Frankfurt Parliament

2702:, Prussia's representative to the National Assembly, handed the draft to Prime Minister Gagern, who forwarded it to the Committee of the Parliament that was preparing the Constitution for its second reading. The amendments, designed to ensure the prerogatives of the princes in various state functions, were sidelined by arguments from the left for universal suffrage in elections and the secret ballot. Only two of Camphausen's amendments were discussed and no modifications made. Furthermore, passage of the Austrian Constitution on 4 March 1849 was used as an excuse by Prince Schwarzenberg to declare the first draft of the federal Constitution incompatible with Austrian law, and would therefore have to be scrapped and replaced by a more accommodating document. The proclamation shocked the National Assembly, resulting in floral speeches condemning "Austrian sabotage". But when on 21 March deputy 2711:

only at the request of at least 50 deputies. The reading proceeded with unusual pace, as the deputies feared they would become illegitimate in public opinion unless they overcame mounting obstacles and produced the Constitution. The Center conceded an amendment on the last day, in the form of an extension of the suspensive veto, to cover changes in the Constitution. They warned it could be used to overthrow the Imperial system, to which the Left applauded. Austria's proposed amendment to turn the Imperial dignity into a Directory was soundly defeated, thus protecting the office of Emperor. The Left derided the center by shouting, "A German Emperor chosen by a majority of four votes from four faithless Austrians!" However, 91 Austrian deputies had cast votes for the Imperial system, thus rejecting Prince Schwarzenberg's interference. An article to create an

2829: 2927: 1600: 1588: 1688:). At the same time, the Provisional Central Power undertook to create a government apparatus, made up of specialized ministries and special envoys, employing, for financial reasons, mainly deputies of the assembly. The goal was to have a functional administration in place at the time of the Constitution's passage. Whatever form the final government of united Germany was to take would be defined by the Constitution, and necessary changes to the Provisional Central Power would be made accordingly. Significantly, the terms of the Regent's service explicitly forbade him or his ministers from interfering in the formulation of the Constitution. 264: 117: 1010:) adult males. The definition of independence was handled differently from state to state and was frequently the subject of vociferous protests. Usually, it was interpreted to exclude the recipients of any poverty-related support, but in some areas, it also barred any person who did not have a household of their own, including apprentices living at their masters' homes. Even with restrictions, however, it is estimated that about 85% of the male population could vote. In Prussia, the definition used would have pushed this up to 90%, whereas the laws were much more restrictive in Saxony, Baden, and 2079: 1172: 36: 2863:), an all-out call for resistance against the Princes who refused to accept the Constitution. The supporters of the campaign did not consider themselves revolutionaries. From their perspective, they represented a legitimate national executive power acting against states that had breached the Constitution. Nonetheless, only the radical democratic left was willing to use force to support the Constitution, notwithstanding their original reservations against it. In view of their failure, the bourgeoisie and the leading liberal politicians of the faction of the 856: 2605: 1881: 1078:. On either side of the gallery was the library. Despite its large capacity, which allowed the sitting of 600 deputies and a gallery for 2,000 spectators, there were some disadvantages. St. Paul's Church had extremely narrow corridors between the rows of seats in the central hall, and there were no rooms for consultation by the committees. The gallery attendees quickly became famous for their noise during the debates, which the more eloquent deputies learned to abuse to gain applause for themselves or raucous blame upon their enemies. 1987: 1776: 2283: 1180: 2775: 912: 3082: 2227: 1435: 1095:

presentation) and that the agenda was fixed by the President at the end of the previous session. Deputies spoke in the order in which they answered but with a change from opponents and supporters of the bill. Speaking time was unlimited. Twenty deputies together could request the conclusion of a debate, at which the decision was then in plenary. There were no seating arrangements, but the deputies soon arranged themselves according to their political affiliations, from left and right.

1801:

and his administration to be the future of Germany. Yet, as the National Assembly dragged out its work on the Constitution, the role of the Provisional Central Power changed. Soon, its purpose was to shore up the diminishing legitimacy of the whole project in the eyes of the people and the princes. Heinrich Gagern's appointment as Prime Minister in December was to serve that purpose, even though relations between the Regent and the former President of the National Assembly were poor.

1625:, the constitution of the German Confederation could have brought about such legitimation, but was practically impossible to achieve, as it would have required the unanimous support of all 38 signatory states. Partially for this reason, influential European powers, including France and Russia, declined to recognize the Parliament. While the left demanded to solve this situation by creating a revolutionary parliamentary government, the center and right acted to create a monarchy. 2132: 1580: 1058: 3175:, and they sold their possessions to their Prussian cousin on 7 December 1849, thus giving the great northern power a foothold in the south. Prussia had also won the gratitude of the family of the Grand Duchy of Baden as an important ally in southern Germany, and the Smaller German Solution gained in popularity throughout the nation. This political pass contributed to the adoption of the Smaller German Solution after the Prussian victory in the 1866 3234: 2812:. Then, on 5 April 1849, Prince Schwarzenberg recalled the Austrian deputies from the National Assembly and denounced the Constitution as being incompatible with Austrian sovereignty, with the caveat that Austria did not exclude itself from a German union, providing it was structured according to Austria's needs. To ensure Austria's role in German affairs did not diminish, Schwarzenberg convinced Archduke John to remain in office as Regent. 1570:

groups, such as the United Left, the Greater Germans in Hotel Schröder, the Imperials in Hotel Weidenbusch. These party meetings were indeed an important part of political life in Frankfurt, significant for positive, but also for negative, results. A club offered a get-together with politically kindred spirits, some of whom became true friends, comparably rapid decisions, and, as a result, perhaps success in the overall assembly.

449: 4989: 3036: 3125:. This policy was based on Prussia's insistence that both the National Assembly and the German Confederation were defunct. However, Austria's policy was that the German Confederation had never ceased to exist. Rather, only the Confederate Diet had dissolved itself on 12 July 1848. Therefore, the Austrian Emperor could be restored as President of the German Confederation in succession to the Regent. 2165:

exemption in the individual States. Not only did the Prussian government complain about interference in its conduct of the Danish war, but the various Chambers of the States published complaints against the Parliament for violating their sovereignty and threatening their already shaky state budgets. Many common people also denounced the idea of an expanded army and conscription.

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boundaries of the Confederation. Incorporating such areas into a German nation-state not only raised questions regarding the national identity of the inhabitants, but also challenged the relationship between the two states within Germany. At the same time, Denmark and the Netherlands administered sovereign territories within the Confederation, further entangling the question of

700:

eleven weeks, the United Diet rejected a loan request. The King closed the diet in disgust and refused to say when it would be reopened. However, the people's enthusiasm for the United Diet was undeniable, and it was clear that a new political age was dawning. Many of the most eloquent members of the United Diet would play important roles in the future Frankfurt Parliament.

1667:) sent their own letter, which the Archduke received prior to the parliamentary deputation, informing him that the princes of the Confederation had nominated him Regent before the Parliament had done so. The implication was that the Regent should receive his power from the princes rather than the revolutionaries, but the practical effect of this power was yet to be seen. 2939:

made to him as a result of governments' approval. You will recall that the Regent was introduced into his office in this place, but then the Confederate Diet ... gave him authority. The Regent, as a thoroughly conscientious man, will certainly never be able to lay down his office into any other hands than into those who have empowered him."

2988:, who was also prime minister and minister of justice of the Württemberg government. Essentially, the Frankfurt National Assembly was dissolved at this point. From 6 June 1849 onwards, the remaining 154 deputies met in Stuttgart under the presidency of Friedrich Wilhelm Löwe. This convention was dismissively called the Rump Parliament ( 2804:("Emperor Deputation"), a group of deputies chosen by the National Assembly and headed by Simson, offered Frederick William the office of Emperor. He gave an evasive answer, arguing that he could not accept the crown without the agreement of the princes and Free Cities. In reality, Frederick William believed in the principle of the 1971:'s instigation, the National Assembly initially rejected the Malmö Armistice with a vote of 238 against 221. After that, Prime Minister Leiningen resigned his office. The Regent entrusted Dahlmann to form a new ministry, but his fiery rhetoric over Schleswig-Holstein could not be turned into political capital. The Austrian deputy 2531:, itself outside of the Confederate boundaries. Deputy Carl Giskra of Mährisch-Trubau rhetorically asked how much longer the "German lands of Zator and Auschowitz" should remain part of Galicia, but another deputy derisively referred to the territories as "fantasy duchies" and denounced the question even being raised. 3145:

forced Prussia to abandon its proposal to alter Germany's political composition in its favor. By that time, all of the states in Germany had suppressed their Constitutions, popularly elected parliaments, and democratic clubs, thus erasing all work of the revolution. An exception was in Austria, where

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With this in mind, Archduke John attempted to resign his office once more in August 1849, stating that the Regency should be jointly held by Prussia and Austria through a committee of four until 1 May 1850, by which time all of the German governments should have decided on a new Constitution. The two

2950:

the revolution. With insults and jeers raining down from the gallery, the Prime Minister further stated, "Gentlemen! Consider the consequences of the withdrawal of the Regent and the divorce of Germany from this war . Remember that the honor of Germany is at stake!" Grävell finally concluded, "These,

2922:

The Regent appointed the conservative Greater German advocate and National Assembly deputy Maximilian Grävell as his new Prime Minister on 16 May 1849. This so incensed the National Assembly that they held a vote of no confidence in the government on 17 May, resulting in a vote of 191 against 12 with

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On 5 April 1849, all Austrian deputies left Frankfurt. The new elections called for by Prime Minister Heinrich Gagern did not take place, further weakening the assembly. In desperation, Gagern demanded that the Regent personally intervene with the Princes to save the Constitution. Reminding Gagern of

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by riverboat. Standing on the quay, the King embraced the Regent to the cheer of the crowds, and then allowed Gagern to present the members of the deputation. He addressed to them a few friendly words on the importance of their work and added with emphasis: "Do not forget that there are still Princes

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On 16 July, the Minister of War sent a circular to the state Governments with a proclamation to the German troops, in which he decreed the Regent as the highest military authority in Germany. At the same time, he ordered the state governments to call out the troops of every garrison for a parade on 6

1800:

along with hundreds of other nobles in the Napoleonic period, and he expected the remaining princes of Germany to set aside their crowns as well. Anton von Schmerling held contempt for many of the institutions he had dutifully served, such as the Confederate Diet, and considered the National Assembly

1702:

At the end of August 1848, there were a total of 26 persons employed in the administration of the provisional government. By 15 February 1849, the number had increased to 105. Some 35 of them worked in the War Department and had been employed by the Confederate Diet in the same capacity. The Ministry

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boycotted the election, reducing the total to 585. As many deputies held multiple assignments in state parliaments or government offices, this reduced the average daily attendance to between 400 and 450 members. For important ballots, up to 540 deputies might attend to cast their vote. In April 1849,

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Among other things, the rules of procedure provided that the meetings were public but could be confidential under certain conditions. In the 15 committees, the subjects of negotiation were pre-deliberated. It was settled on how applications were to be handled (twenty votes were needed for the plenary

954:

Though the pre-parliament had decided on 13 May 1848 for the opening of the National Assembly, the date was pushed to 18 May so that deputies from Prussia's outer provinces, which had only recently joined the Confederation, could arrive in time. By this calculation, the number of Prussian deputies to

699:

promised by his father in the decree of 22 May 1815. This body was commanded to debate and vote only on taxes and loans. However, as soon as it opened in April 1847, its members began discussions of press freedoms, voting, and human rights, the power to introduce legislation and foreign policy. After

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One week later, disagreements between the three kingdoms saw Prussia's project for a new federal German government fall apart. On 5 October 1849, Hanover argued for an understanding with Austria before a new Parliament could be elected and a new Constitution drawn up, and Saxony seconded the motion.

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and explained the Regent's motives for appointing him as Prime Minister, and the Regent's refusal to obey the National Assembly's decisions. Grävell stated, "You remember, gentlemen, that had declared to the deputation of the National Assembly which had been sent to him that he accepted the request

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The second reading commenced on 23 March 1849 after agreements had been reached with the Center and the Left over procedure: It was to be read without interruption to the very end; every paragraph was to be voted upon as reported by the committee on the Constitution; amendments were to be considered

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On 23 January 1849, a resolution that one of the reigning German princes should be elected as Emperor of Germany was adopted with 258 votes against 211. As the King of Prussia was implicitly the candidate, the vote saw conservative Austrian deputies joining the radical republican left in opposition.

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Thus, the attempt of the Provisional Central Power to assert its authority over all the armed forces within Germany failed. The Regent still held authority over the German Confederate Army, but this force represented less than half of the standing armies of the states, and these were led by officers

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Effectively, the National Assembly and the Provisional Central Power were bankrupt and unable to undertake such rudimentary projects as paying salaries, purchasing buildings, or even publishing notices. The revolution functioned on the financial charity of individual Germans and the good will of the

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as Chief of Operations. Difficulties arose in the procurement and equipment of suitable warships, as the British and Dutch were wary of a new naval power arising in the North Sea, and Denmark pressed its blockade harder. Furthermore, most German states forbade their trained personnel from serving in

1787:

As the National Assembly had initiated the creation of the Provisional Central Power, the Regent, and his government were expected to be subservient to their whims. Theoretically, the transfer of the Confederate Diet's authority to the Regent on 12 July gave him legitimate, binding power independent

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declared the indivisibility of Austria. Thus, it became clear that, at most, the National Assembly could achieve national unity within the smaller German solution, with Prussia as the sole major power. Although Schwarzenberg demanded the incorporation of the whole of Austria into the new state once

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were excluded. Membership meant very little, as the administration of Limburg remained entirely Dutch and the population was Dutch in national sentiment. Nevertheless, the National Assembly held several debates over the fate of Limburg, which not only irritated King William but also the British and

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The fact that fate of the revolution was decided in Vienna and Berlin, that the key issues of life were dealt with in both those capitals without taking the slightest notice of the Frankfurt assembly—that fact alone is sufficient to prove that the institution was a mere debating club, consisting of

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at the beginning of October forced the Austrian court to flee the city. The National Assembly, instigated by left-wing deputies, attempted to mediate between the Austrian government and the revolutionaries. In the meantime, the Austrian army violently suppressed the rising. In the course of events,

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and the Ministerial Council were indignant at the presumption. Latour demanded a sharp response from the government of Austria, which at that moment was headed by Archduke John in Vienna. Ironically, the Archduke had to dispatch a complaint about the matter in the name of the Austrian government to

1871:

announced on 27 March 1848 the promulgation of a liberal constitution under which the duchy, while preserving its local autonomy, would become an integral part of Denmark, the radicals broke into revolt. The Estates of Holstein followed suit. A revolutionary government for the duchies was declared,

1795:

However, the Regent was a man of advanced age who was convinced, like most of his contemporaries, that his office would be of short duration and his role should be strictly an honor. Therefore, the personalities of the Prime Ministers during the life of the Provisional Central Power clearly defined

1670:

The Archduke received the delegation on 5 July 1848 and accepted the position, stating, however, that he could not undertake full responsibility in Frankfurt until he had finished his current work of opening the Austrian Parliament in Vienna. Therefore, Archduke John drove to Frankfurt where he was

1471:

were perceived as clubs and thus usually named after the location of their meetings; generally, they were quite unstable. According to their stances, especially on the constitution, the powers of parliament, and central government as opposed to individual states, they are broadly divided into three

3060:

On 17 June, Römer informed the president of the parliament that "the Württemberg government was no longer in a position to tolerate the meetings of the National Assembly that had moved to its territory, nor the activities of the regency elected on the 6th, anywhere in Stuttgart or Württemberg". At

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This spelled the final failure of the National Assembly's constitution and thus of the German revolution. The rejection of the crown was understood by the other princes as a signal that the political scales had fully tipped against the liberals. Opinion even in autumn 1848 had it that the National

2815:

By 14 April 1849, 28 mostly petty states had accepted the constitution, and Württemberg was the only kingdom to do so after much hesitation. The kings of Hanover, Saxony, and Bavaria awaited Prussia's formal response to the Constitution before decreeing their own. Then, on 21 April, King Frederick

2765:

As the near-inevitable result of having chosen the Smaller German Solution and the constitutional monarchy as form of government, the Prussian king was elected as hereditary head of state on 28 March 1849. The vote was carried by 290 votes against 248 abstentions, embodying resistance primarily by

1205:

Because of resignations and replacements, the total number of deputies who served between 18 May 1848 and 17 June 1849 has never been determined satisfactorily. Historian Jörg-Detlef Kühne counted a total of 799 deputies, while Thomas Nipperdey reckoned a high figure of 830. In the middle, Wolfram

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had suggested. The President maintained order in the session, set the agenda, and led the meeting. The overall board also included eight secretaries, who were jointly elected by a relative majority for the entire term. A panel of twelve stenographers wrote down all discussions in every session and

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worked out his draft with two other deputies. The draft was completed on 10 May and adopted as regulation at the first sitting of the Parliament on 18 May. A commission was set up to draft the definitive rules of procedure on 29 May, which was adopted following a short debate. Six sections with 49

2954:

After reading the rules of the Provisional Central Power, adopted 28 June and 4 September 1848, especially articles that address the removal of ministers and the Regent, President Theodore Reh of the National Assembly read the report from the Committee of Thirty that drafted a provisional regency

2621:

Remarkably, the National Assembly did not begin its mandated work of drafting the Constitution until 19 October 1848. Up to that time, exactly five months after the opening of the National Assembly, the deputies had failed to move forward with its most important task. However, they were driven to

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Anxious to bring the war with Denmark to a victorious conclusion, on 15 July the National Assembly decreed that the German Confederate Army should be doubled in size. This was to be done by raising the proportion of recruits to 2 percent of the population, and also by the abolition of all laws of

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The central demands of the German opposition(s) were the granting of basic and civic rights regardless of property requirements, the appointment of liberal governments in the individual states and most importantly the creation of a German nation-state, with a pan-German constitution and a popular

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Yet Prussia, by its leading role in suppressing the revolution, had demonstrated its indispensability as a main player in German politics and its superiority over small and medium states. It was now in a far better strategic position among the lesser and petty princes. Revolutionary outbreaks in

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that originally there were four different clubs, based on the basic political orientations Regarding the most important major questions, for example about Austria's participation and the election of emperors, the usual club-based divisions could be abandoned temporarily to create larger overall

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classed the ideas of the radical democratic left as irresponsible and naive foolishness. The bourgeois liberals were also discredited; many of them left politics disappointed and under great hostility from their fellow citizens in the individual states. It is probably partially due to this that

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After rejecting the Imperial Constitution on 21 April 1849, Prussia attempted to undermine the Provisional Central Power. King Frederick William IV intended to assume its functions after the Regent announced his resignation at the end of March. However, Prince Schwarzenberg had foiled Prussia's

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begun in Prague on 2 June 1848 was cut short on 12 June by civil unrest, and the city was bombarded into submission by General Windisch-Grätz on 16 June. The National Assembly applauded the destruction of Slav secession, but some deputies saw in Windisch-Grätz's violence a warning of what might

1950:

from Berlin but from the Confederate Diet, which had just been superseded by the Provisional Central Power. Therefore, he would hold positions and await further orders from the Regent. With popular sentiment on Wrangel's side, the Berlin court could not condemn him. They tried to steer a middle

3158:

The March Revolution led to a major increase of Prussia's political importance, though only gradually. By permitting the revolution to consolidate itself, and by supporting the Schleswig-Holstein rebellion with Prussian troops, the Hohenzollern dynasty was reviled in Scandinavia and especially

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Further, Prussia (unlike Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, and Hannover) had indicated its support of the draft constitution in a statement made after the first reading. Additionally, the representatives of the provisional government had attempted through innumerable meetings and talks to build an

2706:

of Frankfurt brought up a motion to pass the Constitution "as is" to force the issue, it was rejected by 283 votes against 252. Nevertheless, shows of resistance to their Constitutional work by so many of the states shook the confidence of many deputies. There was suddenly a desperation in the

2211:

Later, a torchlight parade carried the King and the Regent to the cathedral square, where the crowds showered them with adulation. Gagern, however, missed the parade entirely as it dispersed due to rains before it reached the end of the route where he awaited it. The National Assembly deputies

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The uproar in the parliament was intense, yet Grävell persisted: "If you have patience to wait, I will explain. The Regent can and will only return his office to the National Assembly from which it originated. But he will do so and cannot do otherwise, except as a staunch steward of the power

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On 14 May, the Prussian parliamentarians also resigned their mandates. In the following week, nearly all conservative and bourgeois-liberal deputies left the parliament. The remaining left-wing forces insisted that 28 states had accepted the Frankfurt Constitution and began the Constitutional

2296:

With history, politics, and ethnicity in conflict, defining the meaning of "Germany" was proving a major obstacle for the National Assembly. The biggest problem was that the two most powerful states, Prussia and especially Austria, had large possessions with non-German populations outside the

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The execution also indicated that the force of the March Revolution was beginning to flag by the autumn of 1848. This did not apply only to Austria. The power of the governments appointed in March was eroding. In Prussia, the Prussian National Assembly was disbanded and its draft constitution

2147:

In consequence, however, the entire budget inherited from the Confederate Diet was spent. Discussions in the National Assembly for raising funds through taxes were tied into the Constitutional debates, and the Provisional Central Power could not convince the state governments to make any more

2100:. However, the National Assembly had no funds to disburse for the project. National enthusiasm led to numerous penny-collections across Germany, as well the raising of volunteers to man whatever vessels could be purchased, to be commanded by retired naval officers from coastal German states. 2049:

Thus, the acceptance of the Treaty of Malmö marks the latest possible date of the final breach of cooperation between the liberal and the radical democratic camps. Radical democratic politicians saw it as final confirmation that the bourgeois politicians, as Hecker had said in spring 1848,

1206:

Siemann counted 812 deputies and Christian Jansen 809, which are the most popular figures. The discrepancy may be due to the chaotic conditions of the elections, where disputes over constituencies and the conduct of the elections caused the late sitting of some deputies. Adjustments to the

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By formal change or simple use, the Rules of Procedure could be modified. Political factions largely determined the speakers in a debate. A name roll call had to take place if at least fifty deputies demanded it; Speaker Friedrich Bassermann wanted to allow this only when needed because of

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contributions than what they had agreed upon in the Confederate Diet. Even worse, the chaotic finances of such states as Austria, which was fighting wars in Italy and Hungary and suppressing rebellions in Prague and Vienna, meant little or no payment was to be expected in the near future.

2160:

On 12 July 1848, the Confederate Diet transferred responsibility for the German Confederate Army and the Federal Fortresses to the Provisional Central Power. The Regent appointed General Eduard von Peucker, Prussia's representative to the Federal Military Commission, as Minister of War.

3133:

was signed on 30 September, transferring all responsibilities of the Provisional Central Power to the two states, though not relieving the Regent of his office just yet. By signing this compact, Prussia tacitly accepted Austria's policy that the German Confederation still existed.

2017:

Henceforth, the radical democrats, whose views were both leftist and nationalist, ceased to accept their representation through the National Assembly. In several states of the German Confederation, they resorted to individual revolutionary activities. For example, on 21 September,

3051:

Since these actions challenged the authority of Württemberg, and the Prussian army was successfully crushing the rebellions in the nearby Baden and the Palatinate, Römer and the Württemberg government distanced themselves from the rump parliament and prepared for its dissolution.

2331:... In France there are also many nationalities, but all know that they are French. There are also different nationalities in England, and yet all know that they are Englishmen. We want to start by saying that everyone is German. We should therefore also stand by the expression 1955:

in order to enforce a peace based on 2 July agreement. The Regent approved, but added extra demands upon the Danes and ordered the 30,000-strong German Confederate VIII. Army Corps to support Wrangel. This infuriated the foreign powers, who dispatched further threats to Berlin.

2066:" spreading anarchy and murder. This early divide of its main components was of major importance for the later failure of the National Assembly, as it caused lasting damage not only to the esteem and acceptance of the parliament, but also to the cooperation among its factions. 2436:

was finally settled in 1839, Luxemburg ceded 60 percent of its territory to Belgium. As compensation, the Dutch province of Limburg became a member of the Confederation, although only that portion whose population equaled what was lost to Belgium. Thus, the cities of

818:

in 1831, he called for a representation, elected by the people, in the Confederate Diet. Two weeks later, news of the successful revolution in France fanned the flames of the revolutionary mood. The revolution on German soil began in Baden, with the occupation of the

2591:

Nonetheless, the Paulskirche Constitution was designed to allow a later accession of Austria, by referring to the territories of the German Confederation and formulating special arrangements for states with German and non-German areas. The allocation of votes in the

427:" when it was offered to him on the grounds that such a constitution and such an offer were an abridgment of the rights of the princes of the individual German states. In the 20th century, however, major elements of the Frankfurt constitution became models for the 2212:

marched in the parade only as one of many groups, flanked by fire-fighters and police. Finally, at the grand banquet afterward, a toast by prominent leftist deputy Franz Raveaux was missed by the royal retinue and other dignitaries, as all of them departed early.

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an accumulation of gullible wretches who allowed themselves to be abused as puppets by the governments, so as to provide a show to amuse the shopkeepers and tradesmen of small states and towns, as long as it was considered necessary to distract their attention.

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August, the 42nd anniversary of the end of the Holy Roman Empire. Their commanding officers were to read Peucker's proclamation before them, after which the troops were to shout "Hurrah!" for the Regent three times. Then, the soldiers were to assume the German

3138:

On 20 October, both kingdoms ended active participation in the league's deliberations, isolating Prussia entirely. With Austria's position in Germany more and more secure, Archduke John was finally permitted to resign his office of Regent on 20 December 1849.

2584:

more in March 1849, the dice had fallen in favor of a Smaller German Empire by December 1848, when the irreconcilable differences between the position of Austria and that of the National Assembly had forced the Austrian, Schmerling, to resign from his role as

1248:. In terms of profession, upper-level civil servants formed the majority: this group included a total of 436 deputies, including 49 university lecturers or professors, 110 judges or prosecutors, and 115 high administrative clerks and district administrators ( 2951:

gentlemen, are the motives for why we came here, and why we cannot resign, in spite of your open distrust." The Prime Minister then departed. Deputy William Zimmermann of Stuttgart shouted from the gallery, "This is unheard of in the history of the world!"

1703:

of Commerce employed 25 staff, including the section in charge of the German Fleet, which was only separated as an independent Naval ministry in May 1849. The diplomatic section employed mostly freelance personnel who held portfolios for state governments.

2506:

of Tyrol dispatched a letter of protest to the National Assembly for accepting the petition. The question of Istria's full admission into the Confederation, and Trentino's withdrawal, were referred to Committee but never voted upon in the Assembly itself.

1867:. German national liberals and the left demanded that Schleswig be admitted to the German Confederation and be represented at the national assembly, while Danish national liberals wanted to incorporate Schleswig into a new Danish national state. When King 2786:

alliance with the Prussian government, especially by creating a common front against the radical left and by arguing that the monarchy could only survive if it accepted a constitutional-parliamentary system. The November 1848 discussion of Bassermann and

1633:

On 24 June 1848, Heinrich von Gagern argued for a regency and provisional central government to carry out parliamentary decisions. On 28 June 1848, the Paulskirche parliament voted, with 450 votes against 100, for the so-called Provisional Central Power

2143:

Nevertheless, by 15 October 1848, three steam corvettes and one sailing frigate were placed into service. In total, two sailing frigates, two steam regattas, six steam corvettes, 26 rowing gunboats, and one hawk ship were procured from diverse places.

2254:, tried him before a military tribunal, and had him executed by firing squad on 9 November 1848. This highlighted the powerlessness of the National Assembly and its dependence on the goodwill of the state governments of the German Confederation. In 3106:. The National Assembly was notified of Prussia's intentions on 28 April. The deputies refused to consider changes to their Constitution, and Prince Schwarzenberg similarly rejected Prussia's proposals on 16 May. A draft dated 28 May 1849 created a 3065:

occupied the parliamentary chamber before the session started. The deputies reacted by organizing an impromptu protest march which was promptly squashed by the soldiers without bloodshed. Those deputies that were not from Württemberg were expelled.

2343:

and Bohemia will be satisfied with it. I can assure you that this expression will be properly interpreted by the Czechs and Slavic leaders." Thus, the question proved too complicated to be answered after months of negotiations, much less weeks.

2975:

began to feel threatened. Further deputies that were not willing to align with radical democratic left resigned their mandates or gave them up when asked to by their home governments. On 26 May, the Frankfurt National Assembly had to lower its

1099:

uncertainty over the vote, but opponents saw in the roll call a means of documenting how the deputies voted. Finally, to save time, on 17 October 1848 voting cards were introduced (white "yes", blue "no") as a means of true documentation.

1963:

with Denmark at Malmö. Its terms included the withdrawal of all German Confederate soldiers from Schleswig-Holstein and a shared administration of the land. No recognition was made of the Provisional Central Power in the deliberations.

676:) provided an organizational framework for democratic, or popular, opposition. Especially in Southwest Germany, censorship could not effectively suppress the press. At such rallies as the Offenburg Popular Assembly of September 1847, 1454:

While the opening session had generally been quite chaotic, with the deputies seated haphazardly, independent of their political affiliations, ordered parliamentary procedures developed quickly. Soon, deputies started assembling in

531:

had led to the introduction of civic rights in some German states in the early 19th century. Furthermore, some German states had adopted constitutions after the foundation of the German Confederacy. Between 1819 and 1830, the

2770:

held strong prejudices against the work of the Frankfurt Parliament, but on 23 January, the Prussian government had informed the states of the German Confederation that Prussia would accept the idea of a hereditary emperor.

1072:) to the Pre-Parliament, which in turn became the home of the National Assembly. The altar was removed and a lectern was put in place for the presidium and the speaker, while the church organ was hidden by the large painting 2574:

The court camarilla surrounding the incapacitated Austrian Emperor Ferdinand was not, however, willing to break up the state. On 27 November 1848, only a few days before the coronation of Ferdinand's designated successor,

1396:

were associated almost exclusively with the radical democratic Left, as they knew the social problems of the underprivileged classes from personal observations. A few of them, e.g. Wolff already saw themselves as explicit

3200:

of the 20th century: discreditation of democrats and liberals, their estrangement, and the unfulfilled desire for a nation-state, which had led to separation of the national question from the assertion of civic rights.

2482:

and argued for a unified Italian state in the fashion of the new Germany being planned. However, there were few who approved of separating the littoral from the German Confederation, if only for strategic reasons.

810:, a liberal deputy in the second chamber of the parliament of Baden, helped to trigger the final impulse for the election of a pan-German assembly (or parliament). On 12 February 1848, referring to his own motion ( 2543:) aimed for a Germany under the leadership of Prussia and excluded Imperial Austria so as to avoid becoming embroiled in the problems of that multi-cultural state. The supporters of the "Greater German Solution" ( 2198:

On 20 July the Regent, along with Heinrich Gagern and a large deputation from the Parliament, accepted an invitation by King Frederick William to take part in a festival celebrating new construction to the great

1450:

and the achievement of German unification. This was followed by a total of 230 sessions, supported by 26 committees and five commissions, in the course of which the deputies developed the Frankfurt Constitution.

2879:

had not achieved any success regarding acceptance of the Constitution, but had managed to mobilize those elements of the population that were willing to commit violent revolution. In Saxony, this led to the

2352:

Though the Duchy of Schleswig's situation was troublesome, its position within the new Germany was undisputed. The Confederate Diet welcomed the embattled duchy as its newest appendage on 12 April 1848. The

1749: 222: 1675:

to deliver a speech to the Confederate Diet, which then declared the end of its work and delegated its responsibilities to the Regent. Archduke John returned to Vienna on 17 July to finish his tasks there.

1196:

The Pre-Parliament had set the ratio of one deputy to the National Assembly per 50,000 inhabitants of the German Confederation, totaling 649 deputies. However, Czech-majority constituencies in Bohemia and

2723:

The National Assembly passed the complete Imperial Constitution in the late afternoon of 27 March 1849. It was carried narrowly, by 267 against 263 votes. The version passed included the creation of a

2527:, but the question of whether they should be part of the new Germany was only discussed briefly in the National Assembly. The population was entirely Polish and the territories an integral part of the 1102:

By the Rules of Procedure, an absolute majority of deputies present elected the President and the two Vice-Presidents of the National Assembly. A new election of officers was held every four weeks, as

2562:, i.e., against Poland and Hungary, whereas the liberal centre supported a more pragmatic stance. On 27 October 1848, the National Assembly voted for a Greater German Solution, but incorporating only 1006:

which chose the actual deputies in a second round. There also were different arrangements regarding the right to vote, as the Frankfurt guidelines only stipulated that voters should be independent (

2215:

Taken together, these were glaring indications of the revolutionaries' lessening influence, whereas cheering crowds surrounding the King and Regent amplified the growing confidence of the princes.

1892:

on 1 April 1848 to suppress the rebels. The Confederate Diet ordered Prussia to protect the duchies on 4 April and recognized the revolutionary government. But it was only when Denmark ordered its

891:, Austria and Prussia. Under such pressure, the individual princes recalled the existing conservative governments and replaced them with more liberal committees, the so-called "March Governments" ( 692:

more and more confidently. Thus, at the Heppenheim Conference on 10 October 1847, eighteen liberal members from a variety of German states met to discuss common motions for a German nation-state.

1218:

in March 1849 convinced a few Czech deputies who had boycotted the National Assembly to appear, if only in moral opposition. For these reasons, the total number of deputies may never be settled.

3102:

for a Smaller German Solution under Prussian leadership. This entailed modifying the Frankfurt Parliament's conclusions, with a stronger role for the Prussian hereditary monarch and imposed

1617:

Since the national assembly had not been initiated by the German Confederation, it was lacking not only major constitutional bodies, such as a head of state and a government, but also legal

2820:

Assembly had taken far too long to draft the Constitution. Had they accomplished their task in the summer and offered the crown in autumn, the revolution might have taken a different turn.

1107:

withdrew in the evening to compare notes. They were assisted by 13 clerks. Final copies of the daily sessions were printed for the public two or three days later, though by the time of the

3746:

Jörg-Detlef Kühne: Die Reichsverfassung der Paulskirche. Vorbild und Verwirklichung im späteren deutschen Rechtsleben. Habil. Bonn 1983, 2nd ed., Luchterhand, Neuwied 1998 (1985), p. 51.

2502:

sent deputies to Frankfurt. In fact, the Roveredo municipal government petitioned the National Assembly to allow the Trentino to secede from the German Confederation. In response, the

2470:

remained outside of the Confederation, and the question of their full integration into the new Germany was discussed. Most of the left-wing deputies had nationalist sentiments for the

3000:

Since the Provisional Central Power and the Regent refused to acknowledge the new situation, the Rump Parliament declared both as dismissed and proclaimed a new provisional regency (

2902:

had to flee the country after a mutiny of the Rastatt garrison. The insurrectionists declared a Baden Republic and formed a revolutionary government headed by the Paulskirche deputy

4388: 1091:

paragraphs regulated the electoral test, the board and staff of the assembly, quorum (set at 200 deputies), the formation of committees, order of debate, and inputs and petitions.

963:

According to the pre-parliament's rules for elections, one deputy was to be seated for every 50,000 inhabitants within the Confederation, totaling some 649 jurisdictions (see this

2203:. The radical left condemned the festival, correctly assuming it would strengthen feelings of loyalty in the people toward their princes. On 15 August, the deputation arrived in 1922:

lay before Wrangel and the National Assembly urged a swift defeat of the Danes for the sake of Schleswig's revolution. But pressure from foreign sources arose from all quarters:

1804:

After the Constitution was rejected by the larger states in April 1849, Gagern came into conflict with the Regent over his refusal to defend the Constitution and resigned. (See

1699:

of Great Britain. Ministers of the Interior, Justice, War, and Foreign Affairs were appointed on the same day, while Ministers for Finance and Trade were appointed on 5 August.

899:) to prepare a draft constitution; on 20 March, the Bundestag urged the states of the confederation to call elections for a constitutional assembly. After bloody street fights ( 2853:

his own terms forbidding the Provisional Central Power from interfering in the work of the Constitution, the Regent refused, and Gagern resigned in consequence on 10 May 1849.

2793:

Shortly after the vote of 27 March 1849, Archduke John announced his resignation as Regent, explaining that the vote ended all reason for his office. President of the Assembly

510:

dominated this system of loosely connected, independent states, but the system failed to account for the rising influence of Prussia. After the so-called "Wars of Liberation" (

3028:

and military resistance against those states that did not accept the Paulskirche Constitution. On 16 June 1849, the rump parliament declared the formation of a People's Army (

1086:

The Committee of Fifty that emerged from the Pre-parliament could have drafted Rules of Procedure for the National Assembly but rejected doing so on 29 April 1848. Therefore,

2923:

44 abstentions. Receiving moral support from Austria, the Regent stood defiant and retained his Prime Minister. Calls for the resignation of the Regent immediately followed.

2612:

The National Assembly appointed a three-person committee of constitution on 24 May 1848, chaired by Bassermann and charged with preparing and coordinating the drafting of a

2062:. In contrast, the bourgeois liberals saw the unrests as further proof for what they saw as the short-sighted and irresponsible stance of the left, and of the dangers of a " 1926:

sent sharp warnings to Berlin about respecting the integrity of Denmark, as King Frederick was a cousin of the Tsar. The British were agitated by Prussian aggression. Then,

2335:, and vote very soon, because if these words lead to weeks of negotiations, we never come to an end." In reply to that, deputy Titus Mareck of Graz quipped, "Try and say 1656:

only 1 vote. The office of Regent was declared "irresponsible", meaning the Regent could not govern except through his ministers, who were responsible to the Parliament.

3773:

Christian Jansen: Einheit, Macht und Freiheit. Die Paulskirchenlinke und die deutsche Politik in der nachrevolutionären Epoche 1849–1867. Droste, Düsseldorf 2000, p. 37.

1351: 2980:

to a mere hundred due to the enduring low presence of deputies. The remaining deputies decided to escape an approaching army of occupation by moving the parliament to

2376:

population. Districts in the Czech majority areas boycotted elections to the National Assembly, and only a few Czech deputies took their seats in the Paulskirche. The

1946:

on 2 July 1848 and the order to cease operations handed to General Wrangel ten days later. However, Wrangel refused to accept the terms, declaring he was under orders

1273: 1138: 2327:

Deputy Venedey addressed the "German Question" during a debate on 5 July 1848 in this way: "I am against any other expression, or against any other explanation, than

1863:. Nonetheless, only Holstein was part of the German Confederation, whereas Schleswig, with a mixed population of German-speakers and Danish speakers, formed a Danish 584:), which was made up of representatives of the individual princes, and the only institution representing the whole German Confederation. The Diet voted to extend the 4012:

Franz Wigard, "Stenographischer Bericht über die Verhandlungen der Deutschen Constituirenden Nationalversammlung zu Stuttgart", Wednesday, 5 July 1848, page 739-740.

1160: 2286:

Caricature of the creation of the nation-state. From left to right: Heinrich von Gagern, Alexander von Soiron, Carl Theodor Welcker and Friedrich Daniel Bassermann.

1226:

The social makeup of the deputies was very homogeneous throughout the session. The parliament mostly represented the educated bourgeoisie. 95% of deputies had the

4397: 4287:

Franz Wigard, "Stenographischer Bericht über die Verhandlungen der Deutschen Constituirenden Nationalversammlung zu Stuttgart", Sunday, 19 May 1849, p. 6637-6638.

2985: 3118: 1684:

The practical tasks of the Provisional Central Power were performed by a cabinet, consisting of a college of ministers under the leadership of a prime minister (

1362: 943:), to form a national constitutional assembly which would write a new constitution. For the transitional period until the actual formation of that assembly, the 576:

to invade Germany in a dispute between Paris and the four other Great Powers (including Austria and Prussia) over the Middle East. The threat alarmed the German

4442: 4296:

Franz Wigard, "Stenographischer Bericht über die Verhandlungen der Deutschen Constituirenden Nationalversammlung zu Stuttgart", Monday, 25 June 1849, page 6849.

1736: 754:

of November 1847 saw the swift defeat of the conservative Catholic cantons and victory for the radical left-wing in the Protestant cantons. Austrian Chancellor

633:

The mid-1840s saw an increased frequency of internal crises. This was partially the result of large-scale political developments, such as the escalation of the

4085:

Franz Wigard, "Stenographischer Bericht über die Verhandlungen der Deutschen Constituirenden Nationalversammlung zu Stuttgart", Tuesday, 4 July 1848, page 720.

2946:

Great unrest answered Grävell's words, as the National Assembly was directly confronted with the statement that the Regent's power originated from the states,

1358: 1331: 4094:

Franz Wigard, "Stenographischer Bericht über die Verhandlungen der Deutschen Constituirenden Nationalversammlung zu Stuttgart", Monday, 3 July 1848, page 717.

3013: 2357:

similarly decreed the union of Schleswig with the German state, and sent invitations for Schleswig deputies to participate in the upcoming National Assembly.

723:. Rioting Galician peasants killed some 1,000 noblemen and destroyed about 500 manors. Despite its failure, the uprising was seen by some scholars, including 4278:

Franz Wigard, "Stenographischer Bericht über die Verhandlungen der Deutschen Constituirenden Nationalversammlung zu Stuttgart", Friday, 18 May 1849, p. 6629.

1792:

had been a source of weakness when divided among 39 members. But, when concentrated in the hands of one man, it could make him supreme if he chose to be so.

865: 2412:

contracted the Polish area until only one-third of the province was excluded, while large a Polish population was to remain within the future German state.

3150:

unpaid labor was not revived after it had been abolished in May 1848. On 30 May 1851, the old Confederate Diet was reopened in the Thurn and Taxis Palace.

1297: 2698:

The first reading of the Constitution was completed on 3 February 1849. A list of amendments were proposed by 29 governments in common and on 15 February

3495:

Die Wahlen zur Frankfurter Nationalversammlung im Frühjahr 1848. Die Wahlvorgänge in den Staaten des Deutschen Bundes im Spiegel zeitgenössischer Quellen

2787: 2181:

In Berlin, King Frederick William issued a decree to the army that on 6 August there was to be no parade anywhere in Prussia. In Vienna, Minister of War

1603:

Election of Archduke John of Austria 1848 as Imperial Regent (Reichsverweser) by the Frankfurt Parliament. Medal by Karl Radnitzky, reverse showing the

1184: 1073: 554:, the pressure on representatives of constitutional or democratic ideas was raised through measures such as censorship and bans on public assemblies. 3032:) consisting of four classes from age 18 to 60. The Provisional Regency then called all Germans to arms in order to defend the Constitution of 1849. 2392:

Similar to Bohemia, the National Assembly was determined to incorporate much of the Prussian Grand Duchy of Posen against the wishes of the majority

1439: 1156: 968: 4485: 2618:("Imperial Constitution"). It could make use of the preparatory work done by the Committee of Seventeen appointed earlier by the Confederate Diet. 1384:

Tradesmen and representatives of agriculture were very poorly represented – the latter were mostly represented by big landowners from east of the

3086: 3005: 2971:

As German Confederate troops under orders from the Regent began to crush revolutionary outbreak in the Palatinate, the remaining deputies in the

1754: 645:

in parts of Germany, notably the southwest, led to widely spread famine-related unrest in 1845 and 1846. The changes caused by the beginnings of

227: 3784:

Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Zweiter Band: Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen "Deutschen Doppelrevolution 1815–1845/49

1288:

of 1846 and 1847, were often the only occasions where national themes could be discussed freely. Apart from those mentioned above, the academic

2845: 432: 3204:

The work of the National Assembly and more generally of the March revolution was judged harshly in the immediate aftermath. Authors such as

2642:("Imperial law regarding the basic rights of the German people") of 27 December 1848, declaring the basic rights as immediately applicable. 2408:) between the German areas to have representation in the National Assembly and the Polish areas to be excluded. Each successive vote on the 879:

This development was accompanied and supported since early March by protest rallies and risings in many German states, including Baden, the

5032: 3267: 3242: 2539:

Regardless of these questions, the shape of the future German nation-state had only two real possibilities. The "Smaller German Solution" (

2256: 1554:

The largest groupings in numerical terms were the Casino, the Württemberger Hof, and beginning in 1849 the combined left, appearing as the

1252:). Due to their oppositional views, many of them had already conflicted with their princes for several years, including professors such as 2551:'s territories, while other Greater German supporters called for a variant only including areas settled by Germans within a German state. 776:. In many European states, the resistance against Restoration policies increased and led to revolutionary unrest. In several parts of the 3706: 3262: 1520: 1046: 964: 487: 17: 3728:

Manfred Botzenhart, Deutscher Parlamentarismus in der Revolutionszeit 1848–1850. Droste Verlag, Düsseldorf 1977, S. 482/483, p. 846/487.

727:, as a "deeply democratic movement that aimed at land reform and other pressing social questions." The uprising was praised by Marx and 3673: 2120: 1543: 1378: 3163:

saw Russia isolated, Austria maligned for its wavering policy, and Britain and France embarrassed by their poor military performance.

1524: 1497: 5022: 5017: 4775: 2867:("half ones") rejected a renewed revolution and withdrew—most of them disappointed—from their hard work in the Frankfurt Parliament. 2471: 2096:

or Imperial Fleet. The vote passed overwhelmingly on 14 June 1848, and this date is still celebrated as the foundation of the modern

1660: 1489: 974:

The actual elections to the National Assembly depended on the laws of the individual states, which varied considerably. Württemberg,

801: 777: 175: 165: 2963:) to replace the Regent. However, external events overtook the National Assembly before they could attempt to carry out their plan. 1796:

the government during their tenures. Carl zu Leiningen was staunchly anti-Prussian and essentially anti-prince. His family had been

1357:

The economically active middle class was represented by only about 60 deputies, including many publishers, including Bassermann and

1037:

and walked solemnly to the Paulskirche to hold the first session of the German national assembly, under its chairman (by seniority)

837:), the first of three revolutionary risings in the Grand Duchy. Within a few days and weeks, the revolts spread to the other German 5037: 4410: 1547: 1532: 1501: 1493: 936: 935:. With the support of the moderate liberals, and against the opposition of the radical democrats, it decided to cooperate with the 850: 577: 340: 2429: 2182: 1528: 924: 464: 332: 271: 3073:

in Baden could not be implemented due to the looming defeat of the Baden revolutionaries, which was completed five weeks later.

4121:

Stenographischer Bericht über die Verhandlungen der Deutschen constituirenden National-Versammlung zu Frankfurt am Main, Vol. 2

2104: 1343: 585: 4420: 1990:

Storming of the barricade at Konstablerwache, 18 September 1848; lithograph by E.G. after a drawing by Jean Nicolas Ventadour.

518:), many contemporaries had expected a nation-state solution and thus considered the subdivision of Germany as unsatisfactory. 4317: 4254: 4179: 4145: 3938: 3845: 3821: 3791: 3700: 3667: 3637: 3607: 3554: 3527: 3506: 3470: 3451: 3432: 3413: 3394: 3327: 3308: 3289: 1764: 1653: 758:

had pondered military intervention and later regretted not doing so, blaming the resulting waves of revolution on the Swiss.

215: 3061:

this point, the rump parliament had only 99 deputies and did not reach a quorum according to its own rules. On 18 June, the

2828: 2372:

were already part of the Confederation, and without question were to remain within the new Germany, despite protests by the

2308:

and as-yet undefined "German areas" of the Grand Duchy of Posen) into the Confederation. On the same day, Austria's Emperor

2247: 1002:) held direct elections. Most states chose an indirect procedure, usually involving a first round, voting to constitute an 4478: 2959:) to defend the Constitution. The vote passed with a majority (126 to 116 votes) for the plan with a provisional governor ( 903:) in Prussia, a Prussian National Assembly was also convened, with the task of preparing a constitution for that kingdom. 4669: 4138:

Der lange Weg nach Westen. Vol I. Deutsche Geschichte vom Ende des Alten Reiches bis zum Untergang der Weimarer Republik.

3498: 4247:

Der lange Weg nach Westen. Bd I. Deutsche Geschichte vom Ende des Alten Reiches bis zum Untergang der Weimarer Republik.

4134:

Stenographischer Bericht über die Verhandlungen der deutschen constituierenden Nationalversammlung zu Frankfurt am Main.

2304:

This problem was partially solved on 11 April 1848, when the Confederate Diet admitted Prussia's outer territories (the

2103:

Actual monies for the Navy did not become available until the Confederate Diet dissolved itself on 12 July 1848 and the

1284:

were especially common, because under the sway of restoration politics, academic meetings in such disciplines, e.g. the

872:), which was to prepare the elections for a national constitutional assembly. They also elected a "Committee of Seven" ( 5027: 4545: 2623: 2313: 1429: 1405: 838: 544:

led to a temporary reversal of that trend, but after the demonstration for civic rights and national unity at the 1832

3188: 740: 79: 57: 1942:

With Prussia threatened by war on several fronts, terms for an armistice were arranged through Swedish mediation at

1591:

Election of Archduke John of Austria 1848 as Imperial Regent (Reichsverweser) by the Frankfurt Parliament. Medal by

50: 4805: 4340:

Wilhelm Mueller, "Political History of Recent Times, 1816–1875: With Special Reference to Germany" (1882), page 248

2528: 2007: 1323:"Three times 100 lawyers – Fatherland, you are betrayed; three times 100 professors – Fatherland, you are doomed". 804:, there were bloody revolts, replete with calls for local or regional autonomy and even for national independence. 3755:

Thomas Nipperdey: Deutsche Geschichte 1806–1866. Vol. 1: Bürgerwelt und starker Staat. Beck, München 1983, p. 610.

3209:

Bassermann committed suicide in 1855. A positive reception of the National Assembly's work only came about in the

2090:

Denmark's blockade of the North German coast caused deputies of National Assembly to call for the creation of the

1446:

In his opening speech on 19 May 1848, Gagern defined the main tasks of the national assembly as the creation of a

4968: 4810: 4471: 2767: 1659:

The Parliament then dispatched a deputation to the Archduke to present the honor bestowed upon him. However, the

420: 282: 1192:

above where the Frankfurt Parliament assembled, covering the organ of Frankfurt. (Painted by Philip Veit, 1848).

731:

for being "the first in Europe to plant the banner of social revolution", and seen as a precursor to the coming

4795: 4690: 2797:

rushed to the Thurn and Taxis palace and pleaded for him to remain as Regent until the coronation could occur.

2554:

The majority of the radical left voted for the Greater German variant, accepting the possibility formulated by

2421: 2397: 460: 2926: 1599: 1587: 1214:

created new constituencies and new deputies as late as February 1849 (see below). Finally, the passage of the

5012: 4820: 4578: 2425: 2010:. The Regent was forced to call for the support of Prussian and Austrian troops stationed in the Fortress of 2002:("September unrest"), a popular rising that entailed the murder of parliamentarians from the Casino faction, 1911: 1718: 1692: 1347: 1321:"Dreimal 100 Advokaten – Vaterland, du bist verraten; dreimal 100 Professoren – Vaterland, du bist verloren!" 932: 797: 789: 747: 363: 325: 3110:

of Prussia, Hannover, and Saxony for one year in which to formulate an acceptable constitution for Germany.

2943:

entrusted to him by the governments, and only to return this power back into the hands of the governments."

2400:

which lasted from 20 March until 9 May. Three separate debates and votes (the first on 26 April 1848 in the

1330:

professionals, such as lawyers, doctors, journalists or clergymen, including well-known politicians such as

3803:

after Siemann, Die Deutsche Revolution, p. 126. These numbers vary slightly within the academic literature.

3225:

competed for the use of the democratic Paulskirche heritage as specific traditions of the separate states.

2899: 2377: 1968: 1257: 1215: 781: 688:

opposition had increased its networking activities and began coordinating its activities in the individual

250: 2547:), however, supported Austria's incorporation. Some of those deputies expected the integration of all the 4815: 4759: 2699: 1834: 1612: 807: 793: 634: 417: 108: 4780: 1276:

who had been champions of constitutional rights for two decades. Among the professors, besides lawyers,

1202:

there were on average 436 deputies each sitting before the Austrian deputies were recalled (see below).

1045:, one of the best-known liberals throughout Germany, was elected president of the parliament. (See this 4850: 4588: 4561: 3218: 3180: 1897: 1417: 1120: 1038: 3719:

Memoirs of Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Remington & Co. Publishers, London, 1888, p. 332.

2754:

delegation was to be appointed by the respective state government, the other by the state parliament.

2111:) came into possession of the Provisional Central Power. The Regent then appointed the Bremen senator 4885: 4800: 4710: 2859: 2669:, basic rights in regard to police activity and judicial proceedings, the inviolability of the home, 2576: 1301: 1022:

rebellion, Freidrich Hecker, in exile in Switzerland, was elected in two rounds) caused disruptions.

895:). On 10 March 1848, the Bundestag of the German Confederation appointed a "Committee of Seventeen" ( 769: 4540: 3085:

Caricature of Frederick William IV's rejection of the imperial crown; lithograph after a drawing by

888: 4963: 4840: 3172: 3024:. Following its view of itself as the legitimate German parliament, the rump parliament called for 2678: 2653:

for all Germans in all of Germany, the abolishment of class-based privileges and medieval burdens,

1868: 1671:

sworn in as Regent on the morning of 12 July 1848 in the Paulskirche, and then crossed over to the

1649: 1261: 1111:, printings were up to ten days late. Furthermore, the staff consisted of messengers and servants. 515: 44: 3627: 3142: 1959:

On 26 August, Prussia, under strong pressure from Britain, Russia, and Sweden, signed a six-month

1741: 1652:

gained 436 votes, Heinrich von Gagern received 52 votes, John Adam von Itzstein got 32 votes, and

1404:

A further striking aspect is the large number of well-known writers among the deputies, including

4906: 4785: 4719: 4661: 4428: 4392: 2881: 1265: 550: 424: 402: 367: 4699: 3992:

Bd 8. "Revolution und Konterrevolution in Deutschland". Dietz, Berlin 1960, p. 79, quoted from:

3836:

Bd 2. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart-Leipzig 1902, S. 66f., cit. from Manfred Görtenmaker:

4855: 4830: 4741: 4494: 2972: 2614: 2580: 2516: 2458:

fully participated in the National Assembly. However, due to historical considerations, former

2309: 2251: 1672: 1618: 1488:("the whole ones") in contemporary jargon—consisting of the extreme and the moderate left (the 999: 773: 755: 351: 296: 61: 4447: 4306:

Schreiben des württembergischen Justizministers Römer an den Präsidenten des Parlaments, Löwe.

3764:

Wolfram Siemann: Die Deutsche Revolution von 1848/49. Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt 1985, p. 125.

3737:

Wolfram Siemann, Die deutsche Revolution von 1848/49. Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt 1985, p. 125.

3688: 3062: 2911: 991: 4835: 3657: 3021: 2816:

William IV formally rejected the Imperial Constitution and the crown that was to go with it.

2805: 2658: 1459:(clubs), which served as discussion groups for kindred spirits and led to the development of 1370: 1293: 673: 646: 386: 4351:

Journals Kept in France and Italy from 1848 to 1852 with a Sketch of the Revolutions of 1848

2446:

the French. The Limburg question was never solved during the life of the National Assembly.

1960: 476: 4958: 4880: 4860: 4845: 4728: 4566: 3878:

Heinrich v. Sybel, "The Founding of the German Empire by William I.", Volume 1, p. 215-216.

2910:

that had joined their side, they formed an army under the leadership of the Polish general

2703: 2670: 1972: 1923: 1797: 1724: 1712: 1409: 1315:

Because of this composition, the National Assembly was later often dismissively dubbed the

1237: 1211: 815: 739:

in the midst of the uprising aroused the emotions of nationalists in Germany as much as in

661: 537: 499: 398: 344: 317: 4937: 1467:

or factions), a necessary prerequisite for the development of political majorities. These

116: 8: 4901: 4825: 4750: 4737: 4003:

Heinrich Sybel, The Founding of the German Empire by William I. 1890. Volume 1, page 182.

3257: 3252: 3184: 3176: 3099: 2885: 2724: 2666: 2654: 2646: 2305: 2078: 1998:

position and approved the armistice with a narrow majority. In Frankfurt this led to the

1952: 1830: 1730: 1604: 1464: 1374: 1171: 1126: 1042: 979: 736: 704: 669: 623: 428: 406: 4407: 3901:

Die letzten Monate der provisorischen Zentralgewalt für Deutschland (März-Dezember 1849)

855: 4926: 4613: 4530: 4525: 4520: 3887:

Heinrich v. Sybel, "The Founding of the German Empire by William I.", Volume 1, p. 232.

3869:

Heinrich v. Sybel, "The Founding of the German Empire by William I.", Volume 1, p. 210.

3366: 3354: 2459: 2433: 2124: 2031: 1951:

course by recognizing Wrangel's actions but asked the Regent for direct control of the

1840: 1691:

On 15 July 1848, the Regent appointed his first government under prime minister Prince

1289: 1011: 983: 880: 785: 708: 614: 605: 495: 457: 2604: 1810:

for the conflict between the Provisional Central Power and the National Assembly, and

1269: 4870: 4790: 4633: 4535: 4313: 4250: 4175: 4141: 3934: 3841: 3817: 3787: 3696: 3663: 3633: 3603: 3550: 3523: 3502: 3466: 3447: 3428: 3409: 3390: 3358: 3323: 3304: 3285: 2890: 2794: 2548: 2455: 2200: 1893: 1844: 1788:

of the National Assembly. The Diet's rules regarding unanimous decision-making and a

1592: 1132: 1003: 975: 884: 732: 720: 650: 572:, a primarily diplomatic scandal caused by the threat from the French prime minister 468: 336: 263: 3623: 3205: 1880: 4651: 4642: 4402: 4156: 3350: 3017: 2662: 2524: 2261: 2003: 1986: 1775: 1305: 1015: 834: 765: 728: 677: 545: 533: 394: 2934:

The next day, 18 May, Prime Minister Grävell ascended the speaker's podium in the

2622:

urgency by the violent outbreak of the Vienna Uprising and its suppression by the

2282: 540:

politics limited such developments. The unrest that resulted from the 1830 French

4953: 4932: 4919: 4513: 4508: 4414: 3597: 3544: 3210: 2903: 2317: 2291: 2238: 2112: 2043: 1824: 1562: 1516: 1103: 1087: 829: 627: 541: 507: 472: 374: 321: 4398:

Sources (in German) by the German Federal Central Office for Political Education

3141:

Prussia spent the next year defying Austria's protests. On 30 November 1850 the

2735:

group around Gagern, with the reluctant support of the Westendhall group around

864:

assembly. On 5 March 1848, opposition politicians and state deputies met at the

4993: 4948: 4912: 3247: 3025: 3009: 2774: 2736: 2650: 2520: 2404:, the next on 27 July, the last on 6 February 1849) demarcated the borderline ( 1856: 1848: 1696: 1640: 1413: 1281: 1277: 1244: 751: 573: 491: 452:

Political map of the German Confederation (1815–1866) with its 39 member states

911: 5006: 4944: 4593: 3993: 3362: 3081: 2766:

all left-wing, southern German and Austrian deputies. The deputies knew that

2715:

to advise the Emperor was stricken from the Constitution at the last moment.

2393: 2321: 2226: 2027: 2019: 1901: 1839:

Influenced by the general nationalist atmosphere, the political situation in

1645: 1638:). The next day, 29 June, the Parliament cast votes for candidates to be the 1434: 1393: 1335: 1233: 1232:, more than three-quarters had been to university, half of which had studied 1144: 1034: 761:

Three months later, revolutionary workers and students in France deposed the

198: 3233: 3187:

in the form of Prussian-dominated unification "from above", namely the 1871

3159:

Russia. Prussia's role as a Great Power in Europe did not recover until the

2523:

joined the German Confederation in 1818 by virtue of their affiliation with

2231: 1179: 1155:(A list of all further parliamentarians can be found on German Knowledge on 4865: 4583: 4190: 3977:

Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848–1849

3629:

History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long Nineteenth Century

3222: 3214: 3122: 3107: 2092: 2014:, and these restored order in Frankfurt and the vicinity within two weeks. 1515:("Halves")—consisting of the left and right center (the right-wing liberal 1327: 689: 569: 522: 382: 371: 2742:

The people were to be represented by a directly elected House of Commons (

350:

After long and controversial debates, the assembly produced the so-called

4875: 4463: 3659:

Marx at the Margins: On Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Non-Western Societies

3160: 2243: 2131: 2097: 1389: 1366: 1309: 1253: 716: 695:

In Prussia, King Frederick William IV finally approved the assembly of a

685: 612:. Patriotic feelings of the public were effectively captured in the poem 609: 4330:

The Founding of the German Empire by William I (1890). Vol. 1, page 397.

3370: 2588:

of the provisional government. He was succeeded by Heinrich von Gagern.

4572: 3338: 3194:

Historians have suggested several possible explanations for the German

2907: 2674: 2463: 2438: 2246:, one of the figureheads of the democratic left, was arrested. General 2155: 1915: 1579: 1339: 1175:

Contemporary depiction of the parliamentarians entering the Paulskirche

1057: 527: 390: 4623: 2190:

whose loyalty remained first and foremost to their sovereign princes.

2023: 1914:. His columns pushed through Schleswig and seized the key fortress of 563: 378: 4974: 4424: 3196: 3070: 2981: 2555: 2128:

another navy, even though it was to be for their own common defense.

1905: 1889: 1398: 1148: 1014:. The boycott in Austria's Czech majority areas and complications in 824: 724: 649:

exacerbated social and economic tensions considerably, especially in

279: 3069:

Subsequent plans to move the parliament (or what was left of it) to

2454:

Despite their ethnic differences, the Italian-majority areas of the

2324:, theoretically severing Hungary from Austria's German possessions. 2499: 2491: 1679: 1068:

The evangelical community of Frankfurt provided St. Paul's Church (

1994:

In a second vote, on 16 September 1848, the Assembly accepted the

1943: 370:. This constitution fulfilled the main demands of the liberal and 3586:. Jarrold & Sons, London, trans. 1919. Vol. VII, pp. 400–473. 3098:("union policy") designed by the conservative Paulskirche deputy 3044: 3035: 2750:) of representatives sent by the individual states. Half of each 2424:

into the new Germany strained otherwise good relations with King

2369: 2365: 2204: 2175: 2069: 1919: 1864: 1860: 1198: 987: 868:

to discuss these issues. They resolved to form a pre-parliament (

712: 654: 642: 601: 483: 448: 3339:"HISTORICAL REVISION: LXII.—The Frankfurt Parliament of 1848–49" 3183:. The Smaller German Solution was implemented after the 1870/71 2984:

in Württemberg on 31 May. This had been suggested by the deputy

2966: 2560:"holy war for western culture against the barbarism of the East" 1706: 443: 3168: 2977: 2495: 2479: 2467: 2373: 2340: 2035: 1927: 1228: 995: 4375:

British and Foreign State Papers (1879), volume 39, page 1055.

2230:

Discussion in the Paulskirche. Lithograph after a painting by

1825:

Schleswig-Holstein Question and development of political camps

2487: 2475: 2442: 2038:

in early October, leading to a third revolutionary wave, the

2011: 1931: 1319:("Professors' parliament") and ridiculed with verses such as 593: 3860:(International Publishers: New York, 1977) Note 23, page 538 2995: 2640:

Reichsgesetz betreffend die Grundrechte des deutschen Volkes

2534: 2432:, which was a member of the German Confederation. After the 2178:

as a symbol of their allegiance to the new order of things.

1361:, but also businessmen, industrialists and bankers, such as 331:

The session was held from 18 May 1848 to 30 May 1849 in the

3895: 3893: 3595: 2917: 1385: 876:), which proceeded to invite 500 individuals to Frankfurt. 3094:

efforts to do so. Therefore, Prussia chose to support the

1049:

of deputies that attended the opening of the parliament.)

1025: 548:, and the abortive attempt at an armed rising in the 1833 4408:

Collection of pamphlets from 1848 by Frankfurt University

4403:

Text of the Paulskirche Constitution on Documentarchiv.de

4108:(in German). Frankfurt am Main: H.L. Brönner. p. 63. 1123:

as president by seniority (18 May 1848 until 19 May 1848)

951:), as a representation to face the German Confederation. 597: 4364:

Cyclopedia of Classified Dates: With an Exhaustive Index

3890: 2218: 1565:

wrote about the formation and functioning of the Clubs:

1770: 339:. Its existence was both part of and the result of the 1236:. A considerable number of deputies were members of a 1114: 1081: 3389:. New York London: Psychology Press. pp. 96–98. 2757: 2599: 1166: 626:, and in songs such as "Der Deutsche Rhein" and the " 471:

and dissolved the Empire. This was the result of the

2156:

The German army and rising confidence of the princes

2046:"), which further impeded the work of the Assembly. 1806: 1388:, accompanied by only three farmers. Craftsmen like 1221: 1108: 1052: 931:) in Frankfurt from 31 March to 3 April, chaired by 2894:, a rising during which revolutionaries gained the 2808:and thus did not want to accept a crown touched by 1847:became especially explosive. According to the 1460 1542:, composed of Protestants and conservatives (first 1161:

Category:Members of the Frankfurt National Assembly

4236:Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1890. Vol. I, p. 347. 4223:Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1890. Vol. I, p. 343. 4210:Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1890. Vol. I, p. 337. 3933:4th ed. Leske&Budrich, Opladen 1994, p. 123f. 2823: 2384: 2186:himself as head of the Provisional Central Power. 2168: 772:; their action resulted in the declaration of the 358:or St. Paul's Church Constitution, officially the 316:) was the first freely elected parliament for all 4037:Volume 11. The MacMillan Company, 1909, page 162. 3686: 3655: 3573:. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 1994, page 67. 3129:governments agreed in principle, and a so-called 3039:Contemporary depiction of the dissolution of the 2596:(§ 87 ) also allowed for a later Austrian entry. 2449: 2193: 2152:states, which grew thinner as the months passed. 1896:to seize Prussian ships on 19 April that General 1628: 965:list of deputies at the opening of the parliament 660:Meanwhile in the reform-oriented states, such as 521:Apart from this nationalist component, calls for 5004: 3689:"The Polish Nation in the Revolution of 1846–49" 3117:around Gagern supported Prussia's policy in the 2790:with the king also aimed in the same direction. 2693: 2634:On 28 December, the Assembly's press organ, the 1680:Practical tasks of the Provisional Central Power 1583:Archduke John arrives in Frankfurt, 10 July 1848 1151:rump parliament (6 June 1849 until 18 June 1849) 711:in February and March 1846 was a revolt against 4267:The Founding of the German Empire by William I. 4234:The Founding of the German Empire by William I. 4221:The Founding of the German Empire by William I. 4208:The Founding of the German Empire by William I. 3964:The Founding of the German Empire by William I. 3951:The Founding of the German Empire by William I. 3914:The Founding of the German Empire by William I. 3840:4. Auflage. Leske+Budrich, Opladen 1994, p.116 3662:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 77–78. 3632:. University of California Press. p. 212. 3446:. Princeton, N. J: Princeton University Press. 2277: 525:influenced political discourse. The Napoleonic 27:First parliament for all of Germany (1848–1849) 4443:"Rede: 175 Jahre Deutsche Nationalversammlung" 3979:. Princeton University Press, 1991, p. 311-313 3651: 3649: 3622: 3599:A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change 3465:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 3153: 2718: 1884:Return of the Schleswig-Holstein troops (1849) 1033:On 18 May 1848, 379 deputies assembled in the 958: 630:", the national anthem of Germany since 1922. 494:, and other states over Napoléon in 1815, the 320:, including the German-populated areas of the 4479: 4312:Leske+Budrich Opladen 1994 (4th ed.), p.140. 4123:(in German). Frankfurt am Main. p. 1204. 2967:Removal of the National Assembly to Stuttgart 2930:Dr. Maximilian Grävell, fourth Prime Minister 2608:Schematic set-up of the Imperial Constitution 1707:Prime Ministers of the Provisional Government 915:Memorial plaque on the Paulskirche, Frankfurt 516:German part of the War of the Sixth Coalition 444:Napoleonic upheavals and German Confederation 433:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany 4050:. Henry E. Robins & Co., 1850, page 178. 4023:How Schleswig-Holstein has become what it is 3584:History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century 3268:Category:Members of the Frankfurt Parliament 3243:The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states 2257:Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Germany 1750:August Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg 1574: 1061:Seating arrangements of the deputies in the 223:August Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg 3680: 3646: 3263:List of members of the Frankfurt Parliament 3016:and August Becher, and fashioned after the 2316:an independent ministry responsible to the 1807:Provisional Rump Parliament and Dissolution 735:. At the same time, the suppression of the 4493: 4486: 4472: 4353:. Henry S. King & Co., 1871, page 239. 4150: 3806: 3427:(in German). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. 3384: 2778:Contemporary wood engraving depicting the 2707:National Assembly to complete their work. 2056:acting in the name of the sovereign people 1727:(24 September 1848 until 15 December 1848) 1423: 1157:Members of the Frankfurt National Assembly 262: 115: 4249:C.H. Beck, Munich 2002 (5th ed.), p.122. 4197:. C. A. Nichols & Co., 1895, p. 1537. 4164: 4140:5th ed. C.H. Beck, München 2002, p.122. 3549:. Harvard University Press. p. 125. 3522:. London: Edward Arnold. pp. 46–48. 2996:The Provisional Regency and People's Army 2731:), which had been favoured mainly by the 2684: 2661:, the abolishment of capital punishment, 2535:Greater German or smaller German solution 1937: 792:, and throughout Italy, in particular in 80:Learn how and when to remove this message 4106:Corpus Juris Confoederationis Germanicae 3232: 3080: 3034: 2925: 2918:Break with the Provisional Central Power 2827: 2773: 2603: 2396:population, especially after the failed 2281: 2225: 2208:in Germany, and that I am one of them." 2130: 2077: 1985: 1879: 1819: 1774: 1598: 1586: 1578: 1433: 1178: 1170: 1056: 969:list of all deputies on German Knowledge 910: 854: 851:Revolutions of 1848 in the German states 447: 43:This article includes a list of general 4417:– includes official documents and books 4174:Rn 306 and 317. Munich 2005 (5th ed.). 4136:, quoted from Heinrich August Winkler: 3542: 3441: 3422: 3336: 2645:The catalogue of basic rights included 1978: 1975:succeeded Leiningen as Prime Minister. 1721:(5. August 1848 until 5 September 1848) 1272:), and politicians such as Welcker and 844: 664:, the development of a lively scene of 14: 5005: 4245:Zitiert nach Heinrich August Winkler: 4118: 4103: 4074:Das Staats-Recht des Deutschen Reiches 3982: 3919: 3709:from the original on 20 February 2017. 3596:Robert Bideleux; Ian Jeffries (2007). 3442:Sperber, Jonathan (20 December 1992). 3403: 2510: 2360: 1875: 982:(Hesse-Kassel) and the four remaining 586:Fortresses of the German Confederation 4467: 4127: 3693:Europe in 1848: revolution and reform 3589: 3237:The Paulskirche in its modern setting 3179:, which led to the foundation of the 2569: 2420:Debates about the integration of the 1930:landed 6,000 troops on the Island of 1765:de:Liste der Reichsminister 1848/1849 1763:(A list of ministers can be found on 1654:Archduke Stephen, Palatine of Hungary 1644:or Regent of the Empire, a temporary 906: 475:and of direct military pressure from 4308:, quoted after Manfred Görtenmaker: 3929:, quoted after Manfred Görtenmaker: 3826: 3517: 3460: 3317: 3298: 3279: 2870: 2030:in Baden. The nationalist unrest in 1918:without a struggle on 2 May. All of 1771:Relations with the National Assembly 1733:(17 December 1848 until 10 May 1849) 1135:(18 December 1848 until 11 May 1849) 1129:(19 May 1848 until 16 December 1848) 925:St. Paul's Church, Frankfurt am Main 827:. This was followed in April by the 29: 4239: 3499:Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften 3425:Die deutsche Revolution von 1848/49 2339:, and you will see if the Slavs in 2060:traitors to the cause of the people 1605:German double-headed Imperial Eagle 1115:Presidents of the National Assembly 1082:Form and Function of the Parliament 24: 4546:States of the German Confederation 4435: 4299: 3856:Karl Marx & Frederick Engels, 3404:Ozment, Steven (18 January 2005). 3355:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1932.tb00052.x 3047:dispersing the locked-out deputies 2600:Drafting the Imperial Constitution 2301:in the affairs of foreign powers. 2117:Minister für Marineangelegenheiten 1715:(15 July 1848 until 5 August 1848) 1430:Factions in the Frankfurt Assembly 1167:Calculating the number of deputies 1018:(Baden), (where the leader of the 814:) in 1844 and a comparable one by 49:it lacks sufficient corresponding 25: 5049: 4158:Verfassung des Deutschen Reiches. 3676:from the original on 8 July 2014. 3189:proclamation of the German Empire 3171:had terrified the two princes of 2663:Freedom of Research and Education 1934:opposite the Duchy of Schleswig. 1888:Denmark landed 7,000 troops near 1851:, the two duchies were to remain 1779:Proclamation of Archduke John as 1759:(3 June 1849 to 20 December 1849) 1222:Social background of the deputies 1053:Assembly in the St. Paul's Church 423:refused to accept the office of " 401:. The parliament also proposed a 5023:1849 in the German Confederation 5018:1848 in the German Confederation 4987: 4170:Werner Frotscher, Bodo Pieroth: 4025:. Henry Gaskarth, 1864, page 18. 3816:Rn 293. Munich 2005 (5th ed.). 3812:Werner Frotscher, Bodo Pieroth: 3301:The Frankfurt Parliament 1848-49 2529:Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria 1904:against Danish positions at the 1872:and an army was hastily formed. 1438:Lithograph "Club des Casino" by 1326:149 deputies were self-employed 859:Political assembly, Berlin, 1848 641:. Additionally, a series of bad 360:Verfassung des Deutschen Reiches 34: 5038:Frederick William IV of Prussia 5033:German revolutions of 1848–1849 4369: 4356: 4343: 4334: 4322: 4310:Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert. 4290: 4281: 4272: 4259: 4226: 4213: 4200: 4184: 4112: 4097: 4088: 4079: 4066: 4053: 4040: 4028: 4015: 4006: 3997: 3969: 3956: 3943: 3931:Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert. 3906: 3881: 3872: 3863: 3850: 3838:Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert. 3797: 3776: 3767: 3758: 3749: 3740: 3731: 3722: 3713: 3695:. Berghahn Books. p. 170. 3602:. Routledge. pp. 295–296. 3385:O'Kane, Rosemary H. T. (2004). 3282:A History of Germany, 1815-1945 3273: 2898:governmental power. On 14 May, 2824:Rump parliament and dissolution 2810:"the hussy smell of revolution" 2629: 2169:The military parade of 6 August 1746:(16 May 1849 until 3 June 1849) 1695:, the maternal half-brother of 1492:group and its later split-offs 1188:. The painting hung inside the 1141:(12 May 1849 until 30 May 1849) 947:formed the Committee of Fifty ( 703:Between 1846 and 1848, broader 310:Frankfurter Nationalversammlung 102:Frankfurter Nationalversammlung 3616: 3576: 3563: 3536: 3520:A History of Germany 1815–1945 3511: 3487: 3322:(in German). Berlin: Nicolai. 3055: 2884:, in the Bavarian part of the 2450:Austrian Littoral and Trentino 2194:The Cologne cathedral festival 2119:) to develop a war fleet with 2022:declared a German republic at 1812: 1629:Formation of the Central Power 13: 1: 4821:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust 4035:The Cambridge Modern History, 3988:Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels: 3480: 3043:on 18 June 1849: Württemberg 2746:) and a House of the States ( 2694:The first and second readings 2426:William II of the Netherlands 1910:entrenchment and the city of 1348:Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler 933:Carl Joseph Anton Mittermaier 707:aggravated this tension. The 438: 381:and provided a foundation of 326:German federal election, 1848 324:, elected on 1 May 1848 (see 4063:, 1849, Volume 90, page 396. 3786:. C. H. Beck, München 1985. 3408:. New York: Harper Collins. 3108:league of the three kingdoms 3076: 2900:Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden 2515:The two Austrian Duchies of 2347: 1969:Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann 1258:Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann 680:was called to overthrow the 557: 101: 7: 4969:Schleswig–Holstein question 4816:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann 4195:History for Ready Reference 4048:1848, a Year of Revolutions 3228: 3223:Federal Republic of Germany 3154:Long-term political effects 2719:Passage of the Constitution 2700:Gottfried Ludolf Camphausen 2381:befall them in the future. 2115:as Minister of the Marine ( 1835:Schleswig-Holstein Question 1816:for the period following.) 1636:Provisorische Zentralgewalt 1613:Provisorische Zentralgewalt 1561:In his memoirs, the deputy 1523:, and the later split-offs 1159:as well as in the category 959:Preparing for the Elections 808:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann 709:Peasant Uprising in Galicia 635:Schleswig-Holstein Question 366:based on the principles of 314:Frankfurt National Assembly 98:Frankfurt National Assembly 18:Frankfurt National Assembly 10: 5054: 4851:Karl August von Hardenberg 4589:North German Confederation 4562:Confederation of the Rhine 4382: 4076:, 1876. Volume 1, page 50. 3687:Hans Henning Hahn (2001). 3656:Kevin B. Anderson (2010). 3219:German Democratic Republic 3181:North German Confederation 2673:, independence of judges, 2494:, the voting districts of 2415: 2289: 2123:as Commander in Chief and 2121:Prince Adalbert of Prussia 2052:negotiate with the princes 1828: 1762: 1610: 1519:and the left-wing liberal 1448:"constitution for Germany" 1427: 1154: 955:parliament was increased. 848: 608:developed the fortress at 561: 514:, the German term for the 5028:19th century in Frankfurt 4984: 4894: 4768: 4602: 4579:German Empire (1848–1849) 4554: 4501: 4104:Zoepfl, Heinrich (1859). 3571:Bismarck and Mitteleuropa 3423:Siemann, Wolfram (1985). 3337:Hawgood, John A. (1932). 2877:Reichsverfassungskampagne 2860:Reichsverfassungskampagne 2248:Alfred von Windisch-Grätz 1575:Provisional central power 1302:Friedrich Theodor Vischer 1278:experts in German Studies 833:(named after its leader, 568:The 1840s began with the 385:, both of which stood in 343:within the states of the 295: 290: 278: 270: 261: 256: 244: 239: 208: 186: 181: 171: 161: 146: 131: 126: 114: 107: 96: 4964:Greater Austria proposal 4451:(in German). 23 May 2023 3927:Flugblatt vom Juni 1848. 3916:1890. Volume 1, page 253 3691:. In Dieter Dowe (ed.). 2679:Freedom of establishment 2579:, Prime Minister Prince 2564:"Austria's German lands" 2486:In the Italian areas of 2428:. King William was also 2028:second democratic rising 1650:Archduke John of Austria 1621:. A modification of the 1558:("Central March Club"). 1312:are especially notable. 1262:Georg Gottfried Gervinus 923:) was in session at the 684:. At the same time, the 637:and the erection of the 4907:Austro-Prussian rivalry 4720:"Blood and Iron" speech 4691:Greater Poland uprising 4662:Frankfurter Wachensturm 4429:Neue Rheinische Zeitung 4413:4 February 2005 at the 4393:German Federal Archives 4362:Charles Eugene Little, 4061:Annual Register of 1848 3543:Schulze, Hagen (1998). 3518:Carr, William (1979) . 3123:Erfurt Union Parliament 3004:) led by five deputies 2882:May Uprising in Dresden 2844:meeting. Lithograph by 2472:Italian revolutionaries 2430:Grand Duke of Luxemburg 2406:Demarkationslinie Posen 2398:Greater Poland uprising 1424:Factions and committees 1344:Johann Gustav Heckscher 1268:(all counted among the 1266:Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht 937:German Confederate Diet 551:Frankfurter Wachensturm 536:and other instances of 403:constitutional monarchy 368:parliamentary democracy 64:more precise citations. 4920:Das Lied der Deutschen 4856:Klemens von Metternich 4831:Johann Gottlieb Fichte 4541:Kingdom of Württemberg 4495:Unification of Germany 4172:Verfassungsgeschichte. 4119:Wigard, Franz (1848). 4059:Edmund Burke, editor: 3858:Collected Works: Vol 8 3814:Verfassungsgeschichte. 3582:Treitschke, Heinrich, 3546:Germany: A New History 3461:Vick, Brian E (2002). 3349:(66). Wiley: 147–151. 3284:. Palgrave Macmillan. 3280:Carr, William (1979). 3238: 3090: 3048: 2973:Free City of Frankfurt 2931: 2849: 2782: 2685:Qualifying the Emperor 2609: 2581:Felix zu Schwarzenberg 2287: 2271: 2252:parliamentary immunity 2234: 2140: 2087: 2074:and financial problems 2040:Wiener Oktoberaufstand 1991: 1938:Arranging an armistice 1885: 1784: 1673:Thurn and Taxis Palace 1648:. In the final tally, 1608: 1596: 1584: 1572: 1443: 1193: 1176: 1145:Friedrich Wilhelm Löwe 1065: 916: 889:Kingdom of Württemberg 860: 756:Klemens von Metternich 674:voluntary associations 453: 425:Emperor of the Germans 356:Paulskirchenverfassung 352:Frankfurt Constitution 309: 297:Frankfurt Constitution 4836:Johann Gustav Droysen 4806:Frederick William III 4269:, volume 1, page 357. 3318:Gall, Lothar (1998). 3236: 3217:, when both the East 3143:Punctuation of Olmütz 3119:Gotha Post-Parliament 3084: 3038: 3022:French First Republic 2929: 2875:In the meantime, the 2840:, venue of the first 2831: 2806:Divine Right of Kings 2800:On 3 April 1849, the 2777: 2659:Freedom of Conscience 2607: 2290:Further information: 2285: 2266: 2229: 2222:and execution of Blum 2139:of the Imperial Fleet 2134: 2109:Bundesmatrikularkasse 2081: 2044:Vienna October rising 1989: 1898:Friedrich von Wrangel 1883: 1829:Further information: 1820:Main political issues 1778: 1602: 1590: 1582: 1567: 1437: 1371:Hermann von Beckerath 1363:Hermann Henrich Meier 1294:Johann Gustav Droysen 1216:Austrian Constitution 1182: 1174: 1060: 914: 858: 705:European developments 482:After the victory of 463:had relinquished the 451: 362:) which proclaimed a 150:30 May 1849 135:18 May 1848 121:Imperial Coat of arms 5013:Frankfurt Parliament 4959:German reunification 4881:Wilhelm von Humboldt 4846:John, King of Saxony 4811:Frederick William IV 4760:Treaty of Versailles 4729:Second Schleswig War 4700:Punctation of Olmütz 4682:Frankfurt Parliament 4567:German Confederation 4349:William Nassau Sr., 3782:Hans-Ulrich Wehler: 3569:Bascom Barry Hayes, 2768:Frederick William IV 2704:Carl Theodor Welcker 2671:Freedom of the Press 2541:Kleindeutsche Lösung 2462:possessions such as 2026:, thus starting the 1973:Anton von Schmerling 1924:Nicholas I of Russia 1725:Anton von Schmerling 1713:Anton von Schmerling 1465:Parliamentary groups 1410:Johann Ludwig Uhland 1359:Georg Friedrich Kolb 1332:Alexander von Soiron 1317:Professorenparlament 1212:Grand Duchy of Posen 1147:as president of the 1026:Organisation of the 919:The Pre-Parliament ( 845:The March Revolution 816:Carl Theodor Welcker 500:German Confederation 421:Frederick William IV 345:German Confederation 306:Frankfurt Parliament 4826:Heinrich von Gagern 4751:Franco-Prussian War 4738:Austro-Prussian War 4448:Der Bundespräsident 4328:Heinrich von Sybel, 4265:Heinrich v. Sybel, 3834:Lebenserinnerungen. 3253:Politics of Germany 3185:Franco-Prussian War 3177:Austro-Prussian War 3100:Joseph von Radowitz 2986:Friedrich von Römer 2667:Freedom of Assembly 2655:Freedom of Religion 2647:Freedom of Movement 2545:Großdeutsche Lösung 2511:Auschwitz and Zator 2361:Bohemia and Moravia 2306:Province of Prussia 2183:Theodore von Latour 1967:On 5 September, at 1953:German Federal Army 1876:Opening hostilities 1853:eternally undivided 1831:First Schleswig War 1731:Heinrich von Gagern 1482:demokratische Linke 1127:Heinrich von Gagern 1043:Heinrich von Gagern 1028:Nationalversammlung 980:Electorate of Hesse 897:Siebzehnerausschuss 866:Heidelberg Assembly 770:February Revolution 737:Free City of Cracow 715:, directed against 690:chamber parliaments 624:Max Schneckenburger 429:Weimar Constitution 274:, Frankfurt am Main 4994:Germany portal 4927:Die Wacht am Rhein 4711:Dresden Conference 4614:Congress of Vienna 4531:Kingdom of Prussia 4526:Kingdom of Hanover 4521:Kingdom of Bavaria 4072:Ludwig von Rönne, 4046:William S. Chase, 4021:Wilhelm Eichhoff, 3975:Jonathan Sperber, 3925:Friedrich Hecker: 3444:Rhineland Radicals 3387:Paths to Democracy 3239: 3213:and more so after 3131:Compact of Interim 3091: 3049: 3002:Reichsregentschaft 2957:Reichsregentschaft 2932: 2850: 2783: 2758:Head of state and 2725:hereditary emperor 2610: 2570:Austria's protests 2434:Belgian revolution 2288: 2278:Defining "Germany" 2235: 2141: 2088: 1992: 1886: 1785: 1737:Maximilian Grävell 1609: 1597: 1585: 1540:conservative right 1484:)—also called the 1444: 1290:Ernst Moritz Arndt 1194: 1177: 1066: 949:Fünfzigerausschuss 917: 907:The Pre-Parliament 901:Barrikadenaufstand 881:Kingdom of Bavaria 861: 628:Lied der Deutschen 620:Watch on the Rhine 615:Die Wacht am Rhein 606:Kingdom of Bavaria 496:Congress of Vienna 477:Napoléon Bonaparte 454: 407:hereditary emperor 341:"March Revolution" 176:Federal Convention 166:Federal Convention 5000: 4999: 4938:Lützow Free Corps 4871:Otto von Bismarck 4791:Eduard von Simson 4634:Wartburg Festival 4536:Kingdom of Saxony 4366:, 1900, page 819. 4318:978-3-8100-1336-1 4255:978-3-406-49527-4 4180:978-3-406-53411-9 4146:978-3-406-49527-4 3953:1890, p. 227-228. 3939:978-3-8100-1336-1 3846:978-3-8100-1336-1 3832:Robert von Mohl: 3822:978-3-406-53411-9 3792:978-3-406-32262-4 3702:978-1-57181-164-6 3669:978-0-226-01984-0 3639:978-0-520-23299-0 3609:978-0-203-01889-7 3556:978-0-674-00545-7 3529:978-0-7131-5433-7 3507:978-3-326-00142-5 3472:978-0-674-00911-0 3453:978-0-691-00866-0 3434:978-3-518-11266-3 3415:978-0-06-093483-5 3406:A Mighty Fortress 3396:978-0-415-31474-9 3329:978-3-87584-680-5 3310:978-0-333-03432-3 3299:Eyck, F. (1968). 3291:978-0-312-37871-4 3014:Friedrich Schüler 2871:The May Uprisings 2795:Eduard von Simson 2636:Reichsgesetzblatt 2586:Ministerpräsident 2549:Habsburg monarchy 2456:Austrian Littoral 2410:Demarkationslinie 2387:Demarkationslinie 2378:Pan-Slav Congress 2201:Cologne Cathedral 2058:", thus becoming 1719:Carl zu Leiningen 1693:Carl zu Leiningen 1686:Ministerpräsident 1665:Bundesversammlung 1556:Centralmärzverein 1521:Württemberger Hof 1208:Demarkationslinie 1004:Electoral college 885:Kingdom of Saxony 874:Siebenerausschuss 812:Motion Bassermann 733:Spring of Nations 721:social oppression 717:manorial property 647:industrialization 582:Bundesversammlung 469:Holy Roman Empire 337:Frankfurt am Main 302: 301: 284:(rump parliament) 272:St. Paul's Church 216:Karl zu Leiningen 172:Succeeded by 90: 89: 82: 16:(Redirected from 5045: 4992: 4991: 4990: 4941: 4757: 4748: 4735: 4726: 4717: 4708: 4697: 4688: 4679: 4672: 4658: 4652:Hambach Festival 4649: 4643:Carlsbad Decrees 4640: 4631: 4620: 4611: 4517: 4488: 4481: 4474: 4465: 4464: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4376: 4373: 4367: 4360: 4354: 4347: 4341: 4338: 4332: 4326: 4320: 4303: 4297: 4294: 4288: 4285: 4279: 4276: 4270: 4263: 4257: 4243: 4237: 4232:Heinrich Sybel, 4230: 4224: 4219:Heinrich Sybel, 4217: 4211: 4206:Heinrich Sybel, 4204: 4198: 4188: 4182: 4168: 4162: 4154: 4148: 4131: 4125: 4124: 4116: 4110: 4109: 4101: 4095: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4077: 4070: 4064: 4057: 4051: 4044: 4038: 4032: 4026: 4019: 4013: 4010: 4004: 4001: 3995: 3986: 3980: 3973: 3967: 3962:Heinrich Sybel, 3960: 3954: 3949:Heinrich Sybel, 3947: 3941: 3923: 3917: 3912:Heinrich Sybel, 3910: 3904: 3897: 3888: 3885: 3879: 3876: 3870: 3867: 3861: 3854: 3848: 3830: 3824: 3810: 3804: 3801: 3795: 3780: 3774: 3771: 3765: 3762: 3756: 3753: 3747: 3744: 3738: 3735: 3729: 3726: 3720: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3653: 3644: 3643: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3593: 3587: 3580: 3574: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3540: 3534: 3533: 3515: 3509: 3491: 3476: 3463:Defining Germany 3457: 3438: 3419: 3400: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3333: 3314: 3295: 3221:and the Western 3063:Württemberg army 2961:Reichstatthalter 2906:. Together with 2891:Pfälzer Aufstand 2802:Kaiserdeputation 2780:Kaiserdeputation 2760:Kaiserdeputation 2713:Imperial Council 2675:Freedom of Trade 2615:Reichsverfassung 2525:Austrian Silesia 2422:Duchy of Limburg 2262:Friedrich Engels 2105:Federal Fortress 2000:Septemberunruhen 1981:Septemberunruhen 1758: 1745: 1661:Confederate Diet 1352:Wilhelm Murschel 1306:Bruno Hildebrand 1286:Germanisten-Tage 835:Friedrich Hecker 766:Louis-Philippe I 729:Friedrich Engels 678:radical democrat 578:Confederate Diet 546:Hambach Festival 534:Carlsbad Decrees 512:Befreiungskriege 431:of 1919 and the 266: 231: 162:Preceded by 157: 155: 142: 140: 119: 94: 93: 85: 78: 74: 71: 65: 60:this article by 51:inline citations 38: 37: 30: 21: 5053: 5052: 5048: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5043: 5042: 5003: 5002: 5001: 4996: 4988: 4986: 4980: 4954:German question 4935: 4933:Flag of Germany 4902:Alsace–Lorraine 4890: 4776:Baron von Stein 4764: 4755: 4746: 4742:Peace of Prague 4733: 4724: 4715: 4706: 4695: 4686: 4677: 4670: 4656: 4647: 4638: 4629: 4618: 4609: 4598: 4550: 4514:Austria-Hungary 4511: 4509:Austrian Empire 4497: 4492: 4454: 4452: 4441: 4438: 4436:Further reading 4415:Wayback Machine 4385: 4380: 4379: 4374: 4370: 4361: 4357: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4335: 4327: 4323: 4304: 4300: 4295: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4264: 4260: 4244: 4240: 4231: 4227: 4218: 4214: 4205: 4201: 4189: 4185: 4169: 4165: 4155: 4151: 4132: 4128: 4117: 4113: 4102: 4098: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4080: 4071: 4067: 4058: 4054: 4045: 4041: 4033: 4029: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4007: 4002: 3998: 3987: 3983: 3974: 3970: 3961: 3957: 3948: 3944: 3924: 3920: 3911: 3907: 3899:Helmut Jacobi, 3898: 3891: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3855: 3851: 3831: 3827: 3811: 3807: 3802: 3798: 3781: 3777: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3736: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3714: 3703: 3685: 3681: 3670: 3654: 3647: 3640: 3621: 3617: 3610: 3594: 3590: 3581: 3577: 3568: 3564: 3557: 3541: 3537: 3530: 3516: 3512: 3501:, Berlin 1985, 3493:Karl Obermann: 3492: 3488: 3483: 3473: 3454: 3435: 3416: 3397: 3375: 3373: 3330: 3311: 3292: 3276: 3231: 3211:Weimar Republic 3156: 3079: 3058: 3041:rump parliament 2998: 2969: 2920: 2904:Lorenz Brentano 2873: 2842:rump parliament 2826: 2763: 2721: 2696: 2687: 2651:Equal Treatment 2632: 2602: 2572: 2537: 2513: 2452: 2418: 2390: 2363: 2350: 2294: 2292:German question 2280: 2250:ignored Blum's 2239:Vienna Uprising 2224: 2220:Oktoberaufstand 2196: 2171: 2158: 2113:Arnold Duckwitz 2076: 1984: 1940: 1902:Prussian troops 1878: 1837: 1827: 1822: 1773: 1768: 1752: 1739: 1709: 1682: 1631: 1615: 1577: 1563:Robert von Mohl 1544:Steinernes Haus 1511:—the so-called 1478:democratic left 1440:Friedrich Pecht 1432: 1426: 1418:Victor Scheffel 1406:Anastasius Grün 1375:Gustav Mevissen 1270:Göttingen Seven 1224: 1169: 1164: 1117: 1109:Rump Parliament 1104:Robert von Mohl 1084: 1055: 1031: 961: 909: 893:Märzregierungen 853: 847: 778:Austrian Empire 774:Second Republic 639:Bundesfestungen 590:Bundesfestungen 566: 560: 542:July Revolution 508:Austrian Empire 492:Imperial Russia 473:Napoleonic Wars 446: 441: 322:Austrian Empire 247: 235: 225: 221: 211: 204: 197: 193:Frederich Lang 189: 153: 151: 138: 136: 122: 103: 100: 99: 86: 75: 69: 66: 56:Please help to 55: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5051: 5041: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 4998: 4997: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4979: 4978: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4949:Lesser Germany 4942: 4930: 4923: 4916: 4913:Burschenschaft 4909: 4904: 4898: 4896: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4801:Franz Joseph I 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4772: 4770: 4766: 4765: 4763: 4762: 4753: 4744: 4731: 4722: 4713: 4704: 4703: 4702: 4693: 4684: 4667: 4666: 4665: 4654: 4645: 4636: 4616: 4606: 4604: 4600: 4599: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4569: 4564: 4558: 4556: 4552: 4551: 4549: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4505: 4503: 4499: 4498: 4491: 4490: 4483: 4476: 4468: 4462: 4461: 4437: 4434: 4433: 4432: 4418: 4405: 4400: 4395: 4384: 4381: 4378: 4377: 4368: 4355: 4342: 4333: 4321: 4298: 4289: 4280: 4271: 4258: 4238: 4225: 4212: 4199: 4183: 4163: 4160:, quoted after 4149: 4126: 4111: 4096: 4087: 4078: 4065: 4052: 4039: 4027: 4014: 4005: 3996: 3981: 3968: 3955: 3942: 3918: 3905: 3903:, 1956, p. 50. 3889: 3880: 3871: 3862: 3849: 3825: 3805: 3796: 3775: 3766: 3757: 3748: 3739: 3730: 3721: 3712: 3701: 3679: 3668: 3645: 3638: 3624:Iván T. Berend 3615: 3608: 3588: 3575: 3562: 3555: 3535: 3528: 3510: 3485: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3477: 3471: 3458: 3452: 3439: 3433: 3420: 3414: 3401: 3395: 3382: 3334: 3328: 3315: 3309: 3296: 3290: 3275: 3272: 3271: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3248:German history 3245: 3230: 3227: 3206:Ludwig Häusser 3155: 3152: 3115:Erbkaiserliche 3078: 3075: 3057: 3054: 3026:tax resistance 3010:Heinrich Simon 2997: 2994: 2990:Rumpfparlament 2968: 2965: 2919: 2916: 2908:Baden soldiers 2872: 2869: 2825: 2822: 2762: 2756: 2737:Heinrich Simon 2733:erbkaiserliche 2720: 2717: 2695: 2692: 2686: 2683: 2638:published the 2631: 2628: 2601: 2598: 2577:Franz Joseph I 2571: 2568: 2536: 2533: 2512: 2509: 2451: 2448: 2417: 2414: 2389: 2385:Posen and the 2383: 2362: 2359: 2349: 2346: 2279: 2276: 2223: 2217: 2195: 2192: 2170: 2167: 2157: 2154: 2075: 2068: 2054:" instead of " 1983: 1977: 1939: 1936: 1877: 1874: 1857:personal union 1849:Treaty of Ribe 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1783:; 15 July 1848 1772: 1769: 1761: 1760: 1747: 1734: 1728: 1722: 1716: 1708: 1705: 1697:Queen Victoria 1681: 1678: 1641:Reichsverweser 1630: 1627: 1593:Karl Radnitzky 1576: 1573: 1552: 1551: 1536: 1525:Augsburger Hof 1509:liberal center 1505: 1498:Nürnberger Hof 1428:Main article: 1425: 1422: 1414:Heinrich Laube 1245:Burschenschaft 1223: 1220: 1168: 1165: 1153: 1152: 1142: 1136: 1130: 1124: 1121:Friedrich Lang 1116: 1113: 1083: 1080: 1054: 1051: 1039:Friedrich Lang 1030: 1024: 960: 957: 908: 905: 849:Main article: 846: 843: 802:Northern Italy 752:Sonderbund War 574:Adolphe Thiers 562:Main article: 559: 556: 504:Deutscher Bund 488:United Kingdom 445: 442: 440: 437: 300: 299: 293: 292: 288: 287: 276: 275: 268: 267: 259: 258: 254: 253: 248: 246:First election 245: 242: 241: 237: 236: 214: 212: 210:Prime Minister 209: 206: 205: 192: 190: 187: 184: 183: 179: 178: 173: 169: 168: 163: 159: 158: 148: 144: 143: 133: 129: 128: 124: 123: 120: 112: 111: 105: 104: 97: 88: 87: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5050: 5039: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5010: 5008: 4995: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4946: 4945:Pan-Germanism 4943: 4939: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4928: 4924: 4922: 4921: 4917: 4915: 4914: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4899: 4897: 4893: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4841:Archduke John 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4773: 4771: 4767: 4761: 4754: 4752: 4745: 4743: 4739: 4732: 4730: 4723: 4721: 4714: 4712: 4705: 4701: 4694: 4692: 4685: 4683: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4668: 4664: 4663: 4655: 4653: 4646: 4644: 4637: 4635: 4628: 4627: 4626: 4625: 4617: 4615: 4608: 4607: 4605: 4601: 4595: 4594:German Empire 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4574: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4559: 4557: 4553: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4515: 4510: 4507: 4506: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4489: 4484: 4482: 4477: 4475: 4470: 4469: 4466: 4450: 4449: 4444: 4440: 4439: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4421:Gutenberg-DE: 4419: 4416: 4412: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4390: 4387: 4386: 4372: 4365: 4359: 4352: 4346: 4337: 4331: 4325: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4293: 4284: 4275: 4268: 4262: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4242: 4235: 4229: 4222: 4216: 4209: 4203: 4196: 4192: 4187: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4167: 4161: 4159: 4153: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4122: 4115: 4107: 4100: 4091: 4082: 4075: 4069: 4062: 4056: 4049: 4043: 4036: 4031: 4024: 4018: 4009: 4000: 3994: 3991: 3985: 3978: 3972: 3966:1890, p. 232. 3965: 3959: 3952: 3946: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3922: 3915: 3909: 3902: 3896: 3894: 3884: 3875: 3866: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3829: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3809: 3800: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3779: 3770: 3761: 3752: 3743: 3734: 3725: 3716: 3708: 3704: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3683: 3675: 3671: 3665: 3661: 3660: 3652: 3650: 3641: 3635: 3631: 3630: 3625: 3619: 3611: 3605: 3601: 3600: 3592: 3585: 3579: 3572: 3566: 3558: 3552: 3548: 3547: 3539: 3531: 3525: 3521: 3514: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3490: 3486: 3474: 3468: 3464: 3459: 3455: 3449: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3411: 3407: 3402: 3398: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3335: 3331: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3306: 3303:. MacMillan. 3302: 3297: 3293: 3287: 3283: 3278: 3277: 3269: 3266: 3264: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3240: 3235: 3226: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3207: 3202: 3199: 3198: 3192: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3164: 3162: 3151: 3149: 3144: 3139: 3135: 3132: 3126: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3111: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3096:Unionspolitik 3088: 3087:Isidor Popper 3083: 3074: 3072: 3067: 3064: 3053: 3046: 3042: 3037: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3008:, Carl Vogt, 3007: 3006:Franz Raveaux 3003: 2993: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2974: 2964: 2962: 2958: 2952: 2949: 2944: 2940: 2937: 2928: 2924: 2915: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2892: 2887: 2883: 2878: 2868: 2866: 2862: 2861: 2854: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2836:at Stuttgart 2835: 2830: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2796: 2791: 2789: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2769: 2761: 2755: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2716: 2714: 2708: 2705: 2701: 2691: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2627: 2625: 2624:Austrian Army 2619: 2617: 2616: 2606: 2597: 2595: 2589: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2567: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2532: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2508: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2484: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2447: 2444: 2440: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2413: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2388: 2382: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2358: 2356: 2345: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2325: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2300: 2293: 2284: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2258: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2240: 2233: 2228: 2221: 2216: 2213: 2209: 2206: 2202: 2191: 2187: 2184: 2179: 2177: 2166: 2162: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2138: 2137:Archduke John 2133: 2129: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2101: 2099: 2095: 2094: 2085: 2080: 2073: 2067: 2065: 2064:left-wing mob 2061: 2057: 2053: 2047: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2020:Gustav Struve 2015: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1988: 1982: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1965: 1962: 1957: 1954: 1949: 1945: 1935: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1882: 1873: 1870: 1869:Frederick VII 1866: 1862: 1858: 1855:and stood in 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1836: 1832: 1817: 1815: 1814: 1809: 1808: 1802: 1799: 1793: 1791: 1782: 1781:Reichverweser 1777: 1766: 1756: 1751: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1735: 1732: 1729: 1726: 1723: 1720: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1704: 1700: 1698: 1694: 1689: 1687: 1677: 1674: 1668: 1666: 1662: 1657: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1646:head of state 1643: 1642: 1637: 1626: 1624: 1620: 1614: 1606: 1601: 1594: 1589: 1581: 1571: 1566: 1564: 1559: 1557: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1490:Deutscher Hof 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1474: 1473: 1472:basic camps: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1452: 1449: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1421: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1402: 1400: 1395: 1394:Wilhelm Wolff 1391: 1387: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1336:Johann Jacoby 1333: 1329: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1246: 1241: 1240: 1235: 1234:jurisprudence 1231: 1230: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1203: 1200: 1191: 1187: 1186: 1181: 1173: 1162: 1158: 1150: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1133:Eduard Simson 1131: 1128: 1125: 1122: 1119: 1118: 1112: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1089: 1079: 1077: 1076: 1071: 1064: 1059: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1029: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 972: 970: 966: 956: 952: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 913: 904: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 877: 875: 871: 867: 857: 852: 842: 840: 836: 832: 831: 826: 822: 817: 813: 809: 805: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 764: 759: 757: 753: 749: 744: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 701: 698: 693: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 658: 656: 652: 648: 644: 640: 636: 631: 629: 625: 621: 617: 616: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 565: 555: 553: 552: 547: 543: 539: 535: 530: 529: 524: 519: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 480: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 459: 456:In 1806, the 450: 436: 434: 430: 426: 422: 419: 418:Prussian king 414: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 373: 369: 365: 364:German Empire 361: 357: 353: 348: 346: 342: 338: 334: 329: 327: 323: 319: 318:German states 315: 311: 307: 298: 294: 289: 286: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 260: 257:Meeting place 255: 252: 249: 243: 238: 234: 229: 224: 220: 217: 213: 207: 203: 200: 199:Wilhelm Loewe 196: 191: 185: 180: 177: 174: 170: 167: 164: 160: 149: 145: 134: 130: 125: 118: 113: 110: 109:German Empire 106: 95: 92: 84: 81: 73: 63: 59: 53: 52: 46: 41: 32: 31: 19: 4973: 4925: 4918: 4911: 4866:Napoleon III 4786:Christian IX 4740: / 4681: 4660: 4622: 4584:Erfurt Union 4571: 4453:. 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Retrieved 3346: 3342: 3319: 3300: 3281: 3274:Bibliography 3215:World War II 3203: 3195: 3193: 3173:Hohenzollern 3165: 3157: 3147: 3140: 3136: 3130: 3127: 3114: 3112: 3104:"from above" 3103: 3095: 3092: 3068: 3059: 3050: 3040: 3029: 3001: 2999: 2989: 2970: 2960: 2956: 2953: 2947: 2945: 2941: 2935: 2933: 2921: 2912:Mieroslawski 2895: 2889: 2876: 2874: 2864: 2858: 2855: 2851: 2841: 2838:Ständekammer 2837: 2834:Halbmondsaal 2833: 2818: 2814: 2809: 2801: 2799: 2792: 2784: 2779: 2764: 2759: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2741: 2732: 2729:Erbkaisertum 2728: 2722: 2712: 2709: 2697: 2688: 2644: 2639: 2635: 2633: 2630:Basic rights 2620: 2613: 2611: 2593: 2590: 2585: 2573: 2563: 2559: 2553: 2544: 2540: 2538: 2514: 2503: 2485: 2466:and half of 2453: 2419: 2409: 2405: 2402:Vorparlement 2401: 2391: 2386: 2364: 2355:Vorparlement 2354: 2351: 2337:every German 2336: 2333:every German 2332: 2329:every German 2328: 2326: 2303: 2298: 2295: 2272: 2267: 2255: 2236: 2219: 2214: 2210: 2197: 2188: 2180: 2172: 2163: 2159: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2136: 2135:The steamer 2116: 2108: 2102: 2093:Reichsflotte 2091: 2089: 2084:Reichsflotte 2083: 2082:Flag of the 2072:Reichsflotte 2071: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2048: 2039: 2016: 1999: 1995: 1993: 1980: 1966: 1958: 1947: 1941: 1906: 1900:marched his 1887: 1852: 1838: 1811: 1805: 1803: 1794: 1790:liberum veto 1789: 1786: 1780: 1701: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1669: 1664: 1658: 1639: 1635: 1632: 1622: 1619:legitimation 1616: 1568: 1560: 1555: 1553: 1539: 1512: 1508: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1468: 1460: 1456: 1453: 1447: 1445: 1403: 1383: 1356: 1325: 1320: 1316: 1314: 1285: 1249: 1243: 1238: 1227: 1225: 1207: 1204: 1195: 1189: 1183: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1085: 1074: 1069: 1067: 1062: 1032: 1027: 1019: 1007: 973: 962: 953: 948: 945:Vorparlament 944: 940: 928: 921:Vorparlament 920: 918: 900: 896: 892: 878: 873: 870:Vorparlament 869: 862: 828: 820: 811: 806: 780:, namely in 763:Citizen King 762: 760: 745: 702: 696: 694: 681: 665: 659: 638: 632: 619: 613: 604:, while the 589: 581: 570:Rhine Crisis 567: 549: 526: 523:civic rights 520: 511: 503: 498:created the 481: 455: 415: 410: 405:headed by a 383:basic rights 359: 355: 349: 330: 313: 312:, literally 305: 303: 291:Constitution 283: 232: 218: 201: 194: 91: 76: 67: 48: 4876:Robert Blum 4673:Revolutions 4423:Article by 3161:Crimean War 3056:Dissolution 2936:Paulskirche 2846:Gustav Renz 2752:Staatenhaus 2748:Staatenhaus 2594:Staatenhaus 2310:Ferdinand I 2244:Robert Blum 2242:the deputy 2125:Karl Brommy 2098:German Navy 2086:(1848–1852) 2070:The German 1753: [ 1740: [ 1548:Café Milani 1533:Pariser Hof 1502:Westendhall 1494:Donnersberg 1390:Robert Blum 1367:Ernst Merck 1310:Georg Waitz 1254:Jacob Grimm 1190:Paulskirche 1139:Theodor Reh 1088:Robert Mohl 1070:Paulskirche 1063:Paulskirche 1008:selbständig 984:free cities 929:Paulskirche 748:Switzerland 697:United Diet 610:Germersheim 538:Restoration 399:Restoration 372:nationalist 333:Paulskirche 226: [ 62:introducing 5007:Categories 4573:Zollverein 3481:References 3146:the hated 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