History of the Jews in France

3429:), closed with their complete exile from the country in a larger sense. In July 1198, Philip Augustus, "contrary to the general expectation and despite his own edict, recalled the Jews to Paris and made the churches of God suffer great persecutions" (Rigord). The king adopted this measure from no good will toward the Jews, for he had shown his true sentiments a short time before in the Bray affair. But since then he had learned that the Jews could be an excellent source of income from a fiscal point of view, especially as money-lenders. Not only did he recall them to his estates, but he gave state sanction by his ordinances to their operations in banking and pawnbroking. He placed their business under control, determined the legal rate of interest, and obliged them to have seals affixed to all their deeds. Naturally, this trade was taxed, and the affixing of the royal seal was paid for by the Jews. Henceforward there was in the treasury a special account called "Produit des Juifs", and the receipts from this source increased continually. At the same time, it was in the interest of the treasury to secure possession of the Jews, considered a fiscal resource. The Jews were therefore made serfs of the king in the royal domain, just at a time when the charters, becoming wider and wider, tended to bring about the disappearance of serfdom. In certain respects their position became even harder than that of serfs, for the latter could in certain cases appeal to custom and were often protected by the Church; but there was no custom to which the Jews might appeal, and the Church laid them under its ban. The kings and the lords said "my Jews" just as they said "my lands", and they disposed in like manner of the one and of the other. The lords imitated the king: "they endeavored to have the Jews considered an inalienable dependence of their fiefs, and to establish the usage that if a Jew domiciled in one barony passed into another, the lord of his former domicil should have the right to seize his possessions." This agreement was made in 1198 between the king and the Count of Champagne in a treaty, the terms of which provided that neither should retain in his domains the Jews of the other without the latter's consent and furthermore that the Jews should not make loans or receive pledges without the express permission of the king and the count. Other lords made similar conventions with the king. Thenceforth they too had a revenue known as the 5508:

percent, 29.9 percent cited anti-Semitism. Another 24.4 cited their desire to "preserve their Judaism," while 12.4 percent said they were attracted by other countries. "Economic considerations" was cited by 7.5 percent of the respondents. By June 2014, it was estimated by the end of 2014 a full 1 percent of the French Jewish community would have made aliyah to Israel, the largest in a single year. Many Jewish leaders stated that emigration is being driven by a combination of factors, including the cultural gravitation towards Israel and France's economic woes, especially for the younger generation drawn by the possibility of other socioeconomic opportunities in the more vibrant Israeli economy. Others point out that in 2014, many dramatic incidents of antisemitism took place, especially during Operation Protective Edge, and that France took an unusual pro-Palestine stance by recognizing the State of Palestine in Parliament and by undertaking to adopt a resolution in the United Nations Security Council which would unilaterally impose an end of the Israel-Arab conflict on Israel. At the end of 2014, a record 7,000 French Jews are reported to have made Aliyah. Some wealthy French Jewish families are choosing to immigrate to the United States instead, with "less red tape" for business than Israel.

4069: 4796:." The Second Ordinance was published on 18 October 1940, proscribing various business activities for Jews. On 31 August 1941 German forces confiscated all radios belonging to Jews, followed by their telephones, their bicycles, and disconnecting all phones to Jews. They were forbidden to use public telephones. Jews were forbidden to change their address, and next were forbidden to leave their homes between 8 pm and 5 am. All public places, parks, theatres and certain shops were soon closed to Jews. German forces issued new restrictions, prohibitions and decrees by the week. Jews were barred from public swimming pools, restaurants, cafes, cinemas, concerts, music halls, etc. On the metro, they were allowed to ride only in the last carriage. Antisemitic articles were frequently published in newspapers since the Occupation. The Germans organized antisemitic exhibitions to spread their propaganda. The music of Jewish composers was banned, as were works of art by Jewish artists. On 2 October 1941, 4181:, and others, caused the decision to be again postponed. Only the Portuguese and the Avignonese Jews, who had hitherto enjoyed all civil rights as naturalized Frenchmen, were declared full citizens by a majority of 150 on 28 January 1790. This partial victory infused new hope into the Jews of the German districts, who made still greater efforts in the struggle for freedom. They won over the eloquent advocate Godard, whose influence in revolutionary circles was considerable. Through his exertions the National Guards and the diverse sections pronounced themselves in favor of the Jews, and the abbé Malot was sent by the General Assembly of the Commune to plead their cause before the National Assembly. The grave affairs which absorbed the Assembly, the prolonged agitations in Alsace, and the passions of the clerical party kept in check the advocates of Jewish emancipation. A few days before the dissolution of the National Assembly (27 September 1791) a member of the 3821: 4056:), who were then working toward the intellectual emancipation of the Jews. In a pamphlet, "Sur Moses Mendelssohn, sur la Réforme Politique des Juifs" (London, 1787), Mirabeau refuted the arguments of the German antisemites like Michaelis and claimed for the Jews the full rights of citizenship. This pamphlet naturally provoked many writings for and against the Jews, and the French public became interested in the question. On the proposition of Roederer the Royal Society of Science and Arts of Metz offered a prize for the best essay in answer to the question: "What are the best means to make the Jews happier and more useful in France?" Nine essays, of which only two were unfavorable to the Jews, were submitted to the judgment of the learned assembly. Of the challenge, there were three winners: Abbé Gregoire, Claude-Antoine Thiery, and 4769: 5577:, in her popular neighborhood home of Belleville in Paris, around the corner from a mosque reputed for its radicalism, and as police standing in the staircase heard the murderer yelling "Allahu akbar" repeatedly for minutes, and did not intervene in spite of the screams and the beating, has raised questions again. As it took several months for the French justice to qualify this murder as an antisemitic act, concern about an institutional covering of antisemitism increased. It was further feared as Roger Pinto was mugged with his family during a burglary at his Livry-Gargan home on 8 September 2017. Pinto soon witnessed that, as for Ilan Halimi's murder, he was told, "You are Jewish so you must have money;" this attack has neither been qualified as an anti-semitic act. 4262: 4470:

breaking away from rabbinical law and rabbinical authority decreased. For example, some Jews were marrying outside of their religion and their children were growing up in homes where they were not being introduced to traditional beliefs and losing connection with their roots. Also, fewer and fewer Jews in these new urbanized Jewish homes were following the strict rules of Kosher laws. Many Jews were so preoccupied with assimilating and prospering in their new lives that they formed a new type of Judaism that would fit with the times. The Reform Movement came about to let Jews stay connected to their roots while also living their lives without so many restrictions.

3124:(972–1031), King of France (987–1031), called "the Pious", are described in a Hebrew pamphlet, which also states that the King of France conspired with his vassals to destroy all the Jews on their lands who would not accept baptism, and many were put to death or killed themselves. Robert is credited with advocating forced conversions of local Jewry, as well as mob violence against Jews who refused. Among the dead was the learned Rabbi Senior. Robert the Pious is well known for his lack of religious tolerance and for the hatred which he bore toward heretics; it was Robert who reinstated the Roman imperial custom of burning heretics at the stake. In Normandy under 3858:

the loans which they had made since then, or in general with regard to anything which had happened in the past. Their synagogues and their cemeteries were to be restored to them on condition that they would refund their value; or, if these could not be restored, the king would give them the necessary sites at a reasonable price. The books of the Law that had not yet been returned to them were also to be restored, with the exception of the Talmud. After the period of twelve years granted to them, the king might not expel the Jews again without giving them a year's time in which to dispose of their property and carry away their goods. They were not to lend on

5377: 5476:, an increase compared to the previous decade (1990–1999 : 10,443) that was in the continuity of a similar increase since the 1970s. A peak was reached during this period, in 2005 (2005: 2,951 Olim) but a significant proportion (between 20 and 30%) eventually came back to France. Some immigrants cited antisemitism and the growing Arab population as reasons for leaving. One couple who moved to Israel claimed that rising antisemitism by French Muslims and the anti-Israel bias of the French government was making life for Jews increasingly uncomfortable for them. At a welcoming ceremony for French Jews in the summer of 2004, then 3934:, in one of his first acts as king in 1498, issued a general expulsion order for the Jews of Provence. Though not enforced at the time, the order was renewed in 1500 and again in 1501. On this occasion, it was definitively implemented. The Jews of Provence were given the option of conversion to Christianity and a number chose that option. However, after a short while—if only to compensate partially for the loss of revenues caused by the departure of the Jews—the king imposed a special tax, referred to as "the tax of the neophytes." These converts and their descendants soon became the objects of social discrimination and slander. 4243: 3843:, the popular poet of the time, says in fact that the Jews were gentle in comparison with the Christians who had taken their place, and who had flayed their debtors alive; if the Jews had remained, the country would have been happier; for there were no longer any moneylenders at all. The king probably had the interests of his treasury also in view. The profits of the former confiscations had gone into the treasury, and by recalling the Jews for only twelve years he would have an opportunity for ransoming them at the end of this period. It appears that they gave the sum of 122,500 95: 4382: 3952: 4873:"These black hours will stain our history for ever and are an injury to our past and our traditions. Yes, the criminal madness of the occupant was assisted ('secondée') by the French, by the French state. Fifty-three years ago, on 16 July 1942, 450 policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders, obeyed the demands of the Nazis. That day, in the capital and the Paris region, nearly 10,000 Jewish men, women and children were arrested at home, in the early hours of the morning, and assembled at police stations... France, home of the 3327:, all of whom continued his work. The school's Talmudic commentaries and interpretations are the basis and starting point for the Ashkenazic tradition of how to interpret and understand the Talmud's explanation of Biblical laws. In many cases, these interpretations differ substantially from those of the Sephardim, which results in differences between how Ashkenazim and Sephardim hold what constitutes the practical application of the law. In his Biblical commentaries, he availed himself of the works of his contemporaries. Among them must be cited 4452: 3883:, the king signed this decree at the insistence of the queen ("Chron. de Charles VI." ii. 119). The decree was not immediately enforced, a respite being granted to the Jews in order that they might sell their property and pay their debts. Those indebted to them were enjoined to redeem their obligations within a set time; otherwise, their pledges held in pawns were to be sold by the Jews. The provost was to escort the Jews to the frontier of the kingdom. Subsequently, the king released the Christians from their debts. 3376: 3536: 4518:. After spending years of research, he synthesized three major strands of antisemitism. The first strand was traditional Catholic attitudes toward the "Christ killers" augmented by vehement antipathy toward the French Revolution. The second strand was hostility to capitalism, of the sort promoted by the Socialist movement. The third strand was scientific racism, based on the argument that races have fixed characteristics, and the Jews have highly negative characteristics. 3229:, Jewish culture flourished in the South and North of France. The initial interest included poetry, which was at times purely liturgical, but which more often was a simple scholastic exercise without aspiration, destined rather to amuse and instruct than to move. Following this came Biblical exegesis, the simple interpretation of the text, with neither daring nor depth, reflecting a complete faith in traditional interpretation, and based by preference on the 4947: 3718:

declare. Furthermore, three months before the sale of the property of the Jews the king took measures to ensure that this event should be coincident with the prohibition of clipped money, in order that those who purchased the goods should have to pay in undebased coin. Finally, fearing that the Jews might have hidden some of their treasures, he declared that one-fifth of any amount found should be paid to the discoverer. It was on 22 July, the day after

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Immovable property, however, such as houses, fields, vines, barns, and wine presses, he confiscated. The Jews attempted to win over the nobles to their side but in vain. In July they were compelled to leave the royal domains of France (and not the whole kingdom); their synagogues were converted into churches. These successive measures were simply expedients to fill the royal coffers. The goods confiscated by the king were at once converted into cash.

5457:, there is no evidence of any specific antisemitism in France, which, according to this poll, appears to be one of the least antisemitic countries in Europe, though France has the world's third largest Jewish population. France is the country that had the most favourable views of Jews in Europe (82%), next to the Netherlands, and the country with the third-fewest unfavourable views (16%) next to the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. 2889: 13231: 13219: 3528:, did not, since he had an agreement with the Jews that guaranteed their safety in return for extra income through taxation. Champagne's capital at Troyes was where Rashi had lived a century before, and Champagne continued to have a prosperous Jewish population. Theobald IV would become a major opposition force to Capetian dominance, and his hostility was manifest during the reign of Louis VIII. For example, during the 4501:. Toussenel's antisemitism was rooted in a revolutionary-nationalist interpretation reading of French history. He was innovative and using zoology as a vehicle for social criticism, and his natural history books, as much as his political writings, were infused with antisemitic and anti-English sentiments. For Toussenel, the English and the Jews represented external and internal threats to French national identity. 3113: 2650:, which was taken by Germany in 1871 and recovered by France in 1918 following World War I. In addition, numerous Jewish refugees and immigrants came from Russia and eastern and central Europe in the early 20th century, changing the character of French Judaism in the 1920s and 1930s. These new arrivals were much less interested in assimilation into French culture. Some supported such new causes as 4527: 4352:. Encouraged by these prominent men, the minister of education, on 13 November 1830, offered a motion to place Judaism upon an equal footing with Catholicism and Protestantism as regards support for the synagogues and for the rabbis from the public treasury. The motion was accompanied by flattering compliments to the French Jews, "who", said the minister, "since the removal of their 2934:, on a footing of equality with their fellow citizens. Their association with fellow citizens was generally amicable, even after the establishment of Christianity in Gaul. The Christian clergy participated in some Jewish feasts; intermarriage between Jews and Christians sometimes occurred; and the Jews made proselytes. Worried about Christians adopting Jewish religious customs, the 9356: 4750:, who wrote, "I feel myself very friendly to Hitler, and to all Germans, whom I feel to be my brothers.... Our real enemies are Jews and Masons", and "Yids are like bedbugs". By 1937, even mainstream French conservatives and socialists, not previously associated with antisemitism, denounced the alleged Jewish influence pushing the country into a "Jewish war" against 3289:, which was the product of colossal labor, and which eclipsed the similar works of all his predecessors, by its clarity and soundness made the study of that vast compilation easy, and soon became its indispensable complement. Every edition of the Talmud that was ever published has this commentary printed on the same page of the Talmud itself. His commentary on the 2938:(539) warned the faithful against Jewish "superstitions", and ordered them to abstain from traveling on Sunday and from adorning their persons or dwellings on that day. In the 6th century, a Jewish community thrived in Paris. They built a synagogue on the Île de la Cité, but it was later torn down by Christians, who erected a church on the site. 3637:, Louis decided on 13 September 1268 to arrest Jews and seize their property. But an order which followed close upon this last (1269) shows that on this occasion also Louis reconsidered the matter. Nevertheless, at the request of Paul Christian (Pablo Christiani), he compelled the Jews, under penalty of a fine, to wear at all times the 4816:. Roundups continued, collecting French nationals, including lawyers and other professionals. On 12 December 1941, the most distinguished members of the Paris Jewish community, including doctors, academics, scientists and writers, were rounded up. On 29 May 1942, the Eighth Ordinance was published, which ordered Jews to wear the 4559:

justice where the press and public opinion played a central role. The issue was blatant antisemitism as practiced by the Army and defended by traditionalists (especially Catholics) against secular and republican forces, including most Jews. In the end, the latter triumphed, albeit at a very high personal cost to Dreyfus himself.

5286:(Judaism as per the Sephardic ritual, according to Dan Michman's definition of such Jews), have since had a significant influence on the nature of French Jewish culture. These Jews from French North Africa have generally enjoyed a successful social and economic integration and helped reinvigorate the country's Jewish community. 3285:(1040–1105). He personified the genius of northern French Judaism: its devoted attachment to tradition; its untroubled faith; its piety, ardent but free from mysticism. His works are distinguished by their clarity, directness, and are written in a simple, concise, unaffected style, suited to his subject. His commentary on the 3866:

connection with goods belonging to the Jews that had been sold before the expulsion for less than half of what was regarded as a fair price. The king finally declared that he took the Jews under his special protection and that he desired to have their persons and property protected from all violence, injury, and oppression.

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and hatred spread by the pope encouraging violence led to the persecution of Jews in France. Many Jews fled to Narbonne, a city on the southwest coast of the country, which had long been a safe haven and center for Jewish life. The southern coast was more tolerant of Jewish life than the northern half of the country.

4824:, which required detailed planning and the use of the full resources of French police forces. This roundup took place on 16 and 17 July 1942; it collected nearly 13,000 Jews, 7,000 of whom, including more than 4,000 children, were interned and locked into the Vélodrome d'Hiver, without adequate food or sanitation. 3654: 5469:

more than the whole of 2008, 474), in 2010, 466 and, in 2011, 389. In 2011, there were 260 threats (100 graffitis, 46 flyers or mails, 114 insults) and 129 crimes (57 assaults, 7 arsons or attempted arsons, 65 deteriorations and acts of vandalism but no murder, attempted murder or terrorist attack) recorded.

4915:, actually represented the French State. Macron on the other hand, made it clear that the government during the War was indeed that of France. "It is convenient to see the Vichy regime as born of nothingness, returned to nothingness. Yes, it's convenient, but it is false. We cannot build pride upon a lie." 5551:

Theatre in Paris. Although its long time Jewish owners (who regularly set Jewish events there, including some in support of Israel) had sold the theatre shortly before the massacre, speculation arose about an antisemitic motive behind the attack, but this was not a popular theory in the French media.

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strongly urged the French Jewish community to move to Israel and made it a national priority for Israel to welcome the French Jewish community with open arms. Immigration from France is on the rise: in the first half of 2015, approximately 5,100 French Jews made aliyah to Israel marking 25% more than

5468:

in late December 2008 and its end in January 2009, an estimated hundred antisemitic acts were recorded in France. This compares with a total of 250 antisemitic acts in the whole of 2007. In 2009, 832 acts of antisemitism were recorded in France (with, in the first half of 2009, an estimated 631 acts,

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Of the faiths recognized by the state, only Judaism had to support its ministers, while those of the Catholic and Protestant churches were supported by the government. This legal inferiority was removed in 1831, thanks to the intervention of the Duke of Orléans, lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and

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and establishing relative equality for them. The net effect of his policies significantly changed the position of the Jews in Europe. Starting in 1806, Napoleon passed a number of measures supporting the position of the Jews in the French Empire, including assembling a representative group elected by

4227:

Meanwhile, the French Jews gave proofs of their patriotism and of their gratitude to the land that had emancipated them. Many of them died in battle as part of the Army of the Republic while fighting the forces of Europe in coalition. To contribute to the war fund, candelabra of synagogues were sold,

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formulated the following rules: relapsed Jews, as well as Christians who abjured their faith in favor of "the Jewish superstition", were to be treated by the Inquisitors as heretics. The instigators of such apostasies, as those who received or defended the guilty ones, were to be punished in the same

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In 1234, Louis freed his subjects from a third of their registered debts to Jews (including those who had already paid their debts), but debtors had to pay the remaining two-thirds within a specified time. It was also forbidden to imprison Christians or to sell their real estate to recover debts owed

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Jews did not have an active role in the Crusades, like Muslims and Christians did. Instead, Jews feared for their lives, as expulsions and anti-Jewish sentiment was on the rise in Western Europe. In 1256, around 3000 Jews were murdered in the French cities of Bretagne, Anjou, and Poitou. The violence

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of Israel continued to encourage French aliyah through aliyah fairs, Hebrew-language courses, sessions that assist potential olim to find jobs in Israel, and immigrant absorption in Israel. A May 2014 survey revealed that 74 percent of French Jews considered leaving France for Israel where of the 74

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issued a ruling recognising the state's responsibility in the deportation of tens of thousands of Jews during World War II. The report cited "mistakes" in the Vichy regime that had not been forced by the occupiers, stating that the state "allowed or facilitated the deportation from France of victims

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was a major political scandal that convulsed France from 1894 until its resolution in 1906, and which reverberated for decades longer. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice for reasons of state and remains one of the most striking examples of a complex miscarriage of

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People of Jewish faith in France were becoming assimilated into their lives. After their Emancipation in 1791, Jews in France had new freedoms. For example, Jews were allowed to attend schools that were once delegated for just non-Jews. They were also allowed to pray in their own synagogues. Lastly,

4030:, summoned a commission of Jewish notables to make suggestions for the amelioration of the condition of their coreligionists. The direct result of the efforts of these men was the abolition, in 1785, of the degrading poll-tax and the permission to settle in all parts of France. Shortly afterward the 3625:

In 1257 or 1258 ("Ordonnances", i. 85), wishing, as he says, to provide for his safety of soul and peace of conscience, Louis issued a mandate for the restitution in his name of the amount of usurious interest which had been collected on the confiscated property, the restitution to be made either to

3613:

However, he did not cancel the debts owed by Christians. Later, Louis became conscience-stricken, and, overcome by scruples, he feared lest the treasury, by retaining some part of the interest paid by the borrowers, might be enriched with the product of usury. As a result, one-third of the debts was

3403:

During the century which terminated so disastrously for the Jews, their condition was not altogether bad, especially if compared with that of their brethren in Germany. Thus may be explained the remarkable intellectual activity which existed among them, the attraction that it exercised over the Jews

3399:

on 14 March 1181, the King ordered the Jews arrested on a Saturday, in all their synagogues, and despoiled of their money and their investments. In the following April 1182, he published an edict of expulsion, but according to the Jews a delay of three months for the sale of their personal property.

4469:

Although life was looking brighter for these Western Jews, some Jews who lived in Eastern Europe believed that the Emancipation in Western countries were causing Jews to lose their traditional beliefs and culture. As more and more Jews were becoming assimilated into their new lives, these Jews were

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Provence was not incorporated into France until 1481, and the expulsion edict of 1394 did not apply there. The privileges of the Jews of Provence were confirmed in 1482. However, from 1484, anti-Jewish disturbances broke out, with looting and violence perpetrated by laborers from outside the region

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suddenly published an ordinance in which he declared, in substance, that for a long time he had been taking note of the many complaints provoked by the excesses and misdemeanors which the Jews committed against Christians; and that the prosecutors, having made several investigations, had discovered

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states, that a large number of the debts owing to the Jews had not been recovered, and that the holders of the notes had preserved them; the decree of return specified that two-thirds of the old debts recovered by the Jews should go into the treasury. The conditions under which they were allowed to

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had sent to the East through a beggar a letter that provoked the order for the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Glaber adds that, on the discovery of the crime, the expulsion of the Jews was everywhere decreed. Some were driven out of the cities, others were put to death, while some

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caused controversy when he advised all French Jews to "move immediately" to Israel and escape what he coined "the wildest anti-semitism" in France. In August 2007, some 2,800 olim were due to arrive in Israel from France, as opposed to the 3,000 initially forecast. 1,129 French Jews made aliyah to

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in June 1940, about 330,000 Jews lived in France (and another 370,000 in never occupied French North Africa). Of the 330,000, fewer than half held French citizenship and the others were foreigners, mostly exiles from Germany and Central Europe who had immigrated to France during the 1930s. Another

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They were to live by the work of their hands or to sell merchandise of good quality; they were to wear the circular badge, and not discuss religion with laymen. They were not to be molested, either with regard to the chattels they had carried away at the time of their banishment, or with regard to

3516:

should be repaid to the Jews in three years and that the debts due the Jews should be inscribed and placed under the control of their lords. The lords then collected the debts for the Jews, doubtless receiving a commission. Louis furthermore ordered that the special seal for Jewish deeds should be

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About 200,000 Jews, and the large majority of foreign Jews, resided in the Paris area. Among the 150,000 French Jews, about 30,000, generally native to Central Europe, had recently obtained French citizenship after immigrating to France during the 1930s. Following the 1940 armistice after Germany

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would hasten to undo the work of the Revolution with regard to Jewish emancipation, but were soon disappointed. The emancipation the French Jews had made enough progress that the clerical monarch could not find pretexts for curtailing their rights as citizens. They were no longer treated as poor,

3937:

During the second half of the 17th century, a number of Jews attempted to reestablish themselves in Provence. Before the French Revolution abolished the administrative entity of Provence, the first community outside the southwest, Alsace-Lorraine and Comtat Venaissin, was re-formed in Marseilles.

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to stop the persecution in Lorraine (1007). Jacob undertook the journey to Rome, but was imprisoned with his wife and four sons by Duke Richard, and escaped death only by allegedly miraculous means. He left his eldest son, Judah, as a hostage with Richard while he and his wife and three remaining

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created a shock wave of fear across the French Jewish community. As a result of these events, the Jewish Agency planned an aliyah plan for 120,000 French Jews who wish to make aliyah. In addition, with Europe's stagnant economy as of early 2015, many affluent French Jewish skilled professionals,

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as the real spy. High-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence and a military court unanimously acquitted Esterhazy after the second day of his trial. The Army accused Dreyfus of additional charges based on false documents. Word of the military court's framing of Dreyfus and of the

4194:

This proposition was accepted amid loud applause. Rewbell endeavored, indeed, to oppose the motion, but he was interrupted by Regnault de Saint-Jean, president of the Assembly, who suggested "that every one who spoke against this motion should be called to order, because he would be opposing the

4625:

The Affair from 1894 to 1906 divided France deeply and lastingly into two opposing camps: the pro-Army, mostly Catholic "anti-Dreyfusards" who generally lost the initiative to the anticlerical, pro-republican Dreyfusards. It embittered French politics and helped the radical party come to power.

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I believe that freedom of worship does not permit any distinction in the political rights of citizens on account of their creed. The question of the political existence of the Jews has been postponed. Still the Muslems and the men of all sects are admitted to enjoy political rights in France. I

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intended merely to fill the gap in his treasury, and was not at all concerned about the well-being of his subjects, is shown by the fact that he put himself in the place of the Jewish moneylenders and exacted from their Christian debtors the payment of their debts, which they themselves had to

3560:, unreservedly condemned loans at interest. He was less amenable than Philip Augustus to fiscal considerations. Despite former conventions, in an assembly held at Melun in December 1230, he compelled several lords to sign an agreement not to authorize Jews to make any loan. No one in the whole 3468:

refused to sign any such treaties, and in that year, he even refused to affirm the crown's asserted right to force non-retention policies on its barons. Such treaties became obsolete after Louis IX's ordinance of Melun (1230), when it became illegal for a Jew to migrate between lordships. This

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kings of Spain. From this epoch (689) dates the earliest known inscription relating to the Jews of France, the "Funerary Stele of Justus, Matrona and Dulciorella" of Narbonne, written in Latin and Hebrew. The Jews of Narbonne, chiefly merchants, were popular among the people who often rebelled

4827:

In the meantime, the Germans began deportations of Jews from France to the death camps in eastern Europe. The first trains left on 27 March 1942. Deportations continued until 17 August 1944, by which time nearly 76,000 Jews (including those from Vichy France) were deported, of whom only 2,500

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removed this last remnant of medieval legislation. With this act of justice the history of the Jews of France merges into the general history of the French people. The rapidity with which many of them won affluence and distinction in the nineteenth century is without parallel. In spite of the

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by the Revolution, have shown themselves worthy of the privileges granted to them". After a short discussion the motion was adopted by a large majority. In January 1831, it passed in the Chamber of Peers by 89 votes to 57, and on 8 February it was ratified by King Louis Philippe, who from the

4840:), prohibiting them from moving, and limiting their access to public places and most professional activities, especially the practice of medicine. The Vichy government also implemented those anti-Jewish laws in the colonies of Vichy North Africa. In 1941, the Vichy government established the 4835:

Antisemitism was particularly virulent in Vichy France, which controlled a third of France from 1940 to 1942, at which point the Germans took over that southern area. Vichy's Jewish policy was a mixture of 1930s antiforeigner legislation with the virulent antisemitism of the Action Française

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If they engaged in pawnbroking, they were not to take more than two deniers in the pound a week; they were to lend only on pledges. Two men with the title "auditors of the Jews" were entrusted with the execution of this ordinance and were to take cognizance of all claims that might arise in

4219:, had to pay important fines or to run away to save their lives while some Jewish bankers (49 according to the Jewish Encyclopedia) were imprisoned at Paris as suspects and nine of them were executed. The decree of the convention by which the Catholic faith was annulled and replaced by the 5434:

was mutilated and tortured to death by the so-called "Barbarians gang", led by Youssouf Fofana. This murder was motivated by money and fueled by antisemitic prejudices (the perpetrators said they believed Jews to be rich). In March 2012, a gunman, who had previously killed three soldiers,

3839:(1314–16) recalled the Jews. In an edict dated 28 July 1315, he permitted them to return for a period of twelve years, authorizing them to establish themselves in the cities in which they had lived before their banishment. He issued this edict in answer to the demands of the people. 3029:(ruled 814–840), faithful to the principles of his father Charlemagne, granted strict protection to Jews, whom he respected as merchants. Like his father, Louis believed that 'the Jewish question' could be solved with the gradual conversion of Jews; according to medievalist scholar 3572:), wherever he might find him and however long a period had elapsed since the Jew had settled elsewhere. At the same time, the ordinance of 1223 was enacted afresh, which only proves that it had not been carried into effect. Both king and lords were forbidden to borrow from Jews. 4223:

was applied by the provincial clubs, especially by those of the German districts, to the Jewish religion as well. Some synagogues were pillaged and the mayors of a few eastern towns (Strasbourg, Troyes, etc.) forbade the celebration of Sabbath (to apply the week of ten days).

4785:

invaded France, the Nazis incorporated the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine into Germany. The remainder of northern and western France was placed under German military control. Unoccupied southern metropolitan France and the French empire were placed under the control of the

3713:, condemned the Jews to banishment, and took forcible possession of their property, real and personal. Their houses, lands, and movable goods were sold at auction; and for the king were reserved any treasures found buried in the dwellings that had belonged to the Jews. That 4622:. The new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence but Dreyfus was pardoned and set free. All accusations against Alfred Dreyfus eventually were demonstrated to be baseless, and in 1906 Dreyfus was exonerated and reinstated as a major in the French Army. 4697:

of Eastern Europe. The flow temporarily halted during World War I but resumed afterwards. The long-established, heavily assimilated Jewish population by 1920 was now only a third of the French Jewish population. It was overwhelmed by new immigrants and the restoration of

3617:

In 1251, while Louis was in captivity on the Crusade, a popular movement rose up with the intention of traveling to the east to rescue him; although they never made it out of northern France, Jews were subject to their attacks as they wandered throughout the country (see

3969:

was home to a significant number of Jews. In annexing the region in 1648, the French government was at first inclined toward the banishment of Jews living in those provinces but thought better of it in view of the benefit he could derive from them. On 25 September 1675,

5238:

In the wake of the Holocaust, around 180,000 Jews remained in France, many of whom were refugees from Eastern Europe who either could not or would not return to their former home countries. To prevent the types of abuses that took place under the German Occupation and

3437:, or annual quit-rent, the legal fees for the writs necessitated by the Jews' law trials, and the seal duty. A thoroughly characteristic feature of this fiscal policy is that the bishops (according to the agreement of 1204 regulating the spheres of ecclesiastical and 3037:(779–841) had many run-ins with the Jews of France. He wrote about how rich and powerful they were becoming. Scholars such as Jeremy Cohen suggest that Saint Agobard's belief in Jewish power contributed to his involvement in violent revolutions attempting to dethrone 4836:

movement. The Vichy government openly collaborated with the Nazi occupiers to identify Jews for deportation and transportation to the death camps. As early as October 1940, without any request from the Germans, the Vichy government passed anti-Jewish measures (the

3353:

document, the Jews throughout France were at that time in great fear and wrote to their brothers in the Rhine countries making known to them their terror and asking them to fast and pray. In the Rhineland, thousands of Jews were killed by the crusaders (see

3331:, chief of the school of Narbonne, who was perhaps the founder of exegetical studies in France, and Menachem b. Ḥelbo. Thus the 11th century was a period of fruitful activity in literature. Thenceforth French Judaism became one of the poles within Judaism. 3909:

hired for the harvest season. In some places, Jews were protected by the town officials, and they were declared to be under royal protection. However, a voluntary exodus began and was accelerated when similar disorders were repeated in 1485. According to

3197:

killed themselves; only a few remained in the "Roman world". Count Paul Riant (1836–1888) says that this whole story of the relations between the Jews and the Mohammedans is only one of those popular legends with which the chronicles of the time abound.

3255:, and were commented upon and studied both as a pious exercise in dialectics and from the practical point of view. While most of the focus of Jewish authors was religious, they did discuss other subjects, like the papal presence in their communities. 3681:, finally occupied itself with the Jews of Southern France who converted to Christianity. The popes complained that not only were baptized Jews returning to their former faith but that Christians also were being converted to Judaism. In March 1273, 4009:

By the 1780s there were about 40,000 to 50,000 Jews in France, chiefly centered in Bordeaux, Metz, and a few other cities. They had very limited rights and opportunities, apart from the money-lending business, but their status was not illegal. An

4306:. Despite the positive effects, it is unclear however, whether Napoleon himself was disposed favorably towards the Jews, or merely saw them as a political or financial tool. On 17 March 1808, Napoleon rolled back some reforms by the so-called 3452:) signed treaties with their neighbours, whereby the latter refused to permit the former's Jews entry into his domains, thus "retaining" them for the lord to tax. This practice arose in response to the common flight of Jews in the face of a 5429:

and antisemitic acts were publicized around the world, including the desecration of Jewish graves and tensions between the children of North African Muslim immigrants and North African Jewish children. One of the worst crimes happened when

5439:

in Toulouse in an antisemitic attack, killing four people, including three children. President Nicolas Sarkozy said, "I want to say to all the leaders of the Jewish community, how close we feel to them. All of France is by their side."

3724:, a Jewish fast day, that the Jews were arrested. In prison they received notice that they had been sentenced to exile; that, abandoning their goods and debts, and taking only the clothes which they had on their backs and the sum of 12 3145:, who wrote in 1030, is to be believed (he had a reputation as a fabricator), the anti-Jewish feelings arose in 1010 after Western Jews addressed a letter to their Eastern coreligionists warning them of a military movement against the 3132:

Jewry suffered from persecutions that were so terrible that many women, in order to escape the fury of the mob, jumped into the river and drowned. A notable of the town, Jacob b. Jekuthiel, a Talmudic scholar, sought to intercede with

3962:

At the beginning of the 17th century, Jews began again to re-enter France. This resulted in a new edict of 23 April 1615 which forbade Christians, under the penalty of death and confiscation, to shelter Jews or to converse with them.

8995: 5499:

alluding to former Israel Prime Minister's Ariel Sharon's similar 2004 advisement towards the French Jewish community to move to Israel. In 2013, 3,120 French Jews immigrated to Israel, marking a 63% increase over the previous year.

5520:

business moguls and investors have sought Israel as a start-up haven for international investments, as well as job and new business opportunities. Dov Maimon, a French Jewish émigré who studies migration as a senior fellow at the

4373:, or 'careers for the gifted', permitted French Jews to enter previously forbidden fields such as the arts, finance, trade, and government. For this they were never forgiven by primarily Royalist and Catholic antisemites. 3997:

In the course of the 18th century, the attitude of the authorities toward Jews became more tolerant and corrected previous legislation. The authorities often overlooked infractions of the edict of banishment; a colony of

3879:

many violations by the Jews of the agreement they had made with him. Therefore, he decreed as an irrevocable law and statute that thenceforth no Jew should dwell in his domains ("Ordonnances", vii. 675). According to the

3208:

and to Guifred, bishop of the city, praising them for having prevented the massacre of the Jews in their district, and reminding them that God does not approve of the shedding of blood. In 1065 also, Alexander admonished

5587:

Since the 7 October 2023 attacks in Israel 30,000 Jews have gone up to Israel of which from France 1,600 ; of those Interested in Going up to Israel {France, Canada and the United States] France has the 335% increase

5251:

The surviving French Jews were joined in the late 1940s, 1950s and 1960s by large numbers of Jews from France's predominantly Muslim North African colonies (along with millions of other French nationals) as part of the

3187:

and exile. For a month theologians held disputations with the Jews, but without much success, for only three or four of Jews abjured their faith; others killed themselves; and the rest either fled or were expelled from

4422:

was formed "to work everywhere for the emancipation and moral progress of the Jews; to offer effective assistance to Jews suffering from antisemitism; and to encourage all publications calculated to promote this aim."

10846: 10806: 3349:(1096), when the crusaders are stated, for example, to have shut up the Jews of Rouen in a church and to have murdered them without distinction of age or sex, sparing only those who accepted baptism. According to a 8241: 4145:, who demanded their complete emancipation. The National Assembly shared the indignation of the prelate, but left the question of emancipation undecided; it was intimidated by the deputies of Alsace, especially by 10873: 10732: 2885:), archisynagogues, patersynagogues, and other synagogue officials. The Jews worked principally as merchants, as they were prohibited from owning land; they also served as tax collectors, sailors, and physicians. 3978:, taking them under his special protection. This, however, did not prevent them from being subjected to every kind of extortion, and their position remained the same as it had been under the Austrian government. 11478: 5146: 4418:

deep-rooted prejudices which prevailed in certain classes of French society, many of them occupied high positions in literature, art, science, jurisprudence, the army—indeed, in every walk of life. In 1860, the

3408:

to study did not cease with his death; his successors—the members of his family first among them—continued his work. Research moved within the same limits as in the preceding century, and dealt mainly with the

4599:

In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial. The intense political and judicial scandal that ensued divided French society between those who supported Dreyfus (now called "Dreyfusards"), such as

9287: 4168:

exerted all the power of their eloquence to bring about the desired emancipation; but the repeated disturbances in Alsace and the strong opposition of the deputies of that province and of the clericals, like

11027: 5290:

restaurants and Jewish schools have multiplied, in particular since the 1980s. In part in response to internal and international events, many of the younger generations have committed to religious renewal.

4706:-speakers from Russia and Poland as well as German-speaking Jews who fled the Nazi regime after 1933. The historic base of traditional Judaism was in Alsace-Lorraine, which was recovered by France in 1918. 11283: 4789:, a new collaborationist French government. Some Jews managed to escape the invading German forces. Some found refuge in the countryside. Spain allowed 25,600 Jews to use its territory as an escape route. 4335:

downtrodden peddlers or money-lenders with whom every petty official could do as he liked. Many of them already occupied high positions in the army and the magistracy, as well as in the arts and sciences.

4807:

The first roundup of Jews took place on 14 May 1941, and 4,000 foreign Jews were taken captive. Another roundup took place on 20 August 1941, collecting both French and foreign Jews, who were sent to the

4310:, declaring all debts with Jews reduced, postponed, or annulled; this caused the Jewish community to nearly collapse. The decree also restricted where Jews could live, especially for those in the eastern 3023:, or grain. Legally, Jews belonged to the emperor and could be tried only by him. But the numerous provincial councils which met during Charlemagne's reign were not concerned with the Jewish communities. 10841: 7848: 5278:

By 1968, Sephardi Jews from the former French possessions in North Africa constituted the majority of the Jews of France. Before World War II and the Holocaust, French Jews were predominately from the

5552:

However, to some, this possible antisemitic motive was concealed by the general media, raising questions about the media's motives to do this, an issue reflected in the French Jewish community press.

4369:

Full equality did not occur until 1831. By the fourth decade of the nineteenth century, France provided an environment in which Jews took active and many times leading roles. The Napoleonic policy of

13141: 10159: 7930: 4896:

and the historical revisionism that denied France's responsibility for 1942 roundup and subsequent deportation of 13,000 Jews (or the eventual deportation of 76,000 Jews). He refuted claims that the

10856: 4900:, in power during WW II, did not represent the State. "It was indeed France that organised this", French police collaborating with the Nazis. "Not a single German" was directly involved, he added. 4152:

On 22 December 1789, the Jewish question came again before the Assembly in debating the issue of admitting to public service all citizens without distinction of creed. Mirabeau, the abbé Grégoire,

8434:

In January 2009 an estimated 352 acts of antisemitism took place in comparison with 460 separate incidents in the whole of 2008. This phenomenon has been linked to the war between Israel and Gaza.

5983: 5487:

However, in the long term, France is not one of the top countries of Jewish emigration toward Israel. Many French Jews feel a strong attachment to France. In November 2012, Israeli Prime Minister

12309: 11306: 5896: 5531:

on a gas factory near Lyon on 26 June 2015, in which the severed head of a local (non-Jewish) businessman was pinned to the gates and an ISIS flag was raised, Immigration and Absorption Minister

4634:

The relatively small Jewish community was based in Paris, and very well established in the city's business, financial, and intellectual elite. A third of Parisian bankers were Jewish, led by the

11003: 4918:

Macron made a subtle reference to Chirac's 1995 apology when he added, "I say it again here. It was indeed France that organized the roundup, the deportation, and thus, for almost all, death."

4413:

before the Court of Nîmes in defense of a rabbi who had refused to take this oath, and to a valuable essay on the subject by Martin, a prominent Christian trial lawyer from Strasburg, that the

10953: 8990: 4448:

many Jews found themselves moving from the rural areas of France and into the big cities. In these big cities, Jews had new job opportunities and many were advancing up the economic ladder.

13191: 12074: 4777: 2674: 2632: 10987: 8209: 5555:

According to the Jewish Agency, nearly 6500 French Jews had made aliyah as of mid-November 2015 and it was estimated that 8000 French Jews would settle down in Israel by the end of 2015.

6145: 4570:. He was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly having communicated French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris. Dreyfus was sent to the penal colony at 4361:

in 1829, was recognized as a state institution, and was granted a subsidy. The government likewise liquidated the debts contracted by various Jewish communities before the Revolution.

3645:

in 1215. This consisted of a piece of red felt or cloth cut in the form of a wheel, four fingers in circumference, which had to be attached to the outer garment at the chest and back.

3486: 7869:

Holocaust Monuments and National Memory Cultures in France and Germany Since 1989: The Origins and Political Function of the Vél' D'Hiv' in Paris and the Holocaust Monument in Berlin

3080:. One authority said the Jewish traders boasted about buying whatever they pleased from bishops and abbots. Isaac the Jew, who was sent by Charlemagne in 797 with two ambassadors to 10184: 10154: 8697: 3270: 10939: 8411: 7822: 5331:

agreement, the French government secretly transported parts of its own atomic technology to Israel in the late 1950s which the Israeli government used to create nuclear weapons.

11680: 5547:, more than 80 percent of French Jews considered making aliyah. The largest attack on the evening of 13 November killed 90 people, leaving 200 wounded at a rock concert in the 4673:. The Jews considered themselves fully assimilated into French culture, for them Judaism was entirely a matter of religious belief, with minimal ethnic or cultural dimensions. 10481: 6962:"Aussi Philippe le Bel ne put les frapper sans tarir du même coup l'une des sources les plus fécondes de la prospérité commerciale, industrielle et financière de son royaume." 5275:

By 1951, France's Jewish population totalled around 250,000. Between 1956 and 1967, about 235,000 Sephardi Jews from Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and Egypt immigrated to France.

8035: 5225: 3138:

sons went to Rome. He bribed the pope with seven gold marks and two hundred pounds, who thereupon sent a special envoy to King Robert ordering him to stop the persecutions.

10967: 8232: 4068: 3693:, who had buried a Christian convert in their cemetery, were brought before the Inquisition in 1278 for trial, with their rabbi, Isaac Males, being condemned to the stake. 3460:, where they purchased the right to settle unmolested by gifts (bribes) to their new lord. In May 1210 the crown negotiated a series of treaties with the neighbours of the 11928: 3732:

In striking at the Jews, Philip the Fair at the same time dried up one of the most fruitful sources of the financial, commercial, and industrial prosperity of his kingdom.

4709:

The new arrivals got along poorly with the established elite Jewish community. They did not want to assimilate, and they vigorously supported such new causes, especially

3176: 1250: 7080: 7069:, encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852. 4862:

museum, 2006). This award is given to "non-Jews who acted according to the most noble principles of humanity by risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust."

4357:

beginning had shown himself favorable to placing Judaism on an equal footing with the other faiths. Shortly afterward the rabbinical college, which had been founded at

12294: 11529: 11316: 5342:

in 1967, in which the relations became strained. Following the war, the United States became Israel's main supplier of weapons and military technology. After the 1972

11507: 10932: 8258: 10946: 5847: 5320:, voting for its formation at the United Nations. It was Israel's main ally and primary supplier of military hardware for nearly two decades between 1948 and 1967. 3854:

settle in the land are set forth in a number of articles; some of the guaranties which were accorded the Jews had probably been demanded by them and been paid for.

11374: 5795: 10960: 8660: 4885:

Chirac also identified those who were responsible: "450 policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders obeyed the demands of the Nazis."

4792:

German occupation forces published their first anti-Jewish measure on 27 September 1940 as the "First Ordinance." The measure was a census of Jews, and defined "

4291:. In conquered countries, he abolished laws restricting Jews to ghettos. In 1807, he added Judaism as an official religion of France, with previously sanctioned 3033:, some people believed this tolerance threatened the Christian unity of the Empire, which led to the strengthening of the Bishops at the expense of the Emperor. 8767: 5918: 5302:

attack since actions of the German occupation in the Second World War. The attack followed an increase in antisemitic incidents in the late 1970s by Neo Nazis.

12435: 12324: 11483: 11341: 10981: 6768:

The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day

4829: 4638:, which also played a dominant role in the well organized Jewish community. Many of the most influential French intellectuals were nominally Jewish, including 1828: 12503: 10996: 10456: 9269: 8449: 1483: 1178: 12662: 7639: 3192:. Similar expulsions took place in other French towns. By 1030, Rodulfus Glaber knew more concerning this story. According to his 1030 explanation, Jews of 11631: 9811: 4165: 2646:, with many being very proud to be fully assimilated into French culture, and they comprised an upscale subgroup. A more traditional Judaism was based in 1370: 5151: 4878: 3736:

To a large extent, the history of the Jews of France ceased. The span of control of the King of France had increased considerably in extent. Outside the

8911: 4318:

and beyond (as of 1810), in hopes of assimilating them into society. Many of these restrictions were eased again in 1811 and finally abolished in 1818.

13121: 11257: 10918: 9641:

Cole, Joshua. "Constantine before the riots of August 1934: civil status, anti-Semitism, and the politics of assimilation in interwar French Algeria."

3606:

and the confiscation of their property, for use in his crusade, but the order for the expulsion was only partly enforced if at all. Louis left for the

2578: 8962: 3820: 3091:, was probably one of these merchants. He was said to have asked the Baghdad caliph for a rabbi to instruct the Jews whom he had allowed to settle at 13266: 12196: 10925: 10911: 10789: 10774: 10300: 9784: 8860: 5218: 4650:. The Dreyfus affair to some degree rekindled their sense of being Jewish. Jews were prominent in art and culture, holding special prominence in the 2787:(1906), "The first settlements of Jews in Europe are obscure. From 163 BCE there is evidence of Jews in Rome . In the year 6 C.E. there were Jews at 2670: 342: 4027: 13115: 12961: 10466: 9457:

Graizbord, David. "Becoming Jewish in Early Modern France: Documents on Jewish Community-Building in Seventeenth-Century Bayonne and Peyrehorade."

9197: 7823:"Address by Mr Jacques Chirac President of the Republic Delivered During Ceremonies Commemorating the Great Roundup of 16 and 17 July 1942 (Paris)" 5608: 4881:, land of welcome and asylum, France committed that day the irreparable. Breaking its word, it delivered those it protected to their executioners." 4493:

and denounced the ills of civilization: individualism, egoism, and class conflict. He was hostile to the Jews and also to the British. Toussenel's

4393: 4268: 4076: 3829: 1365: 12991: 9313: 5316:

Since World War II, France's government has varied in supporting and opposing the Israeli government. It was initially a very strong supporter of

12956: 12951: 12946: 8307: 7893: 6477: 3812:—all regions located in Empire. It is not possible to estimate the number of fugitives; that given by Grätz, 100,000, has no foundation in fact. 3508:

than his father, Philip Augustus, knew also how to look after the interests of his treasury. Although he declared that from 8 November 1223, the

1613: 12971: 12931: 11288: 10471: 8016: 12941: 12463: 11650: 10642: 9939: 9759: 7531: 5161: 5110: 4345: 11737: 6157: 5497:"In my role as Prime Minister of Israel, I always say to Jews, wherever they may be, I say to them: Come to Israel and make Israel your home." 3049:

gained them papal support for the overthrow of Emperor Louis. Upon Louis the Pious' return to power in 834, he deposed Saint Agobard from his

13056: 12478: 11884: 10890: 10275: 9869: 9153: 4869:

formally apologized to the Jewish community for the complicit role that French policemen and civil servants played in the roundups. He said:

1867: 5338:

in 1962, in which Algeria gained independence, France began to shift toward a more pro-Arab view. This change accelerated rapidly after the

10250: 5934: 5253: 5211: 4930: 9537: 5951: 4832:.) The majority of Jews deported were non-French Jews. One quarter of the pre-war Jewish population of France was killed in that process. 4035: 3299:, served for edification, but also advanced the taste for seeking the plain and true meaning of the bible. The school which he founded at 2865:. These cities had generally been centers of ancient Roman administration and were located on the great commercial routes. The Jews built 13134: 12878: 12425: 10851: 10627: 8694: 5447:

suggested that the extent of antisemitism in France has been exaggerated and that "France was not an antisemitic country". The Newspaper

852: 815: 13153: 5636: 4190:

demand that the motion for postponement be withdrawn, and a decree passed that the Jews in France enjoy the privileges of full citizens.

12147: 10245: 8886: 8421: 5040: 3901:

since at least the 1st century. The earliest documentary evidence for the presence of Jews dates from the middle of the 5th century in

2754:

after those countries gained independence in the 1950s and 1960s. They span a range of religious affiliations, from the ultra-Orthodox

4207:

deputy Schwendt wrote to his constituents, "nothing more than the name of a distinct religion". However, in Alsace, especially in the

11908: 10305: 10076: 9889: 9039: 4118:

and obtained the right for Jews from eastern France to elect their own delegates. Among them were the son of Cerfbeer, Theodore, and

1791: 10622: 9914: 9804: 9749: 4497:(1845) argued that French finance and commerce was controlled by an alien Jewish presence, typified in the malign influence of the 4094:, who were willing to trade in their communal rights in exchange for full citizenship, participated in 1789 in the election of the 3709:

Toward the middle of 1306 the treasury was nearly empty, and the king, as he was about to do the following year in the case of the

1814: 8045: 3564:

was allowed to detain a Jew belonging to another, and each lord might recover a Jew who belonged to him, just as he might his own

3277:

The great Jewish figure who dominated the second half of the 11th century, as well as the whole rabbinical history of France, was

12366: 12266: 12056: 11761: 11416: 11278: 10380: 10285: 10086: 9547: 5882: 5738: 5115: 4842: 2945:

proposed the expulsion of all Jews who would not accept Christianity. No mention of the Jews was found from his reign to that of

1164: 8255: 5768: 12640: 12362: 11488: 11412: 10823: 10217: 10174: 10126: 10001: 9996: 9215: 9017: 7613: 7283: 5399:). The Jewish community in France is estimated from a core population of 480,000–500,000 to an enlarged population of 600,000. 5045: 4768: 4006:

was tolerated in Paris. The voices of enlightened Christians who demanded justice for the proscribed people began to be heard.

2918:, 'peace be upon Israel'. In various sources it is described as a Jewish inscription dated with the local calendar—the 2571: 1741: 1676: 1558: 12392: 12334: 11447: 11384: 9421: 8788: 3441:

jurisdiction) continued to prohibit the clergy from excommunicating those who sold goods to the Jews or who bought from them.

12256: 11695: 11544: 11539: 10689: 9407: 9131: 8162: 7877: 6793: 6746: 6603: 6444: 6352: 6293: 4961: 4126:

written by the Jewish community from eastern France asked for the end of the discriminatory status and taxes targeting Jews.

862: 13106: 9748:

Jean-Marc Dreyfus, Institut d'Études Politiques, Paris; Jonathan Laurence, Center for European Studies, Harvard University,

7912: 2974:

is documented, with their position being regulated by law. Exchanges with the Orient strongly declined with the presence of

12715: 12652: 11964: 11722: 11534: 10801: 10131: 9961: 9175: 8478: 6213:

Hosang, F. J. Elizabeth Boddens (2018). "Jews in 6th and 7th-century legal texts from Spain and Gaul: A few observations".

6150: 5156: 5076: 2826:). This was to prevent Christians from being subject to them and possibly incited to change their faith. At the funeral of 1300: 12725: 13251: 10136: 9797: 9648:

Fitch, Nancy. "Mass Culture, Mass Parliamentary Politics, and Modern Anti-Semitism: The Dreyfus Affair in Rural France."

9085: 8937: 8486: 5528: 5416: 4938: 4635: 4498: 4137:

everywhere in France. In certain districts of Alsace the peasants attacked the dwellings of the Jews, who took refuge in

2770: 1568: 1385: 1375: 615: 10878: 8508: 3490: 12226: 10665: 10061: 9670: 8718: 8672: 7507: 7399: 6419: 5712: 1964: 1914: 1879: 1573: 1438: 1305: 10632: 9658:

Goldberg, Chad Alan. "The Jews, the Revolution, and the Old Regime in French Anti-Semitism and Durkheim's Sociology."

5621: 12342: 11392: 11032: 10784: 10779: 10737: 10727: 10637: 10413: 10031: 9991: 9971: 9951: 9854: 8744: 7704: 7203: 6986: 6268: 6086: 5916: 5516: 3180: 3161:

by the Muslims in 1009. After the destruction, European reaction to the rumor of the letter was of shock and dismay,

2564: 1656: 1618: 1593: 1513: 1498: 1345: 1285: 1240: 11897: 11586: 6068: 5243:, the legislature passed laws to suppress antisemitic harassment and actions, and established educational programs. 4389: 2877:, the Jews were organized for religious purposes as they were in the Roman empire. They appear to have had priests ( 2758:

communities to the large segment of Jews who are entirely secular and who often marry outside the Jewish community.

12241: 11262: 11214: 11082: 10290: 10164: 9966: 7257: 7160: 5984:"Jews are leaving France in record numbers amid rising antisemitism and fears of more Isis-inspired terror attacks" 5602: 5461: 5030: 4837: 1949: 1931: 1837: 1731: 1583: 1578: 1503: 1468: 1335: 8630: 8453: 7578:

Birnbaum, Pierre (1995). "French Jewish Sociologists Between Reason and Faith: The Impact of the Dreyfus Affair".

5562:

was attacked with a machete by a Kurdish teenager. Some Jewish groups debated recommending that Jews not wear the

3120:

There were widespread persecutions of Jews in France beginning in 1007 or 1009. These persecutions, instigated by

13261: 12986: 12685: 11903: 11189: 10295: 10169: 10116: 10091: 10046: 10041: 10016: 9874: 6944:[Catalog of Documents of the Charters Treasury relating to the Jews under the reign of Philip the Fair]. 5184: 4676:

By the time Dreyfus was fully exonerated in 1906, antisemitism declined sharply and it declined again during the

3444:

The practice of "retention treaties" spread throughout France after 1198. Lords intending to impose a heavy tax (

2467: 2366: 1921: 1904: 1857: 1756: 1666: 1603: 1553: 1533: 1528: 1448: 1422: 1397: 1275: 1265: 1255: 1235: 1230: 12574: 12538: 10676: 9776: 4481:(1803–1885) was a political writer and zoologist who introduced antisemitism into French mainstream thinking. A 3728:

each, they would have to quit the kingdom within one month. Speaking of this exile, a French historian has said,

13256: 12140: 11060: 11055: 10755: 10270: 10081: 10071: 10021: 9981: 9934: 9929: 9919: 9904: 9899: 9894: 9879: 9864: 9859: 9849: 9844: 9839: 9834: 9479: 7554: 7352: 6865: 6644: 6564: 5521: 5391:

France has the largest Jewish population in Europe and the third largest Jewish population in the world (after

5100: 5055: 5035: 5014: 4419: 4330:

did not materially change the political condition of the Jews. Enemies of the Jews cherished the hope that the

3658: 1940: 1926: 1894: 1874: 1842: 1786: 1761: 1736: 1716: 1706: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1661: 1651: 1646: 1623: 1538: 1523: 1443: 1402: 1355: 1350: 1270: 1215: 9417: 9334: 4141:. A gloomy picture of the outrages upon them was sketched before the National Assembly (3 August) by the abbé 2830:, in 449, Jews and Christians mingled in crowds and wept; the former were said to have sung psalms in Hebrew. 13196: 12838: 12600: 12430: 11244: 10722: 10699: 10179: 10121: 10066: 10056: 10036: 10026: 10011: 10006: 9986: 9956: 9924: 9884: 9820: 8139: 8068: 6516: 5613: 4813: 4405:

oath continued to be administered to them, in spite of the repeated protestations of both the rabbis and the

3642: 2361: 1899: 1884: 1847: 1809: 1781: 1771: 1766: 1751: 1746: 1726: 1711: 1671: 1637: 1608: 1508: 1493: 1417: 1407: 1325: 1295: 1220: 1206: 5403: 4261: 3213:"that the conversion of Jews is not to be obtained by force." Also in the same year, Alexander called for a 12314: 11331: 11209: 10255: 10240: 10096: 10051: 9976: 9946: 7749: 5617: 5371: 5295: 5199: 5194: 4797: 4540:(I Accuse), addressing the President of the Republic, and accusing the government with antisemitism in the 4509: 3892: 3619: 3380: 3154: 3125: 3058: 2693: 1969: 1889: 1852: 1776: 1721: 1588: 1563: 1488: 1463: 1453: 1392: 1315: 1310: 1290: 1280: 1260: 1245: 1138: 842: 606: 601: 11918: 9631:

Caron, Vicki. "The Antisemitic revival in France in the 1930s: the socioeconomic dimension reconsidered."

8814: 3011:

Charlemagne fixed a formula for the Jewish oath to the state. He allowed Jews to enter into lawsuits with

13091: 13001: 12680: 12620: 12236: 11204: 11194: 10868: 10501: 7423: 5540: 5311: 5105: 4855: 4414: 4349: 4170: 4111: 4015: 3465: 3096: 2930:

They probably remained under Roman law until the triumph of Christianity, with the status established by

1959: 1954: 1909: 1862: 1548: 1518: 1478: 1473: 1330: 636: 17: 11923: 11593: 11298: 8378: 6039: 5821: 3395:) against the Jews, many of whom were burned or attacked in France. Immediately after the coronation of 2935: 13209: 12372: 12231: 11879: 11717: 11427: 10617: 10210: 9677:

Jean-Paul Sartre and the Jewish question: anti-antisemitism and the politics of the French intellectual

9452:

The Jews in Nineteenth-Century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israelite Universelle

9382: 9062: 8837: 7376: 6193: 5641: 5376: 4582: 4019: 3312: 2433: 2278: 1986: 1380: 576: 566: 302: 11675: 9715: 7231: 6396: 5327:, relations between Israel and France remained strong. It is widely believed that, as a result of the 4211:

the reactionaries did not cease their agitations and Jews were victims of discriminations. During the

3915: 13081: 12886: 12191: 12133: 11252: 11112: 10418: 10408: 9464:

Haus, Jeffrey. "Liberte, Egalite, Utilite: Jewish Education and State in Nineteenth-Century France."

8040: 5874: 5269: 4988: 4567: 2547: 2240: 2091: 2032: 923: 12748: 12675: 12377: 11432: 10516: 9369: 7301:

Crossley, Ceri (2004). "Anglophobia and anti-Semitism: The case of Alphonse Toussenel (1803–1885)".

6941: 4747: 3426: 3015:. They were not allowed to require Christians to work on Sundays. Jews were not allowed to trade in 12319: 12299: 12271: 12211: 12201: 12186: 12181: 12176: 12171: 11336: 11321: 11136: 10328: 9756: 8538: 6942:"Catalogue des Documents du Trésor des Chartes relatifs aux Juifs sous le règne de Philippe le Bel" 5680: 5581: 5477: 4821: 4283: 3584: 3233:, despite their fantastic character. Finally, and above all, their attention was occupied with the 2678: 2250: 2230: 1340: 820: 361: 11742: 8336: 6889:

Jordan, William Chester (1998). "Jews, Regalian Rights, and the Constitution in Medieval France".

4146: 4034:

was raised by two men of genius, who subsequently became prominent in the French Revolution—Count

3701:

not to imprison any Jews at the instance of the Inquisitors, but in 1299 he rescinded this order.

12793: 12700: 12281: 12261: 12251: 12246: 12221: 12206: 12156: 12010: 11824: 11493: 10511: 10491: 10260: 9374: 6317: 5646: 4893: 4763: 4095: 3529: 3324: 3210: 2874: 2827: 2391: 2381: 2346: 2225: 2215: 1998: 1169: 1111: 945: 624: 581: 296: 236: 13127: 13026: 12646: 10812: 7453:

Wilson, Stephen (1976). "Antisemitism and Jewish Response in France during the Dreyfus Affair".

6502: 5651: 4451: 4123: 3532:, he performed only the minimum service of 40 days and left for home amid charges of treachery. 13171: 13061: 12896: 12347: 12216: 12042: 11913: 11559: 11397: 11233: 10694: 10350: 9691:

Reconciling France Against Democracy: The Croix de Feu and the Parti Social Fran ais, 1927–1945

9497: 8602: 6198: 6021: 5955: 5685: 5574: 5512: 5465: 5426: 5363: 5167: 5120: 4809: 4718: 4437: 4399:

While the Jews had become in other respects the equals of their Christian fellow citizens, the

4153: 3927: 3630: 3320: 2978: 2686: 2655: 2624: 2510: 2245: 2159: 1225: 777: 396: 366: 188: 7694: 6783: 6766: 6736: 6636: 6630: 6556: 6550: 6113:

Mais la date du décès est calculée en fonction du calendrier local, ici celui du règne du roi

5969: 4754:. The new intensity of antisemitism facilitated the extremism of the Vichy regime after 1940. 4592:, a vehement open letter published in a Paris newspaper in January 1898 by the notable writer 3142: 13021: 12823: 12562: 12114: 11890: 11644: 10551: 10365: 10203: 9469: 7867: 5626: 5449: 5420: 5350:, one of the planners of the attack. Both France and Israel participated in the 15-year-long 4353: 4327: 4246: 4237: 4119: 3521: 3505: 3205: 3030: 2822:(9 July 425), that prohibited Jews and pagans from practising law or holding public offices ( 2762: 2401: 2396: 2341: 2129: 1044: 772: 759: 654: 371: 13086: 9428:

The Jews of the Republic: A Political History of State Jews in France from Gambetta to Vichy

8357: 8189: 5584:, was found dead in her apartment in the east of the French capital, where she lived alone. 5328: 4282:

also spread the concept in the lands he conquered across Europe, liberating Jews from their

13041: 12868: 12763: 12568: 12352: 12289: 12049: 11874: 11732: 11569: 11402: 11311: 10862: 10670: 10375: 5347: 4888:

In July 2017, while at a ceremony at the site of the Vélodrome d'Hiver, France's President

4874: 4680:, as a nation was aware that many Jews died fighting for France. The antisemitic newspaper 4406: 4381: 4242: 3926:

From 1484, one town after another had called for expulsion, but the calls were rejected by

3875: 3862:, and no one was to be forced by the king or his officers to repay to them usurious loans. 3674: 3497: 3388: 3355: 2472: 2424: 2164: 2022: 835: 700: 689: 647: 11768: 6067:(3 May 2018). "Les noms des juifs à Paris (XII-XIV siècle)". In Nadiras, Sébastien (ed.). 5544: 5492: 4904: 4643: 3008:

traders were nearly the only group to maintain trade between the Occident and the Orient.

8: 12813: 12445: 12387: 11829: 11819: 11442: 11102: 11042: 10704: 10683: 9270:"French Jewish Politician Alain Ghozland Found Murdered In Home, Anti-Semitism To Blame?" 8668: 7081:"States, regimes, and decisions: why Jews were expelled from Medieval England and France" 6026: 5631: 5454: 5257: 5060: 5050: 4311: 4275: 4185:, formerly a parliamentary councilor, Duport, unexpectedly ascended the tribune and said, 4110:

reluctant to yield to the state their intra-communal privileges, were denied this right.

3951: 3931: 3714: 3694: 3666: 3121: 2783: 2751: 2620: 2612: 2525: 2220: 898: 765: 668: 661: 591: 479: 354: 13076: 12843: 11933: 10322: 4739: 4410: 4385: 3404:

of other countries, and the numerous works produced in those days. The impulse given by

13148: 12543: 12513: 12397: 11814: 11705: 11554: 11452: 11199: 11117: 11074: 10601: 10387: 9514: 9489: 8300: 8267: 8167: 7804: 7796: 7595: 7525: 7478: 7370: 7326: 7111: 7048: 6922: 6914: 6838: 6697: 6238: 6031: 5548: 5488: 5444: 5367: 5351: 5261: 5128: 4993: 4854:

On the other hand, France is recognised as the nation with the third highest number of

4817: 4804:. The Vichy government even protected them after attacks as a way to deny persecution. 4609: 4581:

Two years later, in 1896, evidence came to light identifying a French Army major named

4478: 4433: 3825: 3634: 3556:(1226–70) (also known as Saint Louis), with his ardent piety and his submission to the 3553: 3525: 3464:

and successfully "captured" its Jews with a large tax levy. From 1223 on, however, the

3237:

and its commentaries. The text of this work, together with that of the writings of the

3069: 2807: 2705: 2376: 2326: 2273: 2268: 2182: 2052: 1320: 1149: 908: 828: 682: 248: 13066: 12630: 12610: 11794: 11784: 10566: 10496: 10423: 9108: 8991:"Grenoble attack: Man found beheaded and Islamist flag raised above factory in France" 8479:"Immigrants, by Period of Immigration, Country of Birth and Last Country of Residence" 8134: 7991: 7640:"Jewish Artists of the School of Paris 1905-1939 - Nadine Nieszawer and Déborah Princ" 7067:

Chronique de Religieux de Saint-Denys, contenant le regne de Charles VI de 1380 a 1422

5742: 4851:

to round-up Jews. They participated in the Vel' d'Hiv roundup on 16 and 17 July 1942.

4613: 4428: 4228:

and wealthier Jews deprived themselves of their jewels to make similar contributions.

3316: 3053:, to the consternation of Rome. There were unsubstantiated rumors in this period that 2619:

in the late 18th century, on the other hand, France was the first European country to

94: 12901: 12858: 12833: 12788: 12670: 12498: 12402: 12304: 12079: 12003: 11989: 11834: 11564: 11457: 11326: 10531: 10526: 9624:

Caron, Vicki. "The'Jewish Question'from Dreyfus to Vichy." in Martin Alexander, ed.,

9518: 8583: 8386: 7873: 7808: 7700: 7587: 7560: 7550: 7513: 7503: 7482: 7470: 7405: 7395: 7358: 7348: 7330: 7318: 7209: 7199: 7115: 7103: 7040: 6992: 6982: 6926: 6906: 6871: 6861: 6830: 6789: 6742: 6689: 6650: 6640: 6570: 6560: 6450: 6440: 6415: 6358: 6348: 6299: 6289: 6264: 6242: 6230: 6161: 6132: 6092: 6082: 6043: 5597: 5504: 4800:. Still, the vast majority of synagogues remained opened during the whole war in the 4734: 4655: 4571: 4482: 4292: 4047: 3905:. The Jewish presence reached a peak in 1348 when it probably numbered about 15,000. 3840: 3836: 3741: 3561: 3513: 3201: 2616: 2604: 2520: 2462: 2442: 2259: 1819: 1458: 918: 789: 719: 596: 509: 376: 12483: 11849: 10392: 8815:"Immigration figures reach 10-year high in 2014 – with large boost from French Jews" 7497: 4725:

contributed to a revival of antisemitism in the 1930s. Conservative writers such as

4687: 4605: 4142: 4039: 2681:. By the war's end, 25% of the Jewish population of France had been murdered in the 13181: 12891: 12828: 12773: 12743: 12035: 11996: 11615: 11184: 10818: 10556: 10521: 10345: 9506: 9495:

Safran, William (May 2004). "Ethnoreligious Politics in France: Jews and Muslims".

7788: 7462: 7310: 7095: 7032: 6898: 6822: 6681: 6222: 6074: 6064: 6035: 5086: 4331: 4057: 3438: 3328: 2926:, an "inscription relating to the Jews of France", or as a "Christian inscription". 2850: 2490: 2371: 2331: 2295: 1993: 1543: 1054: 810: 714: 629: 519: 311: 196: 192: 172: 159: 151: 80: 12981: 12605: 11359: 10461: 10428: 8912:"Jewish Agency-Affiliated Think Tank Composes Aliyah Plan for 120,000 French Jews" 7232:"Chapitre XIV – La Révolution française et l'émancipation des Juifs — (1789–1806)" 3737: 12966: 12863: 12778: 12768: 12458: 12357: 11747: 11700: 11690: 11685: 11407: 11159: 11122: 11107: 10974: 10795: 10744: 10451: 10334: 10280: 9780: 9763: 9233: 8701: 7948: 7164: 6976: 5988: 5922: 5343: 5256:. They fled to France because of the decline of the French Empire and a surge in 5081: 4889: 4743: 4699: 4682: 4663: 4651: 4618: 4588: 4536: 4514: 4505: 4486: 4461: 4456: 4288: 4250: 4212: 4174: 4161: 4031: 3999: 3920: 3710: 3607: 3580: 3557: 3396: 3168: 3150: 3134: 3081: 3054: 3046: 3038: 3026: 2950: 2946: 2923: 2870: 2815: 2647: 2452: 2411: 2406: 2386: 2308: 2302: 2235: 2187: 2027: 2008: 1159: 888: 800: 783: 327: 184: 180: 168: 147: 65: 50: 13051: 12635: 12488: 10586: 9789: 9532:

Schoolcraft, Ralph. "In Lieu of Memory: Contemporary Jewish Writing in France,"

9510: 8565: 8163:"Jews in France Feel Sting as Anti-Semitism Surges Among Children of Immigrants" 8110: 8088: 7314: 7136: 6011: 5796:"La communauté juive de France compte 550.000 personnes, dont 25.000 à Toulouse" 4409:. It was only in 1846, owing to a brilliant defense speech by the Jewish lawyer 3512:

on Jews' debts should no longer hold good, he at the same time ordered that the

3375: 13235: 12808: 12615: 12518: 12107: 12102: 12097: 12092: 12087: 11971: 11938: 11839: 11549: 11087: 11050: 10904: 10596: 10355: 10340: 9636: 9566:

Anderson, Thomas P. "Edouard Drumont and the Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism."

9438: 9365: 9314:"Paris: Two charged with anti-Semitic murder of 85-year-old Holocaust survivor" 8282: 7466: 6017: 5436: 4966: 4866: 4730: 4647: 4601: 4563: 4549: 4541: 4220: 4115: 3975: 3880: 3850: 3845: 3757: 3682: 3535: 3304: 2792: 2788: 2716:, which has the largest Jewish population among all European cities (277,000), 2709: 2628: 2552: 2351: 2206: 2086: 2065: 2042: 2037: 2015: 2003: 1598: 1079: 1013: 978: 956: 893: 731: 709: 571: 550: 526: 292: 274: 232: 155: 13176: 12911: 12906: 11854: 11422: 10506: 9698:

The Jew Accused: Three Anti-Semitic Affairs (Dreyfus, Beilis, Frank) 1894–1915

9288:"In France, murder of a Jewish woman ignites debate over the word 'terrorism'" 9251: 8233:"Toulouse shooting: Same gun and motorbike used in Jewish and soldier attacks" 7792: 7099: 6902: 6811:"New Light on the Persecution of French Jews at the Time of the First Crusade" 6096: 5380: 3614:

forgiven, but the other two-thirds were to be remitted to the royal treasury.

3245: 2949:. The Jews on the other hand continued to dwell and to prosper in what is now 2627:

still occurred in cycles and reached a high in the 1890s, as shown during the

13245: 13223: 13071: 13046: 13031: 13011: 12848: 12818: 12803: 12783: 12758: 12733: 12710: 12695: 12508: 12493: 12382: 12167: 12017: 11844: 11437: 11097: 10660: 10591: 10576: 10571: 10561: 10546: 10476: 9360: 8512: 8390: 8262: 7849:"Marine Le Pen: France 'not responsible' for deporting Jews during Holocaust" 7591: 7517: 7474: 7409: 7322: 7107: 7044: 6910: 6834: 6693: 6454: 6256: 6234: 6165: 6013: 5580:

On 23 March 2018, an 85-year-old French Jewish woman and Holocaust survivor,

5396: 5283: 4976: 4639: 4575: 4562:

The affair began in November 1894 with the conviction for treason of Captain

4490: 4303: 4157: 4011: 3720: 3662: 3461: 3422: 3346: 3226: 3050: 3034: 3005: 2907: 2811: 2747: 2701: 2500: 2495: 1701: 1628: 1154: 1003: 998: 993: 983: 961: 913: 675: 514: 419: 381: 332: 224: 9581: 9395:

Adler, Jacques. "The Jews and Vichy: reflections on French historiography."

8722: 8416: 7894:"'France organised this': Macron denounces state role in Holocaust atrocity" 7564: 7362: 6996: 6981:. Translated by DeBevoise, M.B. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. 6875: 6685: 6654: 6574: 6362: 6303: 6047: 5524:, predicted as many as 250,000 French Jews to make aliyah by the year 2030. 5460:

Rises in antisemitism in modern France have been linked to the intensifying

4921: 4593: 4531: 4178: 3548:

In spite of all these restrictions designed to restrain, if not to suppress

2677:

to deport a large number of both French Jews and foreign Jewish refugees to

13016: 12976: 12921: 12738: 12705: 12625: 12592: 12528: 12523: 12468: 12417: 11789: 11369: 11364: 11219: 11179: 11154: 11149: 11092: 10581: 10536: 10486: 10265: 10226: 9109:"For French Jews, a New Reality: Under Attack for Being French, Not Jewish" 8607: 8073: 7213: 6136: 5573:

On 4 April 2017, the horrific murder of a 65-year-old French Jewish woman,

5480: 5335: 5240: 4971: 4912: 4908: 4897: 4793: 4786: 4751: 4659: 4401: 4182: 3910: 3251: 3012: 2998: 2990: 2882: 2750:, many of whom (or their parents) emigrated from former French colonies of 2744: 2666: 2636: 2615:

increased over time, including multiple expulsions and returns. During the

2530: 2356: 2197: 2192: 2150: 2103: 1197: 1064: 1049: 1008: 973: 586: 428: 228: 12853: 12125: 9595:

The pope of antisemitism: the career and legacy of Edouard-Adolphe Drumont

9588:

Anti-Semitism in France: A Political History from Léon Blum to the Present

7345:

Antisemitism : a historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution

6078: 4722: 2888: 2712:. French Jewish communities are concentrated in the metropolitan areas of 12916: 12753: 12473: 12407: 11607: 11462: 11144: 10541: 9445:

Jewish Youth and Identity in Postwar France: Rebuilding Family and Nation

6100: 5431: 5384: 5339: 5324: 5265: 5091: 5003: 4998: 4726: 4677: 4003: 3549: 3470: 3392: 3162: 2971: 2919: 2659: 2608: 2515: 2457: 2122: 1028: 1023: 1018: 988: 9578:

Globalizing Race: Antisemitism and Empire in French and European Culture

9571: 9404:

Rhinestones, Religion, and the Republic: Fashioning Jewishness in France

9359: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 8887:"Wealthy French Jews Are Fleeing Anti-Semitism and Bringing Their Money" 8069:"France responsible for sending Jews to concentration camps, says court" 7154: 6701: 6669: 5848:"Four shot dead at Jewish school in France; gun used in earlier attacks" 5769:"Fears of Anti-Semitism: More and More French Jews Emigrating to Israel" 3801: 3653: 3076:

disembarked on the coast of Narbonnese Gaul, they were taken for Jewish

2685:, though this was a lower proportion than in most other countries under 13096: 13036: 12533: 12453: 11754: 11021: 10897: 10749: 10434: 10360: 9767: 9684:

The extreme right in interwar France: the Faisceau and the Croix de Feu

9653: 9612: 9252:"French Jewish Politician Found Dead With Stab Wounds in His Apartment" 8638: 7800: 7776: 7599: 7052: 6918: 6842: 6810: 6607: 6226: 5913: 5532: 5246: 4946: 4859: 4801: 4254: 4216: 4134: 3982: 3805: 3745: 3588: 3576:

to Jews. The king wished in this way to strike a deadly blow at usury.

2954: 2942: 2866: 2834: 2729: 2173: 1187: 1116: 1074: 903: 883: 442: 349: 269: 212: 8719:"Netanyahu to French Jews: 'Come to Israel and make Israel your home'" 6345:

The Jews in medieval Normandy : a social and intellectual history

5567: 5543:, committed by suspected ISIS affiliates reputedly in retaliation for 5453:

had earlier said the same thing. According to a 2005 poll made by the

5323:

After the military alliance between France and Israel during the 1956

3986: 3249:, was first revised and copied; then these writings were treated as a 3193: 3183:(bishop 990–1012), offered the Jews of his diocese the choice between 3116:

Costumes of medieval French Jews, as reimagined in a 1906 encyclopedia

2854: 2696:

in Europe and the third-largest Jewish population in the world (after

12798: 12690: 11637: 9773: 8768:"French anti-Semitism and French aliyah skyrocket on parallel tracks" 8543: 8452:. The Coordination Forum for Countering Anti-Semitism. Archived from 7913:"Macron Denounces Anti-Zionism as 'Reinvented Form of Anti-Semitism'" 7614:"The Jewish painters of l'École de Paris-from the Holocaust to today" 7020: 6288:. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. pp. 139–141. 5559: 5299: 5279: 4714: 4315: 4300: 4107: 4023: 3971: 3777: 3698: 3678: 3158: 3042: 3002: 2958: 2931: 2717: 2682: 2336: 2321: 1411: 1359: 1121: 1069: 1059: 740: 736: 726: 641: 401: 7970:"When Did the U.S. and Israel Become Allies? (Hint: Trick Question)" 7678:

From Dreyfus to Vichy : the remaking of French Jewry, 1906–1939

7665:

From Dreyfus to Vichy : the remaking of French Jewry, 1906–1939

7036: 6826: 6600:

Inventaire Critique des Lettres Historiques des Croisades – 786–1100

6286:

Living Letters of the Law: Ideas of the Jew in Medieval Christianity

4693:

After 1900, a wave of Jewish immigrants arrived, mostly fleeing the

4022:

as purveyor to the army, was the representantive of the Jews before

3897:

Archaeological evidence has been discovered of a Jewish presence in

3629:

Later, after having discussed the subject with his son-in-law, King

3485: 1089: 8695:"Stay or go? French Jews face a growing – and emotional – dilemma." 8194: 7750:"Que sont devenues les synagogues françaises pendant l'Occupation?" 6670:"Through Jewish Eyes: Polemical Literature and the Medieval Papacy" 5739:"More Than One Quarter of Jews in France Want To Leave, Poll Finds" 5472:

Between 2000 and 2009, 13,315 French Jews moved to Israel, or made

4296: 4279: 4208: 4130: 4103: 4087: 4083: 4052: 3981:

In 1683, Louis XIV expelled Jews from the newly acquired colony of

3898: 3809: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3773: 3769: 3761: 3749: 3690: 3599: 3509: 3340: 3146: 3092: 3077: 3016: 2897: 2862: 2846: 2796: 2740: 2733: 2505: 2115: 2047: 878: 386: 337: 9727:

Shields, James G. "Antisemitism in France: The spectre of Vichy."

8308:"Islamic Extremism: Common Concern for Muslim and Western Publics" 7969: 5815: 5813: 3781: 3303:, his birthplace, after having followed the teachings of those of 9018:"Come home!' Israeli minister urges French Jews amid terror wave" 8341: 7900:. Associated Press. 17 July 2017 – via www.theguardian.com. 6635:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 4983: 4848: 4781:

110,000 French Jews were living in the colony of French Algeria.

4710: 4703: 4694: 4670: 4666: 4091: 4043: 3565: 3474: 3295: 3214: 3189: 3184: 3085: 3073: 2994: 2810:(died 366) for having fled from the Jewish society. The emperors 2708:

is estimated to number 480,000–550,000, depending in part on the

2651: 2481: 2447: 2316: 2110: 1099: 1094: 966: 857: 752: 748: 744: 493: 488: 465: 447: 322: 317: 307: 285: 260: 208: 9234:"Marseille teacher attack: Jewish leaders agonise over skullcap" 9154:"French Jews head to Israel in the wake of Paris terror attacks" 8631:"'Sarkozy effect' on French Jewish immigration to Israel ?" 8509:"Le chiffre de l'alya des Juifs de France ne décolle pas !" 7931:"Macron hosts Netanyahu, condemns anti-Zionism as anti-Semitism" 5819: 4746:

denounced Jews. Perhaps the most violent antisemitic writer was

3469:

ordinance—the first piece of public legislation in France since

3269: 2842: 12581: 11600: 10195: 9527:

Obstinate Hebrews: Representations of Jews in France, 1715–1815

9176:"Dozens of French Jews immigrate to Israel after Paris attacks" 8210:"'Gang of Barbarians': 14 Defendants Will Be Retried on Appeal" 6437:

A history of Christianity : the first three thousand years

6117:, et non en fonction du calendrier juif comme au bas Moyen Âge. 5810: 5563: 5473: 5392: 5317: 5287: 5189: 5024: 4772:

Antisemitic Exposition during Nazi occupation of France (1942).

4596:. Activists put pressure on the government to reopen the case. 4495:

Les juifs rois de l'époque, histoire de la féodalité financière

4215:, at Bordeaux, Jewish bankers, compromised in the cause of the 4204: 4099: 3966: 3956: 3765: 3753: 3592: 3434: 3410: 3350: 3300: 3286: 3282: 3239: 3234: 3088: 2878: 2766: 2755: 2697: 2600: 2141: 2136: 2096: 2081: 1192: 1084: 504: 470: 456: 391: 9486:

From Dreyfus to Vichy: The Remaking of French Jewry, 1906–1939

9040:"Israel's Absorption Ministry Plans for Influx of French Jews" 8987: 7721:

From Dreyfus to Vichy: The Remaking of French Jewry, 1906–1939

6536:

ib. 262, according to whom the event occurred in 1007 or 1008.

4612:, and those who condemned him (the anti-Dreyfusards), such as 3835:

Nine years had hardly passed since the expulsion of 1306 when

3112: 9198:"Teenager Attacks Jewish Teacher in Marseille With a Machete" 8412:""L'antisémitisme est de retour", selon le président du Crif" 7238:. Histoire antique des pays et des hommes de la Mediterrannée 7196:Être juif dans la société française, du Moyen-Âge à nos jours 6114: 5897:"Le Bilan de la Shoah en France [Le régime de Vichy]" 4526: 4138: 3902: 3859: 3797: 3603: 3405: 3308: 3293:(particularly on the Pentateuch), a sort of repertory of the 3290: 3278: 3264: 3129: 3068:

Jews were engaged in export trade, particularly traveling to

2975: 2901: 2893: 2858: 2838: 2713: 2643: 1104: 533: 437: 406: 6555:(Rev. and expanded ed.). New York: Doubleday. pp. 5346:

at the Olympics, the French government refused to extradite

3919:(xiv. 162–183), about 3,000 Jews came to Provence after the 3539:

A group of medieval Jewish moneylenders conducting business.

3311:, immediately became famous. Around his chair were gathered 3200:

Another violent commotion arose at about 1065. At this date

9414:

The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present

9086:"French now realizing they, and not just Jews, are targets" 8362: 7284:"L'affaire de la "consonnance israélite" du nom de famille" 7250: 6978:

The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present

6188: 6186: 6184: 4358: 3172: 3165: 3020: 2986: 2982: 2819: 2800: 2725: 2721: 2596: 256: 8838:"Jewish Agency: 'Dramatic' Rise in French, Ukraine Aliyah" 7777:"The Jews and Vichy: Reflections on French Historiography" 7347:. Levy, Richard S. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2005. 6383:

MS. No. 563, 23; see also Jew. Encyc. v. 447, s.v. France.

4616:, the director and publisher of the antisemitic newspaper 3520:

Twenty-six barons accepted Louis VIII's new measures, but

3489:

A gathering of thirteenth-century French Rabbis (from the

8963:"Israel Gains With Influx of French Jewish Entrepreneurs" 8661:"Top countries of origin for Jewish immigrants to Israel" 8115: 6070:

Noms de lieux, noms de personnes: la question des sources

5656: 4922:

Post-World War II: Anti-discriminatory laws and migration

4702:. About 200,000 immigrants arrived, 1900 to 1939, mostly 4512:

in 1889, and was the founder and editor of the newspaper

4504:

Antisemitism based on racism emerged in the 1880s led by

3448:, literally "capture") on Jews living in their lordship ( 7194:

Philippe, Béatrice (1979). "La Révolution et l'Empire".

6181: 5566:

in public. A 73 year old Jewish municipal councillor in

3849:

for the privilege of returning. It is also probable, as

9544:

The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne

9132:"Steady increase in number of French Jews making aliya" 8066: 6858:

The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne

6815:

Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research

5713:"French Jews fear anti-Semitism will destroy community" 5298:, France's Jewish population suffered its first deadly 3504:

of 1223, while more inspired with the doctrines of the

7829:(in French). Présidence de la République. 16 July 1995 6012:

Broydé, Isaac Luria; et al. (1906). "France". In

4830:

Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps

4042:—the former of whom, while on a diplomatic mission in 3788:. The exiles could not take refuge anywhere except in 2658:

and communism, the latter two being popular among the

13207: 9607:

Byrnes, R. F. "Edouard Drumont and La France Juive."

8135:"Anti-Semitism rising, Jews in France ponder leaving" 6310: 6140: 5822:"Gunman attacks Jewish school in France, four killed" 5410: 4586:

attendant cover-up began to spread, chiefly owing to

3815: 3602:, Louis ordered the expulsion of all Jews engaged in 2981:. Trading and importing of oriental products such as 8511:(in French). Magazine Terre d'Israel. Archived from 8017:"Mastermind behind the Munich Olympics attacks dies" 7547:

France and the Dreyfus Affair: A Documentary History

5247:

Jewish exodus from France's colonies in North Africa

3416: 2739:

The majority of French Jews in the 21st century are

2120: 2101: 524: 9216:"France debates Jewish skullcap after knife attack" 9083: 8745:"Immigration to Israel Rises by 7% – Led by French" 8473: 8471: 6602:by Paul Edouard Didier Riant (Paris, 1880), p. 38. 6263:(in French). Dover Publications. pp. 123–128. 4879:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

4690:included Jews among France's "spiritual families". 4075:, the 1791 decree giving the Jews full citizenship 3413:, rabbinical jurisprudence, and Biblical exegesis. 13122:Sons and Daughters of Jewish Deportees from France 11258:Law regarding foreign nationals of the Jewish race 11041: 8989: 8861:"Number of French Jews Emigrating to Israel Rises" 8450:"The 2011 annual report on antisemitism in France" 8231: 8036:"France faces its guilt for deporting Jews in war" 7394:. New York; Bern; Frankfurt am Main; Paris: Lang. 6632:El Camino : Walking to Santiago de Compostela 6467:Berliner's "Magazin," iii.; "Oẓar Ṭob," pp. 46–48. 6428: 5970:"France : Un portrait de la population juive" 4344:to the campaign led in Parliament by the deputies 3421:This century, which opened with the return of the 2873:, and according to an edict of 331 by the emperor 10790:French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems 10775:Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy 9819: 9785:The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot 9705:Muslims and Jews in France: History of a Conflict 9619:The Dreyfus affair in French society and politics 9437:3.3 (1891): 367–435. long scholarly description. 8539:"As attacks rise in France, Jews flock to Israel" 8358:"Report: Gaza war reverses drop in anti-Semitism" 7499:The Dreyfus Affair in French Society and Politics 6478:"Jekuthiel ben Judah Ha-Kohen | Encyclopedia.com" 6131: 5637:List of Holocaust memorials and museums in France 5282:tradition and culture. The Sephardim, who follow 4757: 3677:, which had been instituted in order to suppress 3061:was a converted Jew, as she would not accept the 13243: 8716: 8468: 7078: 6970: 6968: 6277: 6261:Mahomet et Charlemagne (reprint of 1937 classic) 5732: 5730: 3319:(Rashbam), and Shemaya, his grandsons; likewise 2776: 2607:. France was a centre of Jewish learning in the 10733:List of constitutional laws of the Vichy regime 9628:(1999): 172–202, a guide to the historiography. 9106: 8988:Raziye Akkoc, and Henry Samuel (26 June 2015). 6178:(Click on search link and enter above EDCS-ID.) 5820:John Irish and Guillaume Serries (March 2012). 4717:. The Yiddish influx and the Jewishness of the 4686:closed in 1924, and the former anti-Dreyfusard 4489:, he criticized the economic liberalism of the 4274:Though the Revolution had begun the process of 11651:Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism 8938:"Aliyah plan prepares for 120,000 French Jews" 8808: 8806: 8337:"French Jews ask Sarkozy to help curb attacks" 8312:Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project 7692: 7688: 7686: 7021:"The Expulsion of the Jews from France (1306)" 6544: 6542: 6409: 5570:was murdered in his apartment the same month. 5495:advised the French Jewish community by saying 4253:, an imperial Jewish high court sanctioned by 4063: 3370: 3225:During this period, which continued until the 2833:In the sixth century, Jews were documented in 12141: 10211: 9805: 9129: 9060: 8957: 8955: 8789:"74% of French Jews Consider Leaving Country" 8532: 8530: 7865: 6965: 6255: 5736: 5727: 5536:in the same period during the previous year. 5219: 4198: 3992: 3425:to France proper (then almost reduced to the 2900:at the 7th-century beginning of the reign of 2572: 72: 9667:Antisemitism during the French Second Empire 8858: 8190:"Suspects in death of French Jew face trial" 8067:Lizzy Davies (in Paris) (17 February 2009). 7392:Antisemitism during the French Second Empire 7177:Religion and Revolution in France, 1780–1804 7018: 5889: 5841: 5839: 5762: 5760: 5675: 5673: 5671: 5254:Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries 4778:France came under occupation by Nazi Germany 3689:In accordance with these rules, the Jews of 3517:abolished and replaced by the ordinary one. 2913: 2692:In the 21st century, France has the largest 57: 42: 13116:Fondation pour la Mémoire de la Déportation 12426:Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation 12155: 10852:Underground media in German-occupied France 9364: 8835: 8803: 8765: 7859: 7732: 7683: 7225: 7223: 7065:History of the reign of Charles VI, titled 6771:. Funk & Wagnalls Company. p. 448. 6764: 6548: 6539: 6158:Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt 5793: 5710: 4114:, a French-Jewish financier, then asked to 3913:, in a special study of the subject in the 3648: 3220: 3149:. According to Adémar, Christians urged by 2905: 816:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 12148: 12134: 10218: 10204: 9812: 9798: 8952: 8812: 8527: 8444: 8442: 7530:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6434: 5845: 5706: 5704: 5558:In January 2016, a 35-year-old teacher in 5305: 5226: 5212: 4654:art movement, typified by such artists as 3704: 3107: 2765:. Since 2010 or so, more have been making 2579: 2565: 93: 9710:Marrus, Michael R. and Robert 0. Paxton. 8603:"French Jews caught up in a war of words" 8600: 8376: 8355: 8331: 8329: 7949:"Israel PM mourns France's deported Jews" 6336: 6194:"The Virtual Jewish History Tour, France" 6007: 6005: 6003: 6001: 5999: 5836: 5766: 5757: 5668: 3828:dating from before the expulsion of 1394 3626:those who had paid it or to their heirs. 3579:In 1243, Louis ordered, at the urging of 3365: 13267:History of the Jews in Europe by country 10874:Newspapers confiscated for collaboration 9554:The myth of the Jew in France, 1967–1982 9385:at the website of Jewish Virtual Library 9084:Amanda Borschel-Dan (15 November 2015). 8377:Eberstadt, Fernanda (29 February 2004). 7964: 7962: 7577: 7300: 7220: 7193: 7189: 7187: 7185: 6974: 6719: 6628: 6552:A concise history of the Catholic Church 6347:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 5375: 4767: 4525: 4450: 4380: 4321: 4260: 4241: 4067: 4018:, who had rendered great service to the 3950: 3819: 3652: 3534: 3484: 3391:led to nearly a century of accusations ( 3374: 3268: 3111: 2904:. The text begins with the Latin phrase 2887: 13154:List of Holocaust memorials and museums 12436:Timeline of deportations to death camps 11279:Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs 10857:Freedom of the Press Ordinances of 1944 9736:The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews 9063:"80% of French Jews considering aliyah" 8884: 8721:. European Jewish Press. Archived from 8439: 8128: 8126: 7910: 7198:(in French). Paris: Éditions Montalba. 7079:Barkey, Karen; Katznelson, Ira (2011). 6781: 6127: 6125: 6063: 6059: 6057: 5954:. World Jewish Congress. Archived from 5883:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 5869: 5867: 5865: 5701: 4843:Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs 4231: 3345:The Jews of France suffered during the 3153:were shocked by the destruction of the 2642:Before 1919, most French Jews lived in 114:(includes non-Jewish relatives of Jews) 14: 13244: 13135:Mémorial des Martyrs de la Déportation 12641:Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline 10824:Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline 9494: 8326: 8033: 7452: 7131: 7129: 7127: 7125: 6888: 6788:. Yale University Press. p. 345. 6765:Singer, Isidore; Adler, Cyrus (1903). 6318:"Internet History Sourcebooks Project" 6212: 5996: 4566:, a young French artillery officer of 4203:Judaism in France thus became, as the 3941: 162:(most endangered and some now extinct) 12129: 10199: 9793: 9156:. IB Business Times. 17 November 2015 8536: 8280: 8256:"Rothschild: France not anti-Semitic" 8244:from the original on 12 January 2022. 8160: 7959: 7774: 7747: 7726: 7644:Fondation pour la Mémoire de la Shoah 7544: 7389: 7182: 6855: 6760: 6758: 6724:. London: Liverpool University Press. 6715: 6713: 6711: 6391: 6389: 6379:iii. 46–48, Hebrew part, reproducing 6283: 5503:During the first few months of 2014, 5443:However, Jewish philanthropist Baron 5425:In the early 2000s, rising levels of 5402:In 2009, France's highest court, the 4962:History of the Jews under Muslim rule 4820:. The most notorious roundup was the 4444:, but not to their Muslim neighbors. 4394:Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme 2970:The presence of Jews in France under 2965: 2869:in these cities. In harmony with the 2818:sent a decree to Amatius, prefect of 12716:Police collaboration in Vichy France 11965:The Destruction of the European Jews 10807:Political situation in French Africa 10802:Police collaboration in Vichy France 9433:Debré, Simon. "The Jews of France." 9107:Shitbon, Shirli (14 November 2015). 8998:from the original on 12 January 2022 8717:Yossi Lempkowicz (5 November 2012). 8283:"Are the French really antisemitic?" 8132: 8123: 7495: 7422:Guy Canivet, first President of the 7229: 6939: 6808: 6785:Medieval Christianity: A New History 6734: 6667: 6342: 6122: 6054: 6030:. Vol. V. New York and London: 5907: 5862: 5741:. Jewish Federations. Archived from 5511:In January 2015, events such as the 4578:, where he spent almost five years. 4436:to the approximately 40,000 Jews of 4338: 3869: 123:Regions with significant populations 13142:Mémorial national de la déportation 9597:(University Press of America, 1986) 9348: 9178:. Times of Israel. 17 November 2015 8885:Mosendz, Polly (5 September 2014). 8707:. 21 January 2015. 21 January 2015. 8584:"French Jews 'must move to Israel'" 8566:"French Jews leave with no regrets" 8487:Israel Central Bureau of Statistics 8356:Branovsky, Yael (25 January 2009). 8111:"Anti-Semitism 'On Rise in Europe'" 8089:"Chirac Vows to Fight Race Attacks" 7984: 7122: 6741:. Simon and Schuster. p. 156. 6738:Heritage: Civilization and the Jews 6412:The Complete Jewish Guide to France 5529:2015 Saint-Quentin-Fallavier attack 5417:Antisemitism in 21st-century France 4939:Jewish exodus from the Muslim world 4499:Rothschild banking family of France 3480: 2914: 73: 58: 24: 10666:French National-Collectivist Party 9707:(Princeton University Press, 2014) 9693:(McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2014). 9586:Birnbaum, Pierre; Kochan, Miriam. 9406:(Stanford University Press, 2014) 9389: 9130:Bassist, Rina (17 November 2015). 9061:Cohen, Shimon (16 November 2015). 8601:Gentleman, Amelia (20 July 2004). 8537:Stone, Andrea (22 November 2004). 8281:Vidal, Dominique (December 2002). 8034:Davies, Lizzy (18 February 2009). 6755: 6708: 6588:Chronicles of Adhémar of Chabannes 6530:Chronicles of Adhémar of Chabannes 6386: 5484:Israel in 2009 and 1,286 in 2010. 5411:Antisemitism and Jewish emigration 4314:, with all its annexations in the 3923:expelled Jews from Spain in 1492. 3816:Return of the Jews to France, 1315 3175:for the destruction. In that year 25: 13278: 10780:Collaboration with Imperial Japan 10738:French Constitutional Law of 1940 10414:French Constitutional Law of 1940 9742: 9560: 9426:Birnbaum, Pierre, and Jane Todd. 9368:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). 8271:, 15 June 2006/ 24 November 2010. 8161:Smith, Craig S. (26 March 2006). 7911:Goldman, Russell (17 July 2017). 7696:France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 6860:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 6146:Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss/Slaby 5517:Porte de Vincennes hostage crisis 5491:in a joint press conference with 5427:antisemitism among French Muslims 4907:had specifically stated that the 4521: 3543: 3417:Recalled by Philip Augustus, 1198 607:Historical population comparisons 13229: 13217: 11263:Second law on the status of Jews 10690:Légion Française des Combattants 10225: 9643:Journal of North African Studies 9529:(Univ of California Press, 2003) 9450:Graetz, Michael, and Jane Todd. 9378:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. 9354: 9339: 9328: 9306: 9280: 9262: 9244: 9226: 9208: 9190: 9168: 9146: 9123: 9100: 9077: 9054: 9032: 9010: 8981: 8930: 8904: 8878: 8852: 8829: 8781: 8759: 8737: 8710: 8687: 8653: 8637:. 16 August 2007. Archived from 8623: 8594: 8576: 8558: 8501: 8404: 8370: 8349: 7748:Aubry, Antoine (7 August 2016). 7737:. Toulouse: Privat. p. 376. 7699:. OUP Oxford. pp. 105–107. 7303:Modern & Contemporary France 7258:"Alliance Israelite Universelle" 6439:. London: Penguin. p. 396. 5681:"Jewish Population of the World" 5609:Museum of Jewish Art and History 4945: 4892:denounced the country's role in 4838:Vichy laws on the status of Jews 4364: 4269:Museum of Jewish Art and History 4077:Museum of Jewish Art and History 3830:Museum of Jewish Art and History 3097:History of the Jews in Babylonia 1251:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1165:Historical population by country 12987:Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier 10954:France, revue de l'État nouveau 10847:Censorship under the occupation 9020:. Times of Israel. 26 June 2015 8813:Judy Maltz (31 December 2014). 8274: 8248: 8224: 8202: 8182: 8154: 8103: 8081: 8060: 8027: 8009: 7941: 7923: 7904: 7886: 7841: 7815: 7768: 7741: 7713: 7670: 7657: 7632: 7618:Jews, Europe, the XXIst century 7606: 7571: 7549:. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins. 7538: 7489: 7446: 7433: 7428:Justice from the Dreyfus Affair 7416: 7383: 7337: 7294: 7276: 7169: 7147: 7072: 7059: 7019:Schwarzfuchs, Simon R. (1967). 7012: 7003: 6933: 6882: 6849: 6802: 6775: 6728: 6661: 6622: 6613: 6593: 6581: 6549:Bokenkotter, Thomas S. (2004). 6523: 6509: 6495: 6470: 6461: 6403: 6369: 6249: 6206: 5976: 5962: 5944: 5927: 5737:Joe Berkofsky (25 March 2012). 5711:Serge Attal (14 January 2013). 5357: 5185:Expulsions and exoduses of Jews 4629: 4473: 4376: 4046:, had made the acquaintance of 3946: 3334: 2912:and includes the Hebrew phrase 2720:, with a population of 70,000, 10756:Service du travail obligatoire 10728:Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre 10238:World War II collaboration in: 9821:History of the Jews in Europe 8483:Statistical Abstract of Israel 8420:. 3 March 2009. Archived from 7872:. Berghahn Books. p. 53. 7733:Blumenkranz, Bernhard (1972). 7230:Fournier, François-Dominique. 6534:Chronicles of William Godellus 5935:"Jewish world population 2016" 5787: 5522:Jewish People Policy Institute 5437:opened fire at a Jewish school 5264:and Israel's victories in the 5015:Antisemitism in the Arab world 4847:which in 1942 worked with the 4758:World War II and the Holocaust 4420:Alliance Israelite Universelle 4390:Alliance Israélite Universelle 4266:Sermon in an israelite oratory 3659:North French Hebrew Miscellany 3598:In order to finance his first 2962:against the Visigothic kings. 13: 1: 13197:Vichy anti-Jewish legislation 13187:History of the Jews in France 12431:Vichy anti-Jewish legislation 10879:Office français d'information 10700:Revolutionary Social Movement 10371:History of the Jews in France 9626:French History since Napoleon 9602:Antisemitism in modern France 9383:History of the Jews in France 8859:DAN BILEFSKY (20 June 2014). 8345:(in French). 30 January 2009. 8140:The Christian Science Monitor 6517:Monumenta Germaniae Historica 6435:MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2009). 5794:France info (19 March 2012). 5662: 5614:History of the Jews in Alsace 5603:D'Estienne du Bourguet Family 4814:concentration camps in France 4106:, and in Paris, many of them 3643:Fourth Council of the Lateran 2997:almost disappeared under the 2777:Roman and Merovingian periods 2771:rising antisemitism in France 2593:history of the Jews in France 822:Christianity and Judaism 12575:Jeunesse Populaire Française 12539:Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel 10677:Jeunesse Populaire Française 8969:. Bloomberg. 22 January 2015 8836:Moshe Cohen (22 June 2014). 8766:Josh Hasten (7 April 2014). 8133:Ford, Peter (22 June 2004). 7735:Histoire des Juifs en France 7290:(in French). 18 August 2007. 7141:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 5846:Jim Maceda (19 March 2012). 5462:Israeli–Palestinian conflict 5372:Jewish population by country 5296:1980 Paris synagogue bombing 5195:Historical Jewish population 4798:seven synagogues were bombed 4510:Antisemitic League of France 3893:History of the Jews in Arles 3381:Grandes Chroniques de France 3281:(Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki) of 3217:against the Moors in Spain. 3155:Church of the Holy Sepulcher 3126:Richard II, Duke of Normandy 3102: 3072:under Charlemagne. When the 3045:and Agobard's entreaties to 177:Predominant spoken languages 144:Traditional Jewish languages 7: 12681:Louis Darquier de Pellepoix 12621:Louis Darquier de Pellepoix 11904:Municipal elections of 1945 11587:Service d'ordre légionnaire 11195:French protectorate of Laos 10869:Maréchal, nous voilà ! 10502:Louis Darquier de Pellepoix 9679:(U of Nebraska Press, 2006) 9511:10.1080/0140238042000228086 9274:Headlines & Global News 8747:. Forward. 29 December 2013 7315:10.1080/0963948042000284722 7025:The Jewish Quarterly Review 6735:Eban, Abba Solomon (1984). 5767:Gil Yaron (22 March 2012). 5591: 5541:November 2015 Paris attacks 5464:. Between the start of the 4856:Righteous Among the Nations 4064:The Revolution and Napoleon 3886: 3502:Etablissement sur les Juifs 3466:Count Palatine of Champagne 3371:Expulsion from France, 1182 2121: 2102: 1829:Latin America and Caribbean 525: 10: 13283: 13252:Jews and Judaism in France 11929:Holocaust denial in France 11880:Ordinance of 9 August 1944 10618:Government of Vichy France 9650:American Historical Review 9568:Catholic Historical Review 9042:. Algemeiner. 21 June 2015 8940:. JWeekly. 29 January 2015 7467:10.1177/026569147600600203 6975:Benbassa, Esther (1999) . 6720:Grossman, Avraham (2012). 6619:Simonsohn, pp 35–37. 5642:List of West European Jews 5414: 5361: 5334:But, after the end of the 5309: 4761: 4583:Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy 4547: 4530:Newspaper front page with 4287:the Jewish community, the 4235: 4199:During the Reign of Terror 4166:comte de Clermont-Tonnerre 3993:Beginnings of emancipation 3890: 3338: 3262: 2763:French Jews live in Israel 2706:Jewish community in France 2631:, and in the 1940s, under 2599:and Jewish communities in 2434:Jewish political movements 2131:Conversion to Judaism 111:Enlarged Jewish population 13162: 13105: 13000: 12930: 12877: 12724: 12661: 12591: 12552: 12444: 12416: 12333: 12280: 12163: 12070: 12027: 11981: 11956: 11947: 11909:1946 legislative election 11865: 11807: 11777: 11723:Saint Pierre and Miquelon 11663: 11624: 11578: 11522: 11515: 11506: 11471: 11383: 11350: 11297: 11271: 11253:Law on the status of Jews 11243: 11232: 11172: 11135: 11073: 11033:Syria and Lebanon mandate 11013: 10832: 10765: 10713: 10651: 10610: 10444: 10409:Armistice of 22 June 1940 10401: 10314: 10233: 10145: 10107: 9827: 9757:"The Holocaust in France" 9712:Vichy France and the Jews 9633:Journal of Modern History 9580:(Northwestern UP, 2018). 9476:The Jews of Modern France 9459:journal of social history 8916:Jewish Telegraphic Agency 8485:(in English and Hebrew). 8212:(in French). 13 July 2009 8041:The Sydney Morning Herald 7827:www.jacqueschirac-asso.fr 7793:10.1017/S0018246X01002175 7100:10.1007/s11186-011-9150-8 6903:10.1017/S0364009400010011 6399:. JewishEncyclopedia.com. 6032:Funk and Wagnalls Company 5466:Israeli offensive in Gaza 4865:In 1995 French President 4459:'s antisemitic newspaper 4249:was the president of the 3477:to refuse non-retention. 2922:of Egica—rather than the 2806:An early account praised 837:Hinduism and Judaism 223: 218: 207: 202: 142: 137: 127: 122: 106: 101: 92: 37: 12569:Parti Populaire Français 11919:Trial of Philippe Pétain 11594:Groupe mobile de réserve 11137:French Equatorial Africa 10940:L'Émancipation nationale 10842:Antisemitic publications 9762:22 February 2019 at the 9751:Anti-semitism in France. 7992:"Israel Nuclear Profile" 7502:. Oxfordshire, England. 6414:. St. Martin's Griffin. 6375:Published in Berliner's 5200:Islamic–Jewish relations 4440:, at that time a French 3686:way as the delinquents. 3649:The Medieval Inquisition 3641:or badge decreed by the 3595:and other Jewish works. 3524:(1201–53), the powerful 3258: 3221:Franco-Jewish literature 2979:in the Mediterranean sea 2957:and a dependency of the 2936:third Council of Orléans 663:Temple in Jerusalem 356:Bar and bat mitzvah 12701:Charles du Paty de Clam 12601:Anti-Jewish legislation 12310:French Riviera roundups 12157:The Holocaust in France 12011:The Sorrow and the Pity 11825:Siegfried Line campaign 11632:SS Charlemagne division 11494:The Holocaust in France 10643:Second Laval government 10512:Charles du Paty de Clam 10492:Pierre-Antoine Cousteau 9480:excerpt and text search 9435:Jewish Quarterly Review 9418:excerpt and text search 9399:44.4 (2001): 1065–1082. 9375:The Jewish Encyclopedia 8379:"A Frenchman Or a Jew?" 8254:Krieger, Leila Hilary. 7775:Adler, Jacques (2001). 7693:Julian Jackson (2003). 7545:Burns, Michael (1999). 7455:European Studies Review 7390:Isser, Natalie (1991). 6946:Revue des études juives 6782:Madigan, Kevin (2015). 6686:10.1111/1468-229X.12019 6410:Toni L. Kamins (2001). 6040:2027/mdp.39015064245445 6027:The Jewish Encyclopedia 6022:Vizetelly, Frank Horace 5921:11 October 2017 at the 5647:France-Israel relations 5312:France–Israel relations 5306:France–Israel relations 4764:The Holocaust in France 4568:Alsatian Jewish descent 4026:. The humane minister, 3916:Revue des Études Juives 3705:The Great Exile of 1306 3669:(fol. 521a, c. 1278–98) 3570:tanquam proprium servum 3473:times—also declared it 3383:depicting the expulsion 3323:, Judah b. Nathan, and 3273:Woodcut of Rashi (1539) 3211:Landulf VI of Benevento 3108:Persecutions (987–1137) 3065:for their first child. 2828:Hilary, Bishop of Arles 2669:, the Vichy government 2623:its Jewish population. 625:Twelve Tribes of Israel 107:Core Jewish population: 13262:Antisemitism in France 13172:Antisemitism in France 13092:André and Magda Trocmé 12897:Antoinette Feuerwerker 12676:Louis-Ferdinand Céline 11885:Provisional Government 11545:15th Military Division 11540:14th Military Division 11375:Yellow badge in France 10695:National Popular Rally 10628:First Laval government 10517:Pierre-Étienne Flandin 10351:French colonial empire 9870:Bosnia and Herzegovina 9498:West European Politics 8791:. Forward. 19 May 2014 7972:. History News Network 7866:Peter Carrier (2006). 7781:The Historical Journal 7375:: CS1 maint: others ( 7262:Jewish Virtual Library 6668:Rist, Rebecca (2013). 6629:Hoinacki, Lee (1996). 6520:, Scriptores, iv. 137. 6284:Cohen, Jeremy (1999). 6199:Jewish Virtual Library 6135:; Slaby, Wolfgang A.; 5879:Holocaust Encyclopedia 5686:Jewish Virtual Library 5513:Charlie Hebdo shooting 5478:Israeli Prime Minister 5388: 5364:Demographics of France 5168:The Forgotten Refugees 4810:Drancy internment camp 4773: 4748:Louis-Ferdinand Céline 4545: 4466: 4396: 4271: 4258: 4195:constitution itself". 4192: 4079: 4073:Loi relative aux Juifs 3959: 3955:Old Jewish Quarter of 3881:Religieux de St. Denis 3874:On 17 September 1394, 3832: 3734: 3670: 3631:Theobald II of Navarre 3540: 3494: 3491:Bibliothèque Nationale 3384: 3366:Expulsions and Returns 3274: 3117: 2927: 2906: 2761:Approximately 200,000 43: 13257:Jewish French history 13022:Le Chambon-sur-Lignon 12563:Devisenschutzkommando 12115:Category:Vichy France 11738:Operation Bright Moon 11535:7th Military Division 10933:Documents maçonniques 9729:Patterns of Prejudice 9696:Lindemann, Albert S. 9662:29.4 (2011): 248–271. 9645:17.5 (2012): 839–861. 9609:Jewish Social Studies 9490:online free to borrow 9488:(Columbia UP, 1979). 8700:3 August 2015 at the 8635:European Jewish Press 8287:Le Monde Diplomatique 7580:Jewish Social Studies 7163:7 August 2004 at the 6940:Luce, Siméon (1881). 6856:Taitz, Emily (1994). 6809:Golb, Norman (1966). 6532:ed. Bouquet, x. 152; 6397:"Jacob Ben Jekuthiel" 6343:Golb, Norman (1998). 6079:10.4000/books.pan.951 5627:French Jews in Israel 5450:Le Monde Diplomatique 5421:French Jews in Israel 5385:Chief Rabbi of France 5379: 4989:Arab–Israeli conflict 4771: 4529: 4454: 4384: 4371:carrières aux talents 4322:After the Restoration 4264: 4247:Joseph David Sinzheim 4245: 4238:Napoleon and the Jews 4187: 4147:Jean-François Rewbell 4120:Joseph David Sinzheim 4071: 3954: 3823: 3730: 3697:at first ordered his 3656: 3538: 3488: 3378: 3339:Further information: 3272: 3243:, particularly their 3115: 3035:Saint Agobard of Lyon 3031:J. M. Wallace-Hadrill 2891: 2710:definition being used 2660:French political left 1371:São Tomé and Príncipe 1366:Republic of the Congo 760:Second Temple Judaism 631:Kingdom of Judah 602:Modern historiography 219:Related ethnic groups 13128:Mémorial de la Shoah 13082:Jules-Géraud Saliège 13042:Pierre-Marie Gerlier 13027:Château de Chabannes 12764:Messaoud El Mediouni 12647:Révolution nationale 12050:Le Silence de la mer 11875:Liberation of France 11484:Deportation timeline 10989:Révolution nationale 10863:Le Juif et la France 10813:Révolution nationale 10671:French Popular Party 10376:Treaty of Versailles 9779:13 June 2018 at the 9774:"The Jews of France" 9731:24#2–4 (1990): 5–17. 9652:97#1 (1992): 55–95. 9635:70.1 (1998): 24–73. 8424:on 30 September 2012 6680:(5 (333)): 639–662. 6482:www.encyclopedia.com 6014:Funk, Isaac Kaufmann 5652:Mémorial de la Shoah 4737:, and the leader of 4232:Attitude of Napoleon 4050:and his school (see 3989:was no less severe. 3780:, reaching from the 3498:Louis VIII of France 3356:German Crusade, 1096 3206:Viscount of Narbonne 3143:Adhémar of Chabannes 2795:; in the year 39 at 2473:World Agudath Israel 1614:United Arab Emirates 701:Second Temple period 691:Babylonian captivity 165:Liturgical languages 13149:Rivesaltes Memorial 12504:Hans-Dietrich Ernst 12393:Royallieu-Compiègne 12363:Natzweiler-Struthof 11830:Sigmaringen enclave 11820:Liberation of Paris 11479:Deportation convoys 11448:Royallieu-Compiègne 11413:Natzweiler-Struthof 11284:Order of Physicians 11043:French North Africa 10705:Peasant Corporation 10684:Mouvement Franciste 10482:Jacques Charpentier 10457:Jean-Marie Bergeret 10108:States with limited 9675:Judaken, Jonathan. 9660:Sociological Theory 9556:(Mosaic Press 1987) 9552:Weinberg, Henry H. 9525:Schechter, Ronald. 9468:22.1 (2002): 1–27. 9447:(Indiana UP, 2015). 9402:Arkin, Kimberly A. 8669:Pew Research Center 8489:. 26 September 2011 7496:Cahm, Eric (2014). 7288:Journal d'un avocat 6505:. encyclopedia.com. 6139:; Woitas, Barbara. 5958:on 23 October 2014. 5632:List of French Jews 5455:Pew Research Center 5407:of anti-Semitism". 5258:Muslim Antisemitism 4903:Neither Chirac nor 4326:The restoration of 4276:Jewish emancipation 4133:was the signal for 3974:granted these Jews 3942:Early modern period 3740:, it now comprised 3667:Mountains of Ararat 3657:Miniature from the 3325:Isaac Levi b. Asher 3204:wrote to Béranger, 3041:in the early 830s. 2908:requiescunt in pace 2784:Jewish Encyclopedia 2679:concentration camps 2603:since at least the 766:Hellenistic Judaism 344:Land of Israel 303:Principles of faith 34: 13087:Pierre-Marie Théas 12544:Carltheo Zeitschel 12514:Ernst Heinrichsohn 11924:Klaus Barbie trial 11815:Operation Overlord 11555:Army of the Levant 11489:Holocaust timeline 11173:Asia & Oceania 11075:French West Africa 10633:Flandin government 10602:Carltheo Zeitschel 10388:War guilt question 9722:The Dreyfus Affair 9720:Read, Piers Paul. 9686:(Routledge, 2016). 9621:(Routledge, 2014). 9600:Byrnes, Robert F. 9412:Benbassa, Esther. 9397:Historical Journal 9276:. 13 January 2016. 9240:. 12 January 2016. 9222:. 13 January 2016. 9204:. 12 January 2016. 9202:The New York Times 8865:The New York Times 8572:. 23 January 2003. 8456:on 2 February 2014 8383:The New York Times 8268:The Jerusalem Post 8168:The New York Times 7917:The New York Times 7680:pp 54–57, 199–202. 7620:. 25 November 2021 7441:The Dreyfus Affair 7236:Histoire des Juifs 7088:Theory and Society 7009:Bouquet, xxii. 118 6590:ed. Bouquet, x. 34 6227:10.1111/rec3.12290 5992:. 25 January 2016. 5489:Benjamin Netanyahu 5445:Eric de Rothschild 5389: 5368:Religion in France 5352:Lebanese Civil War 5329:Protocol of Sèvres 5262:founding of Israel 5129:Hurum air disaster 4911:, in power during 4858:(according to the 4822:Vel' d'Hiv Roundup 4774: 4610:Georges Clemenceau 4546: 4508:, who founded the 4485:and a disciple of 4479:Alphonse Toussenel 4467: 4434:French citizenship 4432:granted automatic 4415:Court of Cassation 4397: 4346:comte de Rambuteau 4272: 4259: 4080: 3960: 3833: 3671: 3635:Count of Champagne 3620:Shepherds' Crusade 3554:Louis IX of France 3541: 3526:Count of Champagne 3500:(1223–26), in his 3495: 3385: 3275: 3118: 2966:Carolingian period 2928: 2808:Hilary of Poitiers 2748:North African Jews 2327:Jewish Koine Greek 1869:Dominican Republic 1150:Judaism by country 829:Jews and Christmas 684:Assyrian captivity 74:פֿראַנצויזישע יידן 32: 13205: 13204: 13062:Père Marie-Benoît 12902:David Feuerwerker 12859:Charlotte Salomon 12834:Sonia Olschanezky 12789:Maurice Halbwachs 12671:Robert Brasillach 12555:and organizations 12499:Theodor Dannecker 12343:Beaune-la-Rolande 12123: 12122: 12080:French Resistance 12066: 12065: 12004:Milice, film noir 11990:Bombing the Nazis 11898:Épuration sauvage 11835:Fernand de Brinon 11803: 11802: 11743:Wallis and Futuna 11659: 11658: 11502: 11501: 11393:Beaune-la-Rolande 11228: 11227: 11215:Kouang-Tchéou-Wan 11168: 11167: 11131: 11130: 11069: 11068: 11004:L'Union française 10785:Foreign relations 10638:Darlan government 10623:Pétain government 10532:Charles Huntziger 10527:Gaston Henry-Haye 10193: 10192: 9734:Zuccotti, Susan. 9611:(1948): 165–184. 9593:Busi, Frederick. 9443:Doron, Daniella. 9088:. Times of Israel 8994:. The Telegraph. 8918:. 25 January 2015 8891:New York Observer 8725:on 28 August 2017 8665:Faith on the move 8240:. 19 March 2012. 7879:978-1-84545-295-7 7439:Piers Paul Read, 7153:See Article 1 of 6795:978-0-300-15872-4 6748:978-0-671-44103-6 6446:978-0-14-195795-1 6354:978-0-521-58032-8 6324:. 26 January 1996 6295:978-0-520-92291-4 5715:. Times of Israel 5598:Abraham of Aragon 5545:Opération Chammal 5505:The Jewish Agency 5493:François Hollande 5270:Arab-Israeli wars 5236: 5235: 5069:Exodus by country 4905:François Hollande 4735:Marcel Jouhandeau 4644:Lucien Lévy-Bruhl 4636:Rothschild family 4483:utopian socialist 4388:, founder of the 4339:State recognition 4293:Roman Catholicism 4221:worship of Reason 4048:Moses Mendelssohn 4020:French government 3870:Expulsion of 1394 3841:Geoffrey of Paris 3837:Louis X of France 3562:Kingdom of France 3433:, comprising the 3431:Produit des Juifs 3379:A miniature from 3202:Pope Alexander II 3181:Bishop of Limoges 2781:According to the 2694:Jewish population 2617:French Revolution 2605:Early Middle Ages 2589: 2588: 2538: 2537: 2286: 2285: 2033:Reconstructionist 1977: 1976: 1129: 1128: 936: 935: 773:Jewish–Roman wars 721:Hasmonean dynasty 637:Kingdom of Israel 541: 540: 242: 241: 115: 16:(Redirected from 13274: 13234: 13233: 13232: 13222: 13221: 13220: 13213: 13182:Battle of France 13168: 13108: 13077:Germaine Ribière 12935: 12892:Jean Elleinstein 12880: 12844:Béatrice Reinach 12829:Casimir Oberfeld 12824:Irène Némirovsky 12774:Benjamin Fondane 12727: 12447: 12419: 12295:Clermont-Ferrand 12150: 12143: 12136: 12127: 12126: 12043:Section spéciale 12036:Castle to Castle 11997:The Eye of Vichy 11954: 11953: 11934:Mission Mattéoli 11891:Épuration légale 11645:Légion impériale 11616:Special Brigades 11520: 11519: 11513: 11512: 11317:Clermont-Ferrand 11241: 11240: 11185:French Indochina 11170: 11169: 11133: 11132: 11071: 11070: 11039: 11038: 10919:Le Cri du peuple 10887: 10819:Special Sections 10723:Anti-Jewish laws 10557:George Montandon 10552:Bernard Ménétrel 10522:Philippe Henriot 10323:Action Française 10220: 10213: 10206: 10197: 10196: 10146:Dependencies and 10087:Northern Ireland 9828:Sovereign states 9814: 9807: 9800: 9791: 9790: 9703:Mandel, Maud S. 9682:Kalman, Samuel. 9665:Isser, Natalie. 9522: 9474:Hyman, Paula E. 9461:(2006): 147–180. 9379: 9358: 9357: 9349:Other references 9343: 9337: 9332: 9326: 9325: 9323: 9321: 9310: 9304: 9303: 9301: 9299: 9284: 9278: 9277: 9266: 9260: 9259: 9248: 9242: 9241: 9230: 9224: 9223: 9212: 9206: 9205: 9194: 9188: 9187: 9185: 9183: 9172: 9166: 9165: 9163: 9161: 9150: 9144: 9143: 9141: 9139: 9134:. 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Samuel 2953:, then known as 2917: 2916: 2911: 2851:Clermont-Ferrand 2581: 2574: 2567: 2430: 2429: 2311: 2132: 2126: 2107: 2071: 2070: 2018: 1965:New Zealand 1917: 1880:El Salvador 1870: 1802:Northern America 1794: 1388: 1144: 1143: 1055:Crimean Karaites 951: 950: 929: 927: 848: 846: 838: 832: 823: 811:Rabbinic Judaism 792: 786: 780: 768: 756: 722: 715:Maccabean Revolt 692: 685: 679: 671: 664: 658: 650: 632: 556: 555: 530: 425: 424: 357: 345: 244: 243: 237:ethnic divisions 160:Jewish languages 113: 109:480,000–550,000 102:Total population 97: 84: 76: 75: 69: 61: 60: 54: 46: 35: 31: 21: 13282: 13281: 13277: 13276: 13275: 13273: 13272: 13271: 13242: 13241: 13240: 13230: 13228: 13218: 13216: 13208: 13206: 13201: 13192:Occupied France 13166: 13158: 13101: 13067:René de Naurois 13003: 13002:Righteous Among 12996: 12967:Denise Holstein 12933: 12926: 12873: 12864:Sascha Schapiro 12779:Otto Freundlich 12769:Jacques Feldbau 12720: 12657: 12631:Philippe Pétain 12611:François Darlan 12587: 12554: 12553:Nazi occupation 12548: 12459:Ernst Achenbach 12440: 12412: 12329: 12276: 12159: 12154: 12124: 12119: 12084:Year in France 12075:Occupied France 12062: 12057:Suite française 12023: 11977: 11949: 11943: 11914:Fourth Republic 11867: 11861: 11799: 11795:Philippe Pétain 11785:François Darlan 11773: 11701:Franco-Thai War 11655: 11620: 11574: 11498: 11467: 11379: 11352: 11346: 11293: 11267: 11235: 11224: 11164: 11127: 11065: 11037: 11009: 10975:Je suis partout 10912:Le Cahier jaune 10885: 10881: 10834: 10828: 10796:La jeune France 10767: 10761: 10745:Paris Protocols 10715: 10709: 10653: 10647: 10606: 10567:Philippe Pétain 10497:François Darlan 10452:Joseph Antignac 10440: 10424:Philippe Pétain 10397: 10335:Camelots du Roi 10310: 10229: 10224: 10194: 10189: 10147: 10141: 10127:Northern Cyprus 10109: 10103: 10002:North Macedonia 9823: 9818: 9781:Wayback Machine 9764:Wayback Machine 9745: 9689:Kennedy, Sean. 9570:(1967): 28–42. 9563: 9392: 9390:Further reading 9366:Singer, Isidore 9355: 9351: 9346: 9340: 9335:Israel 365 News 9333: 9329: 9319: 9317: 9316:. 27 March 2018 9312: 9311: 9307: 9297: 9295: 9292:Washington Post 9286: 9285: 9281: 9268: 9267: 9263: 9250: 9249: 9245: 9232: 9231: 9227: 9214: 9213: 9209: 9196: 9195: 9191: 9181: 9179: 9174: 9173: 9169: 9159: 9157: 9152: 9151: 9147: 9137: 9135: 9128: 9124: 9114: 9112: 9105: 9101: 9091: 9089: 9082: 9078: 9068: 9066: 9059: 9055: 9045: 9043: 9038: 9037: 9033: 9023: 9021: 9016: 9015: 9011: 9001: 8999: 8986: 8982: 8972: 8970: 8961: 8960: 8953: 8943: 8941: 8936: 8935: 8931: 8921: 8919: 8910: 8909: 8905: 8895: 8893: 8883: 8879: 8869: 8867: 8857: 8853: 8843: 8841: 8834: 8830: 8820: 8818: 8811: 8804: 8794: 8792: 8787: 8786: 8782: 8772: 8770: 8764: 8760: 8750: 8748: 8743: 8742: 8738: 8728: 8726: 8715: 8711: 8702:Wayback Machine 8692: 8688: 8678: 8676: 8659: 8658: 8654: 8644: 8642: 8641:on 5 April 2012 8629: 8628: 8624: 8614: 8612: 8599: 8595: 8590:. 18 July 2004. 8582: 8581: 8577: 8564: 8563: 8559: 8549: 8547: 8535: 8528: 8518: 8516: 8507: 8506: 8502: 8492: 8490: 8477: 8476: 8469: 8459: 8457: 8448: 8447: 8440: 8427: 8425: 8410: 8409: 8405: 8395: 8393: 8375: 8371: 8354: 8350: 8335: 8334: 8327: 8317: 8315: 8306: 8305: 8301: 8291: 8289: 8279: 8275: 8261:5 June 2008 at 8253: 8249: 8230: 8229: 8225: 8215: 8213: 8208: 8207: 8203: 8188: 8187: 8183: 8173: 8171: 8159: 8155: 8145: 8143: 8131: 8124: 8109: 8108: 8104: 8094: 8092: 8087: 8086: 8082: 8065: 8061: 8051: 8049: 8032: 8028: 8015: 8014: 8010: 8000: 7998: 7990: 7989: 7985: 7975: 7973: 7968: 7967: 7960: 7955:. 16 July 2017. 7947: 7946: 7942: 7935:Washington Post 7929: 7928: 7924: 7909: 7905: 7892: 7891: 7887: 7880: 7864: 7860: 7853:Washington Post 7847: 7846: 7842: 7832: 7830: 7821: 7820: 7816: 7773: 7769: 7759: 7757: 7746: 7742: 7731: 7727: 7718: 7714: 7707: 7691: 7684: 7675: 7671: 7662: 7658: 7648: 7646: 7638: 7637: 7633: 7623: 7621: 7612: 7611: 7607: 7576: 7572: 7557: 7543: 7539: 7523: 7522: 7510: 7494: 7490: 7451: 7447: 7438: 7434: 7421: 7417: 7402: 7388: 7384: 7368: 7367: 7355: 7343: 7342: 7338: 7299: 7295: 7282: 7281: 7277: 7267: 7265: 7256: 7255: 7251: 7241: 7239: 7228: 7221: 7206: 7192: 7183: 7179:(2000) pp 72–89 7174: 7170: 7165:Wayback Machine 7158:, of 6 May 1687 7152: 7148: 7135: 7134: 7123: 7083: 7077: 7073: 7064: 7060: 7037:10.2307/1453511 7017: 7013: 7008: 7004: 6989: 6973: 6966: 6955: 6953: 6938: 6934: 6887: 6883: 6868: 6854: 6850: 6827:10.2307/3622388 6807: 6803: 6796: 6780: 6776: 6763: 6756: 6749: 6733: 6729: 6718: 6709: 6666: 6662: 6647: 6627: 6623: 6618: 6614: 6598: 6594: 6586: 6582: 6567: 6547: 6540: 6528: 6524: 6514: 6510: 6501: 6500: 6496: 6486: 6484: 6476: 6475: 6471: 6466: 6462: 6447: 6433: 6429: 6422: 6408: 6404: 6395: 6394: 6387: 6374: 6370: 6355: 6341: 6337: 6327: 6325: 6316: 6315: 6311: 6296: 6282: 6278: 6271: 6254: 6250: 6211: 6207: 6192: 6191: 6182: 6171: 6169: 6168:. EDCS-28300234 6148: 6141:"EDCS-28300234" 6133:Clauss, Manfred 6130: 6123: 6106: 6104: 6089: 6062: 6055: 6018:Singer, Isidore 6010: 5997: 5989:The Independent 5982: 5981: 5977: 5972:. Religioscope. 5968: 5967: 5963: 5950: 5949: 5945: 5937: 5933: 5932: 5928: 5923:Wayback Machine 5912: 5908: 5895: 5894: 5890: 5873: 5872: 5863: 5853: 5851: 5844: 5837: 5827: 5825: 5818: 5811: 5801: 5799: 5792: 5788: 5778: 5776: 5765: 5758: 5748: 5746: 5735: 5728: 5718: 5716: 5709: 5702: 5692: 5690: 5679: 5678: 5669: 5665: 5594: 5423: 5413: 5374: 5362:Main articles: 5360: 5344:Munich massacre 5314: 5308: 5284:nusach sepharad 5249: 5232: 5082:Operation Mural 4924: 4890:Emmanuel Macron 4828:survived. (see 4766: 4760: 4744:Charles Maurras 4700:Alsace-Lorraine 4683:La Libre Parole 4678:First World War 4632: 4619:La Libre Parole 4614:Édouard Drumont 4552: 4524: 4515:La Libre Parole 4506:Edouard Drumont 4487:Charles Fourier 4476: 4462:La Libre Parole 4457:Edouard Drumont 4379: 4367: 4341: 4324: 4289:Grand Sanhedrin 4251:Grand Sanhedrin 4240: 4234: 4213:Reign of Terror 4201: 4175:Bishop of Nancy 4096:Estates-General 4066: 4032:Jewish question 3995: 3949: 3944: 3921:Alhambra Decree 3895: 3889: 3872: 3818: 3715:Philip the Fair 3707: 3665:landing on the 3651: 3608:Seventh Crusade 3587:of some 12,000 3581:Pope Gregory IX 3558:Catholic Church 3546: 3483: 3456:to a different 3419: 3397:Philip Augustus 3373: 3368: 3343: 3337: 3317:Shamuel b. Meïr 3267: 3261: 3223: 3169:Rodulfus Glaber 3151:Pope Sergius IV 3135:Pope John XVIII 3110: 3105: 3082:Harun al-Rashid 3047:Pope Gregory IV 3039:Louis the Pious 3027:Louis the Pious 2968: 2951:Southern France 2947:Pepin the Short 2924:Hebrew calendar 2871:Theodosian code 2816:Valentinian III 2779: 2769:in response to 2687:Nazi occupation 2648:Alsace-Lorraine 2633:Nazi occupation 2585: 2540: 2539: 2427: 2417: 2416: 2407:Judeo-Malayalam 2387:Judaeo-Georgian 2307: 2298: 2288: 2287: 2188:Yiddish theatre 2130: 2068: 2058: 2057: 2016: 1989: 1979: 1978: 1915: 1868: 1792: 1386: 1170:Genetic studies 1141: 1131: 1130: 948: 938: 937: 925: 924: 844: 843: 836: 826: 821: 803:and Middle Ages 801:Rabbinic period 788: 782: 775: 763: 734: 720: 690: 683: 674: 666: 662: 653: 648:in Judaism 645: 630: 553: 543: 542: 422: 412: 411: 355: 343: 288: 179: 175: 167: 163: 146: 133: 117: 112: 110: 108: 88: 87: 78: 63: 48: 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13280: 13270: 13269: 13264: 13259: 13254: 13239: 13238: 13226: 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12616:Joseph Darnand 12613: 12608: 12603: 12597: 12595: 12589: 12588: 12586: 12585: 12578: 12571: 12566: 12558: 12556: 12550: 12549: 12547: 12546: 12541: 12536: 12531: 12526: 12521: 12519:Helmut Knochen 12516: 12511: 12506: 12501: 12496: 12491: 12486: 12484:Karl Bömelburg 12481: 12476: 12471: 12466: 12461: 12456: 12450: 12448: 12442: 12441: 12439: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12422: 12420: 12414: 12413: 12411: 12410: 12405: 12400: 12395: 12390: 12385: 12380: 12375: 12370: 12360: 12355: 12350: 12345: 12339: 12337: 12331: 12330: 12328: 12327: 12322: 12317: 12312: 12307: 12302: 12297: 12292: 12286: 12284: 12278: 12277: 12275: 12274: 12269: 12264: 12259: 12254: 12249: 12244: 12239: 12234: 12229: 12224: 12219: 12214: 12209: 12204: 12199: 12194: 12189: 12184: 12179: 12174: 12164: 12161: 12160: 12153: 12152: 12145: 12138: 12130: 12121: 12120: 12118: 12117: 12112: 12111: 12110: 12105: 12100: 12095: 12090: 12082: 12077: 12071: 12068: 12067: 12064: 12063: 12061: 12060: 12053: 12046: 12039: 12031: 12029: 12025: 12024: 12022: 12021: 12014: 12007: 12000: 11993: 11985: 11983: 11979: 11978: 11976: 11975: 11972:Strange Defeat 11968: 11960: 11958: 11951: 11945: 11944: 11942: 11941: 11939:Vichy syndrome 11936: 11931: 11926: 11921: 11916: 11911: 11906: 11901: 11894: 11887: 11882: 11877: 11871: 11869: 11863: 11862: 11860: 11859: 11858: 11857: 11852: 11850:Eugène Bridoux 11847: 11842: 11840:Joseph Darnand 11837: 11827: 11822: 11817: 11811: 11809: 11805: 11804: 11801: 11800: 11798: 11797: 11792: 11787: 11781: 11779: 11775: 11774: 11772: 11771: 11766: 11765: 11764: 11752: 11745: 11740: 11735: 11730: 11725: 11720: 11715: 11710: 11709: 11708: 11698: 11693: 11688: 11683: 11678: 11673: 11667: 11665: 11661: 11660: 11657: 11656: 11654: 11653: 11648: 11641: 11634: 11628: 11626: 11622: 11621: 11619: 11618: 11613: 11612: 11611: 11597: 11590: 11582: 11580: 11576: 11575: 11573: 11572: 11567: 11562: 11557: 11552: 11550:Armistice Army 11547: 11542: 11537: 11532: 11526: 11524: 11517: 11510: 11504: 11503: 11500: 11499: 11497: 11496: 11491: 11486: 11481: 11475: 11473: 11469: 11468: 11466: 11465: 11460: 11455: 11450: 11445: 11440: 11435: 11430: 11425: 11420: 11410: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11389: 11387: 11381: 11380: 11378: 11377: 11372: 11367: 11362: 11356: 11354: 11351:Discrimination 11348: 11347: 11345: 11344: 11339: 11334: 11329: 11324: 11319: 11314: 11309: 11307:French Riviera 11303: 11301: 11295: 11294: 11292: 11291: 11286: 11281: 11275: 11273: 11272:Administration 11269: 11268: 11266: 11265: 11260: 11255: 11249: 11247: 11238: 11230: 11229: 11226: 11225: 11223: 11222: 11217: 11212: 11207: 11202: 11197: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11176: 11174: 11166: 11165: 11163: 11162: 11157: 11152: 11147: 11141: 11139: 11129: 11128: 11126: 11125: 11120: 11115: 11110: 11105: 11100: 11095: 11090: 11085: 11079: 11077: 11067: 11066: 11064: 11063: 11058: 11053: 11051:French Algeria 11047: 11045: 11036: 11035: 11030: 11025: 11017: 11015: 11011: 11010: 11008: 11007: 11000: 10993: 10985: 10978: 10971: 10964: 10957: 10950: 10943: 10936: 10929: 10922: 10915: 10908: 10901: 10894: 10882: 10876: 10871: 10866: 10859: 10854: 10849: 10844: 10838: 10836: 10830: 10829: 10827: 10826: 10821: 10816: 10809: 10804: 10799: 10792: 10787: 10782: 10777: 10771: 10769: 10763: 10762: 10760: 10759: 10752: 10747: 10742: 10741: 10740: 10730: 10725: 10719: 10717: 10711: 10710: 10708: 10707: 10702: 10697: 10692: 10687: 10680: 10673: 10668: 10663: 10657: 10655: 10649: 10648: 10646: 10645: 10640: 10635: 10630: 10625: 10620: 10614: 10612: 10608: 10607: 10605: 10604: 10599: 10597:Maxime Weygand 10594: 10589: 10584: 10579: 10574: 10569: 10564: 10559: 10554: 10549: 10544: 10539: 10534: 10529: 10524: 10519: 10514: 10509: 10504: 10499: 10494: 10489: 10484: 10479: 10474: 10469: 10467:Louis Bourgain 10464: 10459: 10454: 10448: 10446: 10442: 10441: 10439: 10438: 10431: 10426: 10421: 10416: 10411: 10405: 10403: 10399: 10398: 10396: 10395: 10393:Henry Dorgères 10390: 10385: 10384: 10383: 10373: 10368: 10366:Third Republic 10363: 10358: 10356:Nuremberg Laws 10353: 10348: 10346:Fall of France 10343: 10341:Dreyfus affair 10338: 10331: 10326: 10318: 10316: 10312: 10311: 10309: 10308: 10303: 10298: 10293: 10288: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10268: 10263: 10258: 10253: 10248: 10243: 10234: 10231: 10230: 10223: 10222: 10215: 10208: 10200: 10191: 10190: 10188: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10172: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10151: 10149: 10148:other entities 10143: 10142: 10140: 10139: 10134: 10129: 10124: 10119: 10113: 10111: 10105: 10104: 10102: 10101: 10100: 10099: 10094: 10089: 10084: 10077:United Kingdom 10074: 10069: 10064: 10059: 10054: 10049: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10019: 10014: 10009: 10004: 9999: 9994: 9989: 9984: 9979: 9974: 9969: 9964: 9959: 9954: 9949: 9944: 9942: 9937: 9932: 9927: 9922: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9902: 9897: 9892: 9890:Czech Republic 9887: 9882: 9877: 9872: 9867: 9862: 9857: 9852: 9847: 9842: 9837: 9831: 9829: 9825: 9824: 9817: 9816: 9809: 9802: 9794: 9788: 9787: 9771: 9754: 9744: 9743:External links 9741: 9740: 9739: 9732: 9725: 9718: 9708: 9701: 9694: 9687: 9680: 9673: 9663: 9656: 9646: 9639: 9629: 9622: 9615: 9605: 9598: 9591: 9584: 9576:Bell, Dorian. 9574: 9562: 9559: 9558: 9557: 9550: 9542:Taitz, Emily. 9540: 9530: 9523: 9505:(3): 423–451. 9492: 9484:Hyman, Paula. 9482: 9472: 9466:Modern Judaism 9462: 9455: 9448: 9441: 9431: 9424: 9410: 9400: 9391: 9388: 9387: 9386: 9380: 9350: 9347: 9345: 9344: 9338: 9327: 9305: 9294:. 23 July 2017 9279: 9261: 9243: 9225: 9207: 9189: 9167: 9145: 9122: 9099: 9076: 9053: 9031: 9009: 8980: 8951: 8929: 8903: 8877: 8851: 8828: 8802: 8780: 8758: 8736: 8709: 8705:Jewish Journal 8686: 8652: 8622: 8593: 8575: 8557: 8526: 8500: 8467: 8438: 8403: 8369: 8348: 8325: 8314:. 14 July 2005 8299: 8273: 8247: 8223: 8201: 8181: 8153: 8122: 8102: 8080: 8059: 8048:on 3 July 2014 8026: 8023:. 3 July 2010. 8008: 7983: 7958: 7940: 7922: 7903: 7885: 7878: 7858: 7840: 7814: 7767: 7740: 7725: 7712: 7705: 7682: 7669: 7656: 7631: 7605: 7570: 7555: 7537: 7509:978-1315842639 7508: 7488: 7461:(2): 225–248. 7445: 7432: 7415: 7401:978-0820414546 7400: 7382: 7353: 7336: 7309:(4): 459–472. 7293: 7275: 7264:. 8 April 2019 7249: 7219: 7204: 7181: 7168: 7146: 7121: 7094:(5): 475–503. 7071: 7058: 7011: 7002: 6987: 6964: 6932: 6881: 6866: 6848: 6801: 6794: 6774: 6754: 6747: 6727: 6707: 6660: 6645: 6621: 6612: 6592: 6580: 6565: 6538: 6522: 6508: 6494: 6469: 6460: 6445: 6427: 6421:978-0312244491 6420: 6402: 6385: 6381:Parma De Rossi 6368: 6353: 6335: 6309: 6294: 6276: 6269: 6248: 6221:(12): e12290. 6205: 6180: 6121: 6103:on 29 May 2020 6087: 6065:Fellous, Sonia 6053: 5995: 5975: 5961: 5943: 5926: 5906: 5888: 5861: 5835: 5809: 5786: 5756: 5745:on 2 June 2013 5726: 5700: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5660: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5611: 5605: 5600: 5593: 5590: 5582:Mireille Knoll 5539:Following the 5412: 5409: 5383:, the current 5359: 5356: 5310:Main article: 5307: 5304: 5260:following the 5248: 5245: 5234: 5233: 5231: 5230: 5223: 5216: 5208: 5205: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5179: 5178: 5177:Related topics 5174: 5173: 5172: 5171: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5141: 5140: 5136: 5135: 5134: 5133: 5132: 5131: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5097: 5096: 5089: 5084: 5071: 5070: 5066: 5065: 5064: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5018: 5017: 5011: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5007: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4986: 4981: 4980: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4956: 4955: 4951: 4950: 4942: 4941: 4935: 4934: 4923: 4920: 4883: 4882: 4867:Jacques Chirac 4762:Main article: 4759: 4756: 4731:Pierre Gaxotte 4688:Maurice Barrès 4652:École de Paris 4648:Emile Durkheim 4631: 4628: 4606:Henri Poincaré 4602:Anatole France 4572:Devil's Island 4564:Alfred Dreyfus 4556:Dreyfus affair 4550:Dreyfus affair 4548:Main article: 4542:Dreyfus affair 4523: 4522:Dreyfus affair 4520: 4475: 4472: 4378: 4375: 4366: 4363: 4340: 4337: 4323: 4320: 4236:Main article: 4233: 4230: 4200: 4197: 4143:Henri Grégoire 4116:Jacques Necker 4065: 4062: 3994: 3991: 3976:letters patent 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3891:Main article: 3888: 3885: 3871: 3868: 3851:Adolphe Vuitry 3817: 3814: 3768:, the Marche, 3706: 3703: 3683:Pope Gregory X 3650: 3647: 3591:copies of the 3545: 3544:Under Louis IX 3542: 3482: 3479: 3418: 3415: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3336: 3333: 3263:Main article: 3260: 3257: 3222: 3219: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3057:' second wife 2967: 2964: 2793:Gallia Celtica 2778: 2775: 2675:Nazi occupiers 2629:Dreyfus affair 2587: 2586: 2584: 2583: 2576: 2569: 2561: 2558: 2557: 2556: 2555: 2550: 2542: 2541: 2536: 2535: 2534: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2485: 2484: 2478: 2477: 2476: 2475: 2470: 2468:Territorialism 2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2437: 2436: 2428: 2423: 2422: 2419: 2418: 2415: 2414: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2352:Judaeo-Spanish 2349: 2347:Judaeo-Iranian 2344: 2339: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2313: 2312: 2299: 2294: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2284: 2283: 2282: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2263: 2262: 2256: 2255: 2254: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2223: 2218: 2210: 2209: 2203: 2202: 2201: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2177: 2176: 2170: 2169: 2168: 2167: 2162: 2154: 2153: 2147: 2146: 2145: 2144: 2139: 2134: 2127: 2118: 2113: 2108: 2099: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2076: 2075: 2069: 2064: 2063: 2060: 2059: 2056: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2040: 2035: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2013: 2012: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1990: 1985: 1984: 1981: 1980: 1975: 1974: 1973: 1972: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1944: 1943: 1937: 1936: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1912: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1850: 1845: 1840: 1832: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1823: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1804: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1797: 1796: 1793:United Kingdom 1789: 1784: 1779: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1759: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1704: 1699: 1694: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1641: 1640: 1634: 1633: 1632: 1631: 1626: 1621: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1433: 1432: 1428: 1427: 1426: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1226:Bilad-el-Sudan 1223: 1218: 1210: 1209: 1203: 1202: 1201: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1182: 1181: 1179:Land of Israel 1175: 1174: 1173: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1142: 1137: 1136: 1133: 1132: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1108: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1092: 1087: 1077: 1072: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1039: 1038: 1037:Related groups 1034: 1033: 1032: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1016: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 976: 971: 970: 969: 964: 949: 944: 943: 940: 939: 934: 933: 932: 931: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 894:Jewish atheism 891: 886: 881: 873: 872: 868: 867: 866: 865: 860: 855: 850: 845:Islamic–Jewish 840: 833: 818: 813: 805: 804: 797: 796: 795: 794: 770: 757: 729: 724: 717: 712: 710:Yehud Medinata 704: 703: 697: 696: 695: 694: 687: 680: 672: 659: 651: 639: 634: 627: 619: 618: 616:Ancient Israel 612: 611: 610: 609: 604: 599: 594: 589: 584: 579: 574: 572:Land of Israel 569: 561: 560: 554: 549: 548: 545: 544: 539: 538: 537: 536: 531: 527:Shulchan Aruch 522: 517: 512: 507: 499: 498: 497: 496: 491: 483: 482: 476: 475: 474: 473: 468: 460: 459: 453: 452: 451: 450: 445: 440: 432: 431: 423: 418: 417: 414: 413: 410: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 352: 347: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 305: 300: 293:God in Judaism 289: 284: 283: 280: 279: 278: 277: 272: 264: 263: 253: 252: 240: 239: 233:Ashkenazi Jews 221: 220: 216: 215: 205: 204: 200: 199: 140: 139: 135: 134: 132: 131: 128: 125: 124: 120: 119: 104: 103: 99: 98: 90: 89: 86: 85: 70: 55: 44:Juifs français 39: 38: 28: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13279: 13268: 13265: 13263: 13260: 13258: 13255: 13253: 13250: 13249: 13247: 13237: 13227: 13225: 13215: 13214: 13211: 13198: 13195: 13193: 13190: 13188: 13185: 13183: 13180: 13178: 13175: 13173: 13170: 13165: 13164: 13161: 13155: 13152: 13150: 13147: 13145: 13143: 13139: 13137: 13136: 13132: 13130: 13129: 13125: 13123: 13120: 13118: 13117: 13113: 13112: 13110: 13104: 13098: 13095: 13093: 13090: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13080: 13078: 13075: 13073: 13072:Paul Ramadier 13070: 13068: 13065: 13063: 13060: 13058: 13055: 13053: 13050: 13048: 13047:Justin Godart 13045: 13043: 13040: 13038: 13035: 13033: 13032:Jacques Ellul 13030: 13028: 13025: 13023: 13020: 13018: 13015: 13013: 13012:Albert Bedane 13010: 13009: 13007: 13005: 12999: 12993: 12990: 12988: 12985: 12983: 12982:André Rogerie 12980: 12978: 12975: 12973: 12970: 12968: 12965: 12963: 12960: 12958: 12957:Henry Bulawko 12955: 12953: 12952:Henri Borlant 12950: 12948: 12947:Joseph Bialot 12945: 12943: 12940: 12939: 12937: 12929: 12923: 12920: 12918: 12915: 12913: 12910: 12908: 12905: 12903: 12900: 12898: 12895: 12893: 12890: 12888: 12887:Guy Deutscher 12885: 12884: 12882: 12876: 12870: 12867: 12865: 12862: 12860: 12857: 12855: 12852: 12850: 12849:Claude Rodier 12847: 12845: 12842: 12840: 12837: 12835: 12832: 12830: 12827: 12825: 12822: 12820: 12819:Bernard Natan 12817: 12815: 12812: 12810: 12807: 12805: 12804:Bereck Kofman 12802: 12800: 12797: 12795: 12792: 12790: 12787: 12785: 12784:Salomon Gluck 12782: 12780: 12777: 12775: 12772: 12770: 12767: 12765: 12762: 12760: 12759:Marianne Cohn 12757: 12755: 12752: 12750: 12747: 12745: 12742: 12740: 12737: 12735: 12734:Henri Abraham 12732: 12731: 12729: 12723: 12717: 12714: 12712: 12711:Xavier Vallat 12709: 12707: 12704: 12702: 12699: 12697: 12696:Maurice Papon 12694: 12692: 12689: 12687: 12684: 12682: 12679: 12677: 12674: 12672: 12669: 12668: 12666: 12664: 12663:Collaborators 12660: 12654: 12651: 12649: 12648: 12644: 12642: 12639: 12637: 12634: 12632: 12629: 12627: 12624: 12622: 12619: 12617: 12614: 12612: 12609: 12607: 12606:René Bousquet 12604: 12602: 12599: 12598: 12596: 12594: 12590: 12584: 12583: 12579: 12577: 12576: 12572: 12570: 12567: 12565: 12564: 12560: 12559: 12557: 12551: 12545: 12542: 12540: 12537: 12535: 12532: 12530: 12527: 12525: 12522: 12520: 12517: 12515: 12512: 12510: 12509:Herbert Hagen 12507: 12505: 12502: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12494:Alois Brunner 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12467: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12457: 12455: 12452: 12451: 12449: 12443: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12423: 12421: 12418:Documentation 12415: 12409: 12406: 12404: 12401: 12399: 12396: 12394: 12391: 12389: 12386: 12384: 12381: 12379: 12376: 12374: 12371: 12368: 12364: 12361: 12359: 12356: 12354: 12351: 12349: 12346: 12344: 12341: 12340: 12338: 12336: 12332: 12326: 12323: 12321: 12318: 12316: 12313: 12311: 12308: 12306: 12303: 12301: 12298: 12296: 12293: 12291: 12288: 12287: 12285: 12283: 12279: 12273: 12270: 12268: 12265: 12263: 12260: 12258: 12255: 12253: 12250: 12248: 12245: 12243: 12240: 12238: 12235: 12233: 12230: 12228: 12225: 12223: 12220: 12218: 12215: 12213: 12210: 12208: 12205: 12203: 12200: 12198: 12195: 12193: 12190: 12188: 12185: 12183: 12180: 12178: 12175: 12173: 12169: 12168:The Holocaust 12166: 12165: 12162: 12158: 12151: 12146: 12144: 12139: 12137: 12132: 12131: 12128: 12116: 12113: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12101: 12099: 12096: 12094: 12091: 12089: 12086: 12085: 12083: 12081: 12078: 12076: 12073: 12072: 12069: 12059: 12058: 12054: 12052: 12051: 12047: 12045: 12044: 12040: 12038: 12037: 12033: 12032: 12030: 12026: 12020: 12019: 12015: 12013: 12012: 12008: 12006: 12005: 12001: 11999: 11998: 11994: 11992: 11991: 11987: 11986: 11984: 11980: 11974: 11973: 11969: 11967: 11966: 11962: 11961: 11959: 11955: 11952: 11946: 11940: 11937: 11935: 11932: 11930: 11927: 11925: 11922: 11920: 11917: 11915: 11912: 11910: 11907: 11905: 11902: 11900: 11899: 11895: 11893: 11892: 11888: 11886: 11883: 11881: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11872: 11870: 11864: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11845:Jean Luchaire 11843: 11841: 11838: 11836: 11833: 11832: 11831: 11828: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11812: 11810: 11806: 11796: 11793: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11783: 11782: 11780: 11776: 11770: 11767: 11763: 11760: 11759: 11758: 11757: 11753: 11751: 11750: 11746: 11744: 11741: 11739: 11736: 11734: 11731: 11729: 11726: 11724: 11721: 11719: 11718:Syria–Lebanon 11716: 11714: 11711: 11707: 11704: 11703: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11694: 11692: 11689: 11687: 11684: 11682: 11679: 11677: 11676:Mers-el-Kébir 11674: 11672: 11669: 11668: 11666: 11662: 11652: 11649: 11647: 11646: 11642: 11640: 11639: 11635: 11633: 11630: 11629: 11627: 11623: 11617: 11614: 11610: 11609: 11605: 11604: 11603: 11602: 11598: 11596: 11595: 11591: 11589: 11588: 11584: 11583: 11581: 11577: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11563: 11561: 11558: 11556: 11553: 11551: 11548: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11538: 11536: 11533: 11531: 11528: 11527: 11525: 11521: 11518: 11514: 11511: 11509: 11505: 11495: 11492: 11490: 11487: 11485: 11482: 11480: 11477: 11476: 11474: 11470: 11464: 11461: 11459: 11456: 11454: 11451: 11449: 11446: 11444: 11441: 11439: 11436: 11434: 11431: 11429: 11426: 11424: 11421: 11418: 11414: 11411: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11394: 11391: 11390: 11388: 11386: 11382: 11376: 11373: 11371: 11368: 11366: 11363: 11361: 11358: 11357: 11355: 11349: 11343: 11340: 11338: 11335: 11333: 11330: 11328: 11325: 11323: 11320: 11318: 11315: 11313: 11310: 11308: 11305: 11304: 11302: 11300: 11296: 11290: 11287: 11285: 11282: 11280: 11277: 11276: 11274: 11270: 11264: 11261: 11259: 11256: 11254: 11251: 11250: 11248: 11246: 11242: 11239: 11237: 11231: 11221: 11218: 11216: 11213: 11211: 11208: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11198: 11196: 11193: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11177: 11175: 11171: 11161: 11158: 11156: 11153: 11151: 11148: 11146: 11143: 11142: 11140: 11138: 11134: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11080: 11078: 11076: 11072: 11062: 11059: 11057: 11054: 11052: 11049: 11048: 11046: 11044: 11040: 11034: 11031: 11029: 11028:Occupied zone 11026: 11024: 11023: 11019: 11018: 11016: 11012: 11006: 11005: 11001: 10999: 10998: 10994: 10992: 10990: 10986: 10984: 10983: 10979: 10977: 10976: 10972: 10970: 10969: 10965: 10963: 10962: 10961:Ici la France 10958: 10956: 10955: 10951: 10949: 10948: 10944: 10942: 10941: 10937: 10935: 10934: 10930: 10928: 10927: 10923: 10921: 10920: 10916: 10914: 10913: 10909: 10907: 10906: 10902: 10900: 10899: 10895: 10893: 10892: 10888: 10883: 10880: 10877: 10875: 10872: 10870: 10867: 10865: 10864: 10860: 10858: 10855: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10839: 10837: 10831: 10825: 10822: 10820: 10817: 10815: 10814: 10810: 10808: 10805: 10803: 10800: 10798: 10797: 10793: 10791: 10788: 10786: 10783: 10781: 10778: 10776: 10773: 10772: 10770: 10764: 10758: 10757: 10753: 10751: 10748: 10746: 10743: 10739: 10736: 10735: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10726: 10724: 10721: 10720: 10718: 10712: 10706: 10703: 10701: 10698: 10696: 10693: 10691: 10688: 10686: 10685: 10681: 10679: 10678: 10674: 10672: 10669: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10661:French League 10659: 10658: 10656: 10654:organizations 10650: 10644: 10641: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10631: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10621: 10619: 10616: 10615: 10613: 10609: 10603: 10600: 10598: 10595: 10593: 10592:Xavier Vallat 10590: 10588: 10585: 10583: 10580: 10578: 10577:Simon Sabiani 10575: 10573: 10572:Pierre Pucheu 10570: 10568: 10565: 10563: 10562:Maurice Papon 10560: 10558: 10555: 10553: 10550: 10548: 10547:Jean Luchaire 10545: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10535: 10533: 10530: 10528: 10525: 10523: 10520: 10518: 10515: 10513: 10510: 10508: 10505: 10503: 10500: 10498: 10495: 10493: 10490: 10488: 10485: 10483: 10480: 10478: 10477:Alexis Carrel 10475: 10473: 10470: 10468: 10465: 10463: 10462:René Bousquet 10460: 10458: 10455: 10453: 10450: 10449: 10447: 10443: 10437: 10436: 10432: 10430: 10429:Hôtel du Parc 10427: 10425: 10422: 10420: 10417: 10415: 10412: 10410: 10407: 10406: 10404: 10400: 10394: 10391: 10389: 10386: 10382: 10379: 10378: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10354: 10352: 10349: 10347: 10344: 10342: 10339: 10337: 10336: 10332: 10330: 10327: 10325: 10324: 10320: 10319: 10317: 10313: 10307: 10304: 10302: 10299: 10297: 10294: 10292: 10289: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10269: 10267: 10264: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10254: 10252: 10249: 10247: 10246:Baltic states 10244: 10242: 10239: 10236: 10235: 10232: 10228: 10221: 10216: 10214: 10209: 10207: 10202: 10201: 10198: 10186: 10183: 10181: 10178: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10161: 10160:Faroe Islands 10158: 10156: 10153: 10152: 10150: 10144: 10138: 10135: 10133: 10132:South Ossetia 10130: 10128: 10125: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10115: 10114: 10112: 10106: 10098: 10095: 10093: 10090: 10088: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10079: 10078: 10075: 10073: 10070: 10068: 10065: 10063: 10060: 10058: 10055: 10053: 10050: 10048: 10045: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10013: 10010: 10008: 10005: 10003: 10000: 9998: 9995: 9993: 9990: 9988: 9985: 9983: 9980: 9978: 9975: 9973: 9970: 9968: 9965: 9963: 9962:Liechtenstein 9960: 9958: 9955: 9953: 9950: 9948: 9945: 9943: 9941: 9938: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9928: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9906: 9903: 9901: 9898: 9896: 9893: 9891: 9888: 9886: 9883: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9851: 9848: 9846: 9843: 9841: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9832: 9830: 9826: 9822: 9815: 9810: 9808: 9803: 9801: 9796: 9795: 9792: 9786: 9782: 9778: 9775: 9772: 9769: 9765: 9761: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9752: 9747: 9746: 9737: 9733: 9730: 9726: 9723: 9719: 9717: 9713: 9709: 9706: 9702: 9699: 9695: 9692: 9688: 9685: 9681: 9678: 9674: 9672: 9668: 9664: 9661: 9657: 9655: 9651: 9647: 9644: 9640: 9638: 9634: 9630: 9627: 9623: 9620: 9616: 9614: 9610: 9606: 9603: 9599: 9596: 9592: 9589: 9585: 9583: 9579: 9575: 9573: 9569: 9565: 9564: 9555: 9551: 9549: 9545: 9541: 9539: 9535: 9531: 9528: 9524: 9520: 9516: 9512: 9508: 9504: 9500: 9499: 9493: 9491: 9487: 9483: 9481: 9477: 9473: 9471: 9467: 9463: 9460: 9456: 9453: 9449: 9446: 9442: 9440: 9436: 9432: 9429: 9425: 9423: 9419: 9415: 9411: 9409: 9405: 9401: 9398: 9394: 9393: 9384: 9381: 9377: 9376: 9371: 9367: 9362: 9361:public domain 9353: 9352: 9342: 9336: 9331: 9315: 9309: 9293: 9289: 9283: 9275: 9271: 9265: 9257: 9253: 9247: 9239: 9235: 9229: 9221: 9217: 9211: 9203: 9199: 9193: 9177: 9171: 9155: 9149: 9133: 9126: 9110: 9103: 9087: 9080: 9065:. Arutz Sheva 9064: 9057: 9041: 9035: 9019: 9013: 8997: 8992: 8984: 8968: 8967:Bloomberg.com 8964: 8958: 8956: 8939: 8933: 8917: 8913: 8907: 8892: 8888: 8881: 8866: 8862: 8855: 8840:. Arutz Sheva 8839: 8832: 8816: 8809: 8807: 8790: 8784: 8769: 8762: 8746: 8740: 8724: 8720: 8713: 8706: 8703: 8699: 8696: 8690: 8674: 8670: 8666: 8662: 8656: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8626: 8610: 8609: 8604: 8597: 8589: 8585: 8579: 8571: 8567: 8561: 8546: 8545: 8540: 8533: 8531: 8515:on 5 May 2012 8514: 8510: 8504: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8474: 8472: 8455: 8451: 8445: 8443: 8435: 8423: 8419: 8418: 8413: 8407: 8392: 8388: 8384: 8380: 8373: 8365: 8364: 8359: 8352: 8344: 8343: 8338: 8332: 8330: 8313: 8309: 8303: 8288: 8284: 8277: 8270: 8269: 8264: 8263:archive.today 8260: 8257: 8251: 8243: 8239: 8238:The Telegraph 8234: 8227: 8211: 8205: 8197: 8196: 8191: 8185: 8170: 8169: 8164: 8157: 8142: 8141: 8136: 8129: 8127: 8118: 8117: 8112: 8106: 8091:. 9 July 2004 8090: 8084: 8076: 8075: 8070: 8063: 8047: 8043: 8042: 8037: 8030: 8022: 8018: 8012: 7997: 7993: 7987: 7971: 7965: 7963: 7954: 7950: 7944: 7936: 7932: 7926: 7918: 7914: 7907: 7899: 7895: 7889: 7881: 7875: 7871: 7870: 7862: 7854: 7850: 7844: 7828: 7824: 7818: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7778: 7771: 7755: 7751: 7744: 7736: 7729: 7722: 7716: 7708: 7706:9780191622885 7702: 7698: 7697: 7689: 7687: 7679: 7673: 7666: 7660: 7645: 7641: 7635: 7619: 7615: 7609: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7585: 7581: 7574: 7566: 7562: 7558: 7552: 7548: 7541: 7533: 7527: 7519: 7515: 7511: 7505: 7501: 7500: 7492: 7484: 7480: 7476: 7472: 7468: 7464: 7460: 7456: 7449: 7442: 7436: 7429: 7425: 7424:Supreme Court 7419: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7397: 7393: 7386: 7378: 7372: 7364: 7360: 7356: 7350: 7346: 7340: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7320: 7316: 7312: 7308: 7304: 7297: 7289: 7285: 7279: 7263: 7259: 7253: 7237: 7233: 7226: 7224: 7215: 7211: 7207: 7205:2-85870-017-6 7201: 7197: 7190: 7188: 7186: 7178: 7175:Nigel Aston, 7172: 7166: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7156:The Code Noir 7150: 7142: 7138: 7132: 7130: 7128: 7126: 7117: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7082: 7075: 7068: 7062: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7015: 7006: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6988:1-4008-2314-5 6984: 6980: 6979: 6971: 6969: 6951: 6948:(in French). 6947: 6943: 6936: 6928: 6924: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6892: 6885: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6863: 6859: 6852: 6844: 6840: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6805: 6797: 6791: 6787: 6786: 6778: 6770: 6769: 6761: 6759: 6750: 6744: 6740: 6739: 6731: 6723: 6716: 6714: 6712: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6664: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6633: 6625: 6616: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6596: 6589: 6584: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6562: 6558: 6554: 6553: 6545: 6543: 6535: 6531: 6526: 6519: 6518: 6512: 6504: 6498: 6483: 6479: 6473: 6464: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6442: 6438: 6431: 6423: 6417: 6413: 6406: 6398: 6392: 6390: 6382: 6378: 6372: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6350: 6346: 6339: 6323: 6319: 6313: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6291: 6287: 6280: 6272: 6270:0-486-42011-6 6266: 6262: 6258: 6257:Henri Pirenne 6252: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6209: 6201: 6200: 6195: 6189: 6187: 6185: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6156:(in German). 6155: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6128: 6126: 6118: 6116: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6088:9791036512308 6084: 6080: 6076: 6073:(in French). 6072: 6071: 6066: 6060: 6058: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6028: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6008: 6006: 6004: 6002: 6000: 5991: 5990: 5985: 5979: 5971: 5965: 5957: 5953: 5947: 5936: 5930: 5924: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5910: 5902: 5901:bseditions.fr 5898: 5892: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5870: 5868: 5866: 5849: 5842: 5840: 5823: 5816: 5814: 5797: 5790: 5774: 5770: 5763: 5761: 5744: 5740: 5733: 5731: 5714: 5707: 5705: 5688: 5687: 5682: 5676: 5674: 5672: 5667: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5595: 5589: 5585: 5583: 5578: 5576: 5571: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5556: 5553: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5537: 5534: 5530: 5525: 5523: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5506: 5501: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5485: 5482: 5479: 5475: 5470: 5467: 5463: 5458: 5456: 5452: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5422: 5418: 5408: 5405: 5400: 5398: 5397:United States 5394: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5355: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5332: 5330: 5326: 5321: 5319: 5313: 5303: 5301: 5297: 5292: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5244: 5242: 5229: 5224: 5222: 5217: 5215: 5210: 5209: 5207: 5206: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5182: 5181: 5180: 5176: 5175: 5170: 5169: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5147:Awareness day 5145: 5144: 5143: 5142: 5138: 5137: 5130: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5079: 5078: 5075: 5074: 5073: 5072: 5068: 5067: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5026: 5022: 5021: 5020: 5019: 5016: 5013: 5012: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4991: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4964: 4963: 4960: 4959: 4958: 4957: 4953: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4943: 4940: 4937: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4927: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4901: 4899: 4895: 4894:the Holocaust 4891: 4886: 4880: 4876: 4875:Enlightenment 4872: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4852: 4850: 4846: 4844: 4839: 4833: 4831: 4825: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4805: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4790: 4788: 4782: 4779: 4770: 4765: 4755: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4742: 4741: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4719:Popular Front 4716: 4712: 4707: 4705: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4689: 4685: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4672: 4668: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4640:Henri Bergson 4637: 4627: 4623: 4621: 4620: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4597: 4595: 4591: 4590: 4584: 4579: 4577: 4576:French Guiana 4573: 4569: 4565: 4560: 4557: 4551: 4543: 4539: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4519: 4517: 4516: 4511: 4507: 4502: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4491:July Monarchy 4488: 4484: 4480: 4471: 4464: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4430: 4424: 4421: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4403: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4374: 4372: 4365:Full equality 4362: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4336: 4333: 4329: 4319: 4317: 4313: 4312:French Empire 4309: 4308:décret infâme 4305: 4304:Protestantism 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4270: 4267: 4263: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4239: 4229: 4225: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4112:Herz Cerfbeer 4109: 4105: 4101: 4098:but those in 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4061: 4059: 4055: 4054: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4038:and the Abbé 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4007: 4005: 4001: 3990: 3988: 3984: 3979: 3977: 3973: 3968: 3964: 3958: 3953: 3939: 3935: 3933: 3929: 3924: 3922: 3918: 3917: 3912: 3906: 3904: 3900: 3894: 3884: 3882: 3877: 3867: 3863: 3861: 3855: 3852: 3848: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3831: 3827: 3826:Hanukkah lamp 3822: 3813: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3738:Île de France 3733: 3729: 3727: 3726:sous tournois 3723: 3722: 3716: 3712: 3702: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3646: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3627: 3623: 3621: 3615: 3611: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3577: 3573: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3537: 3533: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3518: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3492: 3487: 3478: 3476: 3472: 3467: 3463: 3462:royal demesne 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3427:Île de France 3424: 3414: 3412: 3407: 3401: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3389:First Crusade 3382: 3377: 3363: 3359: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3347:First Crusade 3342: 3332: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3297: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3271: 3266: 3256: 3254: 3253: 3248: 3247: 3242: 3241: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3227:First Crusade 3218: 3216: 3212: 3207: 3203: 3198: 3195: 3191: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3167: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3139: 3136: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3114: 3100: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2977: 2973: 2963: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2943:King Dagobert 2939: 2937: 2933: 2925: 2921: 2910: 2909: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2812:Theodosius II 2809: 2804: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2785: 2774: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2759: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2746: 2742: 2737: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2702:United States 2699: 2695: 2690: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2663: 2661: 2657: 2656:Popular Front 2653: 2649: 2645: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2582: 2577: 2575: 2570: 2568: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2559: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2543: 2532: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2514: 2512: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2497: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2488: 2487: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2479: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2440: 2439: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2431: 2426: 2421: 2420: 2413: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2398: 2395: 2393: 2392:Judeo-Aramaic 2390: 2388: 2385: 2383: 2382:Judeo-Italian 2380: 2378: 2375: 2373: 2370: 2368: 2365: 2363: 2362:Ghardaïa Sign 2360: 2358: 2355: 2353: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2310: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2301: 2300: 2297: 2292: 2291: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2266: 2265: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2257: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2227: 2224: 2222: 2219: 2217: 2214: 2213: 2212: 2211: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2191: 2189: 2186: 2184: 2181: 2180: 2179: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2171: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2157: 2156: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2135: 2133: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2105: 2100: 2098: 2095: 2093: 2090: 2088: 2085: 2083: 2080: 2079: 2078: 2077: 2073: 2072: 2067: 2062: 2061: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2039: 2036: 2034: 2031: 2029: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1995: 1992: 1991: 1988: 1987:Denominations 1983: 1982: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1938: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1920: 1918: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1866: 1864: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1835: 1834: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1826: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1815:United States 1813: 1811: 1808: 1807: 1806: 1805: 1801: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1644: 1643: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1635: 1630: 1627: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1505: 1502: 1500: 1497: 1495: 1492: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1435: 1434: 1430: 1429: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1413: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1301:Guinea-Bissau 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1213: 1212: 1211: 1208: 1205: 1204: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1176: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1156: 1155:Lists of Jews 1153: 1151: 1148: 1147: 1146: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1134: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1096: 1093: 1091: 1088: 1086: 1083: 1082: 1081: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1036: 1035: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 982: 980: 977: 975: 972: 968: 965: 963: 960: 959: 958: 955: 954: 953: 952: 947: 942: 941: 930: 922: 920: 917: 915: 914:The Holocaust 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 876: 875: 874: 870: 869: 864: 861: 859: 856: 854: 851: 849: 841: 839: 834: 830: 824: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 808: 807: 806: 802: 799: 798: 791: 785: 779: 774: 771: 767: 761: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 707: 706: 705: 702: 699: 698: 693: 688: 686: 681: 677: 673: 670: 665: 660: 656: 652: 649: 643: 640: 638: 635: 633: 628: 626: 623: 622: 621: 620: 617: 614: 613: 608: 605: 603: 600: 598: 595: 593: 590: 588: 585: 583: 580: 578: 575: 573: 570: 568: 565: 564: 563: 562: 558: 557: 552: 547: 546: 535: 532: 529: 528: 523: 521: 518: 516: 515:Mishneh Torah 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 502: 501: 500: 495: 492: 490: 487: 486: 485: 484: 481: 478: 477: 472: 469: 467: 464: 463: 462: 461: 458: 455: 454: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 435: 434: 433: 430: 427: 426: 421: 416: 415: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 353: 351: 348: 346: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 313: 309: 306: 304: 301: 298: 294: 291: 290: 287: 282: 281: 276: 275:Who is a Jew? 273: 271: 268: 267: 266: 265: 262: 258: 255: 254: 250: 246: 245: 238: 234: 230: 226: 225:Sephardi Jews 222: 217: 214: 210: 206: 201: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 136: 130: 129: 126: 121: 105: 100: 96: 91: 82: 71: 67: 56: 52: 45: 41: 40: 36: 27: 19: 13186: 13140: 13133: 13126: 13114: 13052:Père Jacques 13017:Marc Boegner 12977:Sarah Kofman 12942:Louise Alcan 12922:Rose Warfman 12839:Victor Perez 12794:Paul Hermann 12739:Victor Basch 12706:Paul Touvier 12653:Vichy Police 12645: 12636:André Tulard 12626:Pierre Laval 12593:Vichy France 12580: 12573: 12561: 12529:Kurt Lischka 12524:Josef Kramer 12489:Heinz Röthke 12469:Klaus Barbie 12464:Horst Ahnert 12446:Perpetrators 12325:Villeurbanne 12290:Green ticket 12170:by country: 12055: 12048: 12041: 12034: 12016: 12009: 12002: 11995: 11988: 11970: 11963: 11896: 11889: 11868:& Impact 11790:Henri Giraud 11755: 11748: 11727: 11712: 11670: 11643: 11636: 11606: 11599: 11592: 11585: 11530:1st Regiment 11370:Yellow badge 11365:Nazi plunder 11360:Aryanisation 11342:Villeurbanne 11312:Green ticket 11220:New Hebrides 11180:French India 11155:Ubangi-Shari 11150:Middle Congo 11020: 11002: 10995: 10988: 10980: 10973: 10966: 10959: 10952: 10945: 10938: 10931: 10924: 10917: 10910: 10903: 10896: 10889: 10884: 10861: 10811: 10794: 10766:Policy & 10754: 10682: 10675: 10587:André Tulard 10582:Paul Touvier 10537:Pierre Laval 10487:Henry Coston 10445:Participants 10433: 10370: 10333: 10321: 10301:Soviet Union 10237: 10227:Vichy France 10137:Transnistria 9909: 9750: 9735: 9728: 9721: 9711: 9704: 9697: 9690: 9683: 9676: 9666: 9659: 9649: 9642: 9632: 9625: 9618: 9617:Cahm, Eric. 9608: 9601: 9594: 9590:(1992) 317p. 9587: 9577: 9567: 9561:Antisemitism 9553: 9543: 9536:(2008) 26#4 9533: 9526: 9502: 9496: 9485: 9475: 9465: 9458: 9451: 9444: 9434: 9427: 9413: 9403: 9396: 9373: 9341: 9330: 9318:. 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However, 3675:Inquisition 3522:Theobald IV 3471:Carolingian 3439:seigniorial 3393:blood libel 3171:blamed the 2972:Charlemagne 2920:regnal year 2875:Constantine 2613:persecution 2609:Middle Ages 2595:deals with 2526:Revisionist 2516:Neo-Zionism 2123:Zeved habat 1916:Puerto Rico 1742:Netherlands 1574:South Korea 1559:Philippines 1439:Afghanistan 1306:Ivory Coast 1080:Crypto-Jews 1045:Bnei Anusim 1024:Bene Israel 989:Beta Israel 946:Communities 853:Middle Ages 592:Persecution 367:Bereavement 213:no religion 33:French Jews 18:French Jews 13246:Categories 13097:Varian Fry 13037:Mary Elmes 12972:René Kapel 12534:Carl Oberg 12454:Otto Abetz 12398:Rivesaltes 12373:Pithiviers 12320:Vel' d'Hiv 12237:Luxembourg 11733:Madagascar 11453:Rivesaltes 11428:Pithiviers 11337:Vel' d'Hiv 11103:Mauritania 11022:Zone libre 10997:La Semaine 10835:propaganda 10750:Riom Trial 10472:André Broc 10435:Zone libre 10419:The Eighty 10402:Beginnings 10361:Phoney War 10329:Boulangism 10276:Luxembourg 10032:San Marino 9992:Montenegro 9972:Luxembourg 9952:Kazakhstan 9855:Azerbaijan 9768:Yad Vashem 9220:Yahoo News 8417:Libération 7760:16 January 7556:0312111673 7354:1851094393 7137:"Provence" 6897:(1): 5–7. 6891:AJS Review 6867:031329318X 6646:0271016124 6608:B0017H91JQ 6566:0385505841 6487:9 December 6137:Kolb, Anne 6097:1193020908 5914:Yad Vashem 5854:5 February 5850:. 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Spiegel 5560:Marseille 5348:Abu Daoud 5300:terrorist 5280:Ashkenazi 4723:Léon Blum 4715:communism 4426:The 1870 4316:Rhineland 4301:Calvinist 4217:Girondins 4135:disorders 4108:Ashkenazi 4024:Louis XVI 3972:Louis XIV 3932:Louis XII 3824:A bronze 3778:Languedoc 3756:, Maine, 3742:Champagne 3695:Philip IV 3679:Catharism 3610:in 1248. 3493:, Paris). 3231:Midrashim 3159:Jerusalem 3122:Robert II 3103:Capetians 3078:merchants 3070:Palestine 3063:ordinatio 3003:Radhanite 2932:Caracalla 2892:Funerary 2824:militandi 2718:Marseille 2683:Holocaust 2521:Religious 2377:Zarphatic 2367:Bukharian 2337:Judeo-Tat 2322:Yeshivish 2296:Languages 2251:Sephardic 2241:Israelite 2231:Ethiopian 2221:Ashkenazi 2160:Religious 1950:Australia 1932:Venezuela 1838:Argentina 1820:Greenland 1732:Lithuania 1584:Sri Lanka 1579:Singapore 1504:Kurdistan 1469:Indonesia 1459:Hong Kong 1412:Abayudaya 1336:Mauritius 1070:Igbo Jews 1060:Krymchaks 979:Sephardim 847:relations 741:Sadducees 737:Pharisees 727:Sanhedrin 642:Jerusalem 402:Synagogue 270:Etymology 138:Languages 13167:See also 12383:Rieucros 12367:subcamps 12282:Roundups 12192:Bulgaria 11778:Officers 11706:Ko Chang 11508:Military 11438:Rieucros 11417:subcamps 11299:Roundups 11190:Cambodia 11160:Cameroon 11123:Togoland 10891:L'Alerte 10768:politics 10716:treaties 10296:Slovakia 10185:Svalbard 10170:Guernsey 10117:Abkhazia 10092:Scotland 10047:Slovenia 10042:Slovakia 10017:Portugal 9875:Bulgaria 9777:Archived 9760:Archived 9613:in JSTOR 9572:in JSTOR 9370:"France" 9320:14 April 9238:BBC News 8996:Archived 8922:9 August 8751:11 March 8698:Archived 8679:10 March 8645:12 March 8611:. London 8519:10 March 8493:10 March 8460:13 March 8396:9 August 8318:9 August 8259:Archived 8242:Archived 8216:9 August 8195:Ynetnews 8095:9 August 8021:France24 8001:9 August 7953:BBC News 7833:9 August 7754:Slate.fr 7565:40593627 7430:, p. 15. 7363:58830958 7268:9 August 7161:Archived 6997:51580058 6876:29952366 6821:: 1–63. 6702:24429768 6655:33665024 6575:50242976 6363:36461619 6328:9 August 6304:48139723 6259:(2001). 6048:61956716 6024:(eds.). 5952:"France" 5919:Archived 5875:"France" 5618:in Arles 5607:Paris's 5592:See also 5549:Bataclan 5395:and the 5125:Tunisia 4994:1948 war 4967:Sephardi 4931:a series 4929:Part of 4877:and the 4332:Bourbons 4297:Lutheran 4280:Napoleon 4255:Napoleon 4209:Bas-Rhin 4205:Alsatian 4164:and the 4131:Bastille 4104:Lorraine 4088:Bordeaux 4086:Jews in 4084:Sephardi 4053:Haskalah 4040:Grégoire 4036:Mirabeau 4016:Cerfbeer 3899:Provence 3887:Provence 3810:Provence 3802:Dauphiné 3794:Burgundy 3790:Lorraine 3786:Pyrénées 3774:Auvergne 3770:Lyonnais 3762:Touraine 3750:Normandy 3711:Templars 3691:Toulouse 3510:interest 3458:dominium 3450:dominium 3341:Crusades 3321:Shemaria 3246:responsa 3147:Saracens 3093:Narbonne 3017:currency 2941:In 629, 2898:Narbonne 2883:ḥazzanim 2863:Bordeaux 2847:Narbonne 2797:Lugdunum 2741:Sephardi 2734:Toulouse 2700:and the 2635:and the 2548:Category 2506:Kahanism 2453:Feminism 2425:Politics 2309:Biblical 2279:American 2226:Bukharan 2216:American 2116:Shidduch 2092:Clothing 2048:Haymanot 1994:Orthodox 1922:Suriname 1905:Paraguay 1858:Colombia 1757:Portugal 1667:Bulgaria 1604:Thailand 1554:Pakistan 1534:Mongolia 1529:Malaysia 1449:Cambodia 1423:Zimbabwe 1398:Tanzania 1276:Eswatini 1266:Ethiopia 1256:Djibouti 1236:Cameroon 1231:Botswana 1160:Diaspora 1122:Noahides 1095:Marranos 1019:Cochinim 1004:Bukharim 994:Gruzinim 984:Teimanim 974:Mizrahim 962:Galician 928:conflict 889:Hasidism 879:Haskalah 784:Diaspora 655:timeline 567:Timeline 480:Rabbinic 387:Kabbalah 362:Marriage 338:Tzedakah 328:Holidays 286:Religion 249:a series 247:Part of 235:, other 203:Religion 13236:Judaism 13210:Portals 13144: 12932:Witness 12726:Victims 12272:Ukraine 12257:Romania 12212:Hungary 12202:Estonia 12197:Croatia 12187:Belgium 12182:Belarus 12177:Austria 12172:Albania 12028:Fiction 11957:History 11948:History 11769:Réunion 11664:Battles 11579:Militia 11523:Regular 11236:affairs 11113:Senegal 11088:Dahomey 11061:Tunisia 11056:Morocco 10982:Revivre 10926:Combats 10898:L'Appel 10315:Prelude 10306:Ukraine 10261:Denmark 10256:Croatia 10251:Belarus 10241:Albania 10082:England 10072:Ukraine 10022:Romania 9982:Moldova 9940:Ireland 9935:Iceland 9930:Hungary 9920:Germany 9915:Georgia 9905:Finland 9900:Estonia 9895:Denmark 9880:Croatia 9865:Belgium 9860:Belarus 9850:Austria 9845:Armenia 9840:Andorra 9835:Albania 9770:website 9714:(1981) 9669:(1991) 9604:(1969). 9546:(1994) 9478:(1998) 9430:(1996). 9416:(2001) 9363:: 9046:28 June 9024:28 June 9002:28 June 8773:7 April 8428:3 March 8342:Reuters 8292:5 March 7976:9 March 7801:3133551 7719:Hyman, 7676:Hyman, 7663:Hyman, 7600:4467459 7242:5 March 7214:6303565 7053:1453511 6919:1486732 6843:3622388 6674:History 6503:"Rouen" 6377:Magazin 5568:Créteil 5294:In the 5116:Lebanon 5077:Morocco 5061:Tripoli 5056:Baghdad 4984:Zionism 4972:Mizrahi 4849:Gestapo 4711:Zionism 4704:Yiddish 4695:pogroms 4671:Chagall 4667:Soutine 4438:Algeria 4284:ghettos 4171:La Fare 4162:Barnave 4092:Bayonne 4044:Prussia 3987:Regency 3784:to the 3639:rouelle 3600:Crusade 3514:capital 3475:treason 3296:Midrash 3215:crusade 3194:Orléans 3190:Limoges 3185:baptism 3163:Cluniac 3086:Abbasid 3074:Normans 2995:papyrus 2855:Orléans 2745:Mizrahi 2704:). 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