Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution

1660:, or outdoor area immediately surrounding the home, is protected. Courts have treated this area as an extension of the house and as such subject to all the privacy protections afforded a person's home (unlike a person's open fields) under the Fourth Amendment. The curtilage is "intimately linked to the home, both physically and psychologically", and is where "privacy expectations are most heightened." However, courts have held aerial surveillance of curtilage not to be included in the protections from unwarranted search so long as the airspace above the curtilage is generally accessible by the public. An area is curtilage if it "harbors the intimate activity associated with the sanctity of a man's home and the privacies of life." Courts make this determination by examining "whether the area is included within an enclosure surrounding the home, the nature of the uses to which the area is put, and the steps taken by the resident to protect the area from observation by people passing by." The Court has acknowledged that a doorbell or knocker is typically treated as an invitation, or license, to the public to approach the front door of the home to deliver mail, sell goods, solicit for charities, etc. This license extends to the police, who have the right to try engaging a home's occupant in a " 944:

magistrate instead of being judged by the officer engaged in the often competitive enterprise of ferreting out crime. Any assumption that evidence sufficient to support a magistrate's disinterested determination to issue a search warrant will justify the officers in making a search without a warrant would reduce the Amendment to a nullity, and leave the people's homes secure only in the discretion of police officers. Crime, even in the privacy of one's own quarters, is, of course, of grave concern to society, and the law allows such crime to be reached on proper showing. The right of officers to thrust themselves into a home is also a grave concern, not only to the individual, but to a society which chooses to dwell in reasonable security and freedom from surveillance. When the right of privacy must reasonably yield to the right of search is, as a rule, to be decided by a judicial officer, not by a policeman or government enforcement agent.

678: 1265:(2018), individuals have a reasonable expectation of privacy under the Fourth Amendment regarding cell phone records even though they themselves turned over that information to "third parties" (i.e. the cell phone companies). Prior to the Carpenter ruling, law enforcement was able to retrieve cell site location information (CSLI) that included where a cell phone user had traveled over many months and with which other cell phone users they had associated. Carpenter v. United States serves as a landmark case because it slightly narrowed the Third Party Doctrine, thus requiring law enforcement to first obtain a search warrant before receiving CSLI records. "In the 5-4 decision, the Court ruled 'narrowly' in favor of privacy, finding the government had constitutionally violated Mr. Carpenter's reasonable expectation of privacy by acquiring this private information without a warrant." 1062:

effects, against all unreasonable searches and seizures under the guise of law. This protection reaches all alike, whether accused of crime or not, and the duty of giving to it force and effect is obligatory upon all intrusted under our Federal system with the enforcement of the laws. The tendency of those who execute the criminal laws of the country to obtain conviction by means of unlawful seizures and enforced confessions, the latter often obtained after subjecting accused persons to unwarranted practices destructive of rights secured by the Federal Constitution, should find no sanction in the judgments of the courts, which are charged at all times with the support of the Constitution, and to which people of all conditions have a right to appeal for the maintenance of such fundamental rights.

991:. The Supreme Court responded to these questions by stating on the one hand that the government powers to search and seizure are limited by the Fourth Amendment so that arbitrary and oppressive interference by enforcement officials with the privacy and personal security of individuals are prevented and by outlining on the other hand the fundamental purpose of the amendment as guaranteeing "the privacy, dignity and security of persons against certain arbitrary and invasive acts by officers of the Government, without regard to whether the government actor is investigating crime or performing another function". To protect personal privacy and dignity against unwarranted intrusion by the State is the overriding function of the Fourth Amendment according to the Court in 2155:, a United States district court ruled that the U.S. government's global telephone data-gathering system is needed to thwart potential terrorist attacks, and that it can work only if everyone's calls are included. The court also ruled that Congress legally set up the program and it does not violate anyone's constitutional rights. The court concluded that the telephone data being swept up by NSA did not belong to telephone users, but to the telephone companies. Also, the court held that when NSA obtains such data from the telephone companies, and then probes into it to find links between callers and potential terrorists, this further use of the data was not even a search under the Fourth Amendment, concluding that the controlling precedent is 1163: 1498:(1967) explained that the purpose of the probable cause requirement of the Fourth Amendment is to keep the state out of constitutionally protected areas until it has reason to believe that a specific crime has been or is being committed. The standards of probable cause differ for an arrest and a search. The government has probable cause to make an arrest when "the facts and circumstances within their knowledge and of which they had reasonably trustworthy information" would lead a prudent person to believe the arrested person had committed or was committing a crime. Probable cause to arrest must exist before the arrest is made. Evidence obtained after the arrest may not apply retroactively to justify the arrest. 55: 1802:(2014), the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that police must obtain a warrant to search an arrestee's cellular phone. The Court said that earlier Supreme Court decisions permitting searches incident to an arrest without a warrant do not apply to "modern cellphones, which are now such a pervasive and insistent part of daily life that the proverbial visitor from Mars might conclude they were an important feature of human anatomy," and noted that U.S. citizens' cellphones today typically contain "a digital record of nearly every aspect of their lives—from the mundane to the intimate." 1142:(1997): "To be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment, a search ordinarily must be based on individualized suspicion of wrongdoing. But particularized exceptions to the main rule are sometimes warranted based on 'special needs, beyond the normal need for law enforcement'. ... When such 'special needs' are alleged, courts must undertake a context-specific inquiry, examining closely the competing private and public interests advanced by the parties." The reasonableness of any particular search and seizure according to the Supreme Court in 768:, on the other hand, did not enjoy the same sanctity as their British counterparts, because legislation had been explicitly written so as to enable enforcement of British revenue-gathering policies on customs; until 1750, in fact, the only type of warrant defined in the handbooks for justices of the peace was the general warrant. During what scholar William Cuddihy called the "colonial epidemic of general searches", the authorities possessed almost unlimited power to search for anything at any time, with very little oversight. 925:

Hampshire and Delaware ratified eleven of the Bill's twelve amendments, including the Fourth. This brought the total of ratifying states to six of the required ten, but the process stalled in other states: Connecticut and Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify, while Massachusetts ratified most of the amendments, but failed to send official notice to the Secretary of State that it had done so (all three states would later ratify the Bill of Rights for sesquicentennial celebrations in 1939).

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sought." Vehicles may not be randomly stopped and searched; there must be probable cause or reasonable suspicion of criminal activity. Items in plain view may be seized; areas that could potentially hide weapons may also be searched. With probable cause to believe evidence is present, police officers may search any area in the vehicle. However, they may not extend the search to the vehicle's passengers without probable cause to search those passengers or consent from the passengers. In

420: 488: 772: 432: 444: 4483:. "arrantless searches are per se unreasonable, subject only to a few specifically delineated and well-recognized exceptions. ... full-scale searches—whether conducted in accordance with the warrant requirement or pursuant to one of its exceptions—are 'reasonable' in Fourth Amendment terms only on a showing of probable cause to believe that a crime has been committed and that evidence of the crime will be found in the place to be searched." 1751:(2009), the Court ruled that a law enforcement officer needs a warrant before searching a motor vehicle after an arrest of an occupant of that vehicle, unless 1) at the time of the search the person being arrested is unsecured and within reaching distance of the passenger compartment of the vehicle or 2) police officers have reason to believe evidence for the crime for which the person is being arrested will be found in the vehicle. 1429:(1979), the Court ruled an officer has made an illegal seizure when he stops an automobile and detains the driver in order to check his driver's license and the registration of the automobile, because the officer does not have articulable and reasonable suspicion that a motorist is unlicensed or that an automobile is not registered, or either the vehicle or an occupant is otherwise subject to seizure for violation of law. 891: 5229:, 569 U. S. (slip op., at 6). "This implicit license typically permits the visitor to approach the home by the front path, knock promptly, wait briefly to be received, and then (absent invitation to linger longer) leave. Complying with the terms of that traditional invitation does not require fine-grained legal knowledge; it is generally managed without incident by the Nation's Girl Scouts and trick-or-treaters." 1389:(1991), the Court ruled that as long as the police do not convey a message that compliance with their requests is required, the police contact is a "citizen encounter" that falls outside the protections of the Fourth Amendment. If a person remains free to disregard questioning by the government, there has been no seizure and therefore no intrusion upon the person's privacy under the Fourth Amendment. 2036:(1984), the Court established the "good faith" exception to the rule, ruling that evidence seized by officers reasonably relying on a warrant was still admissible, even though the warrant was later found to be defective, unless an officer dishonestly or recklessly prepared an affidavit to seek a warrant, the issuing magistrate abandoned his neutrality, or the warrant lacked sufficient particularity. 653: 1136:. Where there was no clear practice, either approving or disapproving the type of search at issue, at the time the constitutional provision was enacted, the "reasonableness" of a search is judged by balancing the intrusion on the individual's Fourth Amendment interests against the promotion of legitimate governmental interests. The Supreme Court further held in 3407: (1984): "This Court has ... consistently construed this protection as proscribing only governmental action; it is wholly inapplicable to a search or seizure, even an unreasonable one, effected by a private individual not acting as an agent of the Government or with the participation or knowledge of any governmental official." (punctuation omitted). 1148:(1968) must be assessed in light of the particular circumstances against the standard of whether a man of reasonable caution is warranted in believing that the action taken was appropriate. The amendment applies to governmental searches and seizures, but not those done by private citizens or organizations who are not acting on behalf of a government. In 845:

order in the warrant to a civil officer, to make search in suspected places, or to arrest one or more suspected persons, or to seize their property, be not accompanied with a special designation of the persons or objects of search, arrest, or seizure: and no warrant ought to be issued but in cases, and with the formalities, prescribed by the laws.

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popular sentiment was against ratification (including Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights. Four state conventions proposed some form of restriction on the authority of the new federal government to conduct searches.

1339:(1983), such a search must be temporary, and questioning must be limited to the purpose of the stop (e.g., officers who stop a person because they have reasonable suspicion to believe the person was driving a stolen car, cannot, after confirming it is not stolen, compel the person to answer questions about anything else, such as contraband). 1776:(1948), the Supreme Court held that "a search or seizure without a warrant as an incident to a lawful arrest has always been considered to be a strictly limited right. It grows out of the inherent necessities of the situation at the time of the arrest. But there must be something more in the way of necessity than merely a lawful arrest." In 1848:(1972) left open the possibility for a foreign intelligence surveillance exception to the warrant clause. Three United States Courts of Appeals have recognized a foreign intelligence surveillance exception to the warrant clause, but tied it to certain requirements. The exception to the Fourth Amendment was formally recognized by the 1154:(2010), the Court applied the amendment to a municipal government in its capacity as an employer, ruling that the City of Ontario had not violated the Fourth Amendment rights of city police officers by obtaining from the communications company and reviewing transcripts of text messages sent using government-provided pagers. 1869:(2002) when 'special needs', beyond the normal need for law enforcement, make the warrant and probable-cause requirement impracticable the reasonableness of a search is determined by balancing the nature of the intrusion on the individual's privacy against the promotion of legitimate governmental interests. Additionally in 1647:(1984), the police ignored a "no trespassing" sign and a fence, trespassed onto the suspect's land without a warrant, followed a path for hundreds of feet, and discovered a field of marijuana. The Supreme Court ruled that no search had taken place, because there was no privacy expectation regarding an open field: 1216:

using a microphone attached to the outside of the glass. While there was no physical intrusion into the booth, the Court reasoned that: 1) Katz, by entering the booth and shutting the door behind him, had exhibited his expectation that "the words he utters into the mouthpiece will not be broadcast to

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The Fourth Amendment typically requires "a neutral and detached authority interposed between the police and the public", and it is offended by "general warrants" and laws that allow searches to be conducted "indiscriminately and without regard to their connection with crime under investigation", for

827:

That general warrants, whereby any officer or messenger may be commanded to search suspected places without evidence of a fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, or whose offense is not particularly described and supported by evidence, are grievous and oppressive and ought not to

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and helped pass legislation requiring that special writs of assistance be "granted by any judge or justice of the peace upon information under oath by any officer of the customs" and barring all other writs. The governor overturned the legislation, finding it contrary to English law and parliamentary

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Fourth Amendment case law deals with three main issues: what government activities are "searches" and "seizures", what constitutes probable cause to conduct searches and seizures, and how to address violations of Fourth Amendment rights. Early court decisions limited the amendment's scope to physical

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of Americans' telephone records by the National Security Agency probably violates the Fourth Amendment. The court granted a preliminary injunction, blocking the collection of phone data for two private plaintiffs and ordered the government to destroy any of their records that have been gathered. The

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rule from Great Britain permits searches incident to an arrest without a warrant. This rule has been applied in American law, and has a lengthy common law history. The justification for such a search is to prevent the arrested individual 1.) from destroying evidence or 2.) using a weapon against the

1628:, the Supreme Court held that an officer stepped beyond the plain view doctrine when he moved a turntable in order to view its serial number to confirm that the turntable was stolen. "A search is a search," proclaimed the Court, "even if it happens to disclose nothing but the bottom of a turntable." 1521:

s assertion that it merely requires that the facts available to the officer would "warrant a man of reasonable caution" in the belief that specific items may be contraband or stolen property or useful as evidence of a crime. It does not demand any showing that such a belief be correct or more likely

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The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the

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A seizure does not occur just because the government questions an individual in a public place. The exclusionary rule would not bar voluntary answers to such questions from being offered into evidence in a subsequent criminal prosecution. The person is not being seized if his freedom of movement is

1995:

The exclusionary rule and its effectiveness have often been controversial, particularly since its 1961 application to state proceedings. Critics charge that the rule hampers police investigation and can result in freeing guilty parties convicted on reliable evidence; other critics say the rule has

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without a warrant. A seizure of property occurs when there is "some meaningful interference with an individual's possessory interests in that property," such as when police officers take personal property away from an owner to use as evidence, or when they participate in an eviction. The amendment

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By the time the Bill of Rights was submitted to the states for ratification, opinions had shifted in both parties. Many Federalists, who had previously opposed a Bill of Rights, now supported the Bill as a means of silencing the Anti-Federalists' most effective criticism. Many Anti-Federalists, in

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Every subject has a right to be secure from all unreasonable searches, and seizures of his person, his houses, his papers, and all his possessions. All warrants, therefore, are contrary to this right, if the cause or foundation of them be not previously supported by oath or affirmation; and if the

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Despite the foregoing citation the Fourth Amendment prohibitions against unreasonable searches and seizures nonetheless apply to the contents of all communications, whatever the means, because, "a person's private communications are akin to personal papers." Fourth Amendment reasonableness is the

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known as a warrant. A search or seizure is generally unreasonable and unconstitutional if conducted without a valid warrant and the police must obtain a warrant whenever practicable. Searches and seizures without a warrant are not considered unreasonable if one of the specifically established and

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thus provided the basis to rule that the government's intrusion, though electronic rather than physical, was a search covered by the Fourth Amendment, and thus necessitated a warrant. The Court said it was not recognizing any general right to privacy in the Fourth Amendment, and that this wiretap

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may use illegally obtained evidence when questioning witnesses, because "the damage to that institution from the unprecedented extension of the exclusionary rule outweighs the benefit of any possible incremental deterrent effect." Explaining the purpose of the rule, the Court said the rule "is a

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Searches conducted at the United States border or the equivalent of the border (such as an international airport) may be conducted without a warrant or probable cause subject to the border search exception. Most border searches may be conducted entirely at random, without any level of suspicion,

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The Supreme Court has held that individuals in automobiles have a reduced expectation of privacy, because (1) vehicles generally do not serve as residences or repositories of personal effects, and (2) vehicles "can be quickly moved out of the locality or jurisdiction in which the warrant must be

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than to a formal arrest. If a person is not under suspicion of illegal behavior, a law enforcement official is not allowed to place an individual under arrest simply because this person does not wish to state his identity, provided specific state regulations do not specify this to be the case. A

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for these actions; how violations of Fourth Amendment rights should be addressed. The text of the amendment is brief, and most of the law determining what constitutes an unlawful search and seizure is found in court rulings. The brief definitions of the terms "search" and "seizure" was concisely

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On November 20, 1789, New Jersey ratified eleven of the twelve amendments, including the Fourth. On December 19, 1789, December 22, 1789, and January 19, 1790, respectively, Maryland, North Carolina, and South Carolina ratified all twelve amendments. On January 25 and 28, 1790, respectively, New

909:, including an amendment requiring probable cause for government searches. Congress reduced Madison's proposed twenty amendments to twelve, with modifications to Madison's language about searches and seizures. The final language was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789. 886:

For the Constitution to be ratified, nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions. Opposition to ratification ("Anti-Federalism") was partly based on the Constitution's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Supporters of the Constitution in states where

883:—disagreed, arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked implying that other, unnamed rights were unprotected. After a brief debate, Mason's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations. 2165:

declared on January 2, 2014, that it will appeal the ruling that NSA bulk phone record collection is legal. "The government has a legitimate interest in tracking the associations of suspected terrorists, but tracking those associations does not require the government to subject every citizen to

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The effect of the Fourth Amendment is to put the courts of the United States and Federal officials, in the exercise of their power and authority, under limitations and restraints as to the exercise of such power and authority, and to forever secure the people, their persons, houses, papers, and

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unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment—subject only to a few specifically established and well-delineated exceptions." In order for such a warrant to be considered reasonable, it must be supported by probable cause and be limited in scope according to specific information supplied by a person

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In February through June 1790, New York, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island each ratified eleven of the amendments, including the Fourth. Virginia initially postponed its debate, but after Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791, the total number of states needed for ratification rose to eleven.

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decision. The lower court held that "a foreign intelligence exception to the Fourth Amendment's warrant requirement exists when surveillance is conducted to obtain foreign intelligence for national security purposes and is directed against foreign powers or agents of foreign powers reasonably

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In 1756, the colony of Massachusetts barred the use of general warrants. This represented the first law in American history curtailing the use of seizure power. Its creation largely stemmed from the great public outcry over the Excise Act of 1754, which gave tax collectors unlimited powers to

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Because the Bill of Rights did not initially apply to state or local governments, and federal criminal investigations were less common in the first century of the nation's history, there is little significant case law for the Fourth Amendment before the 20th century. The amendment was held to

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In these situations where the warrant requirement doesn't apply a search or seizure nonetheless must be justified by some individualized suspicion of wrongdoing. However, the U.S. Supreme Court carved out an exception to the requirement of individualized suspicion. It ruled that, "In limited

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observed in 1975: "The basic purpose of the constitutional protections against unlawful searches and seizures is to safeguard the privacy and security of each and every person against all arbitrary intrusions by government. Therefore, any time an intrusion on the security and privacy of the

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The point of the Fourth Amendment, which often is not grasped by zealous officers, is not that it denies law enforcement the support of the usual inferences which reasonable men draw from evidence. Its protection consists in requiring that those inferences be drawn by a neutral and detached

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open fields do not provide the setting for those intimate activities that the Amendment is intended to shelter from government interference or surveillance. There is no societal interest in protecting the privacy of those activities, such as the cultivation of crops, that occur in open

1588:(2006), the Supreme Court ruled that when two co-occupants are both present, one consenting and the other rejecting the search of a shared residence, the police may not make a search of that residence within the consent exception to the warrant requirement. Per the Court's ruling in 1116:

the "basic purpose of the Fourth Amendment, which is enforceable against the States through the Fourteenth, through its prohibition of 'unreasonable' searches and seizures is to safeguard the privacy and security of individuals against arbitrary invasions by governmental officials."

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petitioned the court to have hearings on the issue. During the five-hour hearing on February 23, 1761, Otis vehemently denounced British colonial policies, including their sanction of general warrants and writs of assistance. However, the court ruled against Otis. Future President

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arresting officer by disarming the suspect. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that "both justifications for the search-incident-to-arrest exception are absent and the rule does not apply" when "there is no possibility" the suspect could gain access to a weapon or destroy evidence. In

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gives consent to a search, a warrant is not required. There are exceptions and complications to the rule, including the scope of the consent given, whether the consent is voluntarily given, and whether an individual has the right to consent to a search of another's property. In

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acknowledged that the King did not have unbridled authority to intrude on his subjects' dwellings, but recognized that government agents were permitted to conduct searches and seizures under certain conditions when their purpose was lawful and a warrant had been obtained.

1622:(1971), if an officer is lawfully present, he may seize objects that are in "plain view." However, the officer must have had probable cause to believe the objects are contraband, and the criminality of the object in plain view must be obvious by its very nature. In 1875:(2004) the Court explained in judging reasonableness it looks to "the gravity of the public concerns served by the seizure, the degree to which the seizure advances the public interest, and the severity of the interference with individual liberty". To protect the 3987: (1992). "The right against unreasonable seizures would be no less transgressed if the seizure of the house was undertaken to collect evidence, verify compliance with a housing regulation, effect an eviction by the police, or on a whim, for no reason at all." 1478:

circumstances, where the privacy interests implicated by the search are minimal and where an important governmental interest furthered by the intrusion would be placed in jeopardy by a requirement of individualized suspicion" a search would still be reasonable.

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individual is undertaken with intent to harass or is based upon mere whim, caprice or idle curiosity, the spirit of the Constitution has been violated and the aggrieved party may invoke the exclusionary rule or appropriate forms of civil redress." With a view to

1911:(2006), the Court ruled that government offices may be searched for evidence of work-related misconduct by government employees on similar grounds. Searches of prison cells are subject to no restraints relating to reasonableness or probable cause. However, in 1474:

well-delineated exceptions to the warrant requirement applies. These exceptions apply "nly in those exceptional circumstances in which special needs, beyond the normal need for law enforcement, make the warrant and probable cause requirement impracticable."

2070:(2009), the Court ruled that the exclusionary rule does not apply to evidence found due to negligence regarding a government database, as long as the arresting police officer relied on that database in "good faith" and the negligence was not pervasive. In 1183:—that is, when the government physically intrudes on "persons, houses, papers, or effects" for the purpose of obtaining information, a "search" within the original meaning of the Fourth Amendment, has occurred. Early 20th-century Court decisions, such as 1594:(1990), a consent search is still considered valid if police accept in good faith the consent of an "apparent authority," even if that party is later discovered to not have authority over the property in question. A telling case on this subject is 2082:(2016), the Court ruled that evidence obtained from an unlawful police stop would not be excluded from court when the link between the stop and the evidence's discovery was "attenuated" by the discovery of an outstanding warrant during the stop. 1996:

not been successful in deterring illegal police searches. Proponents argue that the number of criminal convictions overturned under the rule has been minimal and that no other effective mechanism exists to enforce the Fourth Amendment. In 1982,

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Similarly, "open fields" such as pastures, open water, and woods may be searched without a warrant, on the ground that conduct occurring therein would have no reasonable expectation of privacy. The doctrine was first articulated by the Court in

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When police conduct a search, the amendment requires that the warrant establish probable cause to believe the search will uncover criminal activity or contraband. They must have legally sufficient reasons to believe a search is necessary. In

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Because the Fourth Amendment does not apply to information that is voluntarily given to third parties, the telephone numbers that are regularly and voluntarily provided to telephone companies by their customers do not gain Fourth Amendment

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wrote in the majority opinion that "the Fourth Amendment protects people, not places". A "search" occurs for purposes of the Fourth Amendment when the government violates a person's "reasonable expectation of privacy". Katz's reasonable

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When a person is arrested and taken into police custody, he has been seized (i.e., a reasonable person who is handcuffed and placed in the back of a police car would not think they were free to leave). A person subjected to a routine

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point at which the United States government's interest advanced by a particular search or seizure outweighs the loss of individual privacy or freedom of movement that attends the government's action. The United Supreme Court said in

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held that its protections extend to intrusions on the privacy of individuals as well as to physical locations. A warrant is needed for most search and seizure activities, but the Court has carved out a series of exceptions for

1692:(1925), the Court ruled that law enforcement officers could search a vehicle that they suspected of carrying contraband without a warrant. The Court allowed blood to be drawn without a warrant from drunk-driving suspects in 8578: 1259:, the Court held individuals have no "legitimate expectation of privacy" regarding the telephone numbers they dial because they knowingly give that information to telephone companies when they dial a number. However, under 1325:

that the person is presently dangerous to the officer or others, the officer may conduct a pat-down search ("frisk" the person) to determine whether the person is carrying a weapon. This detention and search is known as a

6155:"CSR Memorandum to the United Senate Select Committee on Intelligence entitled "Probable Cause, Reasonable Suspicion, and Reasonableness Standards in the Context of the Fourth Amendment and the Foreign Intelligence Act"" 4597:"CSR Memorandum to the United Senate Select Committee on Intelligence entitled "Probable Cause, Reasonable Suspicion, and Reasonableness Standards in the Context of the Fourth Amendment and the Foreign Intelligence Act"" 1432:

Where society's need is great, no other effective means of meeting the need is available, and intrusion on people's privacy is minimal, certain discretionless checkpoints toward that end may briefly detain motorists. In

7192: 2004:" containing a provision to repeal the exclusionary rule; though the bill could not affect federally mandated rights under the Fourth Amendment, it blocked the state courts from expanding these protections further. 652: 1664:" for the purpose of gathering evidence without a warrant. However, they cannot bring a drug detection dog to sniff at the front door of a home without either a warrant or consent of the homeowner or resident. 1364:

not restrained. The government may not detain an individual even momentarily without reasonable, objective grounds, with few exceptions. His refusal to listen or answer does not by itself furnish such grounds.

7532: 1321:, the Supreme Court ruled that when a police officer witnesses "unusual conduct" that leads the officer to reasonably believe "that criminal activity may be afoot", that the suspicious person has a weapon 1821:

plenary search authority. However, searches that intrude upon a traveler's personal dignity and privacy interests, such as strip and body cavity searches, must be supported by "reasonable suspicion". The

1333:. To conduct a frisk, officers must be able to point to specific and articulable facts which, taken together with rational inferences from those facts, reasonably warrant their actions. As established in 7379: 975:, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution." Federal jurisdiction regarding criminal law was narrow until the late 19th century when the 2054:(1984), the Court ruled that evidence illegally found without a search warrant is admissible if the evidence is later found and legally seized based on information independent of the illegal search. 997:(1966), because "he security of one's privacy against arbitrary intrusion by the police" is "at the core of the Fourth Amendment" and "basic to a free society." Pointing to historic precedents like 11001: 3180:"Recent Case, Ninth Circuit Considers Community's Racial Tension with Police in Finding Illegal Seizure and Lack of Voluntary Consent. — United States V. Washington, 490 F.3d 765 (9th Cir. 2007)" 1854: 10691: 406: 330: 1796:(1969), the Supreme Court elucidated its previous decisions. It held that when an arrest is made, it is reasonable for the officer to search the arrestee for weapons and evidence. However, in 6051:"United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review Case No. 08-01 In Re Directives [redacted text] Pursuant to Section 105B of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act" 1935:

One way courts enforce the Fourth Amendment is through the use of the exclusionary rule. The rule provides that evidence obtained through a violation of the Fourth Amendment is generally not

273: 10509: 7014: 2045:(1984) that "fruit of the poisonous tree" evidence could still be introduced if a prosecutor could demonstrate that it would have been an "inevitable discovery" of legitimate investigation. 1311:

In many situations, law enforcement may perform a search when they have a reasonable suspicion of criminal activity, even if it falls short of probable cause necessary for an arrest. Under

788:, allowing tax collectors to search the homes of colonists and seize "prohibited and uncustomed" goods. A crisis erupted over the writs of assistance on December 27, 1760, when the news of 119: 11016: 10446: 1880: 10966: 7218: 10547: 1638:(1924), which stated that "the special protection accorded by the Fourth Amendment to the people in their 'persons, houses, papers, and effects' is not extended to the open fields." 10814: 2023:

judicially created remedy designed to safeguard Fourth Amendment rights generally through its deterrent effect, rather than a personal constitutional right of the party aggrieved."

1195:(1961), the Court stated of the amendment that "at the very core stands the right of a man to retreat into his own home and there be free from unreasonable governmental intrusion". 2146:

court stayed the ruling pending a government appeal, recognizing the "significant national security interests at stake in this case and the novelty of the constitutional issues."

10916: 6120: 6057: 1945:(1960) that the rule's function "is to deter—to compel respect for the constitutional guaranty in the only effectively available way—by removing the incentive to disregard it." 1849: 4511:"Article 8 – Subway Searches: Which Exception to the Warrant and Probable Cause Requirements Applies to Suspicionless Searches of Mass Transit Passengers To Prevent Terrorism?" 10686: 3751: 2948: 1905:

do not require warrants, as long as the searching officers have reasonable grounds for believing the search will result in finding evidence of illegal activity. Similarly, in

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show of authority, his freedom of movement is restrained and, in the circumstances surrounding the incident, a reasonable person would believe he was not free to leave. Under

11633: 9404: 3226: 1123:, because the basic rule under the Fourth Amendment is that arrests and "searches conducted outside the judicial process, without prior approval by judge or magistrate, are 1028: 913:

contrast, now opposed it, realizing the Bill's adoption would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention, which they desired. Anti-Federalists such as

11648: 2206: 1015:(1961) that the Fourth Amendments core is the right to retreat into his own home and there be free from unreasonable governmental intrusion. The Supreme Court declared in 748:

to even justify the search. By holding that "ur law holds the property of every man so sacred, that no man can set his foot upon his neighbour's close without his leave",

10986: 2076:(2011), the Court ruled that the exclusionary rule does not apply to a Fourth Amendment violation resulting from a reasonable reliance on binding appellate precedent. In 606: 10519: 10403: 10203: 10135: 7506: 6651: 3392: 2014: 1092: 1038:(2021) that the focus of the Fourth Amendment is the privacy and security of individuals, not the particular manner of arbitrary invasion by governmental officials. In 10971: 7431: 3938: 1834:

circuits have ruled that information on a traveler's electronic materials, including personal files on a laptop computer, may be searched at random, without suspicion.

1317:(1968), law enforcement officers are permitted to conduct a limited warrantless search on a level of suspicion less than probable cause under certain circumstances. In 10389: 9989: 7100: 399: 265: 6024: 1678:

Law enforcement officers may also conduct warrantless searches in several types of exigent circumstances where obtaining a warrant is dangerous or impractical. Under

1405:

search incidental to an arrest that is not permissible under state law does not violate the Fourth Amendment, so long as the arresting officer has probable cause. In

11167: 10374: 10364: 6793: 4745: 2050: 1598:, in which the Court held that police officers could not rely in good faith upon the apparent authority of a hotel clerk to consent to the search of a guest's room. 1510: 250: 238: 17: 11006: 905:, following the state legislatures' request, James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments based on state bills of rights and English sources such as the 602: 10384: 10379: 10369: 10359: 474: 260: 255: 245: 233: 706:

The 1760s saw a growth in the intensity of litigation against state officers, who were using general warrants, conducted raids in search of materials relating to

10339: 5429: 722:

authorizing them "to make strict and diligent search for ... the author, or one concerned in the writing of several weekly very seditious papers entitled, '

211: 10349: 10344: 10313: 10308: 7125: 2261: 2186: 1562:(1973), the Court ruled that a consent search is still valid even if the police do not inform a suspect of his right to refuse the search. This contrasts with 1298:—was for the purpose of obtaining information, the Court ruled that it was a search under the Fourth Amendment. The Court used similar "trespass" reasoning in 1053: 632: 223: 218: 196: 191: 6234: 10354: 10334: 10318: 8538: 7197: 7172: 7155: 7130: 7105: 7080: 7055: 7050: 6996: 6944: 6867: 6842: 6798: 6742: 6705: 6656: 6563: 6507: 6482: 6426: 6340: 6265: 6213: 6188: 5996: 5921: 5904: 5887: 5749: 5720: 5695: 5670: 5645: 5547: 5369: 5312: 5287: 5195: 5170: 5133: 5108: 5031: 5006: 4983: 4958: 4913: 4853: 4812: 4787: 4750: 4690: 4662: 4657: 4637: 4545: 4471: 4442: 4425: 4384: 4359: 4334: 4309: 4285: 4229: 4190: 4133: 4073: 4048: 4009: 3977: 3918: 3859: 3837: 3785: 3623: 3518: 3493: 3397: 3346: 3321: 3296: 3271: 3256: 3231: 3206: 3158: 3047: 2820: 1827: 958: 228: 206: 201: 10911: 10285: 2176: 1831: 181: 726:, No 257, 357, 358, 360, 373, 376, 378, and 380'", the search resulting in seizure of printed charts, pamphlets and other materials. Entick filed suit in 11162: 10290: 10254: 4379: 1179:

One threshold question in the Fourth Amendment jurisprudence is whether a "search" has occurred. Initial Fourth Amendment case law hinged on a citizen's

186: 159: 5513: 1112:"The Fourth Amendment search and seizure doctrine involves a complex compromise between public safety and the constitutional right to personal liberty." 792:'s death on October 23 arrived in Boston. All writs automatically expired six months after the death of the King, and would have had to be re-issued by 11709: 11689: 11566: 10996: 10891: 10259: 10229: 2114: 164: 134: 1383:(2021), a person is considered to be seized following the use of physical force with the intent to restrain, even if the person manages to escape. In 10701: 10269: 10264: 10249: 10244: 10234: 10224: 8472: 8151: 1563: 1189:(1928), held that Fourth Amendment rights applied in cases of physical intrusion, but not to other forms of police surveillance (e.g., wiretaps). In 174: 169: 154: 149: 139: 129: 5389: 875:, a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia's Declaration of Rights, proposed that a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing 11669: 4782: 7028: 1415:

upon arrests for serious crimes, along the same reasoning that allows police to take fingerprints or photographs of those they arrest and detain.

11092: 10193: 10173: 10128: 7457: 4540: 2390:, p. 113, fn 22: "The writs of assistance did not become an issue until news of King George II's death arrived in Boston December 27, 1760." 385: 376: 109: 89: 2592:(edited by Kenneth R. Bowling and Donald R. Kennon of the United States Capitol Historical Society, published by Ohio University Press in 2000). 2161:, saying "Smith's bedrock holding is that an individual has no legitimate expectation of privacy in information provided to third parties." The 11577: 10183: 10178: 7226: 99: 94: 5978: 1786:, holding instead that the officers' opportunity to obtain a warrant was not germane to the reasonableness of a search incident to an arrest. 929:

Vermont ratified on November 3, 1791, approving all twelve amendments, and Virginia finally followed on December 15, 1791. Secretary of State

698:

stated: "The house of every one is to him as his castle and fortress, as well for his defence against injury and violence as for his repose."

662:

The hand-written copy of the proposed Bill of Rights, 1789, cropped to show just the text that would later be ratified as the Fourth Amendment

10946: 10188: 10168: 10163: 9310: 5958: 4409: 4094: 1397:

on the other hand, has been seized, but is not "arrested" because traffic stops are a relatively brief encounter and are more analogous to a

677: 104: 84: 79: 5793: 11384: 10436: 9302: 7907: 2606: 2464: 492: 467: 310: 1085:

Fourth Amendment case law deals with three central issues: what government activities constitute "search" and "seizure;" what constitutes

11097: 10896: 9251: 7324: 7249: 5332: 3003: 1966:(1939), the Court ruled that leads or other evidence resulting from illegally obtained evidence are also inadmissible in trials. Justice 1582:(1974) that a third party co-occupant could give consent for a search without violating a suspect's Fourth Amendment rights. However, in 5652: 3644: 1021:(1967) that the Fourth Amendment's protections include "conversation" and is not limited to "persons, houses, papers, and effects". The 10632: 10158: 10121: 9350: 6331: 1913: 967:

The Fourth Amendment, and the personal rights which it secures, have a long history. The Bill of Rights originally restricted only the

784:

interrogate colonists concerning their use of goods subject to customs. The act also permitted the use of a general warrant known as a

71: 36: 7432:"United States District Court Southern District of New York: American Civil Liberties Union v. James R. Clapper (13 Civ. 3994) (WHP))" 6131: 1790:

suggested that any area within the "immediate control" of the arrestee could be searched, but it did not define the term. In deciding

840:, added the requirement that all searches must be "reasonable", and served as another basis for the language of the Fourth Amendment: 11699: 10871: 10841: 10627: 10592: 10572: 8699: 7405: 4207: 1508:(1925), the Supreme Court stated that probable cause to search is a flexible, common-sense standard. To that end, the Court ruled in 1423:

The government may not detain an individual even momentarily without reasonable and articulable suspicion, with a few exceptions. In

1255:

The Supreme Court has held that the Fourth Amendment does not apply to information that is voluntarily shared with third parties. In

868: 554: 342: 337: 320: 4341: 2956: 808:, who was present in the courtroom when Otis spoke, viewed these events as "the spark in which originated the American Revolution". 526:, supported by oath or affirmation, and must particularly describe the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized. 62: 10876: 9757: 7787: 6477: 1956: 719: 5841: 5823: 2354: 11087: 9447: 6286: 6050: 4565: 2918: 2884: 968: 460: 3366: 11177: 10846: 10724: 4305: 1441: 10861: 2355:"Technology and the Fourth Amendment: History and Application of Principles of Decision in Light of New Means of Surveillance" 1522:

true than false. A "practical, non-technical" probability that incriminating evidence is involved is all that is required. In

11684: 11399: 10489: 10484: 10411: 9318: 9222: 7558: 6763: 6583: 6528: 6447: 6391: 5899: 5861:"Suspicionless border seizures of electronic files: the overextension of the border search exception to the Fourth Amendment" 5430:"The Community Caretaker Function Exception to the Warrant Requirement | Virginia Police Legal Bulletin | Radford University" 5249: 5052: 4874: 4711: 4250: 3880: 3582: 3454: 3316: 3125: 3068: 2646: 2514: 1884: 765: 281: 6094: 11612: 11132: 10926: 8983: 5991: 1844: 1760: 1738:(2018), the Court ruled that the motor vehicle exception did not apply to searches of vehicles parked within a residence's 871:

in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17, 1787, featuring a stronger chief executive and other changes.

7350: 5767: 1108:

of property occurs where there is some meaningful interference with an individual's possessory interests in that property.

11508: 11127: 10719: 1045: 723: 618: 3569:

The Lure: The True Story of How the Department of Justice Brought Down Two of the World's Most Dangerous Cyber Criminals

1465:

Under the Fourth Amendment, law enforcement must receive written permission from a court of law, or otherwise qualified

11679: 10764: 9963: 9914: 5596: 4596: 1818: 988: 733: 605:

the amendment to the states on September 28, 1789. By December 15, 1791, the necessary three-fourths of the states had

537: 354: 5437: 1469:, to lawfully search and seize evidence while investigating criminal activity. A court grants permission by issuing a 1457:(2000), the Supreme Court ruled that discretionary checkpoints or general crime-fighting checkpoints are not allowed. 917:

also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and

11107: 10469: 10144: 9490: 8035: 7915: 6161: 6061: 4603: 2196: 823:(1776) explicitly forbade the use of general warrants. This prohibition became a precedent for the Fourth Amendment: 44: 11607: 10951: 9206: 9190: 4280: 4153: 2265: 1435: 1162: 793: 1684:(1968) police are permitted to frisk suspects for weapons. The Court also allowed a search of arrested persons in 1294:

to the car, and so had a property interest in the car. Therefore, since the intrusion on the vehicle—a common law

10956: 10941: 9230: 8384: 7167: 6613: 5882: 3803: 3672: 2181: 2001: 1823: 1119:

The Fourth Amendment has been held to mean that a search or an arrest generally requires a judicially sanctioned

392: 349: 6358: 4510: 11704: 11363: 9618: 9334: 9259: 9214: 8072: 5916: 4354: 2162: 1453: 820: 737: 681: 11674: 11137: 11077: 10666: 9815: 9498: 8335: 7947: 6935: 5568: 3776: 2072: 1529: 1274: 837: 3752:"Opinion analysis: Court holds that police will generally need a warrant for cellphone location information" 1514:(1925) that the term probable cause means "less than evidence that would justify condemnation," reiterating 582:

at criminal trials. Evidence discovered as a later result of an illegal search may also be inadmissible as "

11627: 11425: 10856: 10729: 10534: 10416: 10216: 9412: 7923: 7780: 7275: 7024: 7019: 2138: 858: 688:

Like many other areas of American law, the Fourth Amendment finds its origin in English legal doctrine. In

511: 361: 288: 7483: 7298: 2589: 11694: 11641: 11545: 11503: 11498: 10901: 10587: 10552: 9342: 9000: 8135: 7835: 6183: 5690: 4004: 1975: 1865: 1778: 1369: 812: 583: 7606: 1978:". The Supreme Court rejected incorporating the exclusionary rule by way of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1714:(1967) provided an exception to the warrant requirement if officers were in "hot pursuit" of a suspect. 11595: 11042: 11011: 10734: 10499: 10494: 9645: 9115: 8088: 7859: 5415: 3488: 1992:(1961), making the Fourth Amendment (including the exclusionary rule) applicable in state proceedings. 1876: 1688:(1914) to preserve evidence that might otherwise be destroyed and to ensure suspects were disarmed. In 1261: 1191: 1104:

occurs when an expectation of privacy that society is prepared to consider reasonable is infringed. A

1011: 902: 789: 507: 11343: 11223: 11022: 10754: 10577: 10454: 10300: 9874: 9048: 9024: 9016: 8992: 8854: 8801: 8726: 8653: 8634: 8279: 8263: 7843: 5665: 5026: 4848: 3417: 3251: 2914: 2212: 1772: 1618: 1558: 1290:

device on a car's exterior without Jones' knowledge or consent. The Court concluded that Jones was a

1287: 1185: 1022: 864: 366: 7736: 2568: 752:

established the English precedent that the executive is limited in intruding on private property by

11312: 11182: 11046: 10906: 10825: 10671: 10661: 10529: 9807: 9169: 8899: 8809: 8295: 8183: 7744:. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Federal Law Enforcement Training Center. February 10, 2010. 7607:"Reevaluation of the California Corpus Delicti Rule: A Response to the Invitation of Proposition 8" 6862: 6502: 4908: 4685: 2287: 2085:

The Supreme Court has also held the exclusionary rule to not apply in the following circumstances:

2066: 1962: 1578: 1504: 1357: 740:

ruled that both the search and the seizure were unlawful, as the warrant authorized the seizure of

5569:"Limits on warrantless car searches, compensation to terrorism victims, veterans benefit disputes" 4102: 11102: 11050: 10976: 10804: 10681: 10676: 10612: 10582: 10524: 10057: 9834: 9466: 9358: 9181: 9083: 8890: 8833: 8570: 8496: 8488: 8464: 8416: 8159: 8111: 8000: 7992: 7899: 7875: 7773: 6421: 5972: 5307: 5128: 5103: 2602: 2201: 1941: 1811: 1726: 1694: 1643: 1634: 1347:

The Fourth Amendment proscribes unreasonable seizure of any person, person's home (including its

1272:, the vast majority of Fourth Amendment search cases have turned on the right to privacy, but in 993: 976: 558: 546: 6914: 3574: 2471: 11265: 10784: 10709: 10656: 10607: 10431: 9749: 9564: 9286: 9198: 8878: 8750: 8440: 8424: 8303: 8191: 8064: 7931: 7883: 7075: 5339: 5282: 4465: 1950: 1897: 1528:(1983), the Court ruled that the reliability of an informant is to be determined based on the " 1227: 1076: 570: 305: 3925: 3014: 11472: 10851: 10819: 10650: 10479: 10426: 9933: 9799: 9637: 9294: 9123: 8947: 8923: 8817: 8599: 8226: 8175: 8027: 8008: 7891: 7867: 7851: 7827: 7756: 7201: 7176: 7159: 7134: 7109: 7084: 7059: 7000: 6948: 6871: 6846: 6802: 6746: 6709: 6700: 6660: 6567: 6511: 6486: 6430: 6344: 6269: 6217: 6192: 6000: 5925: 5908: 5891: 5753: 5724: 5699: 5674: 5649: 5601: 5551: 5499: 5373: 5316: 5291: 5199: 5190: 5174: 5165: 5137: 5112: 5035: 5010: 4987: 4978: 4962: 4917: 4857: 4816: 4791: 4754: 4694: 4666: 4641: 4549: 4475: 4446: 4437: 4429: 4388: 4363: 4338: 4313: 4289: 4233: 4194: 4137: 4077: 4052: 4013: 3981: 3972: 3922: 3863: 3841: 3789: 3655: 3627: 3598: 3522: 3513: 3497: 3401: 3350: 3325: 3300: 3275: 3267: 3260: 3235: 3210: 3162: 3051: 2824: 2191: 2126: 2032: 1699: 1590: 1200: 1171: 1068: 1005: 980: 950: 532: 298: 6940: 3213: 1244:(1979), for determining whether a search has occurred for purposes of the Fourth Amendment: 811:

Because of the name he had made for himself in attacking the writs, Otis was elected to the

54: 11617: 11172: 10886: 10881: 10836: 10809: 10759: 10504: 10049: 9846: 9790: 9583: 9377: 9008: 8931: 8870: 8793: 8562: 8356: 8055: 7983: 7939: 7150: 6992: 6260: 5715: 5202: 5177: 4794: 4129: 4080: 4055: 3781: 3500: 3165: 2816: 2219: 1907: 1792: 1673: 1611: 659: 587: 424: 7765: 6336: 5745: 5543: 4832: 4186: 3833: 3705: 1954:(1914), prior to which all evidence, no matter how seized, could be admitted in court. In 971:, and went through a long initial phase of "judicial dormancy;" in the words of historian 8: 11600: 11389: 11117: 10981: 10769: 10714: 10617: 10474: 9769: 9690: 9666: 9657: 9602: 9548: 9267: 9099: 9064: 8971: 8955: 8915: 8907: 8845: 8825: 8774: 8448: 8319: 8311: 7955: 7644: 7589:

The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States: With a Life of the Author

6208: 5740: 5619:– Concerning the Constitutionality of a Warrantless Cell Phone Search Incident to Arrest" 5490: 4644: 4329: 4029: 3984: 3828: 3179: 2327: 2118: 1936: 1871: 1798: 1734: 1704: 1607: 1584: 1447: 1300: 999: 906: 728: 715: 579: 550: 7137: 6020: 5514:"Opinion analysis: Justices decline to extend Fourth Amendment's "automobile exception"" 5495: 11302: 11286: 11147: 10961: 10936: 10921: 10831: 10799: 10789: 10749: 10739: 9901: 9482: 9474: 9326: 9161: 9032: 8742: 8734: 8674: 8665: 8590: 8554: 8546: 8480: 8408: 8392: 8167: 7760: 7661: 7626: 7204: 7179: 7162: 7112: 7087: 7062: 6874: 6805: 6749: 6712: 6663: 6514: 6489: 6433: 6306: 6272: 6220: 6195: 6003: 5928: 5911: 5894: 5727: 5677: 5614: 5554: 5409: 5376: 5319: 5294: 5140: 5038: 5013: 4990: 4965: 4920: 4860: 4819: 4757: 4697: 4552: 4478: 4449: 4391: 4316: 4292: 4236: 4224: 4140: 4043: 4016: 3630: 3605:, pp. 41–42 (American Library Association, Office for Intellectual Freedom, 2010). 3567: 3525: 3404: 3353: 3341: 3328: 3303: 3278: 3263: 3238: 3201: 3102: 3054: 2981: 2840: 2827: 2786: 2728: 2166:

permanent surveillance," deputy ACLU legal director Jameel Jaffer said in a statement.

1494: 1425: 1385: 1138: 1100:

protects two types of expectations, one involving "searches", the other "seizures". A

1049: 1017: 785: 628: 515: 6570: 6065: 5702: 5115: 4669: 4573: 4432: 4366: 2926: 2892: 2862: 2703: 1917:(2009), the Court ruled that school officials violated the Fourth Amendment when they 983:

were passed. As federal criminal jurisdiction expanded to include other areas such as

11622: 11368: 11353: 11333: 11207: 11082: 11061: 11033: 10637: 10464: 10084: 9778: 9733: 9506: 9396: 9242: 8939: 8766: 8327: 8287: 8218: 8080: 7693:

The History and Development of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution

6849: 4807: 4124: 3866: 3618: 3578: 3370: 2157: 2122: 1967: 1930: 1524: 1373:(1980), the Court held that a person is seized only when, by means of physical force 1352: 1240: 1218: 953: 933:

announced the adoption of the ten successfully ratified amendments on March 1, 1792.

914: 690: 565: 10113: 7639: 1921:

a student based only on another student's claiming to have received drugs from her.

753: 11244: 10991: 10866: 10794: 10779: 10514: 10459: 10421: 10092: 10041: 9698: 9674: 9556: 9439: 9142: 9107: 8963: 8862: 8758: 8718: 8615: 8504: 8456: 8432: 8271: 8199: 8143: 8043: 7963: 7653: 7618: 6837: 6558: 6298: 5364: 4181: 3913: 2133: 2060: 1980: 1902: 1710: 1624: 1407: 1379: 1335: 1251:

society is prepared to recognize that this expectation is (objectively) reasonable.

1209: 1034: 930: 849:

By 1784, eight state constitutions contained a provision against general warrants.

610: 293: 6771: 6591: 6536: 6455: 6399: 5791: 5257: 5060: 4886: 4723: 4258: 3888: 3466: 3133: 3080: 2654: 2522: 2089:

evidence illegally seized by a "private actor" (i.e., not a governmental employee)

11529: 11477: 11358: 11317: 11228: 11152: 11056: 11038: 10774: 10744: 10602: 9971: 9925: 9882: 9855: 9682: 9610: 9431: 9056: 9040: 7971: 6987: 6888: 6737: 5640: 5538: 4068: 3291: 2811: 2151: 2078: 2041: 1747: 1717:

A subset of exigent circumstances is the debated community caretaking exception.

1567: 1451:(2004), the Supreme Court allowed focused informational checkpoints. However, in 1412: 1213: 1180: 1150: 918: 876: 800: 776: 695: 598: 448: 1698:(1966) on the grounds that the time to obtain a warrant would allow a suspect's 11467: 11446: 11430: 11394: 11338: 11307: 11122: 9995: 9091: 8607: 8400: 8251: 8119: 6046: 4496: 2012:

Since 1974, the Supreme Court has repeatedly limited the exclusionary rule. In

1918: 1661: 1546: 1487: 1282:

standard did not replace earlier case law, but rather, has supplemented it. In

1222: 1166: 1086: 1071: 972: 745: 542: 523: 1939:

by the prosecution during the defendant's criminal trial. The Court stated in

11663: 11572: 11493: 11451: 11420: 11348: 11270: 11142: 11112: 11028: 10931: 10642: 10597: 8525: 8376: 8355: 8127: 7675:

The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation

7406:"NSA phone surveillance program likely unconstitutional, federal judge rules" 5860: 5472: 3854: 1680: 1439:(1976), the Supreme Court allowed discretionless immigration checkpoints. In 1313: 1305: 1144: 1120: 894: 880: 684:

established the English common law precedent against general search warrants.

594: 519: 6819: 6154: 4937: 4607: 4033:, 442 U.S. 200, 210 n. 12, 99 S.Ct. 2248, 2255 n. 12, 60 L.Ed.2d 824 (1979). 3673:

United States v. Forrester: An Unwarranted Narrowing of the Fourth Amendment

1879:

cooperating with the U.S. government from legal action, the Congress passed

10065: 4632: 3042: 2019: 1394: 1248:

a person "has exhibited an actual (subjective) expectation of privacy"; and

1040: 872: 771: 623: 487: 1445:(1990), the Supreme Court allowed discretionless sobriety checkpoints. In 1238:

was later developed into the now commonly used two-prong test, adopted in

11524: 11404: 1552: 1175:, which expanded Fourth Amendment protections to electronic surveillance. 799:

In mid-January 1761, a group of more than fifty merchants represented by

711: 707: 7559:"ACLU will appeal ruling that NSA bulk phone record collection is legal" 5390:"Courts in a muddle over 4th Amendment's community caretaking exception" 1212:, and ruled that a search had occurred when the government wiretapped a 744:

of Entick's papers—not just the criminal ones—and as the warrant lacked

597:, along with the other amendments in the Bill of Rights, in response to 443: 11249: 8360: 7665: 7630: 7380:"Judge: NSA's collecting of phone records is probably unconstitutional" 7015:"The Supreme Court's Utah v. Strieff decision and the Fourth Amendment" 6966: 6362: 6310: 5572: 5517: 3881:"Terry v. Ohio 392 U.S. 1 (1968) Sibron v. New York 392 U.S. 40 (1968)" 3807: 3755: 3425: 1997: 1766: 1466: 1398: 1327: 833: 805: 436: 6962: 2584:

Gordon, John D. (III). "Egbert Benson: A Nationalist in Congress", in

2496: 1411:(2013), the Court upheld the constitutionality of police swabbing for 718:

Nathan Carrington, along with others, pursuant to a warrant issued by

11157: 6021:"More on Clapper and the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Exception" 5592: 4158: 2310: 2308: 2306: 1739: 1657: 1348: 1129: 879:

be included. Other delegates—including future Bill of Rights drafter

7657: 7622: 6302: 5792:

Charlie Savage, Hannah Fairfield and Josh Williams (June 25, 2014).

431: 8364: 2142: 1356:

also protects against unreasonable seizure of persons, including a

1295: 1291: 1231:

could have been authorized if proper procedures had been followed.

1208:, the Supreme Court expanded that focus to embrace an individual's 984: 832:

Article XIV of the Massachusetts Declaration of Rights, written by

779:

protested British use of general warrants in the American colonies.

575: 7702:

Seasoned Judgments: The American Constitution, Rights, and History

6893:: Adapting the Exclusionary Rule to Advancing Computer Technology" 2303: 578:

obtained as a result of a Fourth Amendment violation is generally

11192: 10622: 2465:"The Originalist Case for the Fourth Amendment Exclusionary Rule" 1656:

While open fields are not protected by the Fourth Amendment, the

1133: 522:: warrants must be issued by a judge or magistrate, justified by 6130:. Electronic Frontier Foundation. pp. 73–74. Archived from 4095:"Fed appeals court says refusal to identify no cause for arrest" 2393: 2381: 890: 6152: 4594: 4208:"Supreme Court Approves Use of DNA Swabbing in Serious Arrests" 3369:. Justia US Supreme Court Center. June 10, 1968. Archived from 2787:"United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543 (1976), at 427" 1850:

United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review

863:

After several years of comparatively weak government under the

6529:"Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States 251 U.S. 385 (1920)" 6095:"Why Clapper Matters: The Future of Programmatic Surveillance" 3999: 3997: 3995: 3993: 2187:

NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–07)#Fourth Amendment issues

2026:

Three cases in 1984 further restricted the exclusionary rule:

7720:

Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815

7533:"NSA collection of phone data is lawful, federal judge rules" 7455: 7377: 6820:"The Inevitable Discovery Exception to the Exclusionary Rule" 3227:

Camara v. Municipal Court of City and County of San Francisco

3013:. United States Supreme Court. March 25, 2021. Archived from 1217:

the world"; and 2) society believes that his expectation was

27:

1791 amendment prohibiting unreasonable searches and seizures

7219:"Federal judge rules NSA program is likely unconstitutional" 6287:"Fourth Amendment—Prison Cells: Is there a Right to Privacy" 2331:, 2 Wils. K. B. 275, 291; 95 Eng. Rep. 807, 817 (K. B. 1765) 2207:

Section Eight of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

7795: 7711:

Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788

7403: 3990: 1470: 613:

announced that it was officially part of the Constitution.

593:

The Fourth Amendment was introduced in Congress in 1789 by

7598:

Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution

7299:"Court Says NSA Bulk Telephone Spying Is Unconstitutional" 2743: 2674: 2672: 2470:. Gonzaga Law Review. p. 20 (fn. 118). Archived from 1044:(1961), the Supreme Court ruled that the Fourth Amendment 7458:"Judge Upholds N.S.A.'s Bulk Collection of Data on Calls" 7322: 6148: 6146: 6144: 3103:"Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383 (1914), at 391-392" 2913: 2729:"Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505 (1961), at 511" 1198:

Fourth Amendment protections expanded significantly with

710:'s publications. The most famous of these cases involved 7276:"Judge: NSA domestic phone data-mining unconstitutional" 6632: 5597:

The Origins of the "Search Incident to Arrest" Exception

2982:"Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523 (1967), at 528" 2704:"Johnson v. United States, 333 U.S. 10 (1948), at 13-14" 2537: 2417: 1535: 987:, more questions about the Fourth Amendment came to the 7507:"The most Kafkaesque paragraph from today's NSA ruling" 2684: 2669: 2405: 1754: 6235:"Bush wins passage of US spy bill to protect telecoms" 6141: 6112: 6058:

U.S. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review

2841:"Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757 (1966), at 767" 2446: 2444: 10143: 8698: 7684:

James Madison and the struggle for the Bill of Rights

7456:

Adam Liptak; Michael S. Schmidt (December 27, 2013).

7378:

Ellen Nakashima; Ann E. Marimow (December 16, 2013).

6128:

United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court

4935: 3552:, 389 U.S. at 351; at 360-61 (Harlan, J., concurring) 2767: 568:

is one way the amendment is enforced. Established in

7273: 6153:

Senior Specialist Charles Doyle (January 30, 2006).

4595:

Senior Specialist Charles Doyle (January 30, 2006).

3613: 3611: 2549: 2429: 2177:

Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights

1837: 588:

inevitably would have been discovered by legal means

7404:Spencer Ackerman; Dan Roberts (December 16, 2013). 6915:"Court says evidence is valid despite police error" 6526: 6445: 6088: 6086: 6014: 6012: 5794:"Between the Lines of the Cellphone Privacy Ruling" 5247: 5050: 4872: 4709: 4248: 3878: 3714:

The Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law

3105:. Justia US Supreme Court Center. February 24, 1914 3066: 2497:"Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts" 2441: 1859:believed to be located outside the United States." 1616:According to the plain view doctrine as defined in 1566:, which cannot be relinquished without an explicit 1308:to sniff at the front door of a home was a search. 11567:Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 7351:"Judge: NSA phone program likely unconstitutional" 7250:"Judge Questions Legality of N.S.A. Phone Records" 6963:"Opinion analysis: The fading "exclusionary rule"" 6817: 6284: 3566: 2806: 2804: 2755: 2706:. Justia US Supreme Court Center. February 2, 1948 2621: 2334: 819:Seeing the danger general warrants presented, the 8473:Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada 7809: 7484:"Judge upholds NSA's phone data sweeps (UPDATED)" 7397: 7323:Kevin Johnson; Richard Wolf (December 16, 2013). 7193:Pennsylvania Bd. of Probation and Parole v. Scott 6023:. Lawfare Blog – Hard National Security Choices. 5858: 3608: 2723: 2721: 2586:Neither Separate Nor Equal: Congress in the 1790s 2369: 1901:(1985), the Supreme Court ruled that searches in 11661: 10023: 6761: 6389: 6385: 6383: 6381: 6379: 6083: 6009: 3452: 2644: 2262:"Argument preview: Police and cellphone privacy" 7673:Kilman, Johnny; Costello, George, eds. (2006). 6588:Supreme Court Drama: Cases That Changed America 6045: 5470: 4566:"Berger v. New York, 388 U.S. 41 (1967), at 59" 4541:Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Association 4061: 3123: 2885:"Berger v. New York, 388 U.S. 41 (1967), at 51" 2865:. Justia US Supreme Court Center. June 27, 1949 2843:. Justia US Supreme Court Center. June 20, 1966 2801: 2731:. Justia US Supreme Court Center. March 6, 1961 2101:evidence seized by probation or parole officers 1702:to reduce, although this was later modified by 11578:Bibliography of the United States Constitution 7727:Wroth, Kinvin; Zobel, Hiller B., eds. (1965). 7672: 7373: 7371: 6039: 3804:"Opinion recap: Tight limit on police GPS use" 2984:. Justia US Supreme Court Center. June 5, 1967 2789:. Justia US Supreme Court Center. July 6, 1976 2718: 2314: 2115:Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present) 10129: 9311:National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab 7781: 6376: 6359:"Analysis: Some expansion of student privacy" 6099:Lawfare Blog – Hard National Security Choices 4154:"Court allows search and seizure in Va. case" 2863:"Wolf v. Colorado, 338 U.S. 25 (1949), at 27" 2300:Coke's Rep. 91a, 77 Eng. Rep. 194 (K.B. 1604) 1887:of 1978 to permit this type of surveillance. 1601: 601:objections to the new Constitution. Congress 468: 7757:CRS Annotated Constitution: Fourth Amendment 7587:Adams, Charles Francis; Adams, John (1856). 7430:Pauley III, William H. (December 27, 2013). 7274:Bill Mears; Evan Perez (December 17, 2013). 6895:. The Richmond Journal of Law and Technology 6448:"Weeks v. United States 232 U.S. 383 (1914)" 6118: 5768:"Major Ruling Shields Privacy of Cellphones" 4931: 4929: 3645:"First Principles of Communications Privacy" 3367:"Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968), at 21-22" 3008:, Opinion of the Court, Slip Opinion page 9" 1128:(usually a law enforcement officer) who has 852: 9252:Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz 7368: 5854: 5852: 5850: 5243: 5241: 5239: 5237: 5235: 4938:"Consent searches: guidelines for officers" 4680: 4678: 4508: 1948:The Court adopted the exclusionary rule in 530:intrusion of property or persons, but with 10136: 10122: 9351:Safford Unified School District v. Redding 7788: 7774: 7726: 7640:"Recovering the Original Fourth Amendment" 7586: 7429: 6332:Safford Unified School District v. Redding 2508: 2506: 2423: 2399: 2387: 1914:Safford Unified School District v. Redding 1805: 1286:, law enforcement officers had attached a 475: 461: 11710:United States criminal constitutional law 11690:Government documents of the United States 9303:Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Ass'n 7908:Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Ass'n 7556: 7481: 6960: 6887:Stinger, C. Maureen (February 13, 1996). 6768:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 6533:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 6452:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 6396:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 6356: 6160:. Congressional Research Service via the 5277: 5275: 5254:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 5057:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 4926: 4883:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 4720:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 4602:. Congressional Research Service via the 4255:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 3885:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 3801: 3769: 3564: 3463:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 3130:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 3077:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 2651:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 2519:Encyclopedia of the American Constitution 2515:"Fourth Amendment, Historical Origins of" 2259: 2095:evidence collected by U.S. Customs agents 1970:described this secondary evidence in the 609:it. On March 1, 1792, Secretary of State 18:Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution 11634:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution 9758:Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States 7681: 7504: 7348: 7325:"Federal judge rules against NSA spying" 6818:Hendrie, Edward M. (September 1, 1997). 6478:Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States 5847: 5232: 4936:Crawford, Kimberly A. (August 1, 1996). 4675: 3908: 3906: 3821: 3642: 3117: 2749: 2690: 2678: 1957:Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States 1161: 1096:, which said that the Fourth Amendment: 889: 770: 720:George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax 676: 486: 11670:United States Fourth Amendment case law 9448:Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders 8524: 7604: 7530: 7296: 6886: 6638: 6291:Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 6232: 6092: 6018: 5621:. Electronic Privacy Information Center 3560: 3558: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3442: 3037: 3035: 3006:Roxanne Torres v. Janice Madrid, et al. 2640: 2638: 2636: 2512: 2503: 2104:probation or parole revocation hearings 1667: 714:whose home was forcibly entered by the 14: 11662: 9741: 7690: 7637: 7595: 7557:Ackermann, Spencer (January 2, 2014). 7505:Peterson, Andrea (December 27, 2013). 7247: 5765: 5272: 4460: 4458: 4306:Michigan Dept. of State Police v. Sitz 4092: 3931: 3266: (1971), at page 454-454, quoting 2773: 2543: 2435: 2411: 2375: 1890: 1442:Michigan Dept. of State Police v. Sitz 10117: 10022: 9721: 9529: 9370:Property of probationers and parolees 9319:Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton 9223:United States v. Montoya De Hernandez 8697: 8523: 8354: 8249: 7808: 7769: 7708: 7482:Denniston, Lyle (December 27, 2013). 7248:Savage, Charlie (December 16, 2013). 6764:"Nix v. Williams 467 U.S. 431 (1984)" 5900:United States v. Montoya De Hernandez 5859:Upright, Scott J. (October 1, 2009). 5566: 3903: 3317:Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton 3177: 2949:"Close Encounters of the Police Kind" 2555: 2462: 2352: 1885:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act 1536:Exceptions to the warrant requirement 1304:(2013), to rule that bringing a drug 1032:(1967) the Supreme Court observed in 11613:Constitution Day and Citizenship Day 9576:Seizure of premises awaiting warrant 7717: 7699: 7349:Gerstein, Josh (December 16, 2013). 7297:Kravets, David (December 16, 2013). 7216: 7012: 5992:United States v. U.S. District Court 5511: 3802:Denniston, Lyle (January 23, 2012). 3749: 3555: 3439: 3032: 2761: 2633: 2627: 2450: 2340: 1924: 1845:United States v. U.S. District Court 1761:Searches incident to a lawful arrest 1755:Searches incident to a lawful arrest 619:apply to state and local governments 11601:Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom 11128:Incorporation of the Bill of Rights 7531:Horwitz, Sari (December 27, 2013). 7217:Leon, Richard (December 16, 2013). 4833:Obtaining Written Consent to Search 4455: 759: 24: 10692:Drafting and ratification timeline 10437:District of Columbia Voting Rights 9964:Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents 8646:Warrants directed at third parties 8250: 6027:from the original on July 16, 2019 5567:Moore, Kristina (April 21, 2009). 5471:Hendrie, Edward (August 1, 2005). 2609:from the original on April 4, 2013 2260:Denniston, Lyle (April 25, 2014). 2141:ruled that the mass collection of 1819:U.S. Customs and Border Protection 1009:(1886), the Supreme Court held in 813:Massachusetts colonial legislature 518:and sets requirements for issuing 331:Drafting and ratification timeline 25: 11721: 10145:Constitution of the United States 9491:County of Riverside v. McLaughlin 9279:Students, employees, and patients 9076:Breathalyzers, blood samples, DNA 8700:Exceptions to warrant requirement 8036:Dow Chemical Co. v. United States 7916:United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez 7750: 7695:. Johns Hopkins University Press. 6961:Denniston, Lyle (June 25, 2011). 6357:Denniston, Lyle (June 25, 2009). 6162:Federation of American Scientists 6062:Federation of American Scientists 5819:Henderson v. United States (1967) 4604:Federation of American Scientists 2463:Roots, Roger (January 13, 2010). 2197:Privacy laws of the United States 1838:Foreign intelligence surveillance 1481: 1278:(2012), the Court ruled that the 796:, the new king, to remain valid. 724:The Monitor or British Freeholder 11700:Privacy law in the United States 10548:Convention to propose amendments 9541:Distinguishing stops and arrests 9207:United States v. Martinez-Fuerte 9191:Almeida-Sanchez v. United States 7550: 7524: 7498: 7475: 7449: 7437:. American Civil Liberties Union 7423: 7342: 7316: 7290: 7267: 7241: 7210: 7185: 7143: 7118: 7093: 7068: 7043: 7006: 6980: 6954: 6928: 6907: 6880: 6855: 6830: 6824:The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 6811: 6786: 6755: 6730: 6718: 6693: 6681: 6669: 6644: 6614:"California's Backfire on Crime" 6606: 6576: 6551: 6520: 6495: 6470: 6439: 6414: 6350: 6324: 6278: 6253: 6233:Ferraro, Thomas (July 9, 2008). 6226: 6201: 6176: 6119:John D Bates (October 3, 2011). 5984: 5964: 5946: 5934: 5875: 5837:United States v. Guadalupe-Garza 5829: 5811: 5785: 5759: 5733: 5708: 5683: 5658: 5633: 5607: 5586: 5560: 5531: 5505: 5483: 5477:The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 5464: 5452: 5422: 5382: 5357: 5325: 5300: 5220: 5208: 5183: 5158: 5146: 5121: 5096: 5087: 5075: 5044: 5019: 4996: 4971: 4948: 4942:The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 4901: 4866: 4841: 4825: 4800: 4775: 4763: 4738: 4703: 4650: 4625: 4588: 4558: 4533: 4509:Keeley III., Charles J. (2006). 4502: 4281:United States v. Martinez-Fuerte 3679:, Vol. 41, p. 1121, 1126 (2008). 3677:Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 2647:"Bill of Rights (United States)" 2288:"Bill of Rights Transcript Text" 1720: 1436:United States v. Martinez-Fuerte 1134:accountable to the issuing court 936: 651: 442: 430: 418: 53: 10034:Unreasonable search and seizure 9231:United States v. Flores-Montano 8627:Neutral and detached magistrate 8385:United States v. Brignoni-Ponce 7700:Levy, Leonard Williams (1995). 6093:Vladeck, Steve (May 22, 2013). 6019:Vladeck, Steve (May 23, 2013). 5883:United States v. Flores-Montano 5338:. Supreme Court. Archived from 4572:. June 12, 1967. Archived from 4486: 4415: 4397: 4372: 4347: 4322: 4298: 4273: 4242: 4217: 4200: 4174: 4146: 4117: 4086: 4036: 4022: 3965: 3953: 3872: 3847: 3795: 3743: 3731: 3698: 3691:, 442 U.S. 735, 743-44 (1979); 3682: 3665: 3636: 3591: 3543: 3531: 3506: 3481: 3410: 3385: 3359: 3334: 3309: 3284: 3244: 3219: 3194: 3178:Pedro, Portia (April 1, 2008). 3171: 3148: 3095: 3060: 2996: 2974: 2941: 2907: 2891:. June 12, 1967. Archived from 2877: 2855: 2833: 2779: 2696: 2595: 2578: 2561: 2489: 2456: 2182:Fourth Amendment Protection Act 1169:wrote the majority decision in 1074:in the Opinion of the Court in 956:in the Opinion of the Court in 897:, drafter of the Bill of Rights 836:and enacted in 1780 as part of 645:persons or things to be seized. 11163:Separation of church and state 9335:Ferguson v. City of Charleston 9260:City of Indianapolis v. Edmond 8579:Los Angeles County v. Rettelle 7797:United States Fourth Amendment 5766:Liptak, Adam (June 25, 2014). 5250:"Exigent Circumstances Search" 4570:Justia US Supreme Court Center 4412:, 819 (8th Cir. 2005). 4355:City of Indianapolis v. Edmond 3695:, 425 U.S. 435, 440-41 (1976). 3652:Stanford Technology Law Review 2953:New York State Bar Association 2889:Justia US Supreme Court Center 2575:, University of Chicago Press. 2346: 2320: 2294: 2280: 2253: 2240:Effects are items of property. 2234: 2163:American Civil Liberties Union 2007: 1842:The Supreme Court decision in 1454:City of Indianapolis v. Edmond 838:the Massachusetts Constitution 821:Virginia Declaration of Rights 738:Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden 682:Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden 672: 120:Amendments to the Constitution 13: 1: 10667:Virginia Ratifying Convention 9630:Detention during vehicle stop 9499:Atwater v. City of Lago Vista 9424:Searches in jails and prisons 8336:District of Columbia v. Wesby 7810:Scope of the Fourth Amendment 7731:. Vol. 2. Belknap Press. 7682:Labunski, Richard E. (2006). 7591:. Vol. 1. Little, Brown. 7579: 5473:"The motor vehicle exception" 4093:Moritz, Rob (April 5, 2008). 2018:(1974), the Court ruled that 1530:totality of the circumstances 1418: 667: 574:(1914), this rule holds that 11685:United States Bill of Rights 11628:National Constitution Center 11426:Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer 10725:Assemble and Petition Clause 10024:Incorporation against States 9722: 9595:Detention incident to search 9530: 9413:City of Los Angeles v. Patel 7738:Fourth Amendment Lesson Plan 7605:Crisera, Maria Lisa (1990). 7025:National Constitution Center 7020:National Constitution Center 6527:Landynski, Jacob W. (1986). 6446:Landynski, Jacob W. (1986). 5248:Landynski, Jacob W. (1986). 5051:Landynski, Jacob W. (1986). 4873:Landynski, Jacob W. (1986). 4837:FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 4831:Holcomb, J. W. (March 2003). 4710:Landynski, Jacob W. (1986). 4249:Landynski, Jacob W. (1986). 4206:June, Daniel. (June 3, 2013) 3879:Landynski, Jacob W. (1986). 3573:. Cengage Learning. p. 3067:Landynski, Jacob W. (1986). 2315:Kilman & Costello (2006) 2264:. SCOTUSblog. Archived from 2139:United States district court 1988:was explicitly overruled in 859:United States Bill of Rights 514:. It prohibits unreasonable 7: 11499:Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 10553:State ratifying conventions 10490:Equal Opportunity to Govern 10485:Electoral College abolition 10412:Congressional Apportionment 9343:Board of Education v. Earls 9001:United States v. Rabinowitz 8984:Searches incident to arrest 8136:United States v. Mendenhall 6285:Goring, Darlene C. (1984). 6184:Board of Education v. Earls 5865:William and Mary Law Review 5691:United States v. Rabinowitz 4005:United States v. Mendenhall 3750:Howe, Amy (June 22, 2018). 3603:Intellectual Freedom Manual 3599:Challenges and Issues Today 2955:. p. 5. Archived from 2169: 2108: 1976:fruit of the poisonous tree 1877:telecommunications carriers 1866:Board of Education v. Earls 1782:(1950), the Court reversed 1779:United States v. Rabinowitz 1370:United States v. Mendenhall 584:fruit of the poisonous tree 386:Preamble and Articles I–VII 282:Congressional Apportionment 10: 11726: 9646:Rodriguez v. United States 9389:Administrative inspections 9116:Birchfield v. North Dakota 8089:Carpenter v. United States 7860:Silverman v. United States 7729:Legal Papers of John Adams 7722:. Oxford University Press. 7691:Lasson, Nelson B. (1937). 7686:. Oxford University Press. 7638:Davies, Thomas Y. (1999). 5512:Howe, Amy (May 29, 2018). 5461:, 267 U.S. 132, 153 (1925) 4214:. Accessed August 2, 2013. 3489:Silverman v. United States 2353:Fuqua, David (Fall 2014). 2112: 1928: 1809: 1758: 1724: 1671: 1605: 1602:Plain view and open fields 1544: 1540: 1485: 1460: 1342: 1262:Carpenter v. United States 1192:Silverman v. United States 1012:Silverman v. United States 903:1st United States Congress 856: 586:". The exception is if it 508:United States Constitution 491:The Bill of Rights in the 11680:1791 in American politics 11586: 11558: 11538: 11517: 11486: 11460: 11439: 11413: 11377: 11326: 11295: 11279: 11258: 11237: 11216: 11200: 11191: 11070: 10952:Privileges and Immunities 10765:Congressional enforcement 10700: 10687:Rhode Island ratification 10578:Articles of Confederation 10565: 10543: 10520:Parental Rights amendment 10445: 10402: 10327: 10299: 10278: 10215: 10211: 10202: 10151: 10076: 10033: 10029: 10018: 9982: 9955: 9948: 9912: 9893: 9875:Wong Sun v. United States 9866: 9845: 9826: 9789: 9768: 9732: 9728: 9717: 9656: 9629: 9594: 9575: 9540: 9536: 9525: 9458: 9423: 9405:Camara v. Municipal Court 9388: 9369: 9278: 9241: 9180: 9153: 9134: 9075: 9049:Thornton v. United States 9025:United States v. Chadwick 9017:United States v. Robinson 8993:Trupiano v. United States 8982: 8889: 8855:Coolidge v. New Hampshire 8844: 8802:Schneckloth v. Bustamonte 8785: 8727:United States v. Chadwick 8710: 8706: 8693: 8664: 8654:Zurcher v. Stanford Daily 8645: 8635:Coolidge v. New Hampshire 8626: 8589: 8533: 8519: 8371: 8350: 8280:Spinelli v. United States 8264:Brinegar v. United States 8258: 8245: 8211:Fourth Amendment standing 8210: 8103: 8054: 8019: 7982: 7844:Olmstead v. United States 7819: 7815: 7804: 7704:. Transaction Publishers. 6762:Levy, Leonard W. (1986). 6652:United States v. Calandra 6390:Levy, Leonard W. (1986). 5981: (9th Cir. 2008). 5961: (4th Cir. 2005). 5844: (9th Cir. 1970). 5826: (9th Cir. 1967). 5666:Trupiano v. United States 5093:480 U.S. 321, 325 (1987). 5027:Coolidge v. New Hampshire 4877:Schneckloth v. Bustamonte 4849:Schneckloth v. Bustamonte 3565:Schroeder, Steve (2012). 3453:Schwartz, Herman (1986). 3393:United States v. Jacobsen 3306: (2009), at page 338. 3252:Coolidge v. New Hampshire 3155:Jacobson v. United States 2915:New York Court of Appeals 2645:Levy, Leonard W. (1986). 2573:The Founders Constitution 2513:Cuddihy, William (1986). 2213:subpoena ad testificandum 2131:On December 16, 2013, in 2015:United States v. Calandra 1773:Trupiano v. United States 1619:Coolidge v. New Hampshire 1559:Schneckloth v. Bustamonte 1186:Olmstead v. United States 1157: 1093:United States v. Jacobsen 1029:Camara v. Municipal Court 1023:New York Court of Appeals 869:Constitutional Convention 865:Articles of Confederation 853:Proposal and ratification 367:Reconstruction Amendments 11183:Unitary executive theory 10957:Privileges or Immunities 10672:New York Circular Letter 10662:Massachusetts Compromise 9808:Herring v. United States 9170:South Dakota v. Opperman 8900:Carroll v. United States 8810:United States v. Matlock 8539:Johnson v. United States 8361:Investigative detentions 8296:Ornelas v. United States 8184:United States v. Drayton 7718:Wood, Gordon S. (2009). 7596:Beeman, Richard (2009). 7168:United States v. Knights 7101:United States v. Andreas 6863:Herring v. United States 6503:Nardone v. United States 5459:Carroll v. United States 4909:United States v. Matlock 4714:Carroll v. United States 4686:Carroll v. United States 4658:Johnson v. United States 3643:Freiwald, Susan (2007). 3356: (1997), at 313-314. 3331: (1995), at 652-653. 3281: (1967) at page 357. 3124:Arenella, Peter (1992). 2424:Adams & Adams (1856) 2400:Wroth & Zobel (1965) 2388:Wroth & Zobel (1965) 2227: 2067:Herring v. United States 2039:The Court determined in 1963:Nardone v. United States 1690:Carroll v. United States 1579:United States v. Matlock 1505:Carroll v. United States 959:Johnson v. United States 561:, and other situations. 425:United States portal 35:This article is part of 11103:Dormant Commerce Clause 10947:Presidential succession 10682:Fayetteville Convention 10677:Hillsborough Convention 10613:Three-fifths Compromise 10593:Philadelphia Convention 10583:Mount Vernon Conference 10470:Campaign finance reform 10058:Elkins v. United States 9835:Murray v. United States 9619:Bailey v. United States 9467:United States v. Watson 9359:City of Ontario v. Quon 9215:United States v. Ramsey 9084:Schmerber v. California 8834:Fernandez v. California 8571:United States v. Grubbs 8497:Heien v. North Carolina 8489:Navarette v. California 8465:United States v. Arvizu 8417:United States v. Cortez 8160:California v. Hodari D. 8112:Counselman v. Hitchcock 8073:United States v. Miller 8001:Oliver v. United States 7993:Hester v. United States 7900:California v. Greenwood 7876:United States v. Knotts 7709:Maier, Pauline (2010). 6794:Segura v. United States 6422:Elkins v. United States 5973:United States v. Arnold 5917:United States v. Ramsey 5308:Schmerber v. California 5129:Oliver v. United States 5104:Hester v. United States 4746:Dumbra v. United States 4422:Flippo v. West Virginia 3693:United States v. Miller 3420:City of Ontario v. Quon 2202:Special needs exception 2051:Segura v. United States 2002:Victim's Bill of Rights 1942:Elkins v. United States 1812:Border search exception 1806:Border search exception 1727:Motor vehicle exception 1695:Schmerber v. California 1644:Oliver v. United States 1635:Hester v. United States 1511:Dumbra v. United States 994:Schmerber v. California 977:Interstate Commerce Act 638: 11266:William Samuel Johnson 11138:Nondelegation doctrine 10710:Admission to the Union 10657:Anti-Federalist Papers 10608:Connecticut Compromise 9816:Davis v. United States 9750:Weeks v. United States 9565:United States v. Place 9287:New Jersey v. T. L. O. 9199:United States v. Ortiz 8879:Minnesota v. Dickerson 8751:Brigham City v. Stuart 8441:Minnesota v. Dickerson 8425:United States v. Place 8304:Whren v. United States 8192:Brendlin v. California 8065:United States v. White 7948:United States v. Jones 7932:Kyllo v. United States 7884:United States v. Place 7076:United States v. Janis 6939:, 131 S.Ct. 2419, No. 6936:Davis v. United States 6590:. 2001. Archived from 5954:United States v. Ickes 5414:: CS1 maint: others ( 5283:Weeks v. United States 5084:, 480 U.S. 321 (1987). 4466:New Jersey v. T. L. O. 3777:United States v. Jones 2815:, 130 S.Ct. 2619, No. 2073:Davis v. United States 1951:Weeks v. United States 1898:New Jersey v. T. L. O. 1824:U.S. Courts of Appeals 1686:Weeks v. United States 1654: 1564:Fifth Amendment rights 1275:United States v. Jones 1228:expectation of privacy 1176: 1110: 1077:Weeks v. United States 1064: 946: 898: 847: 830: 780: 685: 647: 571:Weeks v. United States 551:evidence in plain view 547:motor vehicle searches 495: 11705:Searches and seizures 11473:Richard Dobbs Spaight 10942:Presidential Electors 10917:Original Jurisdiction 10857:Full Faith and Credit 10730:Assistance of Counsel 10651:The Federalist Papers 10480:Crittenden Compromise 9934:Kimmelman v. Morrison 9800:United States v. Leon 9770:Impeachment exception 9638:Pennsylvania v. Mimms 9124:Mitchell v. Wisconsin 8948:California v. Acevedo 8924:United States v. Ross 8818:Illinois v. Rodriguez 8711:Exigent circumstances 8600:Boyd v. United States 8227:Byrd v. United States 8176:Soldal v. Cook County 8104:Definition of seizure 8028:California v. Ciraolo 8009:United States v. Dunn 7924:Bond v. United States 7892:United States v. Karo 7868:Katz v. United States 7852:Abel v. United States 7828:Boyd v. United States 7713:. Simon and Schuster. 7611:California Law Review 6701:United States v. Leon 5943:, 541 U.S. at 152–53. 5602:The Volokh Conspiracy 5440:on September 30, 2018 5333:"Missouri v. McNeely" 5191:United States v. Dunn 5166:California v. Ciraolo 5053:"Plain View Doctrine" 4979:Illinois v. Rodriguez 4576:on September 18, 2023 4438:California v. Acevedo 3973:Soldal v. Cook County 3514:Katz v. United States 3469:on September 21, 2013 3457:Katz v. United States 3268:Katz v. United States 3136:on September 21, 2013 3083:on September 21, 2013 2895:on September 18, 2023 2657:on September 21, 2013 2605:. National Archives. 2525:on September 21, 2013 2402:, p. 113, fn 23. 2192:Parallel construction 2127:Targeted surveillance 2033:United States v. Leon 1700:blood alcohol content 1649: 1591:Illinois v. Rodriguez 1492:The Supreme Court in 1201:Katz v. United States 1172:Katz v. United States 1165: 1098: 1059: 1046:applies to the states 1006:Boyd v. United States 981:Sherman Antitrust Act 941: 893: 842: 825: 775:Massachusetts lawyer 774: 734:Court of King's Bench 680: 642: 555:exigent circumstances 533:Katz v. United States 516:searches and seizures 490: 407:Unratified Amendments 274:Unratified Amendments 63:Preamble and Articles 11675:1791 in American law 11642:A More Perfect Union 11618:Constitution Gardens 11539:Convention Secretary 11201:Convention President 11173:Symmetric federalism 11168:Separation of powers 10902:Necessary and Proper 10897:Natural-born citizen 10842:Freedom of the Press 10780:Copyright and Patent 10770:Contingent Elections 10588:Annapolis Convention 10077:Warrant requirements 10050:Rochin v. California 9847:Inevitable discovery 9791:Good-faith exception 9584:Illinois v. McArthur 9378:Samson v. California 9009:Chimel v. California 8932:California v. Carney 8871:Horton v. California 8794:Stoner v. California 8563:Maryland v. Garrison 8357:Reasonable suspicion 8056:Third-party doctrine 7984:Open-fields doctrine 7940:Illinois v. Caballes 7836:United States v. Lee 7820:Definition of search 7151:Griffin v. Wisconsin 7126:INS v. Lopez-Mendoza 6402:on November 11, 2013 6261:Samson v. California 6164:. pp. 1 and 6–8 6121:"[redacted]" 5979:523 F.3d 941 5959:393 F.3d 501 5842:421 F.2d 876 5824:390 F.2d 805 5716:Chimel v. California 5595:(December 14, 2010) 5345:on November 14, 2014 5003:Stoner v. California 4879:412 U.S. 218 (1973)" 4716:267 U.S. 132 (1925)" 4555: (1989), at 624. 4410:417 F.3d 813 4099:Arkansas News Bureau 3671:Sorosky, Schuyler. " 3459:389 U.S. 347 (1967)" 2317:, p. 1281–1282. 2220:subpoena duces tecum 2098:deportation hearings 1908:Samson v. California 1793:Chimel v. California 1674:Exigent circumstance 1668:Exigent circumstance 1612:Open-fields doctrine 1596:Stoner v. California 1576:The Court stated in 1054:Fourteenth Amendment 732:, argued before the 633:Fourteenth Amendment 47:of the United States 11649:Worldwide influence 11390:Gunning Bedford Jr. 11118:Executive privilege 11098:Criminal sentencing 11021:Title of Nobility ( 11012:Taxing and Spending 10912:Oath or Affirmation 10872:House Apportionment 10735:Case or Controversy 10618:Committee of Detail 10510:"Liberty" amendment 10475:Christian amendment 9691:Plumhoff v. Rickard 9667:Tennessee v. Garner 9603:Michigan v. Summers 9549:Dunaway v. New York 9459:Warrantless arrests 9268:Illinois v. Lidster 9100:Missouri v. McNeely 9065:Riley v. California 8972:Collins v. Virginia 8956:Wyoming v. Houghton 8916:Arkansas v. Sanders 8908:Chambers v. Maroney 8826:Georgia v. Randolph 8775:Lange v. California 8449:Illinois v. Wardlow 8320:Devenpeck v. Alford 8312:Maryland v. Pringle 8020:Aerial surveillance 7956:Florida v. Jardines 7645:Michigan Law Review 7537:The Washington Post 7511:The Washington Post 7384:The Washington Post 7223:The Washington Post 7051:Burdeau v. McDowell 6392:"Exclusionary Rule" 6209:Illinois v. Lidster 6049:(August 22, 2008). 5741:Riley v. California 5617:Riley v. California 5491:Collins v. Virginia 4955:Georgia v. Randolph 4330:Illinois v. Lidster 4251:"Automobile search" 4030:Dunaway v. New York 3829:Florida v. Jardines 3654:(3). Archived from 3373:on October 27, 2023 2962:on October 27, 2023 2929:on October 27, 2023 2477:on January 15, 2013 2328:Entick v Carrington 2290:. October 30, 2015. 2119:Upstream collection 1891:Schools and prisons 1872:Illinois v. Lidster 1799:Riley v. California 1735:Collins v. Virginia 1705:Missouri v. McNeely 1608:Plain view doctrine 1585:Georgia v. Randolph 1448:Illinois v. Lidster 1301:Florida v. Jardines 1000:Entick v Carrington 907:Bill of Rights 1689 729:Entick v Carrington 449:Politics portal 400:Amendments XI–XXVII 11695:Police legislation 11303:William Livingston 11287:Alexander Hamilton 11093:Criminal procedure 11088:Constitutional law 11023:Foreign Emoluments 10987:State of the Union 10972:Self-Incrimination 10962:Recess appointment 10755:Compulsory Process 10417:Titles of Nobility 9902:Hudson v. Michigan 9827:Independent source 9483:Welsh v. Wisconsin 9475:Payton v. New York 9327:Chandler v. Miller 9295:O'Connor v. Ortega 9162:Cady v. Dombrowski 9154:Inventory searches 9033:New York v. Belton 8743:Welsh v. Wisconsin 8735:Payton v. New York 8675:Wilson v. Arkansas 8666:Knock-and-announce 8591:Mere evidence rule 8555:Ybarra v. Illinois 8547:Franks v. Delaware 8481:Arizona v. Johnson 8409:Ybarra v. Illinois 8393:Delaware v. Prouse 8168:Florida v. Bostick 7761:Cornell University 7462:The New York Times 7254:The New York Times 7229:on August 30, 2017 7013:Waimberg, Joshua. 6727:, 468 U.S. at 926. 6690:, 414 U.S. at 349. 6678:, 414 U.S. at 354. 6618:The New York Times 5798:The New York Times 5772:The New York Times 5217:, 480 U.S. at 301. 5155:, 466 U.S. at 179. 4772:, 267 U.S. at 162. 4613:on August 24, 2019 4515:Fordham Law Review 4225:Delaware v. Prouse 4044:Florida v. Bostick 3962:, 466 U.S. at 113. 3939:"Florida v. Royer" 3740:, 442 U.S. at 742. 3597:Morgan, Candace. " 3540:, 389 U.S. at 351. 3342:Chandler v. Miller 3202:Berger v. New York 3184:Harvard Law Review 3126:"Fourth Amendment" 2919:"People v De Bour" 1495:Berger v. New York 1426:Delaware v. Prouse 1386:Florida v. Bostick 1177: 1139:Chandler v. Miller 1050:Due Process Clause 1018:Berger v. New York 989:U.S. Supreme Court 969:federal government 899: 786:writ of assistance 781: 686: 629:Due Process Clause 496: 311:D.C. Voting Rights 289:Titles of Nobility 11657: 11656: 11623:Constitution Week 11608:Independence Mall 11596:National Archives 11554: 11553: 11369:Gouverneur Morris 11354:Thomas Fitzsimons 11334:Benjamin Franklin 11208:George Washington 11108:Enumerated powers 11083:Concurrent powers 11078:Balance of powers 10907:No Religious Test 10847:Freedom of Speech 10638:Independence Hall 10561: 10560: 10465:Bricker amendment 10398: 10397: 10111: 10110: 10107: 10106: 10103: 10102: 10085:Ker v. California 10014: 10013: 10010: 10009: 10006: 10005: 9944: 9943: 9894:No-knock searches 9779:James v. Illinois 9734:Exclusionary rule 9713: 9712: 9709: 9708: 9521: 9520: 9517: 9516: 9507:Virginia v. Moore 9397:Frank v. Maryland 9135:Protective sweeps 8940:Florida v. Jimeno 8767:Caniglia v. Strom 8689: 8688: 8685: 8684: 8515: 8514: 8346: 8345: 8328:Florida v. Harris 8288:Illinois v. Gates 8241: 8240: 8237: 8236: 8219:Rakas v. Illinois 8099: 8098: 8081:Smith v. Maryland 6137:on July 11, 2019. 6071:on August 3, 2019 6064:). Archived from 5914: (1985), and 5396:. David L. Hudson 4808:Illinois v. Gates 4380:Maryland v. Dyson 4125:Virginia v. Moore 3708:Smith v. Maryland 3689:Smith v. Maryland 3661:on June 17, 2013. 3619:Smith v. Maryland 3584:978-1-4354-5713-3 2917:(June 15, 1976). 2752:, p. 258–59. 2546:, p. 341–43. 2268:on March 28, 2023 2158:Smith v. Maryland 2123:Mass surveillance 1974:decision as the " 1968:Felix Frankfurter 1931:Exclusionary rule 1925:Exclusionary rule 1525:Illinois v. Gates 1353:personal property 1241:Smith v. Maryland 1234:This decision in 1132:and is therefore 954:Robert H. Jackson 915:Richard Henry Lee 566:exclusionary rule 493:National Archives 485: 484: 16:(Redirected from 11717: 11504:Charles Pinckney 11313:William Paterson 11245:Nathaniel Gorham 11198: 11197: 10977:Speech or Debate 10805:Equal Protection 10515:Ludlow amendment 10500:Flag Desecration 10495:Federal Marriage 10460:Blaine amendment 10422:Corwin Amendment 10213: 10212: 10209: 10208: 10138: 10131: 10124: 10115: 10114: 10093:Aguilar v. Texas 10042:Wolf v. Colorado 10031: 10030: 10020: 10019: 9990:42 U.S.C. § 1983 9953: 9952: 9739: 9738: 9730: 9729: 9719: 9718: 9699:Mullenix v. Luna 9675:Graham v. Connor 9557:Florida v. Royer 9538: 9537: 9527: 9526: 9440:Hudson v. Palmer 9143:Maryland v. Buie 9108:Maryland v. King 8964:Florida v. White 8891:Vehicle searches 8863:Arizona v. Hicks 8786:Consent searches 8759:Kentucky v. King 8719:Warden v. Hayden 8708: 8707: 8695: 8694: 8616:Warden v. Hayden 8587: 8586: 8521: 8520: 8505:Kansas v. Glover 8457:Florida v. J. L. 8433:Michigan v. Long 8352: 8351: 8272:Aguilar v. Texas 8247: 8246: 8200:Torres v. Madrid 8144:Florida v. Royer 8044:Florida v. Riley 7980: 7979: 7964:Klayman v. Obama 7817: 7816: 7806: 7805: 7790: 7783: 7776: 7767: 7766: 7745: 7743: 7732: 7723: 7714: 7705: 7696: 7687: 7678: 7669: 7634: 7617:(6): 1571–1597. 7601: 7592: 7574: 7573: 7571: 7569: 7554: 7548: 7547: 7545: 7543: 7528: 7522: 7521: 7519: 7517: 7502: 7496: 7495: 7493: 7491: 7479: 7473: 7472: 7470: 7468: 7453: 7447: 7446: 7444: 7442: 7436: 7427: 7421: 7420: 7418: 7416: 7401: 7395: 7394: 7392: 7390: 7375: 7366: 7365: 7363: 7361: 7346: 7340: 7339: 7337: 7335: 7320: 7314: 7313: 7311: 7309: 7294: 7288: 7287: 7285: 7283: 7271: 7265: 7264: 7262: 7260: 7245: 7239: 7238: 7236: 7234: 7225:. Archived from 7214: 7208: 7189: 7183: 7147: 7141: 7122: 7116: 7097: 7091: 7072: 7066: 7047: 7041: 7040: 7038: 7036: 7031:on June 23, 2016 7027:. Archived from 7010: 7004: 6984: 6978: 6977: 6975: 6973: 6958: 6952: 6932: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6921: 6911: 6905: 6904: 6902: 6900: 6891:Arizona v. Evans 6884: 6878: 6859: 6853: 6838:Arizona v. Evans 6834: 6828: 6827: 6815: 6809: 6790: 6784: 6783: 6781: 6779: 6774:on June 10, 2014 6770:. Archived from 6759: 6753: 6734: 6728: 6722: 6716: 6697: 6691: 6685: 6679: 6673: 6667: 6648: 6642: 6636: 6630: 6629: 6627: 6625: 6610: 6604: 6603: 6601: 6599: 6594:on June 10, 2014 6580: 6574: 6559:Wolf v. Colorado 6555: 6549: 6548: 6546: 6544: 6539:on June 10, 2014 6535:. Archived from 6524: 6518: 6499: 6493: 6474: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6463: 6458:on June 10, 2014 6454:. Archived from 6443: 6437: 6418: 6412: 6411: 6409: 6407: 6398:. Archived from 6387: 6374: 6373: 6371: 6369: 6354: 6348: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6319: 6317: 6282: 6276: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6246: 6230: 6224: 6205: 6199: 6180: 6174: 6173: 6171: 6169: 6159: 6150: 6139: 6138: 6136: 6125: 6116: 6110: 6109: 6107: 6105: 6090: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6076: 6070: 6055: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6034: 6032: 6016: 6007: 5988: 5982: 5976: 5968: 5962: 5956: 5950: 5944: 5938: 5932: 5879: 5873: 5872: 5856: 5845: 5839: 5833: 5827: 5821: 5815: 5809: 5808: 5806: 5804: 5789: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5778: 5763: 5757: 5737: 5731: 5712: 5706: 5687: 5681: 5662: 5656: 5637: 5631: 5630: 5628: 5626: 5611: 5605: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5581: 5579: 5564: 5558: 5535: 5529: 5528: 5526: 5524: 5509: 5503: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5468: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5447: 5445: 5436:. Archived from 5426: 5420: 5419: 5413: 5405: 5403: 5401: 5386: 5380: 5365:Warden v. Hayden 5361: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5344: 5337: 5329: 5323: 5304: 5298: 5279: 5270: 5269: 5267: 5265: 5260:on June 10, 2014 5256:. Archived from 5245: 5230: 5224: 5218: 5212: 5206: 5187: 5181: 5162: 5156: 5150: 5144: 5125: 5119: 5100: 5094: 5091: 5085: 5082:Arizona v. Hicks 5079: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5068: 5063:on June 10, 2014 5059:. Archived from 5048: 5042: 5023: 5017: 5000: 4994: 4975: 4969: 4952: 4946: 4945: 4933: 4924: 4905: 4899: 4898: 4896: 4894: 4889:on June 10, 2014 4885:. Archived from 4870: 4864: 4845: 4839: 4829: 4823: 4804: 4798: 4779: 4773: 4767: 4761: 4742: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4731: 4726:on June 10, 2014 4722:. Archived from 4707: 4701: 4682: 4673: 4654: 4648: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4612: 4606:. Archived from 4601: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4562: 4556: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4528: 4526: 4506: 4500: 4490: 4484: 4462: 4453: 4419: 4413: 4407: 4405:Andrews v. Fuoss 4401: 4395: 4376: 4370: 4351: 4345: 4326: 4320: 4302: 4296: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4268: 4266: 4261:on June 10, 2014 4257:. Archived from 4246: 4240: 4221: 4215: 4204: 4198: 4182:Maryland v. King 4178: 4172: 4171: 4169: 4167: 4162:. April 23, 2008 4150: 4144: 4121: 4115: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4105:on June 13, 2008 4101:. Archived from 4090: 4084: 4065: 4059: 4040: 4034: 4026: 4020: 4001: 3988: 3969: 3963: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3941:. casebriefs.com 3935: 3929: 3914:Florida v. Royer 3910: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3891:on June 10, 2014 3887:. Archived from 3876: 3870: 3851: 3845: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3799: 3793: 3773: 3767: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3747: 3741: 3735: 3729: 3728: 3722: 3720: 3702: 3696: 3686: 3680: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3660: 3649: 3640: 3634: 3615: 3606: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3572: 3562: 3553: 3547: 3541: 3535: 3529: 3510: 3504: 3485: 3479: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3465:. Archived from 3450: 3437: 3436: 3434: 3432: 3414: 3408: 3389: 3383: 3382: 3380: 3378: 3363: 3357: 3338: 3332: 3313: 3307: 3288: 3282: 3248: 3242: 3223: 3217: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3175: 3169: 3152: 3146: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3132:. Archived from 3121: 3115: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3099: 3093: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3079:. Archived from 3064: 3058: 3039: 3030: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3020:on April 5, 2021 3019: 3012: 3000: 2994: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2978: 2972: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2961: 2945: 2939: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2925:. Archived from 2911: 2905: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2881: 2875: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2859: 2853: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2837: 2831: 2808: 2799: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2747: 2741: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2725: 2716: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2676: 2667: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2653:. Archived from 2642: 2631: 2625: 2619: 2618: 2616: 2614: 2603:"Bill of Rights" 2599: 2593: 2582: 2576: 2565: 2559: 2553: 2547: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2521:. Archived from 2510: 2501: 2500: 2493: 2487: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2476: 2469: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2439: 2433: 2427: 2421: 2415: 2414:, p. 57–61. 2409: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2385: 2379: 2373: 2367: 2366: 2350: 2344: 2338: 2332: 2324: 2318: 2312: 2301: 2298: 2292: 2291: 2284: 2278: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2257: 2241: 2238: 2134:Klayman v. Obama 2061:Arizona v. Evans 1981:Wolf v. Colorado 1855:In re Directives 1711:Warden v. Hayden 1625:Arizona v. Hicks 1520: 1408:Maryland v. King 1380:Torres v. Madrid 1336:Florida v. Royer 1210:right to privacy 1081: 1035:Torres v. Madrid 963: 931:Thomas Jefferson 766:Colonial America 760:Colonial America 716:King's Messenger 655: 611:Thomas Jefferson 543:consent searches 500:Fourth Amendment 477: 470: 463: 447: 446: 435: 434: 423: 422: 421: 57: 32: 31: 21: 11725: 11724: 11720: 11719: 11718: 11716: 11715: 11714: 11660: 11659: 11658: 11653: 11588: 11582: 11550: 11546:William Jackson 11534: 11530:Abraham Baldwin 11513: 11482: 11478:Hugh Williamson 11456: 11435: 11409: 11400:Richard Bassett 11373: 11359:Jared Ingersoll 11322: 11318:Jonathan Dayton 11291: 11275: 11254: 11233: 11229:Nicholas Gilman 11212: 11187: 11153:Reserved powers 11133:Judicial review 11066: 10862:General Welfare 10785:Double Jeopardy 10696: 10623:List of Framers 10603:New Jersey Plan 10557: 10539: 10535:Victims' Rights 10455:Balanced budget 10441: 10394: 10323: 10295: 10274: 10198: 10147: 10142: 10112: 10099: 10072: 10025: 10002: 9978: 9972:Egbert v. Boule 9940: 9926:Stone v. Powell 9908: 9889: 9883:Utah v. Strieff 9862: 9856:Nix v. Williams 9841: 9822: 9785: 9764: 9724: 9705: 9683:Scott v. Harris 9658:Excessive force 9652: 9625: 9611:Muehler v. Mena 9590: 9571: 9532: 9513: 9454: 9432:Bell v. Wolfish 9419: 9384: 9365: 9274: 9237: 9182:Border searches 9176: 9149: 9130: 9071: 9057:Arizona v. Gant 9041:Knowles v. Iowa 8978: 8885: 8840: 8781: 8702: 8681: 8660: 8641: 8622: 8585: 8529: 8511: 8367: 8342: 8254: 8233: 8206: 8095: 8050: 8015: 7978: 7972:ACLU v. Clapper 7811: 7800: 7794: 7753: 7748: 7741: 7735: 7658:10.2307/1290314 7623:10.2307/3480804 7600:. Random House. 7582: 7577: 7567: 7565: 7555: 7551: 7541: 7539: 7529: 7525: 7515: 7513: 7503: 7499: 7489: 7487: 7480: 7476: 7466: 7464: 7454: 7450: 7440: 7438: 7434: 7428: 7424: 7414: 7412: 7402: 7398: 7388: 7386: 7376: 7369: 7359: 7357: 7347: 7343: 7333: 7331: 7321: 7317: 7307: 7305: 7295: 7291: 7281: 7279: 7272: 7268: 7258: 7256: 7246: 7242: 7232: 7230: 7215: 7211: 7190: 7186: 7148: 7144: 7123: 7119: 7098: 7094: 7073: 7069: 7048: 7044: 7034: 7032: 7011: 7007: 6988:Utah v. Strieff 6985: 6981: 6971: 6969: 6959: 6955: 6951:___ (2011). 6933: 6929: 6919: 6917: 6913: 6912: 6908: 6898: 6896: 6885: 6881: 6860: 6856: 6835: 6831: 6816: 6812: 6791: 6787: 6777: 6775: 6760: 6756: 6738:Nix v. Williams 6735: 6731: 6723: 6719: 6698: 6694: 6686: 6682: 6674: 6670: 6649: 6645: 6641:, p. 1587. 6637: 6633: 6623: 6621: 6620:. June 21, 1982 6612: 6611: 6607: 6597: 6595: 6582: 6581: 6577: 6556: 6552: 6542: 6540: 6525: 6521: 6500: 6496: 6475: 6471: 6461: 6459: 6444: 6440: 6419: 6415: 6405: 6403: 6388: 6377: 6367: 6365: 6355: 6351: 6347:___ (2009). 6329: 6325: 6315: 6313: 6303:10.2307/1143635 6283: 6279: 6258: 6254: 6244: 6242: 6231: 6227: 6206: 6202: 6181: 6177: 6167: 6165: 6157: 6151: 6142: 6134: 6123: 6117: 6113: 6103: 6101: 6091: 6084: 6074: 6072: 6068: 6053: 6047:Selya, Bruce M. 6044: 6040: 6030: 6028: 6017: 6010: 5989: 5985: 5970: 5969: 5965: 5952: 5951: 5947: 5939: 5935: 5880: 5876: 5857: 5848: 5835: 5834: 5830: 5817: 5816: 5812: 5802: 5800: 5790: 5786: 5776: 5774: 5764: 5760: 5756:___ (2014). 5738: 5734: 5713: 5709: 5688: 5684: 5663: 5659: 5641:Arizona v. Gant 5638: 5634: 5624: 5622: 5613: 5612: 5608: 5591: 5587: 5577: 5575: 5565: 5561: 5539:Arizona v. Gant 5536: 5532: 5522: 5520: 5510: 5506: 5488: 5484: 5469: 5465: 5457: 5453: 5443: 5441: 5434:www.radford.edu 5428: 5427: 5423: 5407: 5406: 5399: 5397: 5388: 5387: 5383: 5362: 5358: 5348: 5346: 5342: 5335: 5331: 5330: 5326: 5305: 5301: 5280: 5273: 5263: 5261: 5246: 5233: 5225: 5221: 5213: 5209: 5188: 5184: 5163: 5159: 5151: 5147: 5126: 5122: 5101: 5097: 5092: 5088: 5080: 5076: 5066: 5064: 5049: 5045: 5024: 5020: 5001: 4997: 4976: 4972: 4953: 4949: 4934: 4927: 4906: 4902: 4892: 4890: 4871: 4867: 4846: 4842: 4830: 4826: 4805: 4801: 4780: 4776: 4768: 4764: 4743: 4739: 4729: 4727: 4708: 4704: 4683: 4676: 4655: 4651: 4630: 4626: 4616: 4614: 4610: 4599: 4593: 4589: 4579: 4577: 4564: 4563: 4559: 4538: 4534: 4524: 4522: 4507: 4503: 4491: 4487: 4463: 4456: 4420: 4416: 4403: 4402: 4398: 4377: 4373: 4352: 4348: 4327: 4323: 4303: 4299: 4278: 4274: 4264: 4262: 4247: 4243: 4222: 4218: 4205: 4201: 4197:___ (2013). 4179: 4175: 4165: 4163: 4152: 4151: 4147: 4122: 4118: 4108: 4106: 4091: 4087: 4069:Knowles v. Iowa 4066: 4062: 4041: 4037: 4027: 4023: 4002: 3991: 3970: 3966: 3958: 3954: 3944: 3942: 3937: 3936: 3932: 3911: 3904: 3894: 3892: 3877: 3873: 3852: 3848: 3844:___ (2013). 3826: 3822: 3812: 3810: 3800: 3796: 3792:___ (2012). 3774: 3770: 3760: 3758: 3748: 3744: 3736: 3732: 3718: 3716: 3704: 3703: 3699: 3687: 3683: 3670: 3666: 3658: 3647: 3641: 3637: 3616: 3609: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3563: 3556: 3548: 3544: 3536: 3532: 3511: 3507: 3486: 3482: 3472: 3470: 3451: 3440: 3430: 3428: 3416: 3415: 3411: 3390: 3386: 3376: 3374: 3365: 3364: 3360: 3339: 3335: 3314: 3310: 3292:Arizona v. Gant 3289: 3285: 3249: 3245: 3224: 3220: 3199: 3195: 3176: 3172: 3153: 3149: 3139: 3137: 3122: 3118: 3108: 3106: 3101: 3100: 3096: 3086: 3084: 3065: 3061: 3040: 3033: 3023: 3021: 3017: 3010: 3002: 3001: 2997: 2987: 2985: 2980: 2979: 2975: 2965: 2963: 2959: 2947: 2946: 2942: 2932: 2930: 2912: 2908: 2898: 2896: 2883: 2882: 2878: 2868: 2866: 2861: 2860: 2856: 2846: 2844: 2839: 2838: 2834: 2812:Ontario v. Quon 2809: 2802: 2792: 2790: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2772: 2768: 2760: 2756: 2750:Labunski (2006) 2748: 2744: 2734: 2732: 2727: 2726: 2719: 2709: 2707: 2702: 2701: 2697: 2691:Labunski (2006) 2689: 2685: 2679:Labunski (2006) 2677: 2670: 2660: 2658: 2643: 2634: 2626: 2622: 2612: 2610: 2601: 2600: 2596: 2583: 2579: 2566: 2562: 2554: 2550: 2542: 2538: 2528: 2526: 2511: 2504: 2495: 2494: 2490: 2480: 2478: 2474: 2467: 2461: 2457: 2449: 2442: 2434: 2430: 2422: 2418: 2410: 2406: 2398: 2394: 2386: 2382: 2374: 2370: 2351: 2347: 2339: 2335: 2325: 2321: 2313: 2304: 2299: 2295: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2271: 2269: 2258: 2254: 2245: 2244: 2239: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2172: 2152:ACLU v. Clapper 2129: 2111: 2079:Utah v. Strieff 2042:Nix v. Williams 2010: 1933: 1927: 1893: 1840: 1814: 1808: 1763: 1757: 1748:Arizona v. Gant 1729: 1723: 1676: 1670: 1614: 1606:Main articles: 1604: 1549: 1543: 1538: 1518: 1490: 1484: 1463: 1421: 1358:brief detention 1345: 1214:telephone booth 1181:property rights 1160: 1151:Ontario v. Quon 1083: 1066: 965: 948: 939: 919:direct taxation 877:civil liberties 861: 855: 762: 696:Sir Edward Coke 675: 670: 665: 664: 663: 661: 656: 641: 627:(1961) via the 599:Anti-Federalist 559:border searches 510:is part of the 481: 441: 429: 419: 417: 371: 315: 271: 270: 114: 46: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11723: 11713: 11712: 11707: 11702: 11697: 11692: 11687: 11682: 11677: 11672: 11655: 11654: 11652: 11651: 11646: 11638: 11630: 11625: 11620: 11615: 11610: 11605: 11604: 11603: 11592: 11590: 11584: 11583: 11581: 11580: 11575: 11570: 11562: 11560: 11556: 11555: 11552: 11551: 11549: 11548: 11542: 11540: 11536: 11535: 11533: 11532: 11527: 11521: 11519: 11515: 11514: 11512: 11511: 11506: 11501: 11496: 11490: 11488: 11487:South Carolina 11484: 11483: 11481: 11480: 11475: 11470: 11468:William Blount 11464: 11462: 11461:North Carolina 11458: 11457: 11455: 11454: 11449: 11443: 11441: 11437: 11436: 11434: 11433: 11431:Daniel Carroll 11428: 11423: 11417: 11415: 11411: 11410: 11408: 11407: 11402: 11397: 11395:John Dickinson 11392: 11387: 11381: 11379: 11375: 11374: 11372: 11371: 11366: 11361: 11356: 11351: 11346: 11341: 11339:Thomas Mifflin 11336: 11330: 11328: 11324: 11323: 11321: 11320: 11315: 11310: 11308:David Brearley 11305: 11299: 11297: 11293: 11292: 11290: 11289: 11283: 11281: 11277: 11276: 11274: 11273: 11268: 11262: 11260: 11256: 11255: 11253: 11252: 11247: 11241: 11239: 11235: 11234: 11232: 11231: 11226: 11220: 11218: 11214: 11213: 11211: 11210: 11204: 11202: 11195: 11189: 11188: 11186: 11185: 11180: 11178:Taxation power 11175: 11170: 11165: 11160: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11140: 11135: 11130: 11125: 11123:Implied powers 11120: 11115: 11110: 11105: 11100: 11095: 11090: 11085: 11080: 11074: 11072: 11071:Interpretation 11068: 11067: 11065: 11064: 11059: 11054: 11036: 11031: 11026: 11019: 11014: 11009: 11004: 10999: 10994: 10989: 10984: 10979: 10974: 10969: 10967:Recommendation 10964: 10959: 10954: 10949: 10944: 10939: 10934: 10929: 10924: 10919: 10914: 10909: 10904: 10899: 10894: 10889: 10884: 10879: 10874: 10869: 10864: 10859: 10854: 10852:Fugitive Slave 10849: 10844: 10839: 10834: 10829: 10822: 10820:Excessive Bail 10817: 10812: 10807: 10802: 10797: 10792: 10787: 10782: 10777: 10772: 10767: 10762: 10757: 10752: 10747: 10742: 10737: 10732: 10727: 10722: 10720:Appropriations 10717: 10712: 10706: 10704: 10698: 10697: 10695: 10694: 10689: 10684: 10679: 10674: 10669: 10664: 10659: 10654: 10647: 10646: 10645: 10640: 10635: 10630: 10625: 10620: 10615: 10610: 10605: 10600: 10590: 10585: 10580: 10575: 10569: 10567: 10563: 10562: 10559: 10558: 10556: 10555: 10550: 10544: 10541: 10540: 10538: 10537: 10532: 10530:Single subject 10527: 10522: 10517: 10512: 10507: 10502: 10497: 10492: 10487: 10482: 10477: 10472: 10467: 10462: 10457: 10451: 10449: 10443: 10442: 10440: 10439: 10434: 10429: 10424: 10419: 10414: 10408: 10406: 10400: 10399: 10396: 10395: 10393: 10392: 10387: 10382: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10362: 10357: 10352: 10347: 10342: 10337: 10331: 10329: 10325: 10324: 10322: 10321: 10316: 10311: 10305: 10303: 10301:Reconstruction 10297: 10296: 10294: 10293: 10288: 10282: 10280: 10276: 10275: 10273: 10272: 10267: 10262: 10257: 10252: 10247: 10242: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10221: 10219: 10217:Bill of Rights 10206: 10200: 10199: 10197: 10196: 10191: 10186: 10181: 10176: 10171: 10166: 10161: 10155: 10153: 10149: 10148: 10141: 10140: 10133: 10126: 10118: 10109: 10108: 10105: 10104: 10101: 10100: 10098: 10097: 10089: 10080: 10078: 10074: 10073: 10071: 10070: 10062: 10054: 10046: 10037: 10035: 10027: 10026: 10016: 10015: 10012: 10011: 10008: 10007: 10004: 10003: 10001: 10000: 9996:Monroe v. Pape 9992: 9986: 9984: 9980: 9979: 9977: 9976: 9968: 9959: 9957: 9950: 9946: 9945: 9942: 9941: 9939: 9938: 9930: 9921: 9919: 9910: 9909: 9907: 9906: 9897: 9895: 9891: 9890: 9888: 9887: 9879: 9870: 9868: 9864: 9863: 9861: 9860: 9851: 9849: 9843: 9842: 9840: 9839: 9830: 9828: 9824: 9823: 9821: 9820: 9812: 9804: 9795: 9793: 9787: 9786: 9784: 9783: 9774: 9772: 9766: 9765: 9763: 9762: 9754: 9745: 9743: 9736: 9726: 9725: 9715: 9714: 9711: 9710: 9707: 9706: 9704: 9703: 9695: 9687: 9679: 9671: 9662: 9660: 9654: 9653: 9651: 9650: 9642: 9633: 9631: 9627: 9626: 9624: 9623: 9615: 9607: 9598: 9596: 9592: 9591: 9589: 9588: 9579: 9577: 9573: 9572: 9570: 9569: 9561: 9553: 9544: 9542: 9534: 9533: 9523: 9522: 9519: 9518: 9515: 9514: 9512: 9511: 9503: 9495: 9487: 9479: 9471: 9462: 9460: 9456: 9455: 9453: 9452: 9444: 9436: 9427: 9425: 9421: 9420: 9418: 9417: 9409: 9401: 9392: 9390: 9386: 9385: 9383: 9382: 9373: 9371: 9367: 9366: 9364: 9363: 9355: 9347: 9339: 9331: 9323: 9315: 9307: 9299: 9291: 9282: 9280: 9276: 9275: 9273: 9272: 9264: 9256: 9247: 9245: 9239: 9238: 9236: 9235: 9227: 9219: 9211: 9203: 9195: 9186: 9184: 9178: 9177: 9175: 9174: 9166: 9157: 9155: 9151: 9150: 9148: 9147: 9138: 9136: 9132: 9131: 9129: 9128: 9120: 9112: 9104: 9096: 9092:Cupp v. Murphy 9088: 9079: 9077: 9073: 9072: 9070: 9069: 9061: 9053: 9045: 9037: 9029: 9021: 9013: 9005: 8997: 8988: 8986: 8980: 8979: 8977: 8976: 8968: 8960: 8952: 8944: 8936: 8928: 8920: 8912: 8904: 8895: 8893: 8887: 8886: 8884: 8883: 8875: 8867: 8859: 8850: 8848: 8842: 8841: 8839: 8838: 8830: 8822: 8814: 8806: 8798: 8789: 8787: 8783: 8782: 8780: 8779: 8771: 8763: 8755: 8747: 8739: 8731: 8723: 8714: 8712: 8704: 8703: 8691: 8690: 8687: 8686: 8683: 8682: 8680: 8679: 8670: 8668: 8662: 8661: 8659: 8658: 8649: 8647: 8643: 8642: 8640: 8639: 8630: 8628: 8624: 8623: 8621: 8620: 8612: 8608:Hale v. Henkel 8604: 8595: 8593: 8584: 8583: 8575: 8567: 8559: 8551: 8543: 8534: 8531: 8530: 8517: 8516: 8513: 8512: 8510: 8509: 8501: 8493: 8485: 8477: 8469: 8461: 8453: 8445: 8437: 8429: 8421: 8413: 8405: 8401:Brown v. Texas 8397: 8389: 8381: 8372: 8369: 8368: 8348: 8347: 8344: 8343: 8341: 8340: 8332: 8324: 8316: 8308: 8300: 8292: 8284: 8276: 8268: 8259: 8256: 8255: 8252:Probable cause 8243: 8242: 8239: 8238: 8235: 8234: 8232: 8231: 8223: 8214: 8212: 8208: 8207: 8205: 8204: 8196: 8188: 8180: 8172: 8164: 8156: 8152:INS v. Delgado 8148: 8140: 8132: 8124: 8120:Hale v. Henkel 8116: 8107: 8105: 8101: 8100: 8097: 8096: 8094: 8093: 8085: 8077: 8069: 8060: 8058: 8052: 8051: 8049: 8048: 8040: 8032: 8023: 8021: 8017: 8016: 8014: 8013: 8005: 7997: 7988: 7986: 7977: 7976: 7968: 7960: 7952: 7944: 7936: 7928: 7920: 7912: 7904: 7896: 7888: 7880: 7872: 7864: 7856: 7848: 7840: 7832: 7823: 7821: 7813: 7812: 7802: 7801: 7793: 7792: 7785: 7778: 7770: 7764: 7763: 7752: 7751:External links 7749: 7747: 7746: 7733: 7724: 7715: 7706: 7697: 7688: 7679: 7670: 7652:(3): 547–750. 7635: 7602: 7593: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7575: 7549: 7523: 7497: 7474: 7448: 7422: 7396: 7367: 7341: 7315: 7289: 7266: 7240: 7209: 7184: 7142: 7117: 7092: 7067: 7042: 7005: 7003:___ (2016) 6979: 6953: 6927: 6906: 6879: 6854: 6829: 6810: 6785: 6754: 6729: 6717: 6692: 6680: 6668: 6643: 6639:Crisera (1990) 6631: 6605: 6584:"Mapp v. Ohio" 6575: 6550: 6519: 6494: 6469: 6438: 6413: 6375: 6349: 6323: 6297:(3): 609–629. 6277: 6252: 6225: 6200: 6175: 6140: 6111: 6082: 6038: 6008: 5983: 5963: 5945: 5941:Flores-Montano 5933: 5874: 5846: 5828: 5810: 5784: 5758: 5732: 5707: 5682: 5657: 5632: 5606: 5585: 5559: 5530: 5504: 5502:___ (2018) 5498:, ___ 5482: 5463: 5451: 5421: 5381: 5356: 5324: 5299: 5271: 5231: 5219: 5207: 5182: 5157: 5145: 5120: 5095: 5086: 5074: 5043: 5018: 4995: 4970: 4947: 4925: 4900: 4865: 4840: 4824: 4799: 4783:Texas v. Brown 4774: 4762: 4737: 4702: 4674: 4649: 4624: 4587: 4557: 4532: 4501: 4485: 4454: 4414: 4396: 4371: 4346: 4321: 4297: 4272: 4241: 4216: 4199: 4173: 4145: 4116: 4085: 4060: 4035: 4021: 3989: 3964: 3952: 3930: 3902: 3871: 3846: 3820: 3794: 3768: 3742: 3730: 3697: 3681: 3664: 3635: 3607: 3590: 3583: 3554: 3542: 3530: 3505: 3480: 3438: 3409: 3384: 3358: 3333: 3308: 3283: 3243: 3218: 3193: 3170: 3147: 3116: 3094: 3059: 3031: 2995: 2973: 2940: 2906: 2876: 2854: 2832: 2800: 2778: 2776:, p. 106. 2766: 2754: 2742: 2717: 2695: 2693:, p. 255. 2683: 2681:, p. 245. 2668: 2632: 2620: 2594: 2577: 2560: 2558:, p. 431. 2548: 2536: 2502: 2488: 2455: 2453:, p. 161. 2440: 2428: 2416: 2404: 2392: 2380: 2368: 2359:FDCC Quarterly 2345: 2343:, p. 150. 2333: 2319: 2302: 2293: 2279: 2251: 2243: 2242: 2232: 2231: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2223: 2216: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2173: 2171: 2168: 2110: 2107: 2106: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2056: 2055: 2046: 2037: 2009: 2006: 1929:Main article: 1926: 1923: 1919:strip searched 1903:public schools 1892: 1889: 1839: 1836: 1810:Main article: 1807: 1804: 1759:Main article: 1756: 1753: 1725:Main article: 1722: 1719: 1672:Main article: 1669: 1666: 1662:knock and talk 1603: 1600: 1547:Consent search 1545:Main article: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1488:Probable cause 1486:Main article: 1483: 1482:Probable cause 1480: 1462: 1459: 1420: 1417: 1344: 1341: 1253: 1252: 1249: 1223:Potter Stewart 1167:Potter Stewart 1159: 1156: 1090:summarized in 1087:probable cause 1072:William R. Day 1058: 1048:by way of the 973:Gordon S. Wood 940: 938: 935: 857:Main article: 854: 851: 790:King George II 761: 758: 746:probable cause 700:Semayne's Case 691:Semayne's case 674: 671: 669: 666: 658: 657: 650: 649: 648: 640: 637: 524:probable cause 512:Bill of Rights 483: 482: 480: 479: 472: 465: 457: 454: 453: 452: 451: 439: 437:Law portal 427: 412: 411: 410: 409: 403: 402: 396: 395: 393:Amendments I–X 389: 388: 380: 379: 373: 372: 370: 369: 364: 362:Bill of Rights 358: 357: 352: 346: 345: 340: 334: 333: 327: 324: 323: 317: 316: 314: 313: 308: 302: 301: 296: 291: 285: 284: 278: 269: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 242: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 215: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 178: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 132: 126: 123: 122: 116: 115: 113: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 76: 75: 74: 66: 65: 59: 58: 50: 49: 41: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11722: 11711: 11708: 11706: 11703: 11701: 11698: 11696: 11693: 11691: 11688: 11686: 11683: 11681: 11678: 11676: 11673: 11671: 11668: 11667: 11665: 11650: 11647: 11644: 11643: 11639: 11636: 11635: 11631: 11629: 11626: 11624: 11621: 11619: 11616: 11614: 11611: 11609: 11606: 11602: 11599: 11598: 11597: 11594: 11593: 11591: 11585: 11579: 11576: 11574: 11573:Jacob Shallus 11571: 11569: 11568: 11564: 11563: 11561: 11557: 11547: 11544: 11543: 11541: 11537: 11531: 11528: 11526: 11523: 11522: 11520: 11516: 11510: 11509:Pierce Butler 11507: 11505: 11502: 11500: 11497: 11495: 11494:John Rutledge 11492: 11491: 11489: 11485: 11479: 11476: 11474: 11471: 11469: 11466: 11465: 11463: 11459: 11453: 11452:James Madison 11450: 11448: 11445: 11444: 11442: 11438: 11432: 11429: 11427: 11424: 11422: 11421:James McHenry 11419: 11418: 11416: 11412: 11406: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11396: 11393: 11391: 11388: 11386: 11383: 11382: 11380: 11376: 11370: 11367: 11365: 11362: 11360: 11357: 11355: 11352: 11350: 11349:George Clymer 11347: 11345: 11344:Robert Morris 11342: 11340: 11337: 11335: 11332: 11331: 11329: 11325: 11319: 11316: 11314: 11311: 11309: 11306: 11304: 11301: 11300: 11298: 11294: 11288: 11285: 11284: 11282: 11278: 11272: 11271:Roger Sherman 11269: 11267: 11264: 11263: 11261: 11257: 11251: 11248: 11246: 11243: 11242: 11240: 11238:Massachusetts 11236: 11230: 11227: 11225: 11222: 11221: 11219: 11217:New Hampshire 11215: 11209: 11206: 11205: 11203: 11199: 11196: 11194: 11190: 11184: 11181: 11179: 11176: 11174: 11171: 11169: 11166: 11164: 11161: 11159: 11156: 11154: 11151: 11149: 11146: 11144: 11143:Plenary power 11141: 11139: 11136: 11134: 11131: 11129: 11126: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11113:Equal footing 11111: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11075: 11073: 11069: 11063: 11060: 11058: 11055: 11052: 11048: 11044: 11040: 11037: 11035: 11034:Trial by Jury 11032: 11030: 11027: 11024: 11020: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11003: 11000: 10998: 10995: 10993: 10990: 10988: 10985: 10983: 10980: 10978: 10975: 10973: 10970: 10968: 10965: 10963: 10960: 10958: 10955: 10953: 10950: 10948: 10945: 10943: 10940: 10938: 10935: 10933: 10930: 10928: 10925: 10923: 10920: 10918: 10915: 10913: 10910: 10908: 10905: 10903: 10900: 10898: 10895: 10893: 10890: 10888: 10887:Ineligibility 10885: 10883: 10882:Import-Export 10880: 10878: 10875: 10873: 10870: 10868: 10865: 10863: 10860: 10858: 10855: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10837:Free Exercise 10835: 10833: 10830: 10828: 10827: 10826:Ex Post Facto 10823: 10821: 10818: 10816: 10813: 10811: 10810:Establishment 10808: 10806: 10803: 10801: 10798: 10796: 10793: 10791: 10788: 10786: 10783: 10781: 10778: 10776: 10773: 10771: 10768: 10766: 10763: 10761: 10760:Confrontation 10758: 10756: 10753: 10751: 10748: 10746: 10743: 10741: 10738: 10736: 10733: 10731: 10728: 10726: 10723: 10721: 10718: 10716: 10713: 10711: 10708: 10707: 10705: 10703: 10699: 10693: 10690: 10688: 10685: 10683: 10680: 10678: 10675: 10673: 10670: 10668: 10665: 10663: 10660: 10658: 10655: 10653: 10652: 10648: 10644: 10643:Syng inkstand 10641: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10631: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10621: 10619: 10616: 10614: 10611: 10609: 10606: 10604: 10601: 10599: 10598:Virginia Plan 10596: 10595: 10594: 10591: 10589: 10586: 10584: 10581: 10579: 10576: 10574: 10571: 10570: 10568: 10564: 10554: 10551: 10549: 10546: 10545: 10542: 10536: 10533: 10531: 10528: 10526: 10525:School Prayer 10523: 10521: 10518: 10516: 10513: 10511: 10508: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10498: 10496: 10493: 10491: 10488: 10486: 10483: 10481: 10478: 10476: 10473: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10452: 10450: 10448: 10444: 10438: 10435: 10433: 10430: 10428: 10425: 10423: 10420: 10418: 10415: 10413: 10410: 10409: 10407: 10405: 10401: 10391: 10388: 10386: 10383: 10381: 10378: 10376: 10373: 10371: 10368: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10332: 10330: 10326: 10320: 10317: 10315: 10312: 10310: 10307: 10306: 10304: 10302: 10298: 10292: 10289: 10287: 10284: 10283: 10281: 10277: 10271: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10261: 10258: 10256: 10253: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10222: 10220: 10218: 10214: 10210: 10207: 10205: 10201: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10185: 10182: 10180: 10177: 10175: 10172: 10170: 10167: 10165: 10162: 10160: 10157: 10156: 10154: 10150: 10146: 10139: 10134: 10132: 10127: 10125: 10120: 10119: 10116: 10095: 10094: 10090: 10087: 10086: 10082: 10081: 10079: 10075: 10068: 10067: 10063: 10060: 10059: 10055: 10052: 10051: 10047: 10044: 10043: 10039: 10038: 10036: 10032: 10028: 10021: 10017: 9998: 9997: 9993: 9991: 9988: 9987: 9985: 9981: 9974: 9973: 9969: 9966: 9965: 9961: 9960: 9958: 9954: 9951: 9947: 9936: 9935: 9931: 9928: 9927: 9923: 9922: 9920: 9917: 9916: 9915:Habeas corpus 9911: 9904: 9903: 9899: 9898: 9896: 9892: 9885: 9884: 9880: 9877: 9876: 9872: 9871: 9869: 9865: 9858: 9857: 9853: 9852: 9850: 9848: 9844: 9837: 9836: 9832: 9831: 9829: 9825: 9818: 9817: 9813: 9810: 9809: 9805: 9802: 9801: 9797: 9796: 9794: 9792: 9788: 9781: 9780: 9776: 9775: 9773: 9771: 9767: 9760: 9759: 9755: 9752: 9751: 9747: 9746: 9744: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9731: 9727: 9720: 9716: 9701: 9700: 9696: 9693: 9692: 9688: 9685: 9684: 9680: 9677: 9676: 9672: 9669: 9668: 9664: 9663: 9661: 9659: 9655: 9648: 9647: 9643: 9640: 9639: 9635: 9634: 9632: 9628: 9621: 9620: 9616: 9613: 9612: 9608: 9605: 9604: 9600: 9599: 9597: 9593: 9586: 9585: 9581: 9580: 9578: 9574: 9567: 9566: 9562: 9559: 9558: 9554: 9551: 9550: 9546: 9545: 9543: 9539: 9535: 9528: 9524: 9509: 9508: 9504: 9501: 9500: 9496: 9493: 9492: 9488: 9485: 9484: 9480: 9477: 9476: 9472: 9469: 9468: 9464: 9463: 9461: 9457: 9450: 9449: 9445: 9442: 9441: 9437: 9434: 9433: 9429: 9428: 9426: 9422: 9415: 9414: 9410: 9407: 9406: 9402: 9399: 9398: 9394: 9393: 9391: 9387: 9380: 9379: 9375: 9374: 9372: 9368: 9361: 9360: 9356: 9353: 9352: 9348: 9345: 9344: 9340: 9337: 9336: 9332: 9329: 9328: 9324: 9321: 9320: 9316: 9313: 9312: 9308: 9305: 9304: 9300: 9297: 9296: 9292: 9289: 9288: 9284: 9283: 9281: 9277: 9270: 9269: 9265: 9262: 9261: 9257: 9254: 9253: 9249: 9248: 9246: 9244: 9240: 9233: 9232: 9228: 9225: 9224: 9220: 9217: 9216: 9212: 9209: 9208: 9204: 9201: 9200: 9196: 9193: 9192: 9188: 9187: 9185: 9183: 9179: 9172: 9171: 9167: 9164: 9163: 9159: 9158: 9156: 9152: 9145: 9144: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9133: 9126: 9125: 9121: 9118: 9117: 9113: 9110: 9109: 9105: 9102: 9101: 9097: 9094: 9093: 9089: 9086: 9085: 9081: 9080: 9078: 9074: 9067: 9066: 9062: 9059: 9058: 9054: 9051: 9050: 9046: 9043: 9042: 9038: 9035: 9034: 9030: 9027: 9026: 9022: 9019: 9018: 9014: 9011: 9010: 9006: 9003: 9002: 8998: 8995: 8994: 8990: 8989: 8987: 8985: 8981: 8974: 8973: 8969: 8966: 8965: 8961: 8958: 8957: 8953: 8950: 8949: 8945: 8942: 8941: 8937: 8934: 8933: 8929: 8926: 8925: 8921: 8918: 8917: 8913: 8910: 8909: 8905: 8902: 8901: 8897: 8896: 8894: 8892: 8888: 8881: 8880: 8876: 8873: 8872: 8868: 8865: 8864: 8860: 8857: 8856: 8852: 8851: 8849: 8847: 8843: 8836: 8835: 8831: 8828: 8827: 8823: 8820: 8819: 8815: 8812: 8811: 8807: 8804: 8803: 8799: 8796: 8795: 8791: 8790: 8788: 8784: 8777: 8776: 8772: 8769: 8768: 8764: 8761: 8760: 8756: 8753: 8752: 8748: 8745: 8744: 8740: 8737: 8736: 8732: 8729: 8728: 8724: 8721: 8720: 8716: 8715: 8713: 8709: 8705: 8701: 8696: 8692: 8677: 8676: 8672: 8671: 8669: 8667: 8663: 8656: 8655: 8651: 8650: 8648: 8644: 8637: 8636: 8632: 8631: 8629: 8625: 8618: 8617: 8613: 8610: 8609: 8605: 8602: 8601: 8597: 8596: 8594: 8592: 8588: 8581: 8580: 8576: 8573: 8572: 8568: 8565: 8564: 8560: 8557: 8556: 8552: 8549: 8548: 8544: 8541: 8540: 8536: 8535: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8518: 8507: 8506: 8502: 8499: 8498: 8494: 8491: 8490: 8486: 8483: 8482: 8478: 8475: 8474: 8470: 8467: 8466: 8462: 8459: 8458: 8454: 8451: 8450: 8446: 8443: 8442: 8438: 8435: 8434: 8430: 8427: 8426: 8422: 8419: 8418: 8414: 8411: 8410: 8406: 8403: 8402: 8398: 8395: 8394: 8390: 8387: 8386: 8382: 8379: 8378: 8377:Terry v. Ohio 8374: 8373: 8370: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8353: 8349: 8338: 8337: 8333: 8330: 8329: 8325: 8322: 8321: 8317: 8314: 8313: 8309: 8306: 8305: 8301: 8298: 8297: 8293: 8290: 8289: 8285: 8282: 8281: 8277: 8274: 8273: 8269: 8266: 8265: 8261: 8260: 8257: 8253: 8248: 8244: 8229: 8228: 8224: 8221: 8220: 8216: 8215: 8213: 8209: 8202: 8201: 8197: 8194: 8193: 8189: 8186: 8185: 8181: 8178: 8177: 8173: 8170: 8169: 8165: 8162: 8161: 8157: 8154: 8153: 8149: 8146: 8145: 8141: 8138: 8137: 8133: 8130: 8129: 8128:Terry v. Ohio 8125: 8122: 8121: 8117: 8114: 8113: 8109: 8108: 8106: 8102: 8091: 8090: 8086: 8083: 8082: 8078: 8075: 8074: 8070: 8067: 8066: 8062: 8061: 8059: 8057: 8053: 8046: 8045: 8041: 8038: 8037: 8033: 8030: 8029: 8025: 8024: 8022: 8018: 8011: 8010: 8006: 8003: 8002: 7998: 7995: 7994: 7990: 7989: 7987: 7985: 7981: 7975:(D.D.C. 2013) 7974: 7973: 7969: 7967:(D.D.C. 2013) 7966: 7965: 7961: 7958: 7957: 7953: 7950: 7949: 7945: 7942: 7941: 7937: 7934: 7933: 7929: 7926: 7925: 7921: 7918: 7917: 7913: 7910: 7909: 7905: 7902: 7901: 7897: 7894: 7893: 7889: 7886: 7885: 7881: 7878: 7877: 7873: 7870: 7869: 7865: 7862: 7861: 7857: 7854: 7853: 7849: 7846: 7845: 7841: 7838: 7837: 7833: 7830: 7829: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7818: 7814: 7807: 7803: 7798: 7791: 7786: 7784: 7779: 7777: 7772: 7771: 7768: 7762: 7758: 7755: 7754: 7740: 7739: 7734: 7730: 7725: 7721: 7716: 7712: 7707: 7703: 7698: 7694: 7689: 7685: 7680: 7676: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7603: 7599: 7594: 7590: 7585: 7584: 7564: 7560: 7553: 7538: 7534: 7527: 7512: 7508: 7501: 7485: 7478: 7463: 7459: 7452: 7433: 7426: 7411: 7407: 7400: 7385: 7381: 7374: 7372: 7356: 7352: 7345: 7330: 7326: 7319: 7304: 7300: 7293: 7277: 7270: 7255: 7251: 7244: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7213: 7206: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7194: 7188: 7181: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7169: 7165: (1987); 7164: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7152: 7146: 7139: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7127: 7121: 7114: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7102: 7096: 7089: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7077: 7071: 7064: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7052: 7046: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7021: 7016: 7009: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6989: 6983: 6968: 6964: 6957: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6937: 6931: 6916: 6910: 6894: 6892: 6883: 6876: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6864: 6858: 6851: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6839: 6833: 6825: 6821: 6814: 6807: 6804: 6800: 6796: 6795: 6789: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6758: 6751: 6748: 6744: 6740: 6739: 6733: 6726: 6721: 6714: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6702: 6696: 6689: 6684: 6677: 6672: 6665: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6653: 6647: 6640: 6635: 6619: 6615: 6609: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6579: 6572: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6560: 6554: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6523: 6516: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6504: 6498: 6491: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6479: 6473: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6442: 6435: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6423: 6417: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6386: 6384: 6382: 6380: 6364: 6360: 6353: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6333: 6327: 6316:September 19, 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6281: 6274: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6262: 6256: 6245:September 27, 6240: 6236: 6229: 6222: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6210: 6204: 6197: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6185: 6179: 6168:September 27, 6163: 6156: 6149: 6147: 6145: 6133: 6129: 6122: 6115: 6100: 6096: 6089: 6087: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6052: 6048: 6042: 6026: 6022: 6015: 6013: 6005: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5993: 5987: 5980: 5975: 5974: 5967: 5960: 5955: 5949: 5942: 5937: 5930: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5918: 5913: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5901: 5897: (2004), 5896: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5884: 5878: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5843: 5838: 5832: 5825: 5820: 5814: 5799: 5795: 5788: 5773: 5769: 5762: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5742: 5736: 5729: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5717: 5711: 5704: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5692: 5686: 5679: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5667: 5661: 5654: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5642: 5636: 5620: 5618: 5610: 5604: 5603: 5598: 5594: 5589: 5574: 5570: 5563: 5556: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5540: 5534: 5519: 5515: 5508: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5492: 5486: 5478: 5474: 5467: 5460: 5455: 5444:September 29, 5439: 5435: 5431: 5425: 5417: 5411: 5400:September 29, 5395: 5391: 5385: 5378: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5366: 5360: 5341: 5334: 5328: 5321: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5309: 5303: 5296: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5284: 5278: 5276: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5244: 5242: 5240: 5238: 5236: 5228: 5223: 5216: 5211: 5204: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5192: 5186: 5179: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5167: 5161: 5154: 5149: 5142: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5130: 5124: 5117: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5105: 5099: 5090: 5083: 5078: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5047: 5040: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5028: 5022: 5015: 5012: 5008: 5004: 4999: 4992: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4980: 4974: 4967: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4951: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4930: 4922: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4910: 4904: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4878: 4869: 4862: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4850: 4844: 4838: 4834: 4828: 4821: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4809: 4803: 4796: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4784: 4778: 4771: 4766: 4759: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4747: 4741: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4715: 4706: 4699: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4687: 4681: 4679: 4671: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4659: 4653: 4646: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4634: 4628: 4617:September 27, 4609: 4605: 4598: 4591: 4580:September 18, 4575: 4571: 4567: 4561: 4554: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4542: 4536: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4505: 4499:, concurring. 4498: 4494: 4489: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4468: 4467: 4461: 4459: 4451: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4439: 4435: (1999); 4434: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4418: 4411: 4406: 4400: 4393: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4381: 4375: 4368: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4356: 4350: 4343: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4331: 4325: 4318: 4315: 4311: 4308: 4307: 4301: 4294: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4282: 4276: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4245: 4238: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4226: 4220: 4213: 4209: 4203: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4183: 4177: 4161: 4160: 4155: 4149: 4142: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4126: 4120: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4089: 4082: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4070: 4064: 4057: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4045: 4039: 4032: 4031: 4025: 4018: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4006: 4000: 3998: 3996: 3994: 3986: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3974: 3968: 3961: 3956: 3940: 3934: 3927: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3915: 3909: 3907: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3875: 3868: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3856: 3855:Terry v. Ohio 3850: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3830: 3824: 3809: 3805: 3798: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3778: 3772: 3757: 3753: 3746: 3739: 3734: 3727: 3715: 3711: 3709: 3701: 3694: 3690: 3685: 3678: 3674: 3668: 3657: 3653: 3646: 3639: 3632: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3620: 3614: 3612: 3604: 3600: 3594: 3586: 3580: 3576: 3571: 3570: 3561: 3559: 3551: 3546: 3539: 3534: 3527: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3515: 3509: 3502: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3490: 3484: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3458: 3449: 3447: 3445: 3443: 3427: 3423: 3421: 3413: 3406: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3394: 3388: 3372: 3368: 3362: 3355: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3343: 3337: 3330: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3318: 3312: 3305: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3293: 3287: 3280: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3253: 3247: 3240: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3228: 3222: 3215: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3203: 3197: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3174: 3167: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3151: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3120: 3104: 3098: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3072: 3063: 3056: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3044: 3038: 3036: 3016: 3009: 3007: 2999: 2983: 2977: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2944: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2910: 2899:September 18, 2894: 2890: 2886: 2880: 2864: 2858: 2842: 2836: 2829: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2813: 2807: 2805: 2788: 2782: 2775: 2774:Lasson (1937) 2770: 2764:, p. 72. 2763: 2758: 2751: 2746: 2730: 2724: 2722: 2705: 2699: 2692: 2687: 2680: 2675: 2673: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2641: 2639: 2637: 2630:, p. 71. 2629: 2624: 2608: 2604: 2598: 2591: 2587: 2581: 2574: 2570: 2564: 2557: 2552: 2545: 2544:Beeman (2009) 2540: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2509: 2507: 2498: 2492: 2473: 2466: 2459: 2452: 2447: 2445: 2438:, p. 66. 2437: 2436:Lasson (1937) 2432: 2426:, p. 59. 2425: 2420: 2413: 2412:Lasson (1937) 2408: 2401: 2396: 2389: 2384: 2377: 2376:Davies (1999) 2372: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2349: 2342: 2337: 2330: 2329: 2323: 2316: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2297: 2289: 2283: 2267: 2263: 2256: 2252: 2250: 2249: 2237: 2233: 2222: 2221: 2217: 2215: 2214: 2210: 2208: 2205: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2174: 2167: 2164: 2160: 2159: 2154: 2153: 2147: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2135: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2087: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2080: 2075: 2074: 2069: 2068: 2063: 2062: 2053: 2052: 2047: 2044: 2043: 2038: 2035: 2034: 2029: 2028: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2017: 2016: 2005: 2003: 1999: 1993: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1982: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1964: 1959: 1958: 1953: 1952: 1946: 1944: 1943: 1938: 1932: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1915: 1910: 1909: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1888: 1886: 1883:updating the 1882: 1878: 1874: 1873: 1868: 1867: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1851: 1847: 1846: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1820: 1813: 1803: 1801: 1800: 1795: 1794: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1780: 1775: 1774: 1768: 1762: 1752: 1750: 1749: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1736: 1728: 1721:Motor vehicle 1718: 1715: 1713: 1712: 1707: 1706: 1701: 1697: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1682: 1681:Terry v. Ohio 1675: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1653: 1648: 1646: 1645: 1639: 1637: 1636: 1629: 1627: 1626: 1621: 1620: 1613: 1609: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1592: 1587: 1586: 1581: 1580: 1574: 1573:from police. 1572: 1570: 1565: 1561: 1560: 1554: 1548: 1533: 1531: 1527: 1526: 1517: 1513: 1512: 1507: 1506: 1499: 1497: 1496: 1489: 1479: 1475: 1472: 1468: 1458: 1456: 1455: 1450: 1449: 1444: 1443: 1438: 1437: 1430: 1428: 1427: 1416: 1414: 1410: 1409: 1403: 1401: 1396: 1390: 1388: 1387: 1382: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1371: 1365: 1361: 1359: 1354: 1350: 1340: 1338: 1337: 1332: 1330: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1315: 1314:Terry v. Ohio 1309: 1307: 1306:detection dog 1303: 1302: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1263: 1258: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1245: 1243: 1242: 1237: 1232: 1229: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1202: 1196: 1194: 1193: 1188: 1187: 1182: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1164: 1155: 1153: 1152: 1147: 1146: 1145:Terry v. Ohio 1141: 1140: 1135: 1131: 1126: 1122: 1117: 1114: 1109: 1107: 1103: 1097: 1095: 1094: 1088: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1073: 1070: 1063: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1042: 1037: 1036: 1031: 1030: 1024: 1020: 1019: 1014: 1013: 1008: 1007: 1002: 1001: 996: 995: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 964: 961: 960: 955: 952: 945: 937:Applicability 934: 932: 926: 922: 920: 916: 910: 908: 904: 896: 895:James Madison 892: 888: 884: 882: 881:James Madison 878: 874: 870: 866: 860: 850: 846: 841: 839: 835: 829: 824: 822: 817: 816:sovereignty. 814: 809: 807: 802: 797: 795: 791: 787: 778: 773: 769: 767: 757: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 730: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 704: 701: 697: 693: 692: 683: 679: 660: 654: 646: 636: 634: 630: 626: 625: 620: 614: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 595:James Madison 591: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 572: 567: 562: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 539: 538:Supreme Court 535: 534: 527: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 494: 489: 478: 473: 471: 466: 464: 459: 458: 456: 455: 450: 445: 440: 438: 433: 428: 426: 416: 415: 414: 413: 408: 405: 404: 401: 398: 397: 394: 391: 390: 387: 384: 383: 382: 381: 378: 375: 374: 368: 365: 363: 360: 359: 356: 355:Republicanism 353: 351: 348: 347: 344: 341: 339: 336: 335: 332: 329: 328: 326: 325: 322: 319: 318: 312: 309: 307: 304: 303: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 286: 283: 280: 279: 276: 275: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 243: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 216: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 179: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 136: 133: 131: 128: 127: 125: 124: 121: 118: 117: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 81: 78: 77: 73: 70: 69: 68: 67: 64: 61: 60: 56: 52: 51: 48: 43: 42: 38: 34: 33: 30: 19: 11640: 11632: 11565: 11364:James Wilson 11327:Pennsylvania 11224:John Langdon 10982:Speedy Trial 10824: 10715:Appointments 10649: 10432:Equal Rights 10328:20th century 10239: 10091: 10083: 10066:Mapp v. Ohio 10064: 10056: 10048: 10040: 9994: 9970: 9962: 9932: 9924: 9913: 9900: 9881: 9873: 9854: 9833: 9814: 9806: 9798: 9777: 9756: 9748: 9697: 9689: 9681: 9673: 9665: 9644: 9636: 9617: 9609: 9601: 9582: 9563: 9555: 9547: 9505: 9497: 9489: 9481: 9473: 9465: 9446: 9438: 9430: 9411: 9403: 9395: 9376: 9357: 9349: 9341: 9333: 9325: 9317: 9309: 9301: 9293: 9285: 9266: 9258: 9250: 9229: 9221: 9213: 9205: 9197: 9189: 9168: 9160: 9141: 9122: 9114: 9106: 9098: 9090: 9082: 9063: 9055: 9047: 9039: 9031: 9023: 9015: 9007: 8999: 8991: 8970: 8962: 8954: 8946: 8938: 8930: 8922: 8914: 8906: 8898: 8877: 8869: 8861: 8853: 8832: 8824: 8816: 8808: 8800: 8792: 8773: 8765: 8757: 8749: 8741: 8733: 8725: 8717: 8673: 8652: 8633: 8614: 8606: 8598: 8577: 8569: 8561: 8553: 8545: 8537: 8503: 8495: 8487: 8479: 8471: 8463: 8455: 8447: 8439: 8431: 8423: 8415: 8407: 8399: 8391: 8383: 8375: 8334: 8326: 8318: 8310: 8302: 8294: 8286: 8278: 8270: 8262: 8225: 8217: 8198: 8190: 8182: 8174: 8166: 8158: 8150: 8142: 8134: 8126: 8118: 8110: 8087: 8079: 8071: 8063: 8042: 8034: 8026: 8007: 7999: 7991: 7970: 7962: 7954: 7946: 7938: 7930: 7922: 7914: 7906: 7898: 7890: 7882: 7874: 7866: 7858: 7850: 7842: 7834: 7826: 7796: 7737: 7728: 7719: 7710: 7701: 7692: 7683: 7674: 7649: 7643: 7614: 7610: 7597: 7588: 7566:. Retrieved 7563:The Guardian 7562: 7552: 7542:December 28, 7540:. Retrieved 7536: 7526: 7516:December 28, 7514:. Retrieved 7510: 7500: 7490:December 28, 7488:. Retrieved 7486:. Scotusblog 7477: 7467:December 28, 7465:. Retrieved 7461: 7451: 7441:December 28, 7439:. Retrieved 7425: 7415:December 18, 7413:. Retrieved 7410:The Guardian 7409: 7399: 7389:December 17, 7387:. Retrieved 7383: 7360:December 18, 7358:. Retrieved 7354: 7344: 7334:December 18, 7332:. Retrieved 7328: 7318: 7308:December 18, 7306:. Retrieved 7302: 7292: 7282:December 18, 7280:. Retrieved 7269: 7259:December 18, 7257:. Retrieved 7253: 7243: 7233:December 17, 7231:. Retrieved 7227:the original 7222: 7212: 7207: (1998). 7191: 7187: 7182: (2001). 7166: 7149: 7145: 7140: (1984). 7124: 7120: 7115: (1983). 7099: 7095: 7090: (1976). 7074: 7070: 7065: (1921). 7049: 7045: 7033:. Retrieved 7029:the original 7018: 7008: 6986: 6982: 6972:November 25, 6970:. Retrieved 6956: 6934: 6930: 6918:. Retrieved 6909: 6897:. 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Retrieved 5061:the original 5056: 5046: 5041: (1971). 5025: 5021: 5016: (1969). 5002: 4998: 4993: (1990). 4977: 4973: 4968: (2006). 4954: 4950: 4941: 4923: (1974). 4907: 4903: 4891:. Retrieved 4887:the original 4882: 4876: 4868: 4863: (1973). 4847: 4843: 4836: 4827: 4822: (1983). 4806: 4802: 4797: (1983). 4781: 4777: 4769: 4765: 4760: (1925). 4744: 4740: 4728:. Retrieved 4724:the original 4719: 4713: 4705: 4700: (1925). 4684: 4672: (1948). 4656: 4652: 4647: (1964). 4633:Beck v. Ohio 4631: 4627: 4615:. Retrieved 4608:the original 4590: 4578:. Retrieved 4574:the original 4569: 4560: 4539: 4535: 4525:December 28, 4523:. Retrieved 4518: 4514: 4504: 4497:Blackmun, J. 4495:, 469 U.S., 4492: 4488: 4470: 4464: 4452: (1991). 4436: 4421: 4417: 4404: 4399: 4394: (1999). 4378: 4374: 4369: (2000). 4353: 4349: 4344: (2004). 4328: 4324: 4319: (1990). 4304: 4300: 4295: (1976). 4279: 4275: 4263:. Retrieved 4259:the original 4254: 4244: 4239: (1979). 4223: 4219: 4211: 4202: 4180: 4176: 4164:. 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Retrieved 3081:the original 3076: 3071:Mapp v. Ohio 3070: 3062: 3057: (1961). 3043:Mapp v. Ohio 3041: 3022:. Retrieved 3015:the original 3005: 2998: 2986:. Retrieved 2976: 2964:. Retrieved 2957:the original 2952: 2943: 2931:. Retrieved 2927:the original 2923:nycourts.gov 2922: 2909: 2897:. Retrieved 2893:the original 2888: 2879: 2869:September 3, 2867:. Retrieved 2857: 2847:September 3, 2845:. Retrieved 2835: 2830: (2010). 2810: 2791:. Retrieved 2781: 2769: 2757: 2745: 2733:. Retrieved 2708:. Retrieved 2698: 2686: 2659:. Retrieved 2655:the original 2650: 2623: 2611:. Retrieved 2597: 2585: 2580: 2572: 2569:Amendment IV 2563: 2556:Maier (2010) 2551: 2539: 2527:. Retrieved 2523:the original 2518: 2491: 2479:. Retrieved 2472:the original 2458: 2431: 2419: 2407: 2395: 2383: 2371: 2362: 2358: 2348: 2336: 2326: 2322: 2296: 2282: 2270:. Retrieved 2266:the original 2255: 2247: 2246: 2236: 2218: 2211: 2156: 2150: 2149:However, in 2148: 2132: 2130: 2092:tax hearings 2084: 2077: 2071: 2065: 2059: 2057: 2049: 2040: 2031: 2025: 2020:grand juries 2013: 2011: 1994: 1990:Mapp v. Ohio 1989: 1985: 1984:(1949), but 1979: 1971: 1961: 1955: 1949: 1947: 1940: 1934: 1912: 1906: 1896: 1894: 1870: 1864: 1861: 1853: 1852:in its 2008 1843: 1841: 1817:pursuant to 1815: 1797: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1777: 1771: 1764: 1746: 1744: 1733: 1730: 1716: 1709: 1703: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1679: 1677: 1655: 1650: 1642: 1640: 1633: 1630: 1623: 1617: 1615: 1595: 1589: 1583: 1577: 1575: 1568: 1557: 1550: 1523: 1515: 1509: 1503: 1500: 1493: 1491: 1476: 1464: 1452: 1446: 1440: 1434: 1431: 1424: 1422: 1406: 1399: 1395:traffic stop 1391: 1384: 1378: 1374: 1368: 1366: 1362: 1346: 1334: 1328: 1322: 1318: 1312: 1310: 1299: 1283: 1279: 1273: 1269: 1267: 1260: 1256: 1254: 1239: 1235: 1233: 1205: 1199: 1197: 1190: 1184: 1178: 1170: 1149: 1143: 1137: 1124: 1118: 1113: 1111: 1105: 1101: 1099: 1091: 1084: 1075: 1065: 1060: 1041:Mapp v. Ohio 1039: 1033: 1027: 1016: 1010: 1004: 998: 992: 966: 957: 947: 942: 927: 923: 911: 900: 885: 873:George Mason 862: 848: 843: 831: 826: 818: 810: 798: 782: 763: 749: 741: 727: 705: 699: 689: 687: 643: 624:Mapp v. Ohio 622: 615: 592: 580:inadmissible 569: 563: 536:(1967), the 531: 528: 504:Amendment IV 503: 499: 497: 306:Equal Rights 272: 144: 45:Constitution 29: 11525:William Few 11405:Jacob Broom 11385:George Read 11259:Connecticut 11193:Signatories 11043:Legislative 11017:Territorial 10937:Presentment 10922:Origination 10877:Impeachment 10832:Extradition 10800:Engagements 10790:Due Process 10740:Citizenship 10427:Child Labor 9867:Attenuation 9243:Checkpoints 8528:requirement 6920:January 14, 6899:January 16, 6223: (2004) 6198: (2002) 5557: (2009) 5394:ABA Journal 5349:December 5, 4481: (1985) 3926:491, 497–98 3869: (1968) 3813:January 23, 3719:January 13, 3377:October 27, 3168: (1984) 3109:January 18, 2933:October 27, 2762:Wood (2009) 2735:January 26, 2628:Wood (2009) 2451:Levy (1995) 2341:Levy (1995) 2064:(1995) and 2008:Limitations 1960:(1920) and 1204:(1967). In 1130:sworn by it 1003:(1765) and 828:be granted. 712:John Entick 708:John Wilkes 673:English law 299:Child Labor 11664:Categories 11637:(painting) 11589:and legacy 11447:John Blair 11296:New Jersey 11250:Rufus King 11148:Preemption 11062:War Powers 10997:Suspension 10815:Exceptions 10505:Human Life 10404:Unratified 10204:Amendments 9949:Civil suit 8846:Plain view 7580:References 7568:January 4, 6967:SCOTUSblog 6363:SCOTUSblog 5593:Kerr, Orin 5573:SCOTUSblog 5518:SCOTUSblog 3808:SCOTUSblog 3756:SCOTUSblog 3426:SCOTUSblog 3190:(6): 1669. 2481:January 8, 2113:See also: 2000:passed a " 1998:California 1937:admissible 1788:Rabinowitz 1767:common law 1467:magistrate 1419:Exceptions 1268:Following 1221:. Justice 1219:reasonable 921:, intact. 834:John Adams 806:John Adams 801:James Otis 794:George III 777:James Otis 754:common law 668:Background 350:Federalism 338:Convention 11158:Saxbe fix 11047:Executive 11002:Take Care 10992:Supremacy 10867:Guarantee 10795:Elections 10566:Formation 10279:1795–1804 7329:USA Today 6241:. 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