020331
5431:
5410:
5376:
5327:
5313:978-1474611596
5312:
5294:
5251:
5242:
5233:
5223:
5209:978-1447155553
5208:
5182:
5176:978-0521851077
5175:
5155:
5102:(20): 205001.
5085:
5062:
5051:978-0727744661
5050:
5017:
4992:
4981:www.ipp.mpg.de
4968:
4944:
4921:
4894:(2): 104–117.
4874:
4847:Nuclear Fusion
4833:
4790:
4776:978-1466594265
4775:
4757:
4703:
4678:
4660:
4635:
4610:
4601:
4549:
4511:
4490:
4446:
4421:
4395:
4370:
4342:
4311:
4310:
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4305:
4303:
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4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4244:
4228:
4225:
4222:
4221:
4219:
4214:
4207:
4204:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4195:Tokamak Energy
4192:
4185:
4182:
4178:
4177:
4175:
4170:
4167:
4164:
4158:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4145:
4142:
4138:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4125:
4122:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4110:
4103:
4100:
4096:
4095:
4092:
4087:
4080:
4077:
4073:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4064:
4061:
4055:
4054:
4052:
4047:
4040:
4037:
4031:
4030:
4028:
4023:
4016:
4013:
4009:
4008:
4006:
4000:
3997:
3994:
3990:
3989:
3986:
3981:
3974:
3971:
3967:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3954:
3951:
3947:
3946:
3944:
3939:
3932:
3929:
3925:
3924:
3922:
3921:Focus-Fusion 1
3919:
3912:
3909:
3905:
3904:
3901:
3898:
3895:
3892:
3879:
3876:
3803:
3800:
3695:
3692:
3688:Tokamak Energy
3684:General Fusion
3646:
3643:
3628:
3625:
3617:Derek Robinson
3591:
3588:
3542:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3523:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3503:
3496:
3495:
3487:
3480:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3447:
3444:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3344:
3342:
3335:
3326:Main article:
3323:
3320:
3297:
3294:
3279:lunar regolith
3266:
3263:
3248:) and Canada (
3215:space industry
3191:climate change
3182:
3179:
3143:(NRC) and the
3132:
3129:
2972:
2969:
2955:
2952:
2943:
2942:
2938:
2930:
2912:
2901:
2890:
2879:
2852:Main article:
2849:
2846:
2798:
2795:
2774:
2771:
2725:and resultant
2713:
2710:
2663:social license
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2598:
2595:
2589:
2586:
2562:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2545:
2538:
2524:
2516:
2513:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2477:
2468:published the
2454:
2451:
2426:addition, the
2419:
2418:
2398:
2395:
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2381:
2378:
2377:
2374:
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2351:
2348:
2335:
2334:
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2327:
2324:
2320:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2293:
2290:
2266:
2265:
2258:
2255:
2217:
2216:
2211:
2202:
2192:
2183:
2173:
2164:
2154:
2145:
2135:
2126:
2120:
2115:
2106:
2096:
2087:
2077:
2068:
2058:
2049:
2015:
2014:
2007:
1998:
1986:
1977:
1965:
1956:
1944:
1935:
1908:Main article:
1905:
1902:
1877:
1874:
1845:
1842:
1817:
1814:
1793:
1792:Magnetic loops
1790:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1761:
1760:
1749:
1743:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1700:
1676:kinetic energy
1669:
1666:
1659:Steam turbines
1651:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1643:Bremsstrahlung
1628:
1618:
1600:
1589:Langmuir probe
1563:X-ray detector
1551:Langmuir probe
1542:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1518:
1515:
1505:
1490:microwave oven
1486:
1480:
1453:
1450:
1421:
1418:
1413:
1410:
1409:
1408:
1393:nuclear fusion
1379:
1342:
1335:
1325:
1322:General Fusion
1306:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1288:
1265:Main article:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1251:
1236:
1226:
1203:Main article:
1200:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1189:
1185:
1175:
1172:
1163:(LLE) and the
1157:
1125:Main article:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1111:
1101:
1095:
1089:
1079:
1057:
1049:
1035:
1029:
1014:Main article:
1011:
1008:
997:
994:
993:
992:
986:
980:
967:governing how
952:
949:
913:
912:Energy capture
910:
865:
862:
836:
833:
832:
814:
803:
785:
774:
756:
745:
727:
716:
698:
683:
682:
670:
660:
656:
647:
643:
634:
629:
619:
615:
606:
591:energy balance
581:
578:
577:
576:
558:
547:
532:
527:
524:
521:
517:
513:
510:
500:
494:
476:
461:
460:
443:
439:
434:
431:
428:
424:
420:
417:
412:
408:
402:
398:
394:
385:
366:Gaussian curve
337:
334:
315:kinetic energy
275:
272:
257:for different
255:Binding energy
226:Nuclear fusion
224:Main article:
221:
218:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
18517:
18506:
18503:
18501:
18498:
18497:
18495:
18480:
18479:
18470:
18469:
18466:
18452:
18449:
18447:
18444:
18442:
18439:
18437:
18434:
18432:
18429:
18428:
18426:
18422:
18416:
18413:
18411:
18408:
18406:
18403:
18401:
18398:
18396:
18393:
18391:
18388:
18386:
18383:
18381:
18378:
18376:
18373:
18371:
18368:
18366:
18363:
18362:
18360:
18358:
18354:
18348:
18347:Vortex engine
18345:
18343:
18340:
18338:
18335:
18333:
18330:
18328:
18325:
18323:
18320:
18318:
18315:
18313:
18310:
18308:
18305:
18303:
18300:
18298:
18295:
18293:
18290:
18288:
18285:
18283:
18280:
18279:
18277:
18273:
18270:
18266:
18263:
18259:
18255:
18248:
18243:
18241:
18236:
18234:
18229:
18228:
18225:
18213:
18212:
18203:
18201:
18200:
18191:
18189:
18188:
18177:
18176:
18173:
18159:
18156:
18154:
18151:
18149:
18146:
18144:
18141:
18139:
18136:
18135:
18133:
18129:
18123:
18120:
18118:
18115:
18113:
18110:
18106:
18105:electrostatic
18103:
18102:
18101:
18098:
18096:
18090:
18089:
18087:
18085:
18081:
18075:
18072:
18070:
18067:
18065:
18062:
18060:
18057:
18055:
18052:
18050:
18047:
18046:
18044:
18042:
18038:
18034:
18028:
18023:
18017:
18007:
18004:
18000:
17997:
17995:
17992:
17991:
17990:
17987:
17986:
17984:
17980:
17970:
17967:
17965:
17962:
17960:
17957:
17953:
17950:
17948:
17945:
17943:
17940:
17938:
17935:
17933:
17930:
17928:
17925:
17923:
17920:
17918:
17915:
17913:
17910:
17908:
17905:
17903:
17900:
17898:
17895:
17894:
17893:
17890:
17889:
17887:
17885:
17884:Generation IV
17881:
17875:
17872:
17870:
17867:
17865:
17862:
17860:
17857:
17855:
17852:
17850:
17847:
17845:
17842:
17840:
17837:
17835:
17834:Breeder (FBR)
17832:
17831:
17828:
17825:
17820:
17811:
17797:
17794:
17792:
17789:
17787:
17784:
17782:
17779:
17777:
17774:
17772:
17769:
17768:
17766:
17764:
17760:
17757:
17755:
17751:
17739:
17736:
17732:
17729:
17727:
17724:
17722:
17719:
17717:
17714:
17713:
17712:
17709:
17708:
17707:
17704:
17702:
17699:
17695:
17692:
17691:
17690:
17687:
17686:
17684:
17682:
17678:
17672:
17669:
17667:
17664:
17662:
17660:
17656:
17655:
17653:
17651:
17644:
17641:
17639:
17635:
17625:
17622:
17620:
17617:
17615:
17612:
17610:
17607:
17606:
17604:
17602:
17594:
17591:
17587:
17584:
17579:
17572:
17567:
17555:
17552:
17550:
17547:
17545:
17542:
17540:
17537:
17536:
17535:
17532:
17531:
17529:
17527:
17520:
17514:
17511:
17510:
17508:
17506:
17502:
17496:
17493:
17491:
17488:
17484:
17481:
17479:
17476:
17475:
17474:
17471:
17470:
17468:
17466:
17458:
17450:
17447:
17445:
17442:
17440:
17437:
17435:
17432:
17428:
17425:
17423:
17420:
17418:
17415:
17414:
17413:
17410:
17408:
17405:
17401:
17398:
17395:
17392:
17389:
17386:
17385:
17384:
17381:
17380:
17379:
17376:
17375:
17373:
17371:
17363:
17360:
17356:
17349:
17345:
17339:
17336:
17331:
17329:
17326:
17324:
17321:
17317:
17314:
17312:
17309:
17308:
17307:
17304:
17302:
17299:
17297:
17294:
17292:
17289:
17287:
17284:
17282:
17279:
17277:
17274:
17272:
17269:
17267:
17264:
17263:
17262:
17259:
17257:
17254:
17250:
17247:
17245:
17242:
17240:
17237:
17235:
17232:
17231:
17230:
17227:
17225:
17222:
17221:
17219:
17217:
17213:
17208:
17207:
17200:
17195:
17189:
17185:
17181:
17176:
17172:
17162:
17159:
17157:
17154:
17152:
17149:
17147:
17144:
17142:
17139:
17137:
17136:Nuclear power
17134:
17133:
17131:
17127:
17117:
17116:Transmutation
17114:
17110:
17107:
17105:
17102:
17101:
17100:
17097:
17095:
17092:
17090:
17087:
17085:
17082:
17080:
17077:
17075:
17072:
17070:
17067:
17066:
17064:
17060:
17054:
17051:
17047:
17044:
17043:
17042:
17039:
17037:
17034:
17030:
17027:
17025:
17022:
17020:
17017:
17016:
17015:
17012:
17011:
17009:
17005:
17002:
17000:
16996:
16986:
16983:
16981:
16978:
16976:
16973:
16969:
16966:
16964:
16961:
16960:
16959:
16956:
16954:
16951:
16950:
16948:
16944:
16936:
16933:
16932:
16931:
16928:
16926:
16923:
16919:
16916:
16914:
16913:high-altitude
16911:
16910:
16909:
16906:
16904:
16903:Proliferation
16901:
16899:
16896:
16892:
16889:
16888:
16887:
16884:
16882:
16879:
16877:
16874:
16872:
16869:
16867:
16864:
16862:
16859:
16858:
16856:
16852:
16849:
16847:
16843:
16837:
16834:
16832:
16829:
16827:
16824:
16822:
16819:
16818:
16816:
16814:
16810:
16800:
16797:
16795:
16792:
16790:
16789:Brachytherapy
16787:
16785:
16782:
16780:
16777:
16775:
16772:
16770:
16767:
16765:
16762:
16761:
16759:
16757:
16753:
16747:
16744:
16742:
16739:
16737:
16734:
16732:
16729:
16727:
16724:
16723:
16721:
16719:
16715:
16712:
16710:
16706:
16698:
16695:
16694:
16693:
16690:
16686:
16683:
16682:
16681:
16678:
16674:
16671:
16670:
16669:
16666:
16664:
16661:
16659:
16656:
16654:
16651:
16649:
16646:
16644:
16641:
16639:
16636:
16635:
16633:
16631:
16627:
16621:
16618:
16616:
16613:
16611:
16608:
16606:
16603:
16601:
16598:
16596:
16593:
16591:
16588:
16586:
16585:Cross section
16583:
16581:
16578:
16576:
16573:
16571:
16568:
16567:
16565:
16563:
16559:
16551:
16548:
16546:
16543:
16539:
16536:
16534:
16531:
16530:
16529:
16526:
16525:
16524:
16521:
16519:
16516:
16514:
16511:
16509:
16506:
16504:
16501:
16499:
16496:
16494:
16491:
16490:
16488:
16486:
16482:
16474:
16471:
16469:
16466:
16465:
16464:
16461:
16459:
16456:
16454:
16451:
16449:
16446:
16444:
16441:
16439:
16436:
16434:
16431:
16430:
16428:
16424:
16420:
16416:
16409:
16404:
16402:
16397:
16395:
16390:
16389:
16386:
16370:
16367:
16365:
16362:
16361:
16358:
16348:
16345:
16343:
16333:
16332:
16330:
16326:
16316:
16306:
16304:
16294:
16292:
16289:
16287:
16277:
16275:
16265:
16263:
16253:
16252:
16250:
16246:
16240:
16230:
16229:
16227:
16223:
16217:
16214:
16212:
16209:
16207:
16204:
16202:
16199:
16197:
16194:
16192:
16189:
16187:
16184:
16182:
16179:
16177:
16174:
16172:
16162:
16161:
16159:
16155:
16152:
16148:
16145:
16143:
16137:
16131:
16130:Fusion Engine
16128:
16126:
16125:FRX-L – FRCHX
16123:
16121:
16111:
16109:
16099:
16098:
16096:
16094:
16090:
16080:
16070:
16068:
16065:
16063:
16053:
16052:
16050:
16046:
16038:
16035:
16034:
16033:
16030:
16028:
16025:
16023:
16013:
16011:
16001:
16000:
15998:
15996:
15992:
15982:
15972:
15970:
15960:
15959:
15957:
15955:
15951:
15945:
15942:
15940:
15930:
15928:
15918:
15917:
15914:
15911:
15909:
15905:
15891:
15886:
15883:
15882:
15881:
15871:
15869:
15859:
15857:
15854:
15852:
15849:
15847:
15837:
15836:
15834:
15830:
15824:
15821:
15819:
15809:
15807:
15797:
15796:
15794:
15788:
15782:
15772:
15770:
15767:
15765:
15762:
15760:
15757:
15755:
15752:
15750:
15747:
15745:
15735:
15734:
15732:
15728:
15725:
15723:
15719:
15709:
15706:
15704:
15701:
15699:
15689:
15687:
15677:
15675:
15665:
15663:
15653:
15651:
15648:
15646:
15643:
15641:
15631:
15629:
15626:
15624:
15623:ASDEX Upgrade
15614:
15612:
15609:
15607:
15597:
15593:
15588:
15585:
15583:
15573:
15571:
15561:
15560:
15558:
15554:
15548:
15538:
15536:
15526:
15524:
15514:
15510:
15505:
15502:
15500:
15490:
15488:
15485:
15483:
15473:
15471:
15468:
15466:
15463:
15461:
15458:
15454:
15451:
15450:
15449:
15446:
15444:
15434:
15433:
15431:
15425:
15417:
15412:
15402:
15400:
15397:
15395:
15385:
15383:
15380:
15378:
15375:
15373:
15370:
15366:
15363:
15361:
15358:
15357:
15356:
15353:
15351:
15348:
15346:
15343:
15341:
15338:
15334:
15331:
15330:
15329:
15326:
15324:
15323:Alcator C-Mod
15314:
15312:
15302:
15301:
15299:
15295:
15289:
15286:
15284:
15281:
15279:
15276:
15275:
15273:
15271:International
15269:
15266:
15264:
15260:
15257:
15255:
15249:
15246:
15244:
15238:
15228:
15225:
15223:
15220:
15218:
15217:Metal lattice
15215:
15211:
15208:
15207:
15206:
15203:
15202:
15200:
15196:
15186:
15183:
15181:
15178:
15177:
15175:
15173:
15172:Electrostatic
15169:
15163:
15160:
15158:
15155:
15153:
15150:
15149:
15147:
15145:
15141:
15135:
15132:
15130:
15127:
15126:
15124:
15122:
15118:
15112:
15109:
15103:
15100:
15099:
15098:
15095:
15093:
15090:
15089:
15088:
15085:
15083:
15080:
15076:
15073:
15071:
15068:
15066:
15063:
15061:
15058:
15057:
15056:
15053:
15049:
15046:
15045:
15044:
15041:
15039:
15036:
15034:
15031:
15030:
15028:
15026:
15022:
15017:
15014:
15012:
15009:
15007:
15004:
15002:
14999:
14997:
14994:
14992:
14989:
14987:
14984:
14982:
14979:
14975:
14972:
14971:
14970:
14967:
14965:
14962:
14960:
14957:
14955:
14952:
14950:
14947:
14945:
14944:Alpha process
14942:
14940:
14938:
14937:Gravitational
14934:
14931:
14927:
14923:
14920:
14914:
14908:
14905:
14903:
14900:
14898:
14895:
14893:
14890:
14888:
14885:
14883:
14880:
14878:
14875:
14873:
14872:Nuclear power
14870:
14869:
14860:
14857:
14855:
14852:
14850:
14847:
14845:
14842:
14840:
14837:
14835:
14832:
14831:
14829:
14827:
14823:
14820:
14816:
14811:
14804:
14799:
14797:
14792:
14790:
14785:
14784:
14781:
14775:
14772:
14770:
14767:
14765:
14762:
14760:
14757:
14755:
14752:
14751:
14742:
14741:
14736:
14732:
14728:
14725:
14715:
14714:
14709:
14704:
14703:
14693:
14687:
14683:
14678:
14674:
14668:
14664:
14659:
14655:
14649:
14645:
14644:
14638:
14635:
14631:
14627:
14626:
14621:
14611:
14607:
14603:
14599:
14594:
14586:
14582:
14576:
14572:
14568:
14563:
14558:
14554:
14550:
14546:
14539:
14535:
14531:
14527:
14523:
14517:
14513:
14512:
14506:
14502:
14496:
14492:
14487:
14483:
14477:
14473:
14472:
14466:
14465:
14446:
14442:
14435:
14421:
14417:
14410:
14403:
14399:
14396:
14390:
14382:
14378:
14372:
14364:
14360:
14353:
14339:
14335:
14328:
14314:
14310:
14304:
14295:
14281:on 2020-10-01
14280:
14276:
14272:
14266:
14258:
14254:
14248:
14233:
14229:
14223:
14214:
14206:
14202:
14198:
14194:
14190:
14186:
14182:
14178:
14171:
14157:
14153:
14146:
14132:on 2016-07-07
14131:
14127:
14121:
14107:
14103:
14096:
14088:
14084:
14080:
14076:
14072:
14068:
14065:(3): 032704.
14064:
14060:
14053:
14045:
14044:
14039:
14033:
14025:
14021:
14014:
14003:
13995:
13991:
13984:
13970:
13969:
13964:
13957:
13955:
13953:
13938:
13934:
13927:
13913:
13909:
13905:
13901:
13894:
13880:
13876:
13869:
13861:
13857:
13850:
13842:
13838:
13831:
13823:
13819:
13814:
13809:
13805:
13801:
13797:
13793:
13789:
13782:
13780:
13778:
13776:
13767:
13763:
13762:
13755:
13740:
13733:
13719:
13715:
13708:
13700:
13696:
13691:
13686:
13682:
13678:
13674:
13670:
13666:
13658:
13650:
13646:
13639:
13631:
13625:
13617:
13611:
13603:
13599:
13593:
13579:
13575:
13568:
13554:
13550:
13543:
13529:
13525:
13518:
13510:
13506:
13501:
13500:1721.1/147631
13496:
13491:
13486:
13482:
13478:
13475:(4): 042022.
13474:
13470:
13466:
13459:
13451:
13447:
13442:
13441:1721.1/130063
13437:
13432:
13427:
13423:
13419:
13416:(8): 082504.
13415:
13411:
13407:
13399:
13391:
13387:
13382:
13377:
13373:
13369:
13365:
13361:
13357:
13353:
13349:
13341:
13333:
13329:
13324:
13319:
13315:
13311:
13307:
13303:
13299:
13295:
13291:
13283:
13275:
13271:
13264:
13256:
13250:
13235:
13229:
13214:
13207:
13199:
13195:
13191:
13187:
13183:
13179:
13175:
13171:
13167:
13163:
13159:
13155:
13148:
13134:
13130:
13123:
13115:
13111:
13107:
13103:
13099:
13095:
13091:
13087:
13083:
13079:
13072:
13058:
13054:
13047:
13033:
13029:
13022:
13008:on 2017-07-31
13007:
13003:
12999:
12993:
12979:on 2011-06-05
12978:
12974:
12970:
12964:
12956:
12950:
12946:
12942:
12939:. CRC Press.
12938:
12937:
12929:
12921:
12917:
12913:
12907:
12903:
12896:
12888:
12884:
12880:
12874:
12870:
12866:
12862:
12861:
12853:
12845:
12841:
12837:
12835:92-894-7714-8
12831:
12827:
12820:
12812:
12808:
12804:
12800:
12796:
12792:
12788:
12784:
12777:
12769:
12765:
12761:
12757:
12750:
12742:
12738:
12734:
12728:
12724:
12717:
12709:
12705:
12700:
12695:
12691:
12687:
12683:
12679:
12675:
12668:
12666:
12656:
12648:
12644:
12640:
12636:
12632:
12628:
12625:(1): 014003.
12624:
12620:
12613:
12606:
12592:on 2012-11-15
12591:
12587:
12581:
12566:
12559:
12551:
12547:
12543:
12537:
12533:
12526:
12518:
12514:
12510:
12506:
12502:
12498:
12491:
12483:
12479:
12475:
12471:
12467:
12463:
12459:
12455:
12448:
12440:
12436:
12431:
12426:
12422:
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12414:
12410:
12406:
12402:
12398:
12394:
12390:
12383:
12376:
12370:
12366:
12362:
12358:
12351:
12343:
12339:
12335:
12329:
12325:
12318:
12310:
12306:
12302:
12298:
12294:
12293:
12285:
12277:
12273:
12266:
12258:
12254:
12250:
12246:
12243:(1): 013001.
12242:
12238:
12234:
12227:
12213:on 2020-11-11
12212:
12208:
12204:
12197:
12183:
12177:
12173:
12169:
12165:
12164:
12156:
12148:
12144:
12140:
12133:
12119:on 2023-04-20
12118:
12114:
12110:
12103:
12089:
12085:
12079:
12071:
12067:
12060:
12049:
12042:
12035:
12027:
12023:
12016:
12002:on 2001-03-03
12001:
11997:
11990:
11975:
11971:
11965:
11950:
11946:
11940:
11926:
11922:
11916:
11902:
11898:
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11879:
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11847:
11833:
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11823:
11809:
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11798:
11783:
11779:
11773:
11765:
11761:
11756:
11751:
11747:
11743:
11739:
11735:
11734:Physics Today
11731:
11724:
11710:
11706:
11699:
11684:
11680:
11674:
11659:
11655:
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11634:
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11593:
11589:
11585:
11581:
11577:
11573:
11569:
11565:
11560:
11555:
11551:
11547:
11546:Energy Policy
11543:
11536:
11527:
11522:
11518:
11514:
11510:
11506:
11502:
11495:
11487:
11483:
11479:
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11321:
11317:
11310:
11296:
11292:
11285:
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11267:
11263:
11257:
11243:
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11233:
11219:
11215:
11209:
11195:
11191:
11184:
11169:
11165:
11159:
11145:
11141:
11135:
11124:
11123:
11116:
11102:on 2023-04-20
11101:
11097:
11093:
11086:
11072:
11068:
11061:
11047:
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11036:
11022:
11018:
11011:
10997:
10993:
10986:
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10959:
10950:
10946:
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10938:
10933:
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10916:
10912:
10908:
10901:
10887:
10883:
10876:
10868:
10864:
10860:
10856:
10851:
10846:
10842:
10838:
10834:
10830:
10826:
10819:
10811:
10807:
10803:
10799:
10794:
10789:
10785:
10781:
10778:(4): 042008.
10777:
10773:
10769:
10762:
10748:on 2023-02-19
10747:
10743:
10739:
10733:
10725:
10721:
10716:
10711:
10707:
10703:
10699:
10695:
10691:
10684:
10673:
10666:
10660:
10652:
10648:
10644:
10640:
10636:
10632:
10627:
10622:
10618:
10614:
10613:Energy Policy
10607:
10605:
10603:
10601:
10599:
10597:
10595:
10586:
10582:
10576:
10568:
10564:
10559:
10554:
10550:
10546:
10542:
10538:
10534:
10527:
10519:
10515:
10511:
10507:
10502:
10497:
10493:
10489:
10485:
10481:
10477:
10470:
10456:
10452:
10445:
10431:on 2023-04-20
10430:
10426:
10422:
10415:
10400:
10396:
10390:
10382:
10378:
10374:
10370:
10365:
10360:
10356:
10352:
10348:
10341:
10333:
10329:
10325:
10321:
10317:
10313:
10309:
10305:
10300:
10295:
10291:
10287:
10283:
10276:
10274:
10272:
10270:
10255:
10251:
10247:
10246:
10241:
10234:
10220:
10216:
10209:
10194:
10190:
10184:
10176:
10175:
10168:
10160:
10156:
10152:
10146:
10142:
10135:
10127:
10123:
10118:
10113:
10109:
10105:
10101:
10097:
10093:
10086:
10084:
10075:
10071:
10067:
10063:
10059:
10055:
10051:
10047:
10043:
10039:
10035:
10028:
10020:
10016:
10011:
10006:
10002:
9998:
9994:
9990:
9986:
9982:
9978:
9974:
9970:
9963:
9955:
9951:
9947:
9943:
9939:
9935:
9931:
9927:
9923:
9919:
9915:
9908:
9900:
9899:
9892:
9884:
9880:
9875:
9870:
9866:
9862:
9857:
9852:
9848:
9844:
9840:
9836:
9832:
9825:
9817:
9813:
9809:
9805:
9801:
9797:
9792:
9787:
9783:
9779:
9775:
9771:
9767:
9760:
9752:
9748:
9744:
9740:
9736:
9732:
9728:
9724:
9720:
9716:
9712:
9708:
9704:
9697:
9695:
9686:
9682:
9678:
9674:
9670:
9666:
9662:
9658:
9654:
9650:
9646:
9642:
9638:
9631:
9613:
9606:
9604:
9588:
9584:
9578:
9576:
9567:
9563:
9559:
9555:
9551:
9547:
9543:
9539:
9535:
9528:
9526:
9512:
9508:
9504:
9498:
9494:
9490:
9486:
9482:
9475:
9462:
9458:
9454:
9448:
9444:
9440:
9436:
9432:
9425:
9411:
9407:
9400:
9398:
9396:
9381:
9377:
9370:
9359:
9358:
9350:
9342:
9338:
9334:
9328:
9324:
9317:
9311:
9307:
9304:
9298:
9284:
9277:
9259:
9253:
9245:
9241:
9237:
9233:
9229:
9228:Physics Today
9222:
9214:
9210:
9206:
9202:
9198:
9194:
9190:
9189:Physics Today
9183:
9169:on 2019-11-29
9168:
9164:
9163:f4e.europa.eu
9160:
9153:
9139:on 2011-11-06
9138:
9134:
9127:
9113:on 2011-07-27
9109:
9102:
9096:
9085:
9078:
9077:
9069:
9067:
9058:
9054:
9050:
9046:
9042:
9038:
9035:(4). 043004.
9034:
9030:
9024:
9020:
9016:
9013:
9007:
9005:
9003:
9001:
8992:
8988:
8984:
8980:
8975:
8970:
8966:
8962:
8958:
8954:
8950:
8943:
8935:
8931:
8927:
8923:
8919:
8915:
8911:
8907:
8903:
8899:
8895:
8888:
8880:
8876:
8872:
8868:
8864:
8860:
8856:
8852:
8847:
8842:
8838:
8834:
8833:Energy Policy
8830:
8823:
8809:
8805:
8801:
8797:
8793:
8789:
8785:
8781:
8777:
8770:
8762:
8758:
8754:
8750:
8746:
8742:
8738:
8734:
8730:
8723:
8715:
8709:
8705:
8704:
8696:
8688:
8684:
8680:
8676:
8671:
8666:
8662:
8658:
8655:(8): 085001.
8654:
8650:
8646:
8638:
8636:
8627:
8623:
8619:
8613:
8609:
8602:
8600:
8591:
8585:
8581:
8580:
8572:
8558:
8554:
8550:
8546:
8539:
8532:. CERN. 2008.
8528:
8527:
8520:
8509:
8502:
8495:
8493:
8484:
8480:
8476:
8470:
8466:
8459:
8457:
8442:
8436:
8432:
8431:
8423:
8409:on 2012-11-30
8408:
8404:
8400:
8393:
8379:
8373:
8369:
8368:
8360:
8358:
8356:
8347:
8343:
8339:
8335:
8331:
8327:
8323:
8319:
8316:(9): 092506.
8315:
8311:
8307:
8300:
8292:
8288:
8284:
8280:
8276:
8272:
8268:
8264:
8260:
8256:
8248:
8240:
8236:
8232:
8228:
8224:
8220:
8216:
8209:
8201:
8197:
8193:
8189:
8185:
8181:
8177:
8170:
8162:
8158:
8153:
8148:
8145:(1): 016006.
8144:
8140:
8136:
8129:
8120:
8115:
8111:
8107:
8103:
8096:
8087:
8082:
8078:
8074:
8070:
8066:
8062:
8055:
8047:
8043:
8039:
8035:
8031:
8027:
8020:
8012:
8008:
8004:
8000:
7996:
7992:
7988:
7984:
7977:
7968:
7966:
7958:
7952:
7937:
7931:
7923:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7905:
7901:
7897:
7893:
7889:
7882:
7880:
7866:
7860:
7856:
7852:
7848:
7844:
7837:
7829:
7825:
7821:
7817:
7813:
7809:
7805:
7801:
7797:
7790:
7782:
7778:
7774:
7767:
7759:
7755:
7748:
7733:
7729:
7723:
7715:
7711:
7707:
7701:
7697:
7690:
7688:
7686:
7684:
7682:
7667:on 2014-12-02
7666:
7662:
7658:
7652:
7644:
7640:
7634:
7626:
7622:
7618:
7614:
7610:
7606:
7602:
7598:
7591:
7583:
7579:
7575:
7569:
7565:
7558:
7550:
7546:
7542:
7538:
7534:
7530:
7526:
7522:
7518:
7514:
7510:
7503:
7501:
7494:2004; 44, 193
7493:
7487:
7479:
7475:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7444:
7430:
7426:
7422:
7418:
7411:
7404:
7390:
7386:
7380:
7366:on 2015-09-04
7365:
7361:
7357:
7353:
7349:
7342:
7334:
7330:
7326:
7320:
7316:
7309:
7301:
7295:
7291:
7290:
7282:
7271:
7270:
7262:
7254:
7250:
7246:
7242:
7239:(5): 052504.
7238:
7234:
7230:
7223:
7215:
7211:
7207:
7203:
7199:
7195:
7190:
7185:
7181:
7177:
7170:
7162:
7158:
7154:
7150:
7146:
7142:
7138:
7134:
7130:
7123:
7115:
7114:
7106:
7098:
7094:
7090:
7084:
7080:
7073:
7071:
7056:
7052:
7045:
7037:
7033:
7029:
7023:
7019:
7012:
7004:
7000:
6996:
6992:
6988:
6984:
6980:
6976:
6969:
6961:
6957:
6953:
6949:
6945:
6941:
6938:(1): 98–111.
6937:
6933:
6929:
6922:
6914:
6910:
6906:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6889:
6884:
6880:
6876:
6853:
6839:on 2015-09-04
6835:
6828:
6821:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6797:
6793:
6789:
6782:
6774:
6770:
6766:
6760:
6756:
6749:
6740:
6735:
6731:
6727:
6723:
6719:
6715:
6708:
6700:
6696:
6692:
6686:
6682:
6675:
6667:
6661:
6657:
6656:
6648:
6640:
6636:
6632:
6628:
6624:
6620:
6616:
6612:
6609:(5): 055002.
6608:
6604:
6600:
6593:
6585:
6581:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6565:
6561:
6557:
6553:
6549:
6542:
6534:
6530:
6526:
6522:
6518:
6514:
6510:
6506:
6499:
6491:
6487:
6483:
6479:
6475:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6458:(2): 021024.
6457:
6453:
6445:
6437:
6433:
6429:
6423:
6419:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6400:
6387:
6383:
6379:
6373:
6369:
6365:
6361:
6357:
6350:
6337:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6317:
6313:
6307:
6298:
6290:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6264:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6233:
6225:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6192:(5): 055708.
6191:
6187:
6183:
6176:
6168:
6164:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6121:
6113:
6107:
6103:
6096:
6088:
6084:
6080:
6074:
6070:
6063:
6055:
6051:
6044:
6030:
6026:
6022:
6018:
6011:
6003:
5999:
5992:
5984:
5980:
5976:
5972:
5968:
5964:
5961:(4): 044610.
5960:
5956:
5952:
5944:
5936:
5935:IEEE Spectrum
5932:
5925:
5917:
5913:
5909:
5903:
5899:
5892:
5885:
5884:Nagamine 2003
5880:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5843:IEEE Spectrum
5840:
5833:
5831:
5822:
5818:
5814:
5810:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5775:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5728:
5719:
5705:
5701:
5694:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5669:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5640:
5633:
5625:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5601:
5597:
5593:
5589:
5582:
5567:
5563:
5557:
5543:
5539:
5533:
5519:on 2020-02-13
5518:
5514:
5508:
5493:
5489:
5483:
5469:on 2016-12-23
5468:
5464:
5460:
5453:
5451:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5428:
5424:
5417:
5415:
5400:on 2017-11-26
5396:
5389:
5388:
5380:
5372:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5354:
5350:
5346:
5342:
5338:
5331:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5309:
5305:
5298:
5290:
5286:
5282:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5255:
5246:
5237:
5227:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5186:
5178:
5172:
5168:
5167:
5159:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5089:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5066:
5053:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5024:
5022:
5007:
5003:
4996:
4982:
4978:
4972:
4958:
4954:
4948:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4925:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4878:
4870:
4866:
4861:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4837:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4794:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4772:
4768:
4761:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4710:
4708:
4693:on 2014-09-15
4692:
4688:
4682:
4671:
4664:
4650:on 2014-09-11
4649:
4645:
4639:
4625:on 2014-09-11
4624:
4620:
4614:
4605:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4562:
4560:
4558:
4556:
4554:
4545:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4527:
4520:
4518:
4516:
4500:
4494:
4486:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4457:
4450:
4435:
4431:
4425:
4410:
4406:
4399:
4385:
4381:
4374:
4359:
4355:
4349:
4347:
4332:
4331:
4326:
4319:
4317:
4312:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4265:
4264:COLEX process
4262:
4261:
4256:
4245:
4242:
4241:Energy portal
4236:
4231:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4208:
4205:
4202:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4186:
4183:
4180:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4159:
4156:
4153:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4139:
4136:
4133:
4126:
4123:
4120:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4104:
4101:
4098:
4097:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4081:
4078:
4075:
4074:
4071:
4068:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4026:Alcator C-Mod
4024:
4017:
4014:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3998:
3995:
3993:ICF shot rate
3992:
3991:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3975:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3965:
3962:
3955:
3952:
3949:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3933:
3930:
3927:
3926:
3923:
3920:
3913:
3910:
3907:
3906:
3902:
3899:
3896:
3893:
3890:
3889:
3883:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3864:
3862:
3857:
3854:
3849:
3847:
3842:
3840:
3839:SPARC tokamak
3835:
3834:Helion Energy
3830:
3827:
3822:
3819:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3799:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3780:Helion Energy
3776:
3774:
3771:to date, the
3770:
3766:
3761:
3759:
3755:
3752:it named the
3751:
3747:
3742:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3727:
3725:
3716:
3708:
3700:
3691:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3676:
3674:
3669:
3667:
3662:
3656:
3651:
3642:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3624:
3622:
3618:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3587:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3539:
3527:
3507:
3500:
3491:
3484:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3461:
3460:A.D. Sakharov
3457:
3456:A.D. Sakharov
3453:
3446:First tokamak
3443:
3441:
3436:
3434:
3430:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3418:Lyman Spitzer
3415:
3411:
3407:
3406:pinch machine
3403:
3394:
3386:
3371:
3368:February 2023
3361:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3345:This section
3343:
3339:
3334:
3333:
3329:
3319:
3317:
3313:
3312:cross section
3307:
3304:
3296:Disadvantages
3293:
3291:
3287:
3282:
3280:
3274:
3272:
3262:
3258:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3242:
3240:
3235:
3229:
3227:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3189:and mitigate
3188:
3178:
3175:
3169:
3167:
3163:
3157:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3128:
3124:
3122:
3121:offshore wind
3118:
3117:on shore wind
3114:
3110:
3107:In contrast,
3105:
3101:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3090:capital costs
3087:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3052:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3011:
3005:
3002:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2968:
2965:
2961:
2954:Fuel reserves
2951:
2949:
2939:
2936:
2931:
2928:
2924:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2855:
2845:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2819:radiotoxicity
2815:
2814:radioisotopes
2811:
2804:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2787:bioaccumulate
2782:
2780:
2770:
2767:
2763:
2758:
2756:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2735:
2734:Joule heating
2730:
2728:
2724:
2723:eddy currents
2719:
2718:magnet quench
2712:Magnet quench
2709:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2684:
2680:
2674:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2649:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2633:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2619:
2615:
2610:
2608:
2603:
2594:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2552:electronvolts
2549:
2546:
2543:
2542:electronvolts
2539:
2536:
2535:embrittlement
2532:
2528:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2520:
2512:
2510:
2500:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2460:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2431:
2429:
2428:power density
2424:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2394:
2391:
2387:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2305:
2298:
2289:
2287:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2253:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2237:cross section
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2121:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2011:
1990:
1969:
1948:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1841:
1839:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1789:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1764:
1758:
1754:
1751:Transport or
1750:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1704:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1663:working fluid
1660:
1657:
1656:
1655:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1474:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1417:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1332:Project PACER
1329:
1328:Uncontrolled:
1326:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1308:
1299:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1213:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1108:magnetic flux
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1072:Tandem Mirror
1069:
1065:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1050:
1047:
1043:
1042:Lyman Spitzer
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1017:
1002:
990:
987:
984:
981:
978:
977:
976:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
948:
946:
942:
938:
933:
931:
927:
926:nuclear waste
922:
920:
909:
907:
902:
900:
892:
887:
884:
880:
870:
861:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
812:
804:
783:
775:
754:
746:
725:
717:
696:
688:
687:
686:
668:
658:
654:
645:
641:
632:
627:
617:
613:
604:
596:
595:
594:
592:
587:
556:
548:
546:
525:
522:
519:
515:
511:
501:
498:
495:
474:
466:
465:
464:
441:
432:
429:
426:
422:
418:
410:
406:
400:
396:
392:
383:
375:
374:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
354:
352:
351:cross section
349:A reaction's
342:
336:Cross section
333:
331:
327:
323:
318:
316:
312:
308:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
280:nuclear force
268:
264:
260:
259:atomic nuclei
256:
252:
245:
241:
238:, like other
237:
232:
227:
217:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
155:nuclear waste
152:
151:radioactivity
148:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
72:
69:
68:atomic nuclei
65:
61:
57:
53:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
18500:Fusion power
18476:
18307:Fusion power
18306:
18209:
18197:
18178:
18158:Pyroelectric
18112:Laser-driven
17892:Sodium (SFR)
17819:fast-neutron
17658:
17204:
17094:Reprocessing
16975:WMD treaties
16794:Radiosurgery
16764:Fast-neutron
16736:Scintigraphy
16662:
15927:Perhapsatron
15227:Pyroelectric
15157:Laser-driven
14996:Neon-burning
14964:Helium flash
14810:Fusion power
14809:
14738:
14717:. Retrieved
14711:
14681:
14662:
14642:
14623:
14613:. Retrieved
14601:
14592:(manuscript)
14585:the original
14544:
14510:
14490:
14470:
14462:Bibliography
14448:. Retrieved
14444:
14434:
14423:. Retrieved
14419:
14409:
14393:Alan Sykes,
14389:
14380:
14371:
14362:
14352:
14341:. Retrieved
14338:newatlas.com
14337:
14327:
14316:. Retrieved
14312:
14303:
14294:
14283:. Retrieved
14279:the original
14274:
14265:
14257:the original
14247:
14236:. Retrieved
14231:
14222:
14213:
14180:
14176:
14170:
14159:. Retrieved
14155:
14145:
14134:. Retrieved
14130:the original
14120:
14109:. Retrieved
14106:Smart PLanet
14105:
14095:
14062:
14058:
14052:
14041:
14032:
14024:The Register
14023:
14013:
14002:
13993:
13983:
13972:. Retrieved
13966:
13940:. Retrieved
13936:
13926:
13915:. Retrieved
13903:
13893:
13882:. Retrieved
13878:
13868:
13859:
13849:
13840:
13830:
13795:
13791:
13765:
13760:
13754:
13743:. Retrieved
13732:
13721:. Retrieved
13717:
13707:
13672:
13668:
13657:
13648:
13638:
13624:
13610:
13601:
13592:
13581:. Retrieved
13578:ScienceAlert
13577:
13567:
13556:. Retrieved
13552:
13542:
13531:. Retrieved
13527:
13517:
13472:
13468:
13458:
13413:
13409:
13398:
13355:
13351:
13340:
13297:
13293:
13282:
13273:
13263:
13249:
13238:. Retrieved
13228:
13217:. Retrieved
13215:. Optics.org
13206:
13157:
13153:
13147:
13136:. Retrieved
13132:
13122:
13081:
13077:
13071:
13060:. Retrieved
13056:
13046:
13035:. Retrieved
13031:
13021:
13010:. Retrieved
13006:the original
13001:
12992:
12981:. Retrieved
12977:the original
12973:en.people.cn
12972:
12963:
12935:
12928:
12901:
12895:
12859:
12852:
12825:
12819:
12786:
12776:
12759:
12755:
12749:
12722:
12716:
12681:
12677:
12655:
12622:
12618:
12605:
12594:. Retrieved
12590:the original
12586:"Tore Supra"
12580:
12569:. Retrieved
12558:
12531:
12525:
12500:
12496:
12490:
12457:
12453:
12447:
12396:
12392:
12382:
12356:
12350:
12323:
12317:
12291:
12284:
12275:
12265:
12240:
12236:
12226:
12215:. Retrieved
12211:the original
12196:
12185:. Retrieved
12162:
12155:
12138:
12132:
12121:. Retrieved
12117:the original
12112:
12102:
12091:. Retrieved
12087:
12078:
12070:the original
12059:
12048:the original
12034:
12026:the original
12015:
12004:. Retrieved
12000:the original
11989:
11978:. Retrieved
11973:
11964:
11953:. Retrieved
11948:
11939:
11928:. Retrieved
11924:
11915:
11904:. Retrieved
11900:
11890:
11881:
11871:
11860:. Retrieved
11855:
11846:
11835:. Retrieved
11831:
11822:
11811:. Retrieved
11807:
11797:
11786:. Retrieved
11781:
11772:
11740:(2): 0310a.
11737:
11733:
11723:
11712:. Retrieved
11708:
11698:
11687:. Retrieved
11682:
11673:
11662:. Retrieved
11657:
11648:
11637:. Retrieved
11632:
11623:
11614:
11610:
11600:
11549:
11545:
11535:
11508:
11504:
11494:
11461:
11457:
11447:
11412:
11408:
11384:. Retrieved
11379:
11370:
11343:
11323:. Retrieved
11320:the Guardian
11319:
11309:
11298:. Retrieved
11294:
11270:. Retrieved
11265:
11256:
11245:. Retrieved
11241:
11232:
11221:. Retrieved
11217:
11208:
11197:. Retrieved
11193:
11183:
11172:. Retrieved
11167:
11158:
11147:. Retrieved
11143:
11134:
11121:
11115:
11104:. Retrieved
11100:the original
11095:
11085:
11074:. Retrieved
11070:
11060:
11049:. Retrieved
11045:
11035:
11024:. Retrieved
11020:
11010:
10999:. Retrieved
10995:
10985:
10974:. Retrieved
10970:www.iaea.org
10969:
10914:
10910:
10900:
10889:. Retrieved
10885:
10875:
10832:
10828:
10818:
10775:
10771:
10761:
10750:. Retrieved
10746:the original
10741:
10732:
10697:
10693:
10683:
10659:
10616:
10612:
10584:
10575:
10540:
10536:
10526:
10483:
10479:
10469:
10458:. Retrieved
10454:
10444:
10433:. Retrieved
10429:the original
10424:
10414:
10403:. Retrieved
10398:
10389:
10354:
10350:
10340:
10289:
10285:
10257:. Retrieved
10243:
10233:
10222:. Retrieved
10218:
10208:
10197:. Retrieved
10192:
10183:
10173:
10167:
10140:
10134:
10099:
10095:
10041:
10037:
10027:
9976:
9972:
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9838:
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9769:
9759:
9710:
9706:
9644:
9640:
9630:
9619:. Retrieved
9591:. Retrieved
9586:
9541:
9537:
9514:, retrieved
9484:
9474:
9464:, retrieved
9434:
9424:
9413:. Retrieved
9409:
9383:. Retrieved
9379:
9369:
9356:
9349:
9322:
9316:
9297:
9286:. Retrieved
9276:
9265:. Retrieved
9252:
9227:
9221:
9188:
9182:
9171:. Retrieved
9167:the original
9162:
9152:
9141:. Retrieved
9137:the original
9133:"Cosmicopia"
9126:
9115:. Retrieved
9108:the original
9095:
9084:the original
9075:
9032:
9028:
9022:
8956:
8952:
8942:
8901:
8897:
8887:
8836:
8832:
8822:
8811:. Retrieved
8783:
8779:
8769:
8736:
8732:
8722:
8702:
8695:
8652:
8648:
8607:
8578:
8571:
8560:. Retrieved
8548:
8538:
8525:
8519:
8508:the original
8464:
8444:. Retrieved
8429:
8422:
8411:. Retrieved
8407:the original
8402:
8392:
8381:. Retrieved
8366:
8313:
8309:
8299:
8258:
8247:
8222:
8218:
8208:
8186:(1): 55–62.
8183:
8179:
8169:
8142:
8138:
8128:
8109:
8105:
8095:
8060:
8054:
8032:(1): S2–S9.
8029:
8025:
8019:
7986:
7982:
7976:
7956:
7951:
7940:. Retrieved
7930:
7895:
7891:
7868:, retrieved
7846:
7836:
7803:
7799:
7789:
7772:
7766:
7757:
7753:
7747:
7736:. Retrieved
7732:The Engineer
7731:
7722:
7695:
7669:. Retrieved
7665:the original
7660:
7651:
7642:
7633:
7603:(1): 55–64.
7600:
7596:
7590:
7563:
7557:
7519:(1): 25–32.
7516:
7512:
7491:
7486:
7453:
7443:
7432:. Retrieved
7420:
7416:
7403:
7392:. Retrieved
7388:
7379:
7368:. Retrieved
7364:the original
7351:
7341:
7314:
7308:
7288:
7281:
7268:
7261:
7236:
7232:
7222:
7179:
7175:
7169:
7136:
7132:
7122:
7112:
7105:
7078:
7058:. Retrieved
7055:Ars Technica
7054:
7044:
7017:
7011:
6978:
6974:
6968:
6935:
6931:
6921:
6878:
6874:
6852:
6841:. Retrieved
6834:the original
6820:
6795:
6791:
6781:
6754:
6748:
6721:
6717:
6707:
6680:
6674:
6654:
6647:
6606:
6602:
6592:
6551:
6547:
6541:
6508:
6504:
6498:
6455:
6451:
6444:
6409:
6399:
6389:, retrieved
6359:
6349:
6339:, retrieved
6315:
6306:
6297:
6246:
6242:
6232:
6189:
6185:
6175:
6134:
6130:
6120:
6101:
6095:
6068:
6062:
6053:
6043:
6032:. Retrieved
6020:
6010:
6004:: 194. 1972.
6001:
5997:
5991:
5958:
5954:
5943:
5934:
5924:
5897:
5891:
5879:
5849:(2): 30–37.
5846:
5842:
5788:
5784:
5774:
5741:
5737:
5727:
5718:
5707:. Retrieved
5703:
5693:
5668:1721.1/29869
5642:
5638:
5632:
5591:
5587:
5581:
5570:. Retrieved
5565:
5556:
5545:. Retrieved
5541:
5532:
5521:. Retrieved
5517:the original
5513:"Zap Energy"
5507:
5496:. Retrieved
5491:
5482:
5471:. Retrieved
5467:the original
5462:
5422:
5402:. Retrieved
5395:the original
5386:
5379:
5344:
5340:
5330:
5303:
5297:
5264:
5260:
5254:
5245:
5236:
5226:
5191:
5185:
5165:
5158:
5099:
5095:
5088:
5071:
5065:
5055:, retrieved
5033:
5009:. Retrieved
5005:
4995:
4984:. Retrieved
4980:
4971:
4960:. Retrieved
4956:
4947:
4930:
4924:
4891:
4887:
4877:
4850:
4846:
4836:
4803:
4799:
4793:
4766:
4760:
4719:
4715:
4695:. Retrieved
4691:the original
4681:
4663:
4652:. Retrieved
4648:the original
4638:
4627:. Retrieved
4623:the original
4613:
4604:
4571:
4567:
4503:. Retrieved
4493:
4469:(1): 83–90.
4466:
4462:
4449:
4438:. Retrieved
4433:
4424:
4413:. Retrieved
4408:
4398:
4387:. Retrieved
4383:
4373:
4362:. Retrieved
4357:
4334:. Retrieved
4328:
3928:Fusion power
3881:
3865:
3858:
3850:
3843:
3831:
3823:
3815:
3812:
3805:
3798:technology.
3777:
3762:
3748:announced a
3743:
3728:
3721:
3677:
3670:
3663:
3660:
3640:
3637:
3630:
3593:
3584:
3549:
3464:
3449:
3437:
3426:
3399:
3365:
3356:You can help
3346:
3308:
3299:
3283:
3275:
3268:
3259:
3243:
3230:
3223:
3218:
3199:
3184:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3134:
3125:
3113:solar energy
3106:
3102:
3083:
3071:
3056:
3047:
3006:
2997:€810 million
2993:€750 million
2974:
2957:
2944:
2920:
2857:
2842:Carbon fiber
2827:
2806:
2783:
2776:
2759:
2755:asphyxiation
2751:
2731:
2715:
2706:
2691:
2687:
2675:
2671:
2660:
2646:
2634:
2622:
2611:
2600:
2591:
2563:
2518:
2505:
2462:
2432:
2420:
2400:
2383:
2353:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2303:
2282:
2270:neutron flux
2267:
2262:radioisotope
2245:
2218:
2016:
1992:(3.5 MeV) +
1925:
1879:
1866:penning trap
1847:
1834:
1795:
1782:Biconic cusp
1775:
1762:
1730:
1653:
1587:machines. A
1566:
1423:
1415:
1412:Common tools
1388:
1381:
1344:
1338:Beam fusion:
1337:
1327:
1310:
1290:
1272:
1254:Screw Pinch:
1253:
1238:
1228:
1210:
1076:biconic cusp
954:
934:
923:
915:
903:
888:
876:
834:
684:
583:
544:
496:
462:
355:
348:
319:
304:
277:
175:
144:
73:
52:Fusion power
51:
50:
36:
18069:Stellarator
18033:confinement
17927:Superphénix
17754:Molten-salt
17706:VHTR (HTGR)
17483:HW BLWR 250
17449:R4 Marviken
17378:Pressurized
17348:Heavy water
17332:many others
17261:Pressurized
17216:Light water
16918:underground
16876:Disarmament
16784:Tomotherapy
16779:Proton-beam
16643:Power plant
16605:Temperature
16438:Engineering
16142:confinement
15888: [
15818:Heliotron J
15722:Stellarator
15590: [
15507: [
15414: [
15254:confinement
15243:experiments
15198:Other forms
15082:Stellarator
15048:Bumpy torus
14926:Confinement
14818:Core topics
13675:(1): 2084.
10700:: 489–497.
10193:www.aip.org
10102:: 1305047.
9587:www.aip.org
9230:(4): 4990.
7898:: 451–457.
7573:981-0200102
7492:Nucl Fusion
6881:: 151–161.
6724:: 205–300.
6249:(1): 5223.
3769:stellarator
3623:, (START).
3586:the 1980s.
3576:Shiva laser
3181:Geopolitics
3019:Peter Thiel
2977:€10 billion
2738:temperature
2225:endothermic
1736:Equilibrium
1711:Confinement
1694:as well as
1639:synchrotron
1541:Measurement
1522:antiprotons
1248:Benj Conway
1230:Theta-pinch
1082:Bumpy torus
1038:Stellarator
362:thermalized
292:endothermic
182:stellarator
76:temperature
60:electricity
18494:Categories
18446:Smart grid
18275:Production
18094:(acoustic)
17711:PBR (PBMR)
17099:Spent fuel
17089:Repository
17069:Fuel cycle
17036:Activation
16813:Processing
16680:Propulsion
16638:by country
16570:Activation
15162:Ion-driven
14916:Processes,
14859:Aneutronic
14854:Commercial
14719:2021-11-22
14615:2008-06-20
14450:2022-03-15
14425:2022-03-15
14343:2018-12-01
14318:2019-03-22
14285:2020-10-10
14238:2020-10-11
14161:2024-02-11
14156:EUROfusion
14136:2016-06-26
14111:2012-04-01
13974:2022-12-13
13942:2022-04-06
13917:2021-12-17
13884:2021-12-19
13745:2021-12-09
13741:. BBC News
13723:2021-04-11
13583:2019-07-03
13558:2018-08-03
13533:2021-06-15
13240:2014-10-30
13236:. BBC News
13219:2013-06-22
13138:2017-08-21
13062:2017-08-21
13037:2017-08-21
13012:2022-08-07
12983:2020-10-10
12741:1107880260
12596:2016-02-03
12571:2014-10-30
12217:2023-07-04
12187:2020-10-11
12123:2021-06-21
12093:2021-06-21
12006:2014-10-30
11980:2024-07-27
11955:2024-07-27
11930:2024-05-11
11906:2024-05-11
11862:2023-12-08
11837:2024-07-03
11813:2021-02-16
11788:2021-02-26
11714:2021-03-06
11689:2021-02-26
11664:2021-07-16
11639:2021-04-15
11559:2101.05727
11552:: 112043.
11511:: 100432.
11386:2020-10-12
11380:China Blog
11362:1128270426
11325:2022-02-15
11300:2020-10-10
11272:2024-03-01
11247:2024-03-20
11223:2023-11-10
11199:2023-04-19
11174:2021-10-15
11149:2021-10-15
11106:2021-06-21
11076:2021-06-03
11051:2021-02-14
11026:2021-04-10
11001:2021-02-14
10976:2021-06-01
10891:2023-04-19
10835:: 113069.
10752:2021-06-01
10742:Lazard.com
10626:2101.05727
10619:: 112043.
10543:: 100404.
10460:2023-06-01
10435:2021-07-16
10405:2021-06-18
10299:2101.09150
10259:2020-10-08
10224:2020-09-21
10199:2020-10-08
10159:1104084761
9924:: 118460.
9621:2014-10-30
9593:2022-05-03
9516:2021-12-13
9466:2021-12-13
9415:2020-10-10
9385:2022-01-14
9341:1230513895
9288:2021-07-21
9267:2014-10-30
9173:2020-07-17
9143:2009-03-20
9117:2013-06-22
8846:2101.05727
8839:: 112043.
8813:2018-02-21
8780:The Lancet
8626:1124925935
8562:2013-02-15
8446:2012-08-18
8413:2012-08-18
8383:2012-08-18
8225:: 100704.
7942:2023-02-16
7870:2020-10-13
7738:2021-09-17
7671:2014-11-26
7434:2012-04-10
7394:2020-10-11
7370:2012-02-14
7189:1510.01788
7088:1420011847
7060:2020-10-11
6843:2014-10-30
6391:2021-12-12
6341:2021-12-12
6335:0750307056
6215:1885/28549
6034:2022-02-17
5709:2019-08-03
5572:2020-09-08
5547:2020-09-08
5542:ZAP ENERGY
5523:2020-02-13
5498:2020-10-11
5473:2013-04-04
5404:2019-08-03
5322:1048447399
5057:2020-10-11
5011:2020-10-11
4986:2020-10-11
4962:2020-10-11
4697:2014-08-24
4654:2014-08-24
4629:2014-08-24
4505:2014-10-30
4440:2024-06-23
4415:2024-02-13
4389:2022-12-14
4364:2022-12-13
4336:2022-12-13
4307:References
3596:Tore Supra
3578:, and the
3506:Nova laser
3410:James Tuck
3265:Advantages
3226:EUROfusion
3131:Regulation
3023:Bill Gates
3015:Jeff Bezos
2801:See also:
2625:sputtering
2390:activation
2221:exothermic
2013:(14.1 MeV)
1857:conduction
1757:conduction
1753:conduction
1645:radiation.
1583:, and the
1298:conduction
1281:conduction
1169:shock wave
1110:injection.
895:1.0 × 10 m
841:conduction
788:conduction
650:conduction
307:femtometer
296:exothermic
220:Background
18064:Spheromak
17763:Fluorides
17427:IPHWR-700
17422:IPHWR-540
17417:IPHWR-220
17206:Moderator
16886:Explosion
16861:Arms race
16648:Economics
16600:Reflector
16595:Radiation
16590:Generator
16545:Plutonium
16498:Deuterium
16463:Radiation
16433:Chemistry
16347:Z machine
16328:Non-laser
16239:GEKKO XII
16191:Long path
15885:Uragan-3M
15880:Uragan-2M
15377:Riggatron
15097:Spheromak
15092:Spherical
15016:S-process
15011:R-process
14954:CNO cycle
14610:0274-7529
14557:CiteSeerX
14445:New Atlas
14420:New Atlas
14087:120207711
13994:Big Think
13937:New Atlas
13912:0099-9660
13822:244829710
13509:234338848
13450:202127809
13358:: 13493.
13198:206621512
13182:0036-8075
13106:0036-8075
12887:243590344
12844:450075815
12811:0920-3796
12708:1070-664X
12639:0029-5515
12550:153575814
12517:119922168
12482:250826481
12474:0029-5515
12421:1364-503X
12342:920881367
12257:229444533
11764:243296520
11592:230570595
11584:0301-4215
11486:235552703
11478:1532-7949
11439:222109349
11431:1868-7873
10949:222277887
10867:247338079
10859:0920-3796
10810:251145811
10802:2516-1083
10724:0360-5442
10651:230570595
10567:2211-467X
10518:258489130
10510:0164-0313
10486:(1): 12.
10381:244346561
10332:231693147
10324:0164-0313
10292:(2): 18.
10254:0099-9660
10219:Bloomberg
10126:1880-6821
10066:0029-5515
10001:1364-503X
9954:224952718
9946:0360-5442
9865:1364-503X
9816:106411210
9800:1364-503X
9751:125184562
9735:0029-5515
9685:117842168
9669:1536-1055
9566:219001461
9558:0018-9391
9511:234528929
9461:234561187
9213:1945-0699
8991:0748-1896
8969:CiteSeerX
8934:124455585
8926:0748-1896
8879:230570595
8871:0301-4215
8761:219001461
8753:1558-0040
8687:247920590
8679:0029-5515
8483:555791436
8346:252454077
8338:1070-664X
8291:0022-3115
8161:240484560
7922:2352-1791
7828:250776874
7820:0029-5515
7781:958140759
7714:853261260
7625:0168-9002
7549:118229833
7541:1572-9591
7478:0920-3796
7429:0140-4067
7333:468393053
7214:1070-664X
7161:1070-664X
7036:980257709
6960:0272-3921
6888:1410.7128
6873:system".
6812:0149-1970
6773:828735433
6699:612350364
6639:123495440
6631:0741-3335
6576:1063-651X
6533:0031-899X
6490:118478508
6465:1406.0133
6386:234561187
6271:2041-1723
6224:1070-664X
6167:250897078
6159:0741-3335
6087:878605320
6029:1059-1028
5983:219083603
5916:124025585
5871:211059641
5863:0018-9235
5813:1939-9375
5766:0034-6748
5677:1070-664X
5624:121575638
5616:0004-640X
5441:213765956
5371:1742-6596
5218:2195-1284
5150:118484958
5134:0031-9007
5109:1411.6288
5080:840480538
4939:643589395
4916:0920-3796
4869:122791237
4785:900866248
4752:120604056
4744:0164-0313
4596:0370-1301
4476:1406.4199
4046:10 eV·s/m
3778:In 2017,
3744:In 2015,
3739:deuterium
3729:In 2014,
3572:long path
3452:I.E. Tamm
3360:talk page
3271:deuterium
3109:renewable
3043:ENN Group
2971:Economics
2868:plutonium
2773:Effluents
2743:cryogenic
2566:radiation
2489:stations.
2360:deuterium
2358:(He) and
2292:Deuterium
2229:beryllium
2035:half-life
2029:process.
2019:Deuterium
1886:deuterium
1746:Stability
1635:cyclotron
1573:Flux loop
1547:Flux loop
1498:gyrotrons
1405:IEC fusor
1395:in which
1352:electrons
1285:radiation
1192:Z-machine
1165:GEKKO XII
1098:Spheromak
853:electrons
845:radiation
817:radiation
726:η
663:radiation
655:−
642:−
618:η
531:⟩
512:σ
509:⟨
438:⟩
419:σ
416:⟨
274:Mechanism
196:(ICF) by
104:deuterium
18332:Nantenna
18292:Biofuels
18199:Category
18153:Polywell
18084:Inertial
18041:Magnetic
17796:TMSR-LF1
17791:TMSR-500
17771:Fuji MSR
17731:THTR-300
17571:Graphite
17434:PHWR KWU
17400:ACR-1000
17328:IPWR-900
17311:ACPR1000
17306:HPR-1000
17296:CPR-1000
17271:APR-1400
17062:Disposal
17014:Actinide
17007:Products
16866:Delivery
16709:Medicine
16538:depleted
16533:enriched
16503:Helium-3
16468:ionizing
16291:LULI2000
16157:Americas
16140:Inertial
15730:Americas
15297:Americas
15252:Magnetic
15241:Devices,
15185:Polywell
15144:Inertial
15025:Magnetic
14974:remnants
14839:Timeline
14398:Archived
14381:Futurism
14205:26560597
13699:33483553
13649:MIT News
13390:27901043
13332:67798335
13274:MIT News
13190:28450588
13114:25061186
12920:56645784
12647:17487157
12439:30967044
12207:NBC News
12147:27134218
10941:33040662
10672:Archived
10373:34789909
10074:55781189
10019:33280558
9883:30967054
9808:30967058
9306:Archived
9057:73700489
9015:Archived
8808:25504602
8800:17876910
8553:Fermilab
8403:iter.org
8011:56572005
7760:: 39–42.
7582:20693180
7423:(5): 6.
7097:72564680
7003:17800453
6913:94426898
6289:30523290
5821:32998378
5685:12336904
5289:45684425
5231:412–425.
5142:26047233
4434:iter.org
4300:Starship
4227:See also
3886:Records
3756:, using
3164:and its
2834:Vanadium
2823:coal ash
2747:kilovolt
2602:Tungsten
2437:and the
2435:Polywell
2356:helium-3
1922:reaction
1894:helium-3
1870:polywell
1798:toroidal
1699:percent.
1611:Tokamaks
1597:IV Curve
1581:polywell
1536:project.
1442:DeepMind
1397:deuteron
1364:hydrogen
1360:isotopes
1292:Polywell
1142:Hohlraum
969:magnetic
857:neutrals
167:neutrons
102:such as
100:isotopes
92:hydrogen
80:pressure
18357:Storage
18211:Commons
18122:Z-pinch
18092:Bubble
18074:Tokamak
17937:FBR-600
17917:CFR-600
17912:BN-1200
17578:coolant
17505:Organic
17390:CANDU 9
17387:CANDU 6
17355:coolant
17316:ACP1000
17291:CAP1400
17229:Boiling
17194:Fission
17041:Fission
16985:Weapons
16925:Warfare
16908:Testing
16898:History
16891:effects
16846:Weapons
16756:Therapy
16731:RadBall
16718:Imaging
16610:Thermal
16575:Capture
16562:Neutron
16550:Thorium
16528:Uranium
16493:Tritium
16473:braking
16453:Fission
16443:Physics
16426:Science
16176:Cyclops
16108:SPECTOR
16079:Trisops
15939:Sceptre
15792:Oceania
15764:Model C
15650:IGNITOR
15582:COMPASS
15429:Oceania
15411:Novillo
15372:Pegasus
15263:Tokamak
15102:Dynomak
15087:Tokamak
14918:methods
14902:Neutron
14549:Bibcode
14185:Bibcode
14067:Bibcode
13800:Bibcode
13798:: 168.
13792:Physics
13690:7822827
13602:Reuters
13477:Bibcode
13418:Bibcode
13381:5141350
13360:Bibcode
13302:Bibcode
13162:Bibcode
13154:Science
13086:Bibcode
13078:Science
12791:Bibcode
12686:Bibcode
12430:6365855
12401:Bibcode
11882:Reuters
11856:AP News
11742:Bibcode
11709:Science
11564:Bibcode
11513:Bibcode
10919:Bibcode
10837:Bibcode
10780:Bibcode
10702:Bibcode
10631:Bibcode
10545:Bibcode
10488:Bibcode
10304:Bibcode
10104:Bibcode
10046:Bibcode
10010:7741007
9981:Bibcode
9926:Bibcode
9874:6365852
9843:Bibcode
9778:Bibcode
9743:1335165
9715:Bibcode
9677:1811772
9649:Bibcode
9232:Bibcode
9193:Bibcode
9037:Bibcode
8961:Bibcode
8906:Bibcode
8851:Bibcode
8657:Bibcode
8318:Bibcode
8263:Bibcode
8227:Bibcode
8188:Bibcode
8065:Bibcode
8034:Bibcode
7991:Bibcode
7900:Bibcode
7605:Bibcode
7521:Bibcode
7458:Bibcode
7356:Bibcode
7354:: 2–3.
7241:Bibcode
7194:Bibcode
7141:Bibcode
6983:Bibcode
6975:Science
6940:Bibcode
6893:Bibcode
6726:Bibcode
6611:Bibcode
6584:9960936
6556:Bibcode
6513:Bibcode
6470:Bibcode
6436:9298179
6280:6283883
6251:Bibcode
6194:Bibcode
6139:Bibcode
5963:Bibcode
5793:Bibcode
5746:Bibcode
5647:Bibcode
5596:Bibcode
5349:Bibcode
5269:Bibcode
5114:Bibcode
4896:Bibcode
4828:4072220
4808:Bibcode
4724:Bibcode
4576:Bibcode
4544:4014032
4409:Reuters
4213:10 K·s
4151:10 K·s
3878:Records
3750:tokamak
3564:Cyclops
3433:θ-pinch
3429:Z-pinch
3322:History
3039:Chevron
3031:Equinor
2960:lithium
2872:uranium
2860:tritium
2727:heating
2698:tritium
2614:gallium
2607:tritium
2039:lithium
2031:Tritium
2023:isotope
1890:tritium
1882:protium
1802:tokamak
1680:voltage
1593:voltage
1534:AIMStar
1452:Heating
1430:tokamak
1341:fusion.
1212:Z-pinch
1104:Dynomak
1022:Tokamak
996:Methods
919:lithium
883:neutral
730:capture
685:where:
622:capture
463:where:
345:energy.
288:iron-56
267:fission
190:tokamak
178:z-pinch
171:degrade
159:tritium
147:fission
140:neutron
132:Tritium
128:neutron
116:protium
108:tritium
96:gravity
18268:Energy
18261:Fields
18022:Fusion
17982:Others
17922:Phénix
17907:BN-800
17902:BN-600
17897:BN-350
17726:HTR-PM
17721:HTR-10
17701:UHTREX
17666:Magnox
17661:(UNGG)
17554:Lucens
17549:KS 150
17286:ATMEA1
17266:AP1000
17249:Kerena
17129:Debate
16881:Ethics
16871:Design
16854:Topics
16685:rocket
16663:Fusion
16658:Policy
16620:Fusion
16580:Poison
16458:Fusion
16315:Vulcan
16248:Europe
16022:Astron
15995:Mirror
15832:Europe
15698:MAST-U
15662:ISTTOK
15628:TEXTOR
15556:Europe
15482:ADITYA
15470:SUNIST
15340:DIII-D
15311:STOR-M
14907:Plasma
14713:Nature
14688:
14669:
14650:
14632:
14608:
14577:
14559:
14518:
14497:
14478:
14203:
14085:
13910:
13879:Forbes
13820:
13697:
13687:
13507:
13448:
13388:
13378:
13330:
13196:
13188:
13180:
13112:
13104:
13032:Forbes
12951:
12918:
12908:
12885:
12875:
12842:
12832:
12809:
12739:
12729:
12706:
12645:
12637:
12548:
12538:
12515:
12480:
12472:
12437:
12427:
12419:
12371:
12340:
12330:
12309:792587
12307:
12255:
12178:
12145:
11974:日本経済新聞
11762:
11590:
11582:
11484:
11476:
11437:
11429:
11360:
11350:
11242:GOV.UK
11218:GOV.UK
11144:GOV.UK
11071:Forbes
10947:
10939:
10865:
10857:
10808:
10800:
10722:
10694:Energy
10649:
10565:
10516:
10508:
10379:
10371:
10351:Nature
10330:
10322:
10252:
10157:
10147:
10124:
10072:
10064:
10017:
10007:
9999:
9952:
9944:
9918:Energy
9881:
9871:
9863:
9814:
9806:
9798:
9749:
9741:
9733:
9683:
9675:
9667:
9564:
9556:
9509:
9499:
9459:
9449:
9410:Forbes
9380:Forbes
9339:
9329:
9211:
9055:
8989:
8971:
8932:
8924:
8877:
8869:
8806:
8798:
8759:
8751:
8710:
8685:
8677:
8624:
8614:
8586:
8481:
8471:
8437:
8374:
8344:
8336:
8289:
8159:
8009:
7920:
7861:
7826:
7818:
7779:
7712:
7702:
7623:
7580:
7570:
7547:
7539:
7476:
7427:
7331:
7321:
7296:
7212:
7159:
7095:
7085:
7034:
7024:
7001:
6958:
6911:
6810:
6771:
6761:
6697:
6687:
6662:
6637:
6629:
6582:
6574:
6531:
6488:
6434:
6424:
6384:
6374:
6332:
6287:
6277:
6269:
6222:
6165:
6157:
6108:
6102:Fusion
6085:
6075:
6027:
5981:
5914:
5904:
5869:
5861:
5819:
5811:
5764:
5683:
5675:
5622:
5614:
5439:
5429:
5369:
5320:
5310:
5287:
5261:Nature
5216:
5206:
5173:
5148:
5140:
5132:
5078:
5048:
4937:
4914:
4867:
4826:
4800:Nature
4783:
4773:
4750:
4742:
4594:
4542:
4436:. ITER
3903:Notes
3900:Device
3897:Record
3891:Domain
3686:, and
3606:, and
3574:, the
3570:, the
3566:, the
3562:, the
3404:was a
3358:. The
2779:helium
2409:) and
2407:proton
2370:D + He
1888:, and
1868:, the
1861:fusors
1838:x-rays
1674:: The
1615:fusors
1613:, and
1579:, the
1561:, and
1468:, and
837:fusion
759:fusion
637:fusion
561:fusion
479:fusion
446:fusion
388:fusion
300:proton
263:fusion
184:, and
124:helium
94:, and
84:plasma
18424:Other
18143:Migma
18131:Other
18100:Fusor
17999:Piqua
17994:Arbus
17952:PRISM
17694:MHR-T
17689:GTMHR
17619:EGP-6
17614:AMB-X
17589:Water
17534:HWGCR
17473:HWLWR
17412:IPHWR
17383:CANDU
17244:ESBWR
16999:Waste
16963:Tests
16946:Lists
16930:Yield
16673:MMRTG
16630:Power
16342:PACER
16303:ISKRA
16262:HiPER
16216:Shiva
16211:OMEGA
16181:Janus
16171:Argus
16150:Laser
16120:Linus
16048:Other
15908:Pinch
15892:]
15868:TJ-II
15806:H-1NF
15790:Asia,
15781:SCR-1
15754:HIDRA
15703:START
15594:]
15587:GOLEM
15535:KSTAR
15523:GLAST
15511:]
15504:QUEST
15499:JT-60
15487:SST-1
15465:HL-2M
15460:HL-2A
15443:CFETR
15427:Asia,
15418:]
15399:TCABR
15333:SPARC
15288:PROTO
15210:Migma
15180:Fusor
15070:Theta
15055:Pinch
14959:Fusor
14588:(PDF)
14541:(PDF)
14126:"JET"
14083:S2CID
13818:S2CID
13505:S2CID
13446:S2CID
13328:S2CID
13194:S2CID
12883:S2CID
12643:S2CID
12615:(PDF)
12513:S2CID
12478:S2CID
12253:S2CID
12051:(PDF)
12044:(PDF)
11760:S2CID
11588:S2CID
11554:arXiv
11482:S2CID
11435:S2CID
11126:(PDF)
10945:S2CID
10863:S2CID
10806:S2CID
10675:(PDF)
10668:(PDF)
10647:S2CID
10621:arXiv
10514:S2CID
10377:S2CID
10328:S2CID
10294:arXiv
10070:S2CID
9950:S2CID
9812:S2CID
9747:S2CID
9681:S2CID
9615:(PDF)
9562:S2CID
9507:S2CID
9457:S2CID
9361:(PDF)
9261:(PDF)
9111:(PDF)
9104:(PDF)
9087:(PDF)
9080:(PDF)
9053:S2CID
8930:S2CID
8875:S2CID
8841:arXiv
8804:S2CID
8757:S2CID
8683:S2CID
8530:(PDF)
8511:(PDF)
8504:(PDF)
8342:S2CID
8157:S2CID
8007:S2CID
7824:S2CID
7545:S2CID
7413:(PDF)
7273:(PDF)
7184:arXiv
6909:S2CID
6883:arXiv
6837:(PDF)
6830:(PDF)
6635:S2CID
6486:S2CID
6460:arXiv
6432:S2CID
6382:S2CID
6163:S2CID
6054:Wired
6021:Wired
5979:S2CID
5867:S2CID
5817:S2CID
5681:S2CID
5620:S2CID
5398:(PDF)
5391:(PDF)
5285:S2CID
5146:S2CID
5104:arXiv
4865:S2CID
4824:S2CID
4748:S2CID
4673:(PDF)
4471:arXiv
4459:(PDF)
4217:KSTAR
4206:2021
4191:10 K
4184:2022
4154:EAST
4144:2021
4134:EAST
4131:10 s
4127:>1
4124:2022
4105:>1
4050:JT-60
4022:10 Pa
3960:10 J
3953:2023
3802:2020s
3694:2010s
3645:2000s
3627:1990s
3608:JT-60
3590:1980s
3568:Janus
3560:Argus
3490:Shiva
3254:Candu
3246:UKAEA
3234:COP28
2896:, or
2411:boron
2362:(H):
2323:D + D
2312:D + D
1876:Fuels
1853:fusor
1706:wire.
1500:, or
1368:muons
1366:with
1305:Other
1274:Fusor
1188:time.
1146:x-ray
1026:torus
855:, or
368:, or
324:. An
240:stars
198:laser
18478:List
17959:Lead
17942:CEFR
17932:PFBR
17814:None
17624:RBMK
17609:AM-1
17539:EL-4
17513:WR-1
17495:AHWR
17439:MZFR
17407:CVTR
17396:AFCR
17323:VVER
17281:APWR
17276:APR+
17239:ABWR
17109:cask
17104:pool
17046:LLFP
16935:TNTe
16615:Fast
16485:Fuel
16225:Asia
16206:Nova
16201:Nike
16186:LIFE
16067:PFRC
16032:MFTF
15944:ZETA
15846:WEGA
15769:NCSX
15708:STEP
15674:T-15
15611:WEST
15547:TT-1
15453:HT-7
15448:EAST
15382:SSPX
15365:TFTR
15355:NSTX
15283:DEMO
15278:ITER
15075:Zeta
14969:Nova
14929:type
14686:ISBN
14667:ISBN
14648:ISBN
14630:ISBN
14606:ISSN
14575:ISBN
14516:ISBN
14495:ISBN
14476:ISBN
14201:PMID
13908:ISSN
13695:PMID
13386:PMID
13186:PMID
13178:ISSN
13110:PMID
13102:ISSN
12949:ISBN
12916:OCLC
12906:ISBN
12873:ISBN
12840:OCLC
12830:ISBN
12807:ISSN
12737:OCLC
12727:ISBN
12704:ISSN
12635:ISSN
12546:OCLC
12536:ISBN
12470:ISSN
12435:PMID
12417:ISSN
12369:ISBN
12338:OCLC
12328:ISBN
12305:OSTI
12176:ISBN
12143:OCLC
12088:ITER
11738:2021
11617:(1).
11580:ISSN
11474:ISSN
11427:ISSN
11358:OCLC
11348:ISBN
10937:PMID
10855:ISSN
10798:ISSN
10720:ISSN
10563:ISSN
10506:ISSN
10369:PMID
10320:ISSN
10250:ISSN
10155:OCLC
10145:ISBN
10122:ISSN
10062:ISSN
10015:PMID
9997:ISSN
9942:ISSN
9879:PMID
9861:ISSN
9804:PMID
9796:ISSN
9739:OSTI
9731:ISSN
9673:OSTI
9665:ISSN
9554:ISSN
9497:ISBN
9447:ISBN
9337:OCLC
9327:ISBN
9209:ISSN
8987:ISSN
8922:ISSN
8867:ISSN
8796:PMID
8749:ISSN
8708:ISBN
8675:ISSN
8622:OCLC
8612:ISBN
8584:ISBN
8557:SLAC
8479:OCLC
8469:ISBN
8435:ISBN
8372:ISBN
8334:ISSN
8287:ISSN
7918:ISSN
7859:ISBN
7816:ISSN
7777:OCLC
7710:OCLC
7700:ISBN
7621:ISSN
7578:OCLC
7568:ISBN
7537:ISSN
7474:ISSN
7425:ISSN
7329:OCLC
7319:ISBN
7294:ISBN
7210:ISSN
7157:ISSN
7093:OCLC
7083:ISBN
7032:OCLC
7022:ISBN
6999:PMID
6956:ISSN
6808:ISSN
6769:OCLC
6759:ISBN
6695:OCLC
6685:ISBN
6660:ISBN
6627:ISSN
6580:PMID
6572:ISSN
6529:ISSN
6422:ISBN
6372:ISBN
6330:ISBN
6285:PMID
6267:ISSN
6220:ISSN
6155:ISSN
6106:ISBN
6083:OCLC
6073:ISBN
6025:ISSN
5912:OCLC
5902:ISBN
5859:ISSN
5809:ISSN
5762:ISSN
5673:ISSN
5612:ISSN
5437:OCLC
5427:ISBN
5367:ISSN
5318:OCLC
5308:ISBN
5214:ISSN
5204:ISBN
5171:ISBN
5138:PMID
5130:ISSN
5076:OCLC
5046:ISBN
4935:OCLC
4912:ISSN
4781:OCLC
4771:ISBN
4740:ISSN
4592:ISSN
4540:OSTI
4166:1998
4162:Beta
4109:10 s
4102:2019
4086:10 s
4079:2016
4066:1.54
4063:2022
4042:1.53
4039:2013
4015:2016
3996:2013
3980:10 J
3976:3.15
3973:2022
3963:JET
3938:10 W
3931:1997
3918:10 K
3911:2012
3894:Year
3868:Naka
3846:Mach
3784:ST40
3653:The
3604:T-15
3594:The
3580:Nova
3454:and
3211:NASA
3202:STEP
3174:STEP
3051:DEMO
3021:and
2981:ITER
2762:CERN
2642:DEMO
2638:ITER
2533:and
2509:YBCO
2376:+ H
2373:→ He
2329:+ n
2326:→ He
2318:+ H
2268:The
2233:lead
2231:and
1723:and
1477:work
1318:LANL
1283:and
1219:ZETA
1068:LLNL
971:and
891:ITER
877:The
849:ions
843:and
584:The
234:The
212:and
202:ITER
192:and
106:and
43:The
18031:by
17947:PFR
17738:PMR
17716:AVR
17638:Gas
17576:by
17544:KKN
17478:ATR
17393:EC6
17353:by
17301:EPR
17234:BWR
16286:LMJ
16196:NIF
16062:LDX
16037:TMX
16010:GDT
15981:MST
15969:RFX
15954:RFP
15823:LHD
15759:HSX
15749:CTH
15744:CNT
15686:TCV
15645:FTU
15640:DTT
15606:TFR
15570:JET
15394:ETE
15360:PLT
15350:LTX
15328:ARC
14737:",
14567:doi
14193:doi
14075:doi
13808:doi
13685:PMC
13677:doi
13495:hdl
13485:doi
13436:hdl
13426:doi
13376:PMC
13368:doi
13318:hdl
13310:doi
13170:doi
13158:356
13133:BBC
13094:doi
13082:345
13057:BBC
12941:doi
12865:doi
12799:doi
12764:doi
12694:doi
12627:doi
12505:doi
12462:doi
12425:PMC
12409:doi
12397:377
12361:doi
12297:doi
12245:doi
12168:doi
11750:doi
11572:doi
11550:149
11521:doi
11466:doi
11417:doi
10927:doi
10915:378
10845:doi
10833:178
10788:doi
10710:doi
10698:152
10639:doi
10617:149
10553:doi
10496:doi
10359:doi
10355:599
10312:doi
10112:doi
10054:doi
10005:PMC
9989:doi
9977:379
9934:doi
9922:209
9869:PMC
9851:doi
9839:377
9786:doi
9774:377
9723:doi
9657:doi
9546:doi
9489:doi
9439:doi
9240:doi
9201:doi
9045:doi
8979:doi
8914:doi
8859:doi
8837:149
8788:doi
8784:370
8741:doi
8665:doi
8326:doi
8279:hdl
8271:doi
8235:doi
8196:doi
8184:252
8147:doi
8114:doi
8081:hdl
8073:doi
8042:doi
8030:415
7999:doi
7908:doi
7851:doi
7808:doi
7613:doi
7601:271
7529:doi
7466:doi
7249:doi
7202:doi
7149:doi
6991:doi
6979:238
6948:doi
6901:doi
6879:456
6869:SiO
6865:-Li
6861:TiO
6800:doi
6734:doi
6722:190
6619:doi
6564:doi
6521:doi
6478:doi
6414:doi
6364:doi
6320:doi
6275:PMC
6259:doi
6210:hdl
6202:doi
6147:doi
5971:doi
5959:101
5851:doi
5801:doi
5754:doi
5663:hdl
5655:doi
5604:doi
5357:doi
5345:112
5277:doi
5265:239
5196:doi
5122:doi
5100:114
5038:doi
4904:doi
4855:doi
4816:doi
4804:150
4732:doi
4584:doi
4530:doi
4481:doi
4384:CNN
4169:0.4
4147:1.2
4069:NIF
4018:2.1
3984:NIF
3956:6.9
3942:JET
3934:1.6
3914:1.8
3796:ARC
3788:Eni
3746:MIT
3673:NIF
3600:JET
3035:Eni
2918:).
2907:to
2885:to
2870:or
2821:as
2764:'s
2679:MRI
2618:tin
2445:at
2315:→ T
2278:JET
1920:D-T
1585:LDX
1446:TCV
1389:LCF
1362:of
1358:of
1354:in
1180:or
906:NIF
701:out
609:out
326:ion
236:Sun
18496::
17681:He
17647:CO
17523:CO
17444:R3
15890:uk
15592:cs
15509:ja
15416:es
14710:.
14604:.
14600:.
14573:.
14565:.
14555:.
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