Flagellum - Knowledge

616: 335: 2369: 1325:. Additional evidence for the evolution of bacterial flagella includes the existence of vestigial flagella, intermediate forms of flagella and patterns of similarities among flagellar protein sequences, including the observation that almost all of the core flagellar proteins have known homologies with non-flagellar proteins. Furthermore, several processes have been identified as playing important roles in flagellar evolution, including self-assembly of simple repeating subunits, gene duplication with subsequent divergence, recruitment of elements from other systems ('molecular bricolage') and recombination. 1287:(T3SS) found in many gram-negative bacteria, hence one likely evolved from the other. Because the T3SS has a similar number of components as a flagellar apparatus (about 25 proteins), which one evolved first is difficult to determine. However, the flagellar system appears to involve more proteins overall, including various regulators and chaperones, hence it has been argued that flagella evolved from a T3SS. However, it has also been suggested that the flagellum may have evolved first or the two structures evolved in parallel. Early single-cell organisms' need for 1509:("movement on purpose") the clockwise rotation of a flagellum is suppressed by chemical compounds favorable to the cell (e.g. food). When moving in a favorable direction, the concentration of such chemical attractants increases and therefore tumbles are continually suppressed, allowing forward motion; likewise, when the cell's direction of motion is unfavorable (e.g., away from a chemical attractant), tumbles are no longer suppressed and occur much more often, with the chance that the cell will be thus reoriented in the correct direction. 552: 6945: 57: 73: 598:, in the rotor. The flagellum is highly energy efficient and uses very little energy. The torque is transferred from the MotAB to the torque helix on FliG's D5 domain and with the increase in the requirement of the torque or speed more MotAB are employed. Because the flagellar motor has no on-off switch, the protein epsE is used as a mechanical clutch to disengage the motor from the rotor, thus stopping the flagellum and allowing the bacterium to remain in one place. 2354: 1529: 1177: 1554: 1540: 1659: 1317:". However, many proteins can be deleted or mutated and the flagellum still works, though sometimes at reduced efficiency. Moreover, with many proteins unique to some number across species, diversity of bacterial flagella composition was higher than expected. Hence, the flagellar apparatus is clearly very flexible in evolutionary terms and perfectly able to lose or gain protein components. For instance, a number of mutations have been found that 1521: 8771: 1229:

such a speed, a bacterium would take about 245 days to cover 1 km; although that may seem slow, the perspective changes when the concept of scale is introduced. In comparison to macroscopic life forms, it is very fast indeed when expressed in terms of number of body lengths per second. A cheetah, for example, only achieves about 25 body lengths per second.

1486:, two flagellar systems co-exist, using different sets of genes and different ion gradients for energy. The polar flagella are constitutively expressed and provide motility in bulk fluid, while the lateral flagella are expressed when the polar flagella meet too much resistance to turn. These provide swarming motility on surfaces or in viscous fluids. 1650:, polypeptide complexes extending from each of the outer nine microtubule doublets towards the central pair, with the "head" of the spoke facing inwards. The radial spoke is thought to be involved in the regulation of flagellar motion, although its exact function and method of action are not yet understood. 1497:

Flagella are left-handed helices, and when rotated counter-clockwise by their rotors, they can bundle and rotate together. When the rotors reverse direction, thus rotating clockwise, the flagellum unwinds from the bundle. This may cause the cell to stop its forward motion and instead start twitching

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Besides the axoneme and basal body, relatively constant in morphology, other internal structures of the flagellar apparatus are the transition zone (where the axoneme and basal body meet) and the root system (microtubular or fibrilar structures that extend from the basal bodies into the cytoplasm),

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The rotational speed of flagella varies in response to the intensity of the proton-motive force, thereby permitting certain forms of speed control, and also permitting some types of bacteria to attain remarkable speeds in proportion to their size; some achieve roughly 60 cell lengths per second. At

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is superficially similar to the bacterial flagellum; in the 1980s, they were thought to be homologous on the basis of gross morphology and behavior. Both flagella and archaella consist of filaments extending outside the cell, and rotate to propel the cell. Archaeal flagella have a unique structure

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and flagella are ultimately the same, they are sometimes classed by their pattern of movement, a tradition from before their structures have been known. In the case of flagella, the motion is often planar and wave-like, whereas the motile cilia often perform a more complicated three-dimensional

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Adl, Sina M.; Simpson, Alastair G. B.; Lane, Christopher E.; Lukeš, Julius; Bass, David; Bowser, Samuel S.; Brown, Matthew W.; Burki, Fabien; Dunthorn, Micah; Hampl, Vladimir; Heiss, Aaron; Hoppenrath, Mona; Lara, Enrique; le Gall, Line; Lynn, Denis H.; McManus, Hilary; Mitchell, Edward A. D.;

2304:. Research into the structure of archaella made significant progress beginning in the early 2010s, with the first atomic resolution structure of an archaella protein, the discovery of additional functions of archaella, and the first reports of archaella in Nanoarchaeota and Thaumarchaeota. 518:, such as the hollow, rod-like "plug" in their centers extending out through the plasma membrane. The similarities between bacterial flagella and bacterial secretory system structures and proteins provide scientific evidence supporting the theory that bacterial flagella evolved from the 2178:, due to the pair of flagella of unequal length. It has taken on a specific meaning in referring to cells with an anterior straminipilous flagellum (with tripartite mastigonemes, in one or two rows) and a posterior usually smooth flagellum. It is also used to refer to the taxon 2272:

Bacterial flagella are thicker than archaella, and the bacterial filament has a large enough hollow "tube" inside that the flagellin subunits can flow up the inside of the filament and get added at the tip; the archaellum is too thin (12-15 nm) to allow

1549:. In the cell apex is the basal body that is the anchoring site for a flagellum. Basal bodies originate from and have a substructure similar to that of centrioles, with nine peripheral microtubule triplets (see structure at bottom center of image). 5755: 1634:

more variable and useful as indicators of phylogenetic relationships of eukaryotes. Other structures, more uncommon, are the paraflagellar (or paraxial, paraxonemal) rod, the R fiber, and the S fiber. For surface structures, see below.

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microscopy. The rotation of the filaments relative to the cell body causes the entire bacterium to move forward in a corkscrew-like motion, even through material viscous enough to prevent the passage of normally flagellated bacteria.

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Andersen, R. A.; Barr, D. J. S.; Lynn, D. H.; Melkonian, M.; Moestrup, Ø.; Sleigh, M. A. (February 1991). "Terminology and nomenclature of the cytoskeletal elements associated with the flagellar/ciliary apparatus in protists".

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During flagellar assembly, components of the flagellum pass through the hollow cores of the basal body and the nascent filament. During assembly, protein components are added at the flagellar tip rather than at the base.

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Bacterial flagellar motor assembly: Shown here is the C-ring at the base with FliG in red, FliM in yellow, and FliN in shades of purple; the MS-ring in blue; the MotAB in brown; the LP-ring in pink; and the rod in

2232:, the archaeal proteins (archaellins) are made with class 3 signal peptides and they are processed by a type IV prepilin peptidase-like enzyme. The archaellins are typically modified by the addition of N-linked 1291:(mobility) support that the more mobile flagella would be selected by evolution first, but the T3SS evolving from the flagellum can be seen as 'reductive evolution', and receives no topological support from the 3320:

Galkin, Vitold E.; Yu, Xiong; Bielnicki, Jakub; Heuser, John; Ewing, Cheryl P.; Guerry, Patricia; Egelman, Edward H. (18 April 2008). "Divergence of Quaternary Structures Among Bacterial Flagellar Filaments".

2342:, and a terminal plate is present in the transitional zone. An inner ring-like structure attached to the tubules of the flagellar doublets within the transitional zone has been observed in transverse section. 1201: 1422:

Counterclockwise rotation of a monotrichous polar flagellum pushes the cell forward with the flagellum trailing behind, much like a corkscrew moving inside cork. Water on the microscopic scale is highly

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Eukaryotic flagella or cilia, probably an ancestral characteristic, are widespread in almost all groups of eukaryotes, as a relatively perennial condition, or as a flagellated life cycle stage (e.g.,

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While bacterial cells often have many flagellar filaments, each of which rotates independently, the archaeal flagellum is composed of a bundle of many filaments that rotates as a single assembly.

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trees. The hypothesis that the two structures evolved separately from a common ancestor accounts for the protein similarities between the two structures, as well as their functional diversity.

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Hibberd, DJ (1976). "The ultrastructure and taxonomy of the Chrysophyceae and Prymnesiophyceae (Haptophyceae): a survey with some new observations on the ultrastructure of the Chrysophyceae".

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Rajagopala, Seesandra V; Titz, Björn; Goll, Johannes; Parrish, Jodi R; Wohlbold, Katrin; McKevitt, Matthew T; Palzkill, Timothy; Mori, Hirotada; Finley, Russell L; Uetz, Peter (January 2007).

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The flagellar filament is the long, helical screw that propels the bacterium when rotated by the motor, through the hook. In most bacteria that have been studied, including the gram-negative

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Aiming to emphasize the distinction between the bacterial flagella and the eukaryotic cilia and flagella, some authors attempted to replace the name of these two eukaryotic structures with "

345:, and the eukaryotic flagellum uses a complex sliding filament system. Eukaryotic flagella are ATP-driven, while prokaryotic flagella can be ATP-driven (Archaea) or proton-driven (Bacteria). 2280:, but the components of bacterial flagella and archaella share no sequence similarity. Instead, some components of archaella share sequence and morphological similarity with components of 2147:

heterodynamic: flagella with different beating patterns (usually with one flagellum functioning in food capture and the other functioning in gliding, anchorage, propulsion or "steering")

1459:, more than 30 individual flagella are organized outside the cell body, helically twining about each other to form a thick structure (easily visible with the light microscope) called a " 1404:, which act in concert to drive the bacteria in a single direction. In many cases, the bases of multiple flagella are surrounded by a specialized region of the cell membrane, called the 1313:

Some authors have argued that flagella cannot have evolved, assuming that they can only function properly when all proteins are in place. In other words, the flagellar apparatus is "

537:, that is, the scaffolding rings of the inner membrane (IM), the scaffolding pairs of the outer membrane (OM), and the rod/needle (injectisome) or rod/hook (flagellum) sections. 2831:

Streif, Stefan; Staudinger, Wilfried Franz; Marwan, Wolfgang; Oesterhelt, Dieter (December 2008). "Flagellar Rotation in the Archaeon Halobacterium salinarum Depends on ATP".

1248:, respectively. The two directions of rotation are not identical (with respect to flagellum movement) and are selected by a molecular switch. Clockwise rotation is called the 8785: 5077:

Mozley-Stanridge, Sharon E.; Parfrey, Laura W.; Pawlowski, Jan; Rueckert, Sonja; Shadwick, Laura; Schoch, Conrad L.; Smirnov, Alexey; Spiegel, Frederick W. (September 2012).

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Ng, Sandy Y.M.; Chaban, Bonnie; Jarrell, Ken F. (2006). "Archaeal Flagella, Bacterial Flagella and Type IV Pili: A Comparison of Genes and Posttranslational Modifications".

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Ruan, Juanfang; Kato, Takayuki; Santini, Claire-Lise; Miyata, Tomoko; Kawamoto, Akihiro; Zhang, Wei-Jia; Bernadac, Alain; Wu, Long-Fei; Namba, Keiichi (11 December 2012).

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and has a sharp bend just outside the outer membrane; this "hook" allows the axis of the helix to point directly away from the cell. A shaft runs between the hook and the

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Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold; Zipursky, S. Lawrence; Matsudaira, Paul; Baltimore, David; Darnell, James (2000). "Section 19.4Cilia and Flagella: Structure and Movement".

1701:, and other proteins are moved up and down the length of the flagellum, is essential for proper functioning of the flagellum, in both motility and signal transduction. 1578:), preserving "flagella" for the bacterial structure. However, the discriminative usage of the terms "cilia" and "flagella" for eukaryotes adopted in this article (see 6023:

de Sousa Machado, J. Nuno; Vollmar, Leonie; Schimpf, Julia; Chaudhury, Paushali; Kumariya, Rashmi; van der Does, Chris; Hugel, Thorsten; Albers, Sonja-Verena (2021).

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Eukaryotic flagella. 1–axoneme, 2–cell membrane, 3–IFT (IntraFlagellar Transport), 4–Basal body, 5–Cross section of flagella, 6–Triplets of microtubules of basal body

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Atsumi, Tatsuo; McCartert, Linda; Imae, Yasuo (January 1992). "Polar and lateral flagellar motors of marine Vibrio are driven by different ion-motive forces".

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Singh, Prashant K.; Sharma, Pankaj; Afanzar, Oshri; Goldfarb, Margo H.; Maklashina, Elena; Eisenbach, Michael; Cecchini, Gary; Iverson, T. M. (17 April 2024).

129: 505:, the filament is made up of 11 protofilaments approximately parallel to the filament axis. Each protofilament is a series of tandem protein chains. However, 1505:

It is not known which stimuli drive the switch between bundling and tumbling, but the motor is highly adaptive to different signals. In the model describing

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Gophna, Uri; Ron, Eliora Z.; Graur, Dan (July 2003). "Bacterial type III secretion systems are ancient and evolved by multiple horizontal-transfer events".

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that move with a bending mechanism. Bacteria and archaea do not have dynein or microtubules in their flagella, and they move using a rotary mechanism.

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Flagella or cilia are completely absent in some groups, probably due to a loss rather than being a primitive condition. The loss of cilia occurred in

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Bundling is an event that can happen in multi-flagellated cells, bundling the flagella together and causing them to rotate in a coordinated manner.

290:, the flagellum has a different structure, protein composition, and mechanism of propulsion but shares the same function of providing motility. The 1646:

arms (an "inner" and an "outer" arm) to the adjacent microtubule; these produce force through ATP hydrolysis. The flagellar axoneme also contains

341:(bacterial and archaeal) flagella run in a rotary movement, while eukaryotic flagella run in a bending movement. The prokaryotic flagellum uses a 3269:

Diószeghy, Zoltán; Závodszky, Péter; Namba, Keiichi; Vonderviszt, Ferenc (18 June 2004). "Stabilization of flagellar filaments by HAP2 capping".

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Eukaryotic flagella—those of animal, plant, and protist cells—are complex cellular projections that lash back and forth. Eukaryotic flagella and

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Thomas, Nikhil A.; Bardy, Sonia L.; Jarrell, Ken F. (April 2001). "The archaeal flagellum: a different kind of prokaryotic motility structure".

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A number of terms related to flagella or cilia are used to characterize eukaryotes. According to surface structures present, flagella may be:

6409: 5966:"Getting a hold on archaeal type IV pili: an expanding repertoire of cellular appendages implicates complex regulation and diverse functions" 7596: 382:) are superficially similar to bacterial flagella in that it also has a rotary motor, but are different in many details and considered non- 6025:"Autophosphorylation of the KaiC-like protein ArlH inhibits oligomerization and interaction with ArlI, the motor ATPase of the archaellum" 2368: 2269:

Bacterial flagella grow by the addition of flagellin subunits at the tip; archaeal flagella grow by the addition of subunits to the base.

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Canals, Rocío; Ramirez, Silvia; Vilches, Silvia; Horsburgh, Gavin; Shaw, Jonathan G.; Tomás, Juan M.; Merino, Susana (15 January 2006).

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Canals, Rocío; Altarriba, Maria; Vilches, Silvia; Horsburgh, Gavin; Shaw, Jonathan G.; Tomás, Juan M.; Merino, Susana (February 2006).

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Kudryashev, Mikhail; Cyrklaff, Marek; Baumeister, Wolfgang; Simon, Markus M.; Wallich, Reinhard; Frischknecht, Friedrich (March 2009).

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motion with a power and recovery stroke. Yet another traditional form of distinction is by the number of 9+2 organelles on the cell.

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Even if all flagella would rotate clockwise, however, they often cannot form a bundle due to geometrical and hydrodynamic reasons.

1194: 586:). The rotor transports protons across the membrane, and is turned in the process. The rotor alone can operate at 6,000 to 100,000 5610:

Corliss, J.O.; Lom, J (2000). "An annotated glossary of protozoological terms". In Lee, J.J.; Leedale, G.F.; Bradbury, P. (eds.).

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Minamino, Tohru; Imada, Katsumi; Namba, Keiichi (2008). "Mechanisms of type III protein export for bacterial flagellar assembly".

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tripartite (= straminipilous) hairs: with three regions (a base, a tubular shaft, and one or more terminal hairs). Occurs in most

6959: 590:, but with the flagellar filament attached usually only reaches 200 to 1000 rpm. The direction of rotation can be changed by the 7483: 6874: 2528:

Malo, Aurelio F; Gomendio, Montserrat; Garde, Julian; Lang-Lenton, Barbara; Soler, Ana J; Roldan, Eduardo R.S (22 June 2006).

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and flagella generate motion on a cellular level. Examples range from the propulsion of single cells such as the swimming of

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Beating pattern of eukaryotic "flagellum" and "cillum", a traditional distinction before the structures of the two are known.

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Through use of their flagella, bacteria are able to move rapidly towards attractants and away from repellents, by means of a

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Lowe, Graeme; Meister, Markus; Berg, Howard C. (February 1987). "Rapid rotation of flagellar bundles in swimming bacteria".

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Discoveries in the 1990s revealed numerous detailed differences between the archaeal and bacterial flagella. These include:

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Pallen, M.J.; Gophna, U. (2007). "Bacterial Flagella and Type III Secretion: Case Studies in the Evolution of Complexity".

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According to the number of flagella, cells may be: (remembering that some authors use "ciliated" instead of "flagellated")

1502:. Tumbling results in a stochastic reorientation of the cell, causing it to change the direction of its forward swimming. 6285: 6838: 3917:

Pallen, Mark J.; Matzke, Nicholas J. (October 2006). "From The Origin of Species to the origin of bacterial flagella".

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The cylindrical shape of flagella is suited to locomotion of microscopic organisms; these organisms operate at a low

872: 8672: 7589: 564:) made up of protein, located at the flagellum's anchor point on the inner cell membrane. The engine is powered by 5441:

Lahr, Daniel J. G.; Parfrey, Laura Wegener; Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Katz, Laura A.; Lara, Enrique (22 July 2011).

6471: 5297:"Intraflagellar Transport and Cilia-Dependent Renal Disease: The Ciliary Hypothesis of Polycystic Kidney Disease" 2292:

These differences support the theory that the bacterial flagella and archaella are a classic case of biological

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Kim, MunJu; Bird, James C.; Van Parys, Annemarie J.; Breuer, Kenneth S.; Powers, Thomas R. (23 December 2003).

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Sun, Qifang; Yuan, Chengzhi; Zhou, Sainan; Lu, Jing; Zeng, Meiyan; Cai, Xiong; Song, Houpan (19 October 2023).

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Ghosh, Abhrajyoti; Albers, Sonja-Verena (1 February 2011). "Assembly and function of the archaeal flagellum".

1269:, flagellar filaments assemble spontaneously in a solution containing purified flagellin as the sole protein. 6573: 1615: 530: 124: 5222:

Lindemann, CB; Lesich, KA (15 February 2010). "Flagellar and ciliary beating: the proven and the possible".

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Berg, Howard C.; Anderson, Robert A. (October 1973). "Bacteria Swim by Rotating their Flagellar Filaments".

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Silverman, Michael; Simon, Melvin (May 1974). "Flagellar rotation and the mechanism of bacterial motility".

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Asakura, Sho; Eguchi, Goro; Iino, Tetsuo (October 1964). "Reconstitution of bacterial flagella in vitro".

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for flagellar microtubules and is about 500 nanometers long. Basal bodies are structurally identical to

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Different species of bacteria have different numbers and arrangements of flagella, named using the term

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Wang, Qingfeng; Suzuki, Asaka; Mariconda, Susana; Porwollik, Steffen; Harshey, Rasika M (1 June 2005).

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akont: cells without flagella. It was also used to refer to taxonomic groups, as Aconta or Akonta: the

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Metlina, A. L. (November 2004). "Bacterial and archaeal flagella as prokaryotic motility organelles".

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stephanokont: cells with a crown of flagella near its anterior end, e.g., the gametes and spores of

2127:, flagella are laterally to terminally inserted, but are directed posteriorly during rapid swimming. 8291: 7180: 7052: 7039: 6568: 4636:

McCarter, Linda L. (2004). "Dual Flagellar Systems Enable Motility under Different Circumstances".

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Titz, Björn; Rajagopala, Seesandra V.; Ester, Claudia; Häuser, Roman; Uetz, Peter (November 2006).

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Kakkanat, Asha; Phan, Minh-Duy; Lo, Alvin W.; Beatson, Scott A.; Schembri, Mark A. (10 May 2017).

8531: 7458: 7438: 6904: 3636: 3543: 1698: 1472: 1446: 861: 243: 3374:"Structural Insights into Type III Secretion Systems of the Bacterial Flagellum and Injectisome" 2453:"Assembly and Motility of Eukaryotic Cilia and Flagella. Lessons from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii" 1225:, where the viscosity of the surrounding water is much more important than its mass or inertia. 8823: 8728: 8667: 8606: 8320: 7468: 7320: 6831: 6533: 6508: 2260: 1730:

The first situation is found either in specialized cells of multicellular organisms (e.g., the

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at its base which can turn clockwise or counterclockwise. They provide two of several kinds of

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since the 1970s) or "cilia" for both (e.g., Hülsmann, 1992; Adl et al., 2012; most papers of

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At least 10 protein components of the bacterial flagellum share homologous proteins with the

1278: 1237: 1119: 983: 646: 5163: 4035:"Evolution of the type III secretion system and its effectors in plant–microbe interactions" 2608: 7265: 7065: 6969: 6934: 6805: 6321: 6254: 5802: 4949: 4890: 4589:"Effect of viscosity on swimming by the lateral and polar flagella of Vibrio alginolyticus" 4346: 4210: 3696: 3500: 3330: 3278: 3247: 3101: 3011: 2968: 2917: 2297: 1376: 1370: 1140: 568:, i.e., by the flow of protons (hydrogen ions) across the bacterial cell membrane due to a 507: 501: 8391: 5790: 1610:

is characteristic of the eukaryotic flagellum. At the base of a eukaryotic flagellum is a

8: 8828: 8616: 7508: 7443: 7210: 7199: 7076: 7059: 6431: 4335:"Architecture of a flagellar apparatus in the fast-swimming magnetotactic bacterium MO-1" 2252: 2244: 1804: 1400: 1155: 1094: 1043: 1038: 565: 463: 275: 247: 6325: 6258: 6165: 5806: 4953: 4894: 4350: 4214: 3821: 3794: 3504: 3468: 3433: 3390: 3373: 3334: 3282: 3066: 3015: 2972: 2921: 2158:

isokont: cells with flagella of equal length. It was also formerly used to refer to the

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species have two kinds of flagella, lateral and polar, and some are driven by a sodium

383: 372: 6387: 5049: 4972: 4937: 4913: 4868: 4746: 4721: 4613: 4588: 4011: 3892: 3559: 3544:"The Bacterial Flagellar Motor: Structure and Function of a Complex Molecular Machine" 8838: 8662: 8621: 7974: 7687: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7215: 7134: 6979: 6899: 6824: 6755: 6593: 6476: 6276: 6170: 6152: 6113: 6095: 6054: 6046: 6005: 5987: 5938: 5903: 5849: 5818: 5707: 5686: 5661: 5615: 5587: 5554: 5527: 5500: 5472: 5421: 5389: 5359: 5318: 5275: 5239: 5199: 5169: 5108: 5094: 5053: 5018: 4977: 4918: 4849: 4800: 4751: 4702: 4697: 4680: 4653: 4618: 4604: 4569: 4564: 4555: 4539: 4512: 4507: 4490: 4450: 4374: 4283: 4273: 4238: 4179: 4130: 4079: 4056: 4051: 4034: 4015: 3980: 3934: 3896: 3861: 3826: 3775: 3674: 3573: 3563: 3516: 3473: 3455: 3434:"CryoEM structures reveal how the bacterial flagellum rotates and switches direction" 3415: 3403: 3395: 3372:

Worrall, Liam J.; Majewski, Dorothy D.; Strynadka, Natalie C.J. (15 September 2023).

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Many components of bacterial flagella share sequence similarity to components of the

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Saier, M (March 2004). "Evolution of bacterial type III protein secretion systems".

3946: 3306: 3152: 2945: 304:" to describe its lash-like swimming motion. The flagellum in archaea is called the 296: 8780: 8636: 8480: 8427: 8379: 8338: 8303: 8296: 8233: 8110: 8036: 7345: 7325: 7249: 7123: 7070: 7009: 6337: 6329: 6262: 6210: 6160: 6144: 6103: 6085: 6036: 5995: 5977: 5930: 5895: 5810: 5736: 5651: 5462: 5454: 5349: 5308: 5231: 5136: 5098: 5090: 5045: 5008: 4967: 4957: 4908: 4898: 4839: 4831: 4790: 4782: 4741: 4733: 4692: 4645: 4608: 4600: 4559: 4551: 4502: 4440: 4430: 4364: 4354: 4265: 4228: 4218: 4169: 4161: 4120: 4112: 4046: 4007: 3972: 3926: 3888: 3853: 3816: 3806: 3765: 3755: 3705: 3644: 3555: 3528: 3508: 3463: 3445: 3385: 3358: 3338: 3286: 3243: 3175: 3132: 3097: 3088:

Harshey, RM (2003). "Bacterial motility on a surface: many ways to a common goal".

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Jahn, T L; Bovee, E C (October 1965). "Movement and Locomotion of Microorganisms".

3039: 3019: 2988: 2976: 2925: 2840: 2803: 2795: 2754: 2746: 2705: 2695: 2654: 2646: 2590: 2549: 2541: 2472: 2464: 2423: 2199: 2079: 2045: 1966:

acronematic: flagella with a single, terminal mastigoneme or flagellar hair (e.g.,

1843: 1398:) have multiple flagella located at the same spot on the bacterial surface such as 1241: 1048: 656: 487: 251:, for example, uses its flagella to propel itself through the stomach to reach the 160: 7665: 6368:"Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum" 4835: 4786: 4737: 3290: 3195: 393:

are identical in structure, but have different lengths, waveforms, and functions.

228: 8412: 7644: 7453: 7330: 7156: 7140: 7128: 6944: 6869: 6456: 5656: 5639: 5494: 4587:

Atsumi, T; Maekawa, Y; Yamada, T; Kawagishi, I; Imae, Y; Homma, M (August 1996).

4223: 3760: 1623: 1405: 1354: 1222: 1150: 937: 829: 579: 475: 451: 105: 6367: 5576: 5168:. The Systematics Association Special Volume. Vol. 59. Taylor and Francis. 3694:

Hildebrand, Milton (November 1959). "Motions of the running Cheetah and Horse".

594:

almost instantaneously, caused by a slight change in the position of a protein,

394: 8596: 8437: 8347: 8333: 8134: 7990: 7938: 7795: 7714: 7523: 7254: 7169: 7045: 6419: 5443:"The chastity of amoebae: re-evaluating evidence for sex in amoeboid organisms" 5269: 4942:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3811: 3450: 2169: 2165: 2055: 2041: 2017: 1974: 1941: 1915: 1911: 1582:

below) is still common (e.g., Andersen et al., 1991; Leadbeater et al., 2000).

1575: 1078: 919: 841: 260: 252: 6090: 5036:

Hülsmann, Norbert (August 1992). "Undulipodium: End of a useless discussion".

4722:"Regulation of lateral flagella gene transcription in Vibrio parahaemolyticus" 3976: 3795:"Helicobacter pylori infection: a dynamic process from diagnosis to treatment" 3179: 2844: 2595: 1557:

The "9+2" structure is visible in this cross-section micrograph of an axoneme.

1252:

with the body following the flagella. Counterclockwise rotation is called the

8817: 8775: 8526: 8498: 8402: 8375: 8372: 8306: 7800: 7774: 7724: 7533: 7503: 7388: 7383: 7110: 7087: 7024: 6994: 6989: 6702: 6662: 6637: 6553: 6466: 6441: 6289: 6156: 6148: 6099: 6050: 5991: 5982: 4491:"Comparative cryo-electron tomography of pathogenic Lyme disease spirochetes" 4435: 3459: 3399: 2700: 2650: 2175: 2070: 1986: 1937: 1816: 1571: 994: 904: 882: 819: 534: 471: 455: 447: 443: 442:, passing through protein rings in the cell's membrane that act as bearings. 224: 204:

for 'whip' or 'scourge') is a hairlike appendage that protrudes from certain

85: 5614:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Society of Protozoologists. pp. 1346–85. 4903: 4771:"Analysis of the Lateral Flagellar Gene System of Aeromonas hydrophila AH-3" 4359: 3342: 1894:

whiplash flagella (= smooth, acronematic flagella): without hairs, e.g., in

1460: 56: 8713: 8683: 8543: 8194: 8046: 8041: 7943: 7879: 7743: 7609: 7605: 7528: 7423: 7350: 7305: 7277: 7174: 7150: 6999: 6924: 6894: 6889: 6879: 6682: 6654: 6632: 6625: 6605: 6545: 6461: 6446: 6347: 6174: 6117: 6058: 6009: 5942: 5907: 5712:(2nd ed.). Ann Arbor: Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 5665: 5476: 5458: 5363: 5338:"Evolution of microtubule organizing centers across the tree of eukaryotes" 5322: 5243: 5112: 5057: 5022: 4922: 4853: 4804: 4706: 4657: 4573: 4516: 4454: 4378: 4287: 4242: 4183: 4134: 4060: 4019: 3984: 3938: 3900: 3865: 3830: 3779: 3577: 3477: 3407: 3350: 3298: 3255: 3187: 3144: 3109: 2852: 2768: 2719: 2668: 2604: 2563: 2545: 2486: 2437: 2288:(the nomenclature of pili and protein secretion systems is not consistent). 2281: 2207: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2124: 2120: 2105: 2097: 2083: 2035: 2021: 2011: 1919: 1895: 1863: 1808: 1800: 1770: 1674:

to the transport of fluid along a stationary layer of cells such as in the

1647: 1607: 1567: 1438: 1292: 1103: 824: 804: 777: 772: 726: 714: 624: 551: 405: 401: 390: 256: 5822: 5013: 4996: 4962: 4755: 4622: 3648: 3520: 3074: 3031: 2937: 2817: 2799: 2428: 2411: 2229: 1900:

hairy flagella (= tinsel, flimmer, pleuronematic flagella): with hairs (=

255:

where it may colonise the epithelium and potentially cause gastritis, and

8743: 8718: 8706: 8521: 8475: 8276: 8243: 8223: 8144: 8057: 7928: 7896: 7834: 7824: 7759: 7734: 7682: 7493: 7478: 7428: 7293: 7117: 6914: 6909: 6864: 6784: 6750: 6677: 6672: 6563: 6191:

Longcore, Joyce E.; Pessier, Allan P.; Nichols, Donald K. (March 1999). "

6132: 6072:

Nuno de Sousa Machado, João; Albers, Sonja-Verena; Daum, Bertram (2022).

4981: 4885: 4199:"Novel genes associated with enhanced motility of Escherichia coli ST131" 2750: 2339: 2179: 2159: 2101: 2075: 2051: 1990: 1980: 1951: 1945: 1901: 1824: 1812: 1792: 1762: 1671: 1595: 1455: 1160: 1089: 814: 799: 744: 583: 529:

have been elucidated in great detail, especially with the development of

526: 398: 357: 338: 316: 72: 4540:"Analysis of the Polar Flagellar Gene System of Vibrio parahaemolyticus" 4165: 3930: 8757: 8752: 8733: 8723: 8701: 8357: 8281: 8101: 8072: 8000: 7979: 7850: 7738: 7692: 7634: 7378: 7315: 7244: 7236: 7034: 7029: 6974: 6779: 6719: 6712: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6642: 6588: 6578: 6528: 6523: 6513: 6342: 6222: 6131:

Jarrell, Ken F; Albers, Sonja-Verena; Machado, J Nuno de Sousa (2021).

6022: 5899: 5420:(3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–24. 5235: 5140: 4116: 3717: 2385: 2335: 2220: 2109: 2088: 2065: 1996: 1923: 1867: 1855: 1847: 1820: 1774: 1731: 1611: 1553: 1539: 1528: 1506: 1434: 1380:)—both flagella rotate but coordinate to produce coherent thrust. 958: 809: 732: 720: 708: 702: 439: 379: 305: 236: 209: 6074:"Towards Elucidating the Rotary Mechanism of the Archaellum Machinery" 6041: 6024: 5493:

Austin, CR (1995). Grudzinskas, Jurgis Gediminas; Yovich, J L (eds.).

5354: 5337: 4649: 4269: 3136: 2468: 533:. The best understood parts are the parts between the inner and outer 142: 8738: 8611: 8601: 8447: 8422: 8352: 8204: 8184: 8170: 8149: 8077: 7957: 7860: 7839: 7785: 7677: 7656: 7448: 7433: 7373: 7355: 7335: 7310: 7271: 7099: 6800: 6762: 6735: 6707: 6600: 6583: 6518: 6491: 6423: 6267: 6242: 6201: 4938:"Bacterial flagella rotating in bundles: a study in helical geometry" 3857: 3512: 3023: 2980: 2929: 2410:

Bardy, Sonia L.; Ng, Sandy Y. M.; Jarrell, Ken F. (1 February 2003).

2331: 2061: 2025: 1839: 1766: 1739: 1627: 1619: 1482: 1368:

bacteria have a single flagellum on each of two opposite ends (e.g.,

1245: 738: 696: 479: 431: 427: 349:

The three types of flagella are bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic.

315:

are identical in structure but have different lengths and functions.

287: 268: 81: 62: 35: 6333: 6214: 3730:

the cheetah's fastest recorded speed was 110 km/h (68 mph)

3709: 3234:

Macnab, Robert M. (October 2003). "How Bacteria Assemble Flagella".

1658: 1626:, so that the interior of the flagellum is accessible to the cell's 1441:

arising from opposite poles of the cell, and are located within the

525:

The atomic structure of both bacterial flagella as well as the TTSS

8774: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 8631: 8626: 8538: 8503: 8432: 8417: 8407: 8286: 8209: 8160: 8124: 8091: 8005: 7917: 7814: 7769: 7649: 7629: 7498: 7204: 7163: 7145: 6919: 6856: 6847: 6745: 6501: 6486: 6481: 4679:

Merino, Susana; Shaw, Jonathan G.; TomÃ¡s, Juan M. (October 2006).

2317: 2192:. Term introduced by Blackman & Tansley (1902) to refer to the 2029: 2000: 1967: 1871: 1828: 1796: 1743: 1724: 1520: 1477: 1288: 1135: 1130: 279: 220: 6133:"A comprehensive history of motility and Archaellation in Archaea" 3268: 1761:

Flagellated lifecycle stages are found in many groups, e.g., many

8548: 8067: 8021: 7660: 7613: 7558: 7488: 7365: 7104: 6767: 6667: 6620: 6496: 5001:

International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology

4488: 2321: 2293: 2224: 1879: 1832: 1747: 1735: 1591: 1533: 1424: 1083: 1004: 968: 423: 283: 232: 27:

Cellular appendage functioning as locomotive or sensory organelle

2830: 2119:

opisthokont: cells with flagella inserted posteriorly, e.g., in

1750:

and many eukaryotes with a "flagellate condition" (or "monadoid

8470: 8328: 8031: 7907: 7639: 7220: 7191: 6610: 6071: 4768: 2579:"Helicobacter pylori: ulcers and more: the beginning of an era" 2256: 2233: 1859: 1788: 1783: 1720: 1643: 1009: 999: 963: 574: 514:

The basal body has several traits in common with some types of

467: 459: 353: 326:

are smaller, and thinner appendages, with different functions.

213: 8442: 8010: 7672: 4817: 4076:

The edge of evolution: the search for the limits of Darwinism

2359:

Multiple flagella in lophotrichous arrangement on surface of

2313: 2174:

heterokont: term introduced by Luther (1899) to refer to the

2164:

anisokont: cells with flagella of unequal length, e.g., some

1875: 1778: 1682: 1667: 1428: 1298: 688: 435: 323: 312: 291: 216: 205: 201: 184: 39: 5267: 4586: 4150:"Novel Conserved Assembly Factor of the Bacterial Flagellum" 3671:

Living at Micro Scale: The Unexpected Physics of Being Small

2632: 2527: 1929:

with stiff hairs (= tubular hairs, retronemes, mastigonemes

1910:

with fine hairs (= non-tubular, or simple hairs): occurs in

8786:

Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences

7538: 6816: 4869:"A macroscopic scale model of bacterial flagellar bundling" 2390: 2093: 1716: 1642:

Each of the outer 9 doublet microtubules extends a pair of

1414:

bacteria have flagella projecting in all directions (e.g.,

595: 561: 301: 178: 169: 4681:"Bacterial lateral flagella: an inducible flagella system" 3431: 2451:

Silflow, Carolyn D.; Lefebvre, Paul A. (1 December 2001).

1995:

with proboscis (trunk-like protrusion of the cell): e.g.,

175: 6740: 5526:. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. p. 65. 5125: 4147: 4098: 3313: 2682:

Albers, Sonja-Verena; Jarrell, Ken F. (27 January 2015).

2635:"Sensing wetness: a new role for the bacterial flagellum" 2338:. Nine interconnected props attach the kinetosome to the 446:

organisms have two of these basal body rings, one in the

7604: 3371: 6417: 5447:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

5440: 3319: 2733:

Quax, TEF; Albers, SV; Pfeiffer, F (14 December 2018).

6190: 5848:(Fifteenth, Global ed.). NY, NY. pp. 70–71. 5162:

Leadbeater, Barry S. C.; Green, John C., eds. (2000).

4866: 2330:

the flagellum is 19–20 μm long. A nonfunctioning

560:

The bacterial flagellum is driven by a rotary engine (

367:

Bacterial flagella are helical filaments, each with a

242:

A microorganism may have from one to many flagella. A

5407: 5405: 4332: 4196: 4033:

McCann, Honour C.; Guttman, David S. (January 2008).

3599:"Inside nature's most efficient motor: the flagellar" 3211:

Pili and Flagella: Current Research and Future Trends

2505:

Pili and flagella: current research and future trends

2236:

which are necessary for proper assembly or function.

2133:

subakrokont: cells with flagella inserted subapically

2115:

According to the place of insertion of the flagella:

308:

to note its difference from the bacterial flagellum.

163: 6130: 5881: 5879: 5791:"The origin of eukaryotic and archaebacterial cells" 5582:(4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 4820:"Polar Flagellum Biogenesis in Aeromonas hydrophila" 2228:

which lacks a central channel. Similar to bacterial

1445:

as shown by breaking the outer-membrane and also by

181: 166: 5075: 4719: 3490: 2150:

isodynamic: flagella beating with the same patterns

1970:); some authors use the term as synonym of whiplash 172: 5920: 5638:Jeuck, Alexandra; Arndt, Hartmut (November 2013). 5575: 5402: 3843: 2732: 2136:pleurokont: cells with flagella inserted laterally 1960:stichonematic flagella: with a single row of hairs 1543:Longitudinal section through the flagella area in 8231: 5876: 5191: 4538:Kim, Yun-Kyeong; McCarter, Linda L. (July 2000). 3878: 3662: 3209:Jarrell, K (2009). "Archaeal Flagella and Pili". 2144:gliding: a flagellum that trails on the substrate 1590:The core of a eukaryotic flagellum, known as the 8815: 5729:Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany 5412:Webster, John; Weber, Roland (25 January 2007). 5187: 5185: 4678: 4423:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 4412: 3799:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 6186: 6184: 5963: 5383: 5221: 5217: 5215: 5195:Algae: Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology 5161: 4873:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4339:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3837: 3122: 2958: 2450: 2259:ions; archaeal flagella rotation is powered by 2130:akrokont: cells with flagella inserted apically 363:Other differences among these three types are: 271:, being sensitive to wetness outside the cell. 267:, the flagellum can also function as a sensory 8789:(1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. 5788: 5782: 5488: 5486: 5336:Yubuki, Naoji; Leander, Brian S. (July 2013). 4720:Belas, R; Simon, M; Silverman, M (July 1986). 3997: 2907: 2782:Haimo, L T; Rosenbaum, J L (1 December 1981). 2781: 2409: 2243:Bacterial flagella rotation is powered by the 1614:, "blepharoplast" or kinetosome, which is the 8192: 7590: 6832: 6403: 5519: 5335: 5301:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 5182: 4032: 3912: 3910: 3792: 3618:"Unlocking the secrets of nature's nanomotor" 2873:(Sixth ed.). New York, NY. p. 942. 2681: 1963:pantonematic flagella: with two rows of hairs 1936:bipartite hairs: with two regions. Occurs in 1727:, which may be produced continually or not). 1622:. The flagellum is encased within the cell's 1602:surrounding two central single microtubules ( 1202: 478:, and the S ring is directly attached to the 6181: 5756:"Origin and evolution of flagellar movement" 5411: 5288: 5212: 4988: 4860: 4255: 3916: 3723: 3427: 3425: 3001: 2576: 2444: 2284:, which are assembled through the action of 482:. The filament ends with a capping protein. 417: 5964:Chimileski, Scott; Papke, R. Thane (2015). 5885: 5483: 5263: 5261: 5165:Flagellates: Unity, Diversity and Evolution 5071: 5069: 5067: 4537: 4406: 4101:"The protein network of bacterial motility" 3541: 2864: 2862: 2570: 2521: 2403: 2154:Other terms related to the flagellar type: 1704: 1689: 1256:with the flagella lagging behind the body. 7597: 7583: 6839: 6825: 6410: 6396: 5868:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5795:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 5637: 5609: 5553:. London: Academic Press. pp. 57–79. 5271:Cilia and Flagella: Structure and Movement 5192:Barsanti, Laura; Gualtieri, Paolo (2006). 5079:"The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes" 4929: 3991: 3907: 3693: 3262: 3202: 2901: 2893:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2775: 2498: 2496: 2034:triflagellated: e.g., the gametes of some 1697:, the process by which axonemal subunits, 1579: 1299:Flagella and the intelligent design debate 1209: 1195: 71: 55: 34:. For the flagella of male Solifugae, see 8099: 6341: 6283: 6266: 6164: 6107: 6089: 6040: 5999: 5981: 5685:. London: Edward Arnold. pp. 98–99. 5655: 5499:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5466: 5353: 5312: 5102: 5012: 4971: 4961: 4912: 4902: 4884: 4843: 4794: 4745: 4696: 4629: 4612: 4563: 4506: 4444: 4434: 4368: 4358: 4232: 4222: 4173: 4124: 4050: 3820: 3810: 3769: 3759: 3668: 3637:"Bacterial engines have their own clutch" 3634: 3467: 3449: 3422: 3389: 3052: 2807: 2758: 2709: 2699: 2658: 2594: 2553: 2476: 2427: 1328: 30:For the insect anatomical structure, see 8779: 5633: 5631: 5258: 5064: 5035: 4635: 3958: 3956: 3872: 3159: 3081: 2952: 2859: 1666:The regular beat patterns of eukaryotic 1657: 1653: 1552: 1538: 1527: 1519: 1240:brought about by rotating its flagellum 550: 408:found in both flagella and motile cilia. 333: 6304: 6199:, a Chytrid Pathogenic to Amphibians". 5843: 5726: 5705: 4811: 4762: 4672: 4580: 4461: 3741: 3673:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 3484: 3227: 3208: 3165: 3087: 2868: 2502: 2493: 2374:Physical model of a bacterial flagellum 14: 8816: 6365: 5837: 5753: 5678: 5492: 5294: 4994: 4935: 4713: 4385: 3615: 3542:Kojima, Seiji; Blair, David F (2004), 3248:10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090832 3233: 3102:10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.091014 2577:Lacy, BE; Rosemore, J (October 2001). 1515: 422:The bacterial flagellum is made up of 7578: 6820: 6391: 5628: 5546: 5376: 4995:Taylor, F J R Max (1 November 2003). 4294: 3962: 3953: 3728:. Struik Publishers. pp. 37–38. 3046: 2995: 2675: 1985:with undulating membrane: e.g., some 1585: 547:Rotating locomotion in living systems 474:layer, the M ring is embedded in the 412: 6288:. Oakland University. Archived from 6240: 5612:An illustrated guide to the protozoa 4531: 4326: 4073: 3669:Dusenbery, DB (2009). "Chapter 13". 3596: 2345: 2316:to have a single flagellum on their 2214: 1437:, in contrast, have flagella called 458:organisms have four such rings: the 6284:Lindemann, Charles (4 April 2008). 5573: 5295:Pazour, Gregory J. (October 2004). 4413:Echazarreta, MA; Klose, KE (2019). 4314:from the original on 9 October 2022 3786: 3724:Hunter, Luke; Hamman, Dave (2003). 3687: 3391:10.1146/annurev-micro-032521-025503 3116: 3067:10.1146/annurev.mi.19.100165.000321 2784:"Cilia, flagella, and microtubules" 2726: 2507:. Norfolk: Caister academic press. 1594:is a bundle of nine fused pairs of 193: 24: 6233: 5935:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00575.x 5815:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb40596.x 5741:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1976.tb01352.x 5314:10.1097/01.ASN.0000141055.57643.E0 5083:Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 2684:"The archaellum: how archaea swim" 2140:According to the beating pattern: 1799:(assexual zoospores and gametes), 25: 8850: 6376: 5550:The Fine Structure of Algal Cells 2530:"Sperm design and sperm function" 2412:"Prokaryotic motility structures" 572:set up by the cell's metabolism ( 8769: 6943: 6241:Berg, Howard C. (January 2000). 5888:Biochemical Society Transactions 5095:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x 5038:European Journal of Protistology 4698:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00403.x 4605:10.1128/jb.178.16.5024-5026.1996 4556:10.1128/JB.182.13.3693-3704.2000 4508:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2009.06613.x 4052:10.1111/J.1469-8137.2007.02293.X 3635:Whitfield, John (19 June 2008). 3548:International Review of Cytology 2739:Emerging Topics in Life Sciences 2367: 2352: 1176: 1175: 614: 352:The flagella in eukaryotes have 159: 6615: 6366:Matzke, NJ (10 November 2003). 6124: 6065: 6016: 5957: 5914: 5846:Brock biology of microorganisms 5747: 5720: 5699: 5672: 5603: 5567: 5540: 5520:South, GR; Whittick, A (1987). 5513: 5434: 5370: 5329: 5155: 5119: 5029: 4482: 4249: 4190: 4141: 4092: 4067: 4026: 3735: 3628: 3609: 3590: 3535: 3365: 2824: 1835:fungi (zoospores and gametes). 609:Microbial and microbot movement 8344:Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous 6286:"Mechanisms of sperm motility" 6193:Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis 3742:Meadows, Robin (10 May 2011). 2626: 2327:Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis 2040:quadriflagellated: e.g., some 1765:(zoospores and male gametes), 1561: 13: 1: 8314:Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid 6875:High lipid content microalgae 6574:Microtubule organizing center 6383:Cell Image Library - Flagella 6307:"Life at Low Reynolds Number" 6243:"Motile Behavior of Bacteria" 5050:10.1016/s0932-4739(11)80231-2 4836:10.1128/JB.188.2.542-555.2006 4787:10.1128/JB.188.3.852-862.2006 4738:10.1128/jb.167.1.210-218.1986 4012:10.1016/S0378-1119(03)00612-7 3893:10.1016/S0022-2836(64)80026-7 3560:10.1016/s0074-7696(04)33003-2 3378:Annual Review of Microbiology 3291:10.1016/j.febslet.2004.05.029 3236:Annual Review of Microbiology 3090:Annual Review of Microbiology 3055:Annual Review of Microbiology 2871:Molecular biology of the cell 2503:Jarrell, Ken F., ed. (2009). 2396: 2223:possessed by some species of 1616:microtubule organizing center 1390:Greek combining term meaning 6846: 5844:Madigan, Michael T. (2019). 5657:10.1016/j.protis.2013.08.003 4224:10.1371/journal.pone.0176290 4078:. New York, NY: Free Press. 3881:Journal of Molecular Biology 3761:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001061 3616:Nagata, Yoshio (June 2014). 2833:Journal of Molecular Biology 2050:octoflagellated: e.g., some 1787:, as male gametes), centric 1637: 1580:§ Flagella versus cilia 1272: 223:), and from a wide range of 7: 7474:Fish diseases and parasites 6985:Photosynthetic picoplankton 6314:American Journal of Physics 5682:Protozoa and other Protists 5384:Leadbeater & Green 2000 5198:. Florida, USA: CRC Press. 4936:Macnab, RM (January 1977). 3919:Nature Reviews Microbiology 3597:Dean, Tim (2 August 2010). 2788:The Journal of Cell Biology 2379: 2010:uniflagellated: e.g., most 1885: 1489: 1285:type three secretion system 1259: 520:type-three secretion system 235:with flagella are known as 38:. For Eukaryotic only, see 10: 8855: 7748: 7464:Dimethylsulfoniopropionate 6965:Heterotrophic picoplankton 5789:Cavalier-Smith, T (1987). 5496:Gametes - the spermatozoon 5379:"The flagellate condition" 3812:10.3389/fcimb.2023.1257817 3744:"How Bacteria Shift Gears" 3451:10.1038/s41564-024-01674-1 3213:. Caister Academic Press. 2278:type III secretion systems 1708: 1453:In certain large forms of 1302: 1276: 910:Bacteria collective motion 544: 511:has seven protofilaments. 434:-thick hollow tube. It is 29: 8653: 8587: 8512: 8489: 8456: 8389: 8263: 8256: 8222: 8183: 8158: 8132: 8123: 8090: 8055: 8019: 7988: 7965: 7956: 7926: 7905: 7887: 7878: 7848: 7822: 7813: 7783: 7757: 7722: 7713: 7706: 7620: 7519:Marine primary production 7416: 7364: 7301: 7292: 7235: 7190: 7095: 7086: 7008: 6952: 6941: 6854: 6793: 6728: 6653: 6544: 6430: 6091:10.3389/fmicb.2022.848597 6078:Frontiers in Microbiology 5970:Frontiers in Microbiology 5923:FEMS Microbiology Reviews 5766:: 137–138. Archived from 5523:Introduction to Phycology 4685:FEMS Microbiology Letters 4105:Molecular Systems Biology 4074:Behe, Michael J. (2007). 3977:10.1016/j.tim.2004.01.003 3603:Australian Life Scientist 3180:10.1007/s10541-005-0065-8 2845:10.1016/j.jmb.2008.08.057 2688:Frontiers in Microbiology 2307: 2286:type II secretion systems 2206:(Oltmanns, 1904), or the 2016:biflagellated: e.g., all 1823:(zoospores and gametes), 1795:(zoospores and gametes), 1546:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii 1498:in place, referred to as 1034:Synthetic molecular motor 915:Collective cell migration 418:Structure and composition 397:are immotile, and have a 135: 123: 111: 99: 94: 70: 54: 49: 7635:Mastigophora/Flagellates 7439:Algal nutrient solutions 7181:Thalassiosira pseudonana 7053:Flavobacterium columnare 7040:Enteric redmouth disease 6569:Prokaryotic cytoskeleton 5983:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00362 4436:10.3389/fcimb.2019.00131 2701:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00023 2651:10.1038/sj.emboj.7600668 2583:The Journal of Nutrition 2060:multiflagellated: e.g., 1979:with spines: e.g., some 1758:, an artificial group). 1705:Evolution and occurrence 1695:Intraflagellar transport 1690:Intraflagellar transport 835:Self-propelled particles 540: 531:cryo-electron microscopy 329: 311:Eukaryotic flagella and 8673:Baas-Becking hypothesis 7459:Diel vertical migration 6975:Microphyte (microalgae) 6960:Eukaryotic picoplankton 6905:Paradox of the plankton 5224:Journal of Cell Science 4904:10.1073/pnas.2633596100 4824:Journal of Bacteriology 4775:Journal of Bacteriology 4726:Journal of Bacteriology 4593:Journal of Bacteriology 4544:Journal of Bacteriology 4360:10.1073/pnas.1215274109 4154:Journal of Bacteriology 3343:10.1126/science.1155307 2869:Alberts, Bruce (2015). 2596:10.1093/jn/131.10.2789S 2251:or occasionally by the 1870:, in the sperm of some 1699:transmembrane receptors 1570:" (e.g., all papers by 1473:Vibrio parahaemolyticus 1447:electron cryotomography 862:Biohybrid microswimmers 793:Microbots and particles 244:gram-negative bacterium 8668:Microbial biogeography 7321:Gelatinous zooplankton 6149:10.1093/femsmc/xtab002 6029:Molecular Microbiology 5459:10.1098/rspb.2011.0289 4495:Molecular Microbiology 3965:Trends in Microbiology 3722:Although according to 2546:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0449 1663: 1558: 1550: 1536: 1525: 1329:Flagellar arrangements 1309:Irreducible complexity 592:flagellar motor switch 570:concentration gradient 557: 496:Caulobacter crescentus 492:Salmonella typhimurium 399:structurally different 346: 295: 137:Anatomical terminology 7688:Fungus-like organisms 7514:Marine microorganisms 7284:Velvet (fish disease) 7019:Aeromonas salmonicida 6885:Marine microorganisms 6559:Intermediate filament 6452:Endoplasmic reticulum 5014:10.1099/ijs.0.02587-0 4963:10.1073/pnas.74.1.221 3649:10.1038/news.2008.903 3168:Biochemistry (Moscow) 2800:10.1083/jcb.91.3.125s 2429:10.1099/mic.0.25948-0 2334:lies adjacent to the 2188:, the spores of some 1821:plasmodiophoromycetes 1773:(male gametes), some 1752:level of organization 1711:Evolution of flagella 1709:Further information: 1661: 1654:Flagella versus cilia 1556: 1542: 1531: 1523: 1279:Evolution of flagella 1120:cytoplasmic streaming 554: 545:Further information: 450:layer and one in the 337: 80:image of flagellated 8403:Simple cell membrane 8339:Pseudoparenchymatous 8327:Filamentous/trichal/ 8311:Colonial flagellated 8244:Collar of microvilli 7266:Pfiesteria piscicida 7066:Marine bacteriophage 6970:Marine microplankton 6806:Extracellular matrix 6305:Purcell, EM (1977). 5709:Aquatic phycomycetes 5706:Sparrow, FK (1960). 5377:Raven, J.A. (2000). 4638:Microbial Physiology 4419:Flagellar Synthesis" 4302:"Bacterial flagella" 3846:Molecular BioSystems 3697:Journal of Mammalogy 3554:, Elsevier: 93–134, 3125:Microbial Physiology 2751:10.1042/ETLS20180089 2298:convergent evolution 2123:(Vischer, 1945). In 1842:, some green algae ( 1831:(male gametes), and 1815:(probably gametes), 1681:Although eukaryotic 1532:Cross section of an 1377:Alcaligenes faecalis 1371:Campylobacter jejuni 1141:Molecular biophysics 873:bacterial biohybrids 508:Campylobacter jejuni 502:Vibrio alginolyticus 462:associates with the 430:. Its shape is a 20- 259:– a risk factor for 8617:Contractile vacuole 8568:Meiosis in protists 8549:Mitosis in protists 8527:Multinucleate cells 7749:Flagellar apparatus 7698:Ambiregnal protists 7640:Sarcodina/Amoeboids 7509:Ocean acidification 7444:Artificial seawater 7211:Coscinodiscophyceae 7077:Streptococcus iniae 7060:Pelagibacter ubique 6509:Cytoplasmic granule 6326:1977AmJPh..45....3P 6259:2000PhT....53a..24B 5807:1987NYASA.503...17C 5754:Sleigh, MA (1985). 5453:(1715): 2081–2090. 4954:1977PNAS...74..221M 4895:2003PNAS..10015481K 4879:(26): 15481–15485. 4351:2012PNAS..10920643R 4345:(50): 20643–20648. 4215:2017PLoSO..1276290K 4166:10.1128/JB.00820-06 3931:10.1038/nrmicro1493 3622:Nikkei Asian Review 3505:1992Natur.355..182A 3438:Nature Microbiology 3335:2008Sci...320..382G 3283:2004FEBSL.568..105D 3016:1973Natur.245..380B 2973:1987Natur.325..637L 2922:1974Natur.249...73S 2589:(10): 2789S–2793S. 2361:Helicobacter pylori 2253:sodium-motive force 2245:proton motive force 2210:(Christensen, 1962) 1973:with scales: e.g., 1805:labyrinthulomycetes 1516:Eukaryotic flagella 1470:spp. (particularly 1401:Helicobacter pylori 1315:irreducibly complex 1156:Non-motile bacteria 1095:Axophilic migration 1044:Molecular propeller 1039:Molecular modelling 604:Part of a series on 566:proton-motive force 464:lipopolysaccharides 378:Archaeal flagella ( 248:Helicobacter pylori 8448:Periplast/pellicle 8171:Periplast/pellicle 8111:Cruciform division 6534:Weibel–Palade body 6418:Structures of the 5900:10.1042/BST0390064 5679:Sleigh, M (1989). 5598:lee tubular hairs. 5547:Dodge, JD (1973). 5236:10.1242/jcs.051326 5141:10.1007/bf01320809 4117:10.1038/msb4100166 2735:"Taxis in archaea" 2614:on 7 February 2009 2092:, the gametes (or 1850:except cycads and 1807:(zoospores), some 1738:, or the ciliated 1664: 1586:Internal structure 1559: 1551: 1537: 1526: 1305:Intelligent design 1234:biased random walk 1059:Molecular tweezers 878:protist biohybrids 717:(electric current) 668:Protist locomotion 641:Bacterial motility 558: 413:Bacterial flagella 373:bacterial motility 347: 118:H1.00.01.1.01032 8834:Protein complexes 8802:Missing or empty 8795:cite encyclopedia 8781:Chambers, Ephraim 8766: 8765: 8663:Microbial ecology 8649: 8648: 8645: 8644: 8622:Eyespot apparatus 8252: 8251: 8234:Choanoflagellates 8218: 8217: 8179: 8178: 8119: 8118: 8086: 8085: 7952: 7951: 7874: 7873: 7809: 7808: 7572: 7571: 7412: 7411: 7399:Siphonostomatoida 7394:Poecilostomatoida 7346:Crustacean larvae 7250:Choanoflagellates 7231: 7230: 7221:Bacillariophyceae 7216:Fragilariophyceae 7135:Emiliania huxleyi 6980:Nanophytoplankton 6900:Milky seas effect 6814: 6813: 6594:Spindle pole body 6370:. talkdesign.org. 6042:10.1111/mmi.14781 5414:"Spores of Fungi" 5355:10.1111/tpj.12145 5342:The Plant Journal 5307:(10): 2528–2536. 5175:978-1-4822-6822-5 4650:10.1159/000077866 4599:(16): 5024–5026. 4550:(13): 3693–3704. 4279:978-3-8055-8340-4 4270:10.1159/000107602 4160:(21): 7700–7706. 4085:978-0-7432-9620-5 3852:(11): 1105–1115. 3680:978-0-674-03116-6 3643:: news.2008.903. 3569:978-0-12-364637-8 3499:(6356): 182–184. 3329:(5874): 382–385. 3220:978-1-904455-48-6 3174:(11): 1203–1212. 3137:10.1159/000094053 3010:(5425): 380–382. 2967:(6105): 637–640. 2645:(11): 2034–2042. 2514:978-1-904455-48-6 2469:10.1104/pp.010807 2346:Additional images 2215:Archaeal flagella 2204:Bacillariophyceae 2020:, the gametes of 1676:respiratory tract 1443:periplasmic space 1352:bacteria such as 1337:, from the Greek 1219: 1218: 1146:Molecular machine 1054:molecular shuttle 947:Biological motors 925:Swarming motility 898:Collective motion 265:swarming bacteria 151: 150: 146: 32:Antenna (biology) 16:(Redirected from 8846: 8811: 8805: 8800: 8798: 8790: 8773: 8772: 8637:Mastigont system 8590: 8515: 8492: 8481:Gliding motility 8459: 8396: 8341:/plektenchymatic 8297:Amoeboflagellate 8270: 8261: 8260: 8237: 8229: 8228: 8198: 8190: 8189: 8164: 8138: 8130: 8129: 8104: 8097: 8096: 8061: 8025: 7994: 7968: 7963: 7962: 7932: 7911: 7890: 7885: 7884: 7854: 7828: 7820: 7819: 7789: 7763: 7727: 7720: 7719: 7711: 7710: 7599: 7592: 7585: 7576: 7575: 7326:Hunting copepods 7299: 7298: 7124:Chaetocerotaceae 7093: 7092: 7010:Bacterioplankton 6947: 6841: 6834: 6827: 6818: 6817: 6412: 6405: 6398: 6389: 6388: 6371: 6362: 6360: 6358: 6352: 6346:. Archived from 6345: 6311: 6301: 6299: 6297: 6280: 6270: 6268:10.1063/1.882934 6227: 6226: 6188: 6179: 6178: 6168: 6128: 6122: 6121: 6111: 6093: 6069: 6063: 6062: 6044: 6020: 6014: 6013: 6003: 5985: 5961: 5955: 5954: 5918: 5912: 5911: 5883: 5874: 5873: 5867: 5859: 5841: 5835: 5834: 5786: 5780: 5779: 5777: 5775: 5751: 5745: 5744: 5724: 5718: 5717: 5703: 5697: 5696: 5676: 5670: 5669: 5659: 5635: 5626: 5625: 5607: 5601: 5600: 5581: 5574:Lee, RE (2008). 5571: 5565: 5564: 5544: 5538: 5537: 5517: 5511: 5510: 5490: 5481: 5480: 5470: 5438: 5432: 5431: 5409: 5400: 5399: 5386:, pp. 27–48 5374: 5368: 5367: 5357: 5333: 5327: 5326: 5316: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5265: 5256: 5255: 5230:(Pt 4): 519–28. 5219: 5210: 5209: 5189: 5180: 5179: 5159: 5153: 5152: 5123: 5117: 5116: 5106: 5073: 5062: 5061: 5033: 5027: 5026: 5016: 5007:(6): 1707–1714. 4992: 4986: 4985: 4975: 4965: 4933: 4927: 4926: 4916: 4906: 4888: 4886:cond-mat/0312562 4864: 4858: 4857: 4847: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4798: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4749: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4700: 4676: 4670: 4669: 4633: 4627: 4626: 4616: 4584: 4578: 4577: 4567: 4535: 4529: 4528: 4510: 4501:(6): 1415–1434. 4486: 4480: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4465: 4459: 4458: 4448: 4438: 4410: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4399: 4393:"tricho- prefix" 4389: 4383: 4382: 4372: 4362: 4330: 4324: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4313: 4306: 4298: 4292: 4291: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4236: 4226: 4194: 4188: 4187: 4177: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4128: 4096: 4090: 4089: 4071: 4065: 4064: 4054: 4030: 4024: 4023: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3960: 3951: 3950: 3914: 3905: 3904: 3876: 3870: 3869: 3858:10.1039/b808065h 3841: 3835: 3834: 3824: 3814: 3790: 3784: 3783: 3773: 3763: 3739: 3733: 3732: 3721: 3691: 3685: 3684: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3594: 3588: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3513:10.1038/355182a0 3488: 3482: 3481: 3471: 3453: 3444:(5): 1271–1281. 3429: 3420: 3419: 3393: 3369: 3363: 3362: 3317: 3311: 3310: 3277:(1–3): 105–109. 3266: 3260: 3259: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3206: 3200: 3199: 3163: 3157: 3156: 3131:(3–5): 167–191. 3120: 3114: 3113: 3085: 3079: 3078: 3050: 3044: 3043: 3024:10.1038/245380a0 2999: 2993: 2992: 2981:10.1038/325637a0 2956: 2950: 2949: 2930:10.1038/249073a0 2905: 2899: 2898: 2892: 2884: 2866: 2857: 2856: 2828: 2822: 2821: 2811: 2794:(3): 125s–130s. 2779: 2773: 2772: 2762: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2713: 2703: 2679: 2673: 2672: 2662: 2639:The EMBO Journal 2630: 2624: 2623: 2621: 2619: 2613: 2607:. Archived from 2598: 2574: 2568: 2567: 2557: 2525: 2519: 2518: 2500: 2491: 2490: 2480: 2463:(4): 1500–1507. 2457:Plant Physiology 2448: 2442: 2441: 2431: 2407: 2371: 2356: 2200:Zygnematophyceae 2080:Hemimastigophora 2046:Collodictyonidae 1844:Zygnematophyceae 1811:(gametes), some 1791:(male gametes), 1769:(male gametes), 1321:the motility of 1242:counterclockwise 1238:runs and tumbles 1211: 1204: 1197: 1184: 1179: 1178: 1049:molecular sensor 1026:Synthetic motors 938:Molecular motors 729:(magnetic field) 618: 601: 600: 488:Escherichia coli 470:associates with 404:rather than the 195: 191: 190: 187: 186: 183: 180: 177: 174: 171: 168: 165: 143:edit on Wikidata 140: 75: 59: 47: 46: 21: 8854: 8853: 8849: 8848: 8847: 8845: 8844: 8843: 8814: 8813: 8803: 8801: 8792: 8791: 8770: 8767: 8762: 8655: 8641: 8588: 8583: 8513: 8508: 8490: 8485: 8457: 8452: 8393: 8390: 8385: 8267: 8264: 8248: 8232: 8214: 8193: 8175: 8159: 8154: 8133: 8115: 8100: 8082: 8056: 8051: 8020: 8015: 7991:Dinoflagellates 7989: 7984: 7966: 7948: 7927: 7922: 7906: 7901: 7888: 7870: 7849: 7844: 7823: 7805: 7784: 7779: 7758: 7753: 7723: 7702: 7623:classifications 7622: 7616: 7603: 7573: 7568: 7499:Marine mucilage 7454:Biological pump 7408: 7360: 7331:Ichthyoplankton 7288: 7255:Dinoflagellates 7227: 7186: 7157:Nannochloropsis 7141:Eustigmatophyte 7129:Coccolithophore 7082: 7004: 6948: 6939: 6870:CLAW hypothesis 6850: 6845: 6815: 6810: 6789: 6724: 6649: 6540: 6457:Golgi apparatus 6433: 6426: 6416: 6379: 6374: 6356: 6354: 6350: 6334:10.1119/1.10903 6309: 6295: 6293: 6236: 6234:Further reading 6231: 6230: 6215:10.2307/3761366 6189: 6182: 6129: 6125: 6070: 6066: 6021: 6017: 5962: 5958: 5919: 5915: 5884: 5877: 5861: 5860: 5856: 5842: 5838: 5787: 5783: 5773: 5771: 5770:on 3 March 2016 5752: 5748: 5725: 5721: 5704: 5700: 5693: 5677: 5673: 5636: 5629: 5622: 5608: 5604: 5594: 5572: 5568: 5561: 5545: 5541: 5534: 5518: 5514: 5507: 5491: 5484: 5439: 5435: 5428: 5410: 5403: 5396: 5375: 5371: 5334: 5330: 5293: 5289: 5282: 5266: 5259: 5220: 5213: 5206: 5190: 5183: 5176: 5160: 5156: 5124: 5120: 5074: 5065: 5034: 5030: 4993: 4989: 4934: 4930: 4865: 4861: 4816: 4812: 4767: 4763: 4718: 4714: 4677: 4673: 4634: 4630: 4585: 4581: 4536: 4532: 4487: 4483: 4473: 4471: 4467: 4466: 4462: 4411: 4407: 4397: 4395: 4391: 4390: 4386: 4331: 4327: 4317: 4315: 4311: 4304: 4300: 4299: 4295: 4280: 4258:Genome Dynamics 4254: 4250: 4209:(5): e0176290. 4195: 4191: 4146: 4142: 4097: 4093: 4086: 4072: 4068: 4039:New Phytologist 4031: 4027: 3996: 3992: 3961: 3954: 3925:(10): 784–790. 3915: 3908: 3877: 3873: 3842: 3838: 3791: 3787: 3754:(5): e1001061. 3740: 3736: 3710:10.2307/1376265 3692: 3688: 3681: 3667: 3663: 3653: 3651: 3633: 3629: 3614: 3610: 3595: 3591: 3582: 3580: 3570: 3540: 3536: 3489: 3485: 3430: 3423: 3370: 3366: 3318: 3314: 3267: 3263: 3232: 3228: 3221: 3207: 3203: 3164: 3160: 3121: 3117: 3086: 3082: 3051: 3047: 3000: 2996: 2957: 2953: 2916:(5452): 73–74. 2906: 2902: 2886: 2885: 2881: 2867: 2860: 2829: 2825: 2780: 2776: 2731: 2727: 2680: 2676: 2631: 2627: 2617: 2615: 2612:(abstract page) 2611: 2575: 2571: 2534:Biology Letters 2526: 2522: 2515: 2501: 2494: 2449: 2445: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2382: 2375: 2372: 2363: 2357: 2348: 2310: 2217: 1933:), divided in: 1907:), divided in: 1888: 1713: 1707: 1692: 1656: 1640: 1624:plasma membrane 1588: 1564: 1518: 1492: 1427:, unlike usual 1406:polar organelle 1360:polar flagellum 1355:Vibrio cholerae 1331: 1311: 1303:Main articles: 1301: 1281: 1275: 1262: 1223:Reynolds number 1215: 1174: 1167: 1166: 1165: 1151:Nanoengineering 1126: 1111: 1099: 1086: 1073: 1065: 1064: 1063: 1028: 1018: 1017: 1016: 990: 948: 931: 930: 929: 899: 891: 890: 889: 866: 856: 848: 847: 846: 830:Janus particles 794: 786: 785: 784: 762: 752: 751: 750: 691: 681: 680: 679: 663: 643: 635: 549: 543: 516:secretory pores 476:plasma membrane 452:plasma membrane 420: 415: 332: 162: 158: 147: 90: 66: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8852: 8842: 8841: 8836: 8831: 8826: 8783:, ed. (1728). 8764: 8763: 8761: 8760: 8755: 8750: 8749: 8748: 8747: 8746: 8741: 8731: 8726: 8721: 8711: 8710: 8709: 8698: 8697: 8696: 8691: 8677: 8676: 8675: 8670: 8659: 8657: 8651: 8650: 8647: 8646: 8643: 8642: 8640: 8639: 8634: 8629: 8624: 8619: 8614: 8609: 8604: 8599: 8593: 8591: 8585: 8584: 8582: 8581: 8580: 8579: 8576: 8573: 8565: 8564: 8563: 8560: 8557: 8554: 8546: 8541: 8536: 8535: 8534: 8524: 8518: 8516: 8510: 8509: 8507: 8506: 8501: 8495: 8493: 8487: 8486: 8484: 8483: 8478: 8473: 8468: 8462: 8460: 8454: 8453: 8451: 8450: 8445: 8440: 8435: 8430: 8425: 8420: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8399: 8397: 8387: 8386: 8384: 8383: 8370: 8369: 8368: 8367: 8366: 8365:Siphonocladous 8363: 8355: 8348:Multinucleated 8345: 8342: 8336: 8334:Parenchymatous 8331: 8325: 8324: 8323: 8318: 8315: 8312: 8301: 8300: 8299: 8294: 8289: 8284: 8273: 8271: 8258: 8254: 8253: 8250: 8249: 8247: 8246: 8240: 8238: 8226: 8220: 8219: 8216: 8215: 8213: 8212: 8207: 8201: 8199: 8187: 8181: 8180: 8177: 8176: 8174: 8173: 8167: 8165: 8156: 8155: 8153: 8152: 8147: 8141: 8139: 8135:Kinetoplastids 8127: 8121: 8120: 8117: 8116: 8114: 8113: 8107: 8105: 8094: 8088: 8087: 8084: 8083: 8081: 8080: 8075: 8070: 8064: 8062: 8053: 8052: 8050: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8034: 8028: 8026: 8017: 8016: 8014: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7997: 7995: 7986: 7985: 7983: 7982: 7977: 7971: 7969: 7960: 7954: 7953: 7950: 7949: 7947: 7946: 7941: 7935: 7933: 7924: 7923: 7921: 7920: 7914: 7912: 7903: 7902: 7900: 7899: 7893: 7891: 7882: 7876: 7875: 7872: 7871: 7869: 7868: 7863: 7857: 7855: 7846: 7845: 7843: 7842: 7837: 7831: 7829: 7817: 7811: 7810: 7807: 7806: 7804: 7803: 7801:Phycobilisomes 7798: 7796:Pit connection 7792: 7790: 7781: 7780: 7778: 7777: 7775:Phycobilisomes 7772: 7766: 7764: 7755: 7754: 7752: 7751: 7746: 7741: 7730: 7728: 7725:Chloroplastida 7717: 7715:Archaeplastida 7708: 7704: 7703: 7701: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7669: 7668: 7663: 7654: 7653: 7652: 7647: 7637: 7626: 7624: 7618: 7617: 7602: 7601: 7594: 7587: 7579: 7570: 7569: 7567: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7524:Pseudoplankton 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7420: 7418: 7417:Related topics 7414: 7413: 7410: 7409: 7407: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7370: 7368: 7366:Copepod orders 7362: 7361: 7359: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7302: 7296: 7290: 7289: 7287: 7286: 7281: 7274: 7269: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7241: 7239: 7233: 7232: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7225: 7224: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7202: 7196: 7194: 7188: 7187: 7185: 7184: 7177: 7172: 7170:Prasinophyceae 7167: 7160: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7114: 7107: 7102: 7096: 7090: 7084: 7083: 7081: 7080: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7056: 7049: 7046:Flavobacterium 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7014: 7012: 7006: 7005: 7003: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6956: 6954: 6950: 6949: 6942: 6940: 6938: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6861: 6859: 6852: 6851: 6844: 6843: 6836: 6829: 6821: 6812: 6811: 6809: 6808: 6803: 6797: 6795: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6776: 6775: 6770: 6760: 6759: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6738: 6732: 6730: 6729:Other internal 6726: 6725: 6723: 6722: 6717: 6716: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6665: 6659: 6657: 6651: 6650: 6648: 6647: 6646: 6645: 6640: 6630: 6629: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6603: 6598: 6597: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6550: 6548: 6542: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6537: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6506: 6505: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6438: 6436: 6428: 6427: 6415: 6414: 6407: 6400: 6392: 6386: 6385: 6378: 6377:External links 6375: 6373: 6372: 6363: 6353:on 5 June 2011 6302: 6292:on 16 May 2008 6281: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6229: 6228: 6209:(2): 219–227. 6180: 6123: 6064: 6035:(3): 943–956. 6015: 5956: 5929:(2): 147–174. 5913: 5875: 5854: 5836: 5781: 5746: 5719: 5698: 5691: 5671: 5650:(6): 842–860. 5627: 5620: 5602: 5592: 5566: 5559: 5539: 5532: 5512: 5505: 5482: 5433: 5426: 5401: 5394: 5369: 5348:(2): 230–244. 5328: 5287: 5280: 5257: 5211: 5204: 5181: 5174: 5154: 5118: 5089:(5): 429–514. 5063: 5044:(3): 253–257. 5028: 4987: 4928: 4859: 4830:(2): 542–555. 4810: 4781:(3): 852–862. 4761: 4732:(1): 210–218. 4712: 4691:(2): 127–135. 4671: 4644:(1–2): 18–29. 4628: 4579: 4530: 4481: 4460: 4405: 4384: 4325: 4293: 4278: 4248: 4189: 4140: 4091: 4084: 4066: 4025: 3990: 3971:(3): 113–115. 3952: 3906: 3871: 3836: 3785: 3734: 3704:(4): 481–495. 3686: 3679: 3661: 3627: 3608: 3589: 3568: 3534: 3483: 3421: 3384:(1): 669–698. 3364: 3312: 3261: 3226: 3219: 3201: 3158: 3115: 3080: 3045: 2994: 2951: 2900: 2879: 2858: 2823: 2774: 2745:(4): 535–546. 2725: 2674: 2625: 2569: 2540:(2): 246–249. 2520: 2513: 2492: 2443: 2422:(2): 295–304. 2401: 2400: 2398: 2395: 2394: 2393: 2388: 2381: 2378: 2377: 2376: 2373: 2366: 2364: 2358: 2351: 2347: 2344: 2309: 2306: 2300:, rather than 2290: 2289: 2274: 2270: 2267: 2264: 2230:type IV pilins 2216: 2213: 2212: 2211: 2196: 2182: 2172: 2170:Prasinophyceae 2166:Euglenophyceae 2162: 2152: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2138: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2113: 2112: 2058: 2056:Prasinophyceae 2048: 2042:Prasinophyceae 2038: 2032: 2018:Dinoflagellata 2014: 2004: 2003: 1993: 1987:kinetoplastids 1983: 1977: 1975:Prasinophyceae 1971: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1948: 1942:Prasinophyceae 1927: 1916:Dinoflagellata 1912:Euglenophyceae 1898: 1887: 1884: 1817:foraminiferans 1706: 1703: 1691: 1688: 1655: 1652: 1639: 1636: 1587: 1584: 1576:Cavalier-Smith 1563: 1560: 1517: 1514: 1491: 1488: 1476:) and related 1420: 1419: 1409: 1381: 1363: 1358:have a single 1330: 1327: 1300: 1297: 1277:Main article: 1274: 1271: 1261: 1258: 1217: 1216: 1214: 1213: 1206: 1199: 1191: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1169: 1168: 1164: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1133: 1127: 1125: 1124: 1123: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1100: 1098: 1097: 1092: 1087: 1081: 1079:Brownian motor 1075: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1062: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1036: 1030: 1029: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1007: 1002: 995:Motor proteins 991: 989: 988: 987: 986: 981: 979:intraflagellar 976: 971: 966: 961: 950: 949: 946: 945: 942: 941: 933: 932: 928: 927: 922: 920:Quorum sensing 917: 912: 907: 901: 900: 897: 896: 893: 892: 888: 887: 886: 885: 880: 875: 867: 865: 864: 858: 857: 854: 853: 850: 849: 845: 844: 842:Swarm robotics 839: 838: 837: 832: 827: 817: 812: 807: 802: 796: 795: 792: 791: 788: 787: 783: 782: 781: 780: 775: 764: 763: 758: 757: 754: 753: 749: 748: 742: 736: 730: 724: 718: 712: 706: 700: 693: 692: 687: 686: 683: 682: 678: 677: 676: 675: 664: 662: 661: 660: 659: 654: 649: 647:run-and-tumble 637: 636: 633: 632: 629: 628: 620: 619: 611: 610: 606: 605: 582:rather than a 542: 539: 419: 416: 414: 411: 410: 409: 387: 376: 331: 328: 261:stomach cancer 225:microorganisms 149: 148: 139: 133: 132: 127: 121: 120: 115: 109: 108: 103: 97: 96: 92: 91: 76: 68: 67: 60: 52: 51: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8851: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8824:Cell movement 8822: 8821: 8819: 8812: 8809: 8796: 8788: 8787: 8782: 8777: 8776:public domain 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8745: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8736: 8735: 8732: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8720: 8717: 8716: 8715: 8712: 8708: 8705: 8704: 8703: 8699: 8695: 8694:Fertilization 8692: 8690: 8687: 8686: 8685: 8681: 8678: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8665: 8664: 8661: 8660: 8658: 8652: 8638: 8635: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8608: 8605: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8594: 8592: 8586: 8577: 8574: 8571: 8570: 8569: 8566: 8562:Pleuromitosis 8561: 8558: 8555: 8552: 8551: 8550: 8547: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8533: 8530: 8529: 8528: 8525: 8523: 8520: 8519: 8517: 8511: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8499:Hydrogenosome 8497: 8496: 8494: 8488: 8482: 8479: 8477: 8474: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8463: 8461: 8455: 8449: 8446: 8444: 8441: 8439: 8436: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8388: 8381: 8377: 8374: 8373:Multicellular 8371: 8364: 8361: 8360: 8359: 8356: 8354: 8351: 8350: 8349: 8346: 8343: 8340: 8337: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8326: 8322: 8319: 8316: 8313: 8310: 8309: 8308: 8305: 8302: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8279: 8278: 8275: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8262: 8259: 8255: 8245: 8242: 8241: 8239: 8235: 8230: 8227: 8225: 8221: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8202: 8200: 8196: 8195:Dictyostelids 8191: 8188: 8186: 8182: 8172: 8169: 8168: 8166: 8162: 8157: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8142: 8140: 8136: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8122: 8112: 8109: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8089: 8079: 8076: 8074: 8071: 8069: 8066: 8065: 8063: 8059: 8058:Apicomplexans 8054: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8033: 8030: 8029: 8027: 8023: 8018: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7998: 7996: 7992: 7987: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7972: 7970: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7955: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7936: 7934: 7930: 7925: 7919: 7916: 7915: 7913: 7909: 7904: 7898: 7895: 7894: 7892: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7880:Stramenopiles 7877: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7858: 7856: 7852: 7847: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7832: 7830: 7826: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7812: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7793: 7791: 7787: 7782: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7767: 7765: 7761: 7756: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7736: 7732: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7712: 7709: 7705: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7658: 7655: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7642: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7632: 7631: 7628: 7627: 7625: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7600: 7595: 7593: 7588: 7586: 7581: 7580: 7577: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7534:Tychoplankton 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7504:Microbial mat 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7421: 7419: 7415: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7389:Monstrilloida 7387: 7385: 7384:Harpacticoida 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7371: 7369: 7367: 7363: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7341:Marine larvae 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7303: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7291: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7279: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7267: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7242: 7240: 7238: 7234: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7208: 7207: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7197: 7195: 7193: 7192:Diatom orders 7189: 7183: 7182: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7165: 7161: 7159: 7158: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7136: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7119: 7115: 7113: 7112: 7111:Bacteriastrum 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7097: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7088:Phytoplankton 7085: 7079: 7078: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7061: 7057: 7055: 7054: 7050: 7048: 7047: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7025:Cyanobacteria 7023: 7021: 7020: 7016: 7015: 7013: 7011: 7007: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6995:Picoeukaryote 6993: 6991: 6990:Picobiliphyte 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6957: 6955: 6951: 6946: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6862: 6860: 6858: 6853: 6849: 6842: 6837: 6835: 6830: 6828: 6823: 6822: 6819: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6798: 6796: 6792: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6765: 6764: 6761: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6743: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6733: 6731: 6727: 6721: 6718: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6703:Proteinoplast 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6663:Mitochondrion 6661: 6660: 6658: 6656: 6655:Endosymbionts 6652: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6638:Lamellipodium 6636: 6635: 6634: 6631: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6608: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6576: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6554:Microfilament 6552: 6551: 6549: 6547: 6543: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6511: 6510: 6507: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6474: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6467:Autophagosome 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6442:Cell membrane 6440: 6439: 6437: 6435: 6432:Endomembrane 6429: 6425: 6421: 6413: 6408: 6406: 6401: 6399: 6394: 6393: 6390: 6384: 6381: 6380: 6369: 6364: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6308: 6303: 6291: 6287: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6269: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6247:Physics Today 6244: 6239: 6238: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6203: 6198: 6194: 6187: 6185: 6176: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6137:FEMS Microbes 6134: 6127: 6119: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6068: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6019: 6011: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5960: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5924: 5917: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5882: 5880: 5871: 5865: 5857: 5855:9781292235103 5851: 5847: 5840: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5785: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5750: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5723: 5715: 5711: 5710: 5702: 5694: 5692:9780521428057 5688: 5684: 5683: 5675: 5667: 5663: 5658: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5634: 5632: 5623: 5617: 5613: 5606: 5599: 5595: 5593:9781139469876 5589: 5585: 5580: 5579: 5570: 5562: 5560:9780323158237 5556: 5552: 5551: 5543: 5535: 5533:9781444314205 5529: 5525: 5524: 5516: 5508: 5506:9780521479967 5502: 5498: 5497: 5489: 5487: 5478: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5437: 5429: 5427:9781139461504 5423: 5419: 5415: 5408: 5406: 5397: 5395:9781482268225 5391: 5388:. CRC Press. 5387: 5385: 5380: 5373: 5365: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5332: 5324: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5291: 5283: 5281:0-7167-3136-3 5277: 5273: 5272: 5264: 5262: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5218: 5216: 5207: 5205:9780203492598 5201: 5197: 5196: 5188: 5186: 5177: 5171: 5167: 5166: 5158: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5122: 5114: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5072: 5070: 5068: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5032: 5024: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4991: 4983: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4924: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4814: 4806: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4765: 4757: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4716: 4708: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4675: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4632: 4624: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4534: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4485: 4470: 4464: 4456: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4418: 4409: 4394: 4388: 4380: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4329: 4310: 4303: 4297: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4252: 4244: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4193: 4185: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4144: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4095: 4087: 4081: 4077: 4070: 4062: 4058: 4053: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4029: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3994: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3959: 3957: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3913: 3911: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3887:(1): 42–IN9. 3886: 3882: 3875: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3832: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3789: 3781: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3731: 3727: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3698: 3690: 3682: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3623: 3619: 3612: 3604: 3600: 3593: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3487: 3479: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3428: 3426: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3368: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3316: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3265: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3242:(1): 77–100. 3241: 3237: 3230: 3222: 3216: 3212: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3162: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3119: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3084: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3049: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 2998: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2955: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2904: 2896: 2890: 2882: 2880:9780815344643 2876: 2872: 2865: 2863: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2827: 2819: 2815: 2810: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2778: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2729: 2721: 2717: 2712: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2678: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2629: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2573: 2565: 2561: 2556: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2524: 2516: 2510: 2506: 2499: 2497: 2488: 2484: 2479: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2447: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2406: 2402: 2392: 2389: 2387: 2384: 2383: 2370: 2365: 2362: 2355: 2350: 2349: 2343: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2328: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2305: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2241: 2240: 2237: 2235: 2231: 2226: 2222: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2181: 2177: 2176:Xanthophyceae 2173: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2161: 2157: 2156: 2155: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2142: 2141: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2117: 2116: 2111: 2107: 2106:pteridophytes 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2090: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2072: 2071:Stephanopogon 2067: 2063: 2059: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2013: 2009: 2008: 2007: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1982: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1969: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1953: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1938:Cryptophyceae 1935: 1934: 1932: 1931:sensu stricto 1928: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1899: 1897: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1864:apicomplexans 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1827:(zoospores), 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1809:apicomplexans 1806: 1803:(zoospores), 1802: 1801:hyphochytrids 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1785: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1771:pteridophytes 1768: 1764: 1759: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1712: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1687: 1684: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1660: 1651: 1649: 1648:radial spokes 1645: 1635: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1555: 1548: 1547: 1541: 1535: 1530: 1522: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1503: 1501: 1495: 1487: 1485: 1484: 1479: 1475: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1457: 1451: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1417: 1413: 1410: 1407: 1403: 1402: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1384:Lophotrichous 1382: 1379: 1378: 1373: 1372: 1367: 1366:Amphitrichous 1364: 1361: 1357: 1356: 1351: 1348: 1347: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1310: 1306: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1280: 1270: 1268: 1257: 1255: 1254:thruster mode 1251: 1250:traction mode 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1230: 1226: 1224: 1212: 1207: 1205: 1200: 1198: 1193: 1192: 1190: 1189: 1183: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1170: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1121: 1118: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1102: 1101: 1096: 1093: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1069: 1068: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1032: 1031: 1027: 1022: 1021: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 997: 996: 993: 992: 985: 982: 980: 977: 975: 972: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 957: 956: 955: 952: 951: 944: 943: 940: 939: 935: 934: 926: 923: 921: 918: 916: 913: 911: 908: 906: 905:Active matter 903: 902: 895: 894: 884: 883:robotic sperm 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 870: 869: 868: 863: 860: 859: 852: 851: 843: 840: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 822: 821: 820:Microparticle 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 797: 790: 789: 779: 776: 774: 771: 770: 769: 766: 765: 761: 756: 755: 747:(temperature) 746: 743: 740: 737: 734: 731: 728: 725: 722: 719: 716: 713: 710: 707: 704: 701: 698: 695: 694: 690: 685: 684: 674: 671: 670: 669: 666: 665: 658: 655: 653: 650: 648: 645: 644: 642: 639: 638: 631: 630: 627: 626: 625:Microswimmers 622: 621: 617: 613: 612: 608: 607: 603: 602: 599: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 576: 571: 567: 563: 553: 548: 538: 536: 532: 528: 523: 521: 517: 512: 510: 509: 504: 503: 498: 497: 493: 489: 483: 481: 477: 473: 472:peptidoglycan 469: 465: 461: 457: 456:Gram-negative 453: 449: 448:peptidoglycan 445: 444:Gram-positive 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 407: 403: 400: 396: 395:Primary cilia 392: 388: 385: 381: 377: 374: 370: 366: 365: 364: 361: 359: 355: 350: 344: 340: 336: 327: 325: 321: 318: 314: 309: 307: 303: 299: 298: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 276:three domains 272: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 253:mucous lining 250: 249: 245: 240: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 189: 156: 144: 138: 134: 131: 128: 126: 122: 119: 116: 114: 110: 107: 104: 102: 98: 93: 88: 87: 86:Chlamydomonas 83: 79: 74: 69: 64: 61:Structure of 58: 53: 48: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 8804:|title= 8784: 8768: 8714:Heterotrophy 8684:Reproduction 8559:Orthomitosis 8544:Heterokaryon 8491:Mitochondria 8465: 8392:Cell surface 8268:organization 8224:Opisthokonta 8047:Micronucleus 8042:Macronucleus 7944:Pneumatocyst 7760:Glaucophytes 7744:Phragmoplast 7683:Thallophytes 7610:Protistology 7606:Microbiology 7529:Stromatolite 7424:Aeroplankton 7351:Salmon louse 7306:Chaetognatha 7278:Symbiodinium 7276: 7264: 7259: 7179: 7175:Raphidophyte 7162: 7155: 7151:Stramenopile 7133: 7116: 7109: 7075: 7058: 7051: 7044: 7017: 7000:Picoplankton 6925:Spring bloom 6895:Mycoplankton 6890:Meroplankton 6880:Holoplankton 6683:Gerontoplast 6633:Pseudopodium 6626:Radial spoke 6606:Undulipodium 6546:Cytoskeleton 6462:Parenthesome 6355:. Retrieved 6348:the original 6317: 6313: 6294:. Retrieved 6290:the original 6253:(1): 24–29. 6250: 6246: 6206: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6140: 6136: 6126: 6081: 6077: 6067: 6032: 6028: 6018: 5973: 5969: 5959: 5926: 5922: 5916: 5894:(1): 64–69. 5891: 5887: 5845: 5839: 5801:(1): 17–54. 5798: 5794: 5784: 5772:. Retrieved 5768:the original 5763: 5759: 5749: 5735:(2): 55–80. 5732: 5728: 5722: 5708: 5701: 5681: 5674: 5647: 5643: 5611: 5605: 5597: 5577: 5569: 5549: 5542: 5522: 5515: 5495: 5450: 5446: 5436: 5417: 5382: 5372: 5345: 5341: 5331: 5304: 5300: 5290: 5270: 5227: 5223: 5194: 5164: 5157: 5135:(1–3): 1–8. 5132: 5128: 5121: 5086: 5082: 5041: 5037: 5031: 5004: 5000: 4990: 4948:(1): 221–5. 4945: 4941: 4931: 4876: 4872: 4862: 4827: 4823: 4813: 4778: 4774: 4764: 4729: 4725: 4715: 4688: 4684: 4674: 4641: 4637: 4631: 4596: 4592: 4582: 4547: 4543: 4533: 4498: 4494: 4484: 4472:. Retrieved 4463: 4426: 4422: 4416: 4408: 4396:. Retrieved 4387: 4342: 4338: 4328: 4316:. Retrieved 4296: 4261: 4257: 4251: 4206: 4202: 4192: 4157: 4153: 4143: 4108: 4104: 4094: 4075: 4069: 4045:(1): 33–47. 4042: 4038: 4028: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3968: 3964: 3922: 3918: 3884: 3880: 3874: 3849: 3845: 3839: 3802: 3798: 3788: 3751: 3748:PLOS Biology 3747: 3737: 3729: 3725: 3701: 3695: 3689: 3670: 3664: 3652:. Retrieved 3640: 3630: 3621: 3611: 3602: 3592: 3581:, retrieved 3551: 3547: 3537: 3496: 3492: 3486: 3441: 3437: 3381: 3377: 3367: 3326: 3322: 3315: 3274: 3271:FEBS Letters 3270: 3264: 3239: 3235: 3229: 3210: 3204: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3128: 3124: 3118: 3093: 3089: 3083: 3061:(1): 21–58. 3058: 3054: 3048: 3007: 3003: 2997: 2964: 2960: 2954: 2913: 2909: 2903: 2870: 2836: 2832: 2826: 2791: 2787: 2777: 2742: 2738: 2728: 2691: 2687: 2677: 2642: 2638: 2628: 2616:. Retrieved 2609:the original 2586: 2582: 2572: 2537: 2533: 2523: 2504: 2460: 2456: 2446: 2419: 2416:Microbiology 2415: 2405: 2360: 2325: 2311: 2291: 2282:type IV pili 2255:– a flow of 2247:– a flow of 2238: 2218: 2208:Rhodophyceae 2194:Oedogoniales 2190:Bryopsidales 2186:Oedogoniales 2153: 2139: 2125:Haptophyceae 2121:Opisthokonta 2114: 2098:Oedogoniales 2087: 2084:Caryoblastea 2076:Parabasalida 2069: 2036:Foraminifera 2028:and of some 2022:Charophyceae 2012:Opisthokonta 2005: 1991:parabasalids 1930: 1920:Haptophyceae 1904: 1902:mastigonemes 1896:Opisthokonta 1889: 1851: 1837: 1825:myxogastrids 1813:radiolarians 1782: 1760: 1729: 1714: 1693: 1680: 1665: 1641: 1632: 1603: 1599: 1596:microtubules 1589: 1565: 1544: 1511: 1504: 1496: 1493: 1481: 1471: 1467: 1465: 1454: 1452: 1439:endoflagella 1433: 1421: 1415: 1412:Peritrichous 1411: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1375: 1369: 1365: 1359: 1353: 1350:Monotrichous 1349: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1332: 1322: 1318: 1312: 1293:phylogenetic 1282: 1266: 1263: 1253: 1249: 1231: 1227: 1220: 1104:Cytoskeleton 974:motor switch 953: 936: 825:Nanoparticle 805:Nanorobotics 778:photokinesis 773:chemokinesis 741:(fluid flow) 727:Magnetotaxis 715:Electrotaxis 623: 573: 559: 524: 513: 506: 500: 486: 484: 426:subunits of 421: 391:motile cilia 369:rotary motor 362: 358:microtubules 351: 348: 343:rotary motor 310: 273: 246: 241: 197: 154: 152: 89:sp. (10000×) 84: 44: 8744:Necrotrophy 8729:Saprotrophy 8719:Phagotrophy 8707:Phototrophy 8700:Nutrition: 8689:Life cycles 8680:Development 8654:Ecology and 8522:Nucleomorph 8476:Pseudopodia 8277:Unicellular 8161:Euglenoidea 8145:Kinetoplast 7929:Brown algae 7897:Mastigoneme 7835:Mastigoneme 7825:Cryptophyta 7735:green algae 7693:Slime molds 7494:Manta trawl 7479:Heterotroph 7429:Algaculture 7294:Zooplankton 7237:Flagellates 7118:Chaetoceros 7071:SAR11 clade 6930:Thin layers 6915:Planktology 6910:Planktivore 6865:Algal bloom 6785:Magnetosome 6751:Spliceosome 6678:Chromoplast 6673:Chloroplast 6564:Microtubule 6343:2433/226838 6320:(1): 3–11. 6143:: xtab002. 5774:21 February 5129:Protoplasma 4318:29 December 4006:: 151–163. 3641:Nature News 2340:plasmalemma 2180:Heterokonta 2160:Chlorophyta 2110:gymnosperms 2102:Chlorophyta 2052:Diplomonada 1997:apusomonads 1981:brown algae 1952:Heterokonta 1946:Heterokonta 1944:, and some 1868:amoebozoans 1856:angiosperms 1848:gymnosperms 1819:(gametes), 1793:brown algae 1775:gymnosperms 1763:green algae 1732:choanocytes 1672:spermatozoa 1608:9+2 axoneme 1568:undulipodia 1562:Terminology 1456:Selenomonas 1435:Spirochetes 1161:Virophysics 1109:prokaryotic 1090:Endocytosis 815:DNA machine 800:Microbotics 745:Thermotaxis 711:(chemicals) 584:proton pump 562:Mot complex 527:injectisome 406:9+2 axoneme 402:9+0 axoneme 339:Prokaryotic 317:Prokaryotic 274:Across the 237:flagellates 227:to provide 210:sperm cells 208:and animal 95:Identifiers 8829:Organelles 8818:Categories 8758:Auxotrophy 8753:Mixotrophy 8734:Parasitism 8724:Osmotrophy 8702:Autotrophy 8656:physiology 8532:Plasmodium 8458:Locomotion 8394:structures 8358:Coenocytic 8102:Phytomyxea 8073:Apicoplast 8001:Dinokaryon 7980:Trichocyst 7851:Haptophyte 7739:Phycoplast 7707:Morphology 7678:Cryptogams 7489:Macroalgae 7449:Autotrophs 7379:Cyclopoida 7316:Ctenophora 7245:Brevetoxin 7035:Cyanotoxin 7030:Cyanobiont 6780:Proteasome 6773:Inclusions 6720:Nitroplast 6713:Apicoplast 6698:Elaioplast 6693:Amyloplast 6688:Leucoplast 6643:Filopodium 6589:Basal body 6579:Centrosome 6529:Peroxisome 6524:Glyoxysome 6514:Melanosome 6424:organelles 6357:19 October 5760:Cell Motil 5621:1891276239 4111:(1): 128. 3096:: 249–73. 2839:(1): 1–8. 2397:References 2386:Ciliopathy 2336:kinetosome 2221:archaellum 2089:Multicilia 2066:Ciliophora 2026:bryophytes 2024:, of most 1924:Pavlovales 1905:sensu lato 1858:, pennate 1767:bryophytes 1756:Flagellata 1620:centrioles 1612:basal body 1507:chemotaxis 1386:bacteria ( 1115:eukaryotic 959:archaellum 855:Biohybrids 810:Nanomotors 733:Phototaxis 721:Gravitaxis 709:Chemotaxis 703:Anemotaxis 440:basal body 384:homologous 306:archaellum 263:. In some 8739:Biotrophy 8612:Extrusome 8602:Cytostome 8466:Flagellum 8423:Cell wall 8382:/histonal 8362:Siphonous 8353:Syncytial 8321:Coenobial 8317:Sarcinoid 8266:Levels of 8205:Macrocyst 8185:Amoebozoa 8150:Glycosome 8078:Microneme 7958:Alveolata 7866:Haptonema 7861:Coccolith 7840:Periplast 7786:Red algae 7770:Cyanelles 7657:Infusoria 7434:Algal mat 7374:Calanoida 7356:Sea louse 7336:Jellyfish 7311:Ciguatera 7272:Saxitoxin 7260:Flagellum 7209:Classes: 7200:Centrales 7100:Auxospore 6801:Cell wall 6763:Cytoplasm 6736:Nucleolus 6708:Tannosome 6616:Flagellum 6601:Myofibril 6584:Centriole 6519:Microbody 6492:Phagosome 6277:178516210 6202:Mycologia 6157:2633-6685 6100:1664-302X 6051:0950-382X 5992:1664-302X 5864:cite book 5578:Phycology 4264:: 30–47. 3460:2058-5276 3416:261963968 3400:0066-4227 2889:cite book 2332:centriole 2312:The only 2108:and some 2062:Opalinata 2030:metazoans 1874:, and in 1872:metazoans 1840:red algae 1829:metazoans 1797:oomycetes 1746:), as in 1744:metazoans 1740:epithelia 1725:zoospores 1638:Mechanism 1628:cytoplasm 1598:known as 1483:Aeromonas 1273:Evolution 1246:clockwise 984:evolution 954:Flagellum 739:Rheotaxis 723:(gravity) 697:Aerotaxis 673:amoeboids 652:twitching 480:cytoplasm 432:nanometer 428:flagellin 380:archaella 297:flagellum 288:Eukaryota 269:organelle 221:zoospores 155:flagellum 82:eukaryote 65:flagellum 63:bacterial 50:Flagellum 36:Solifugae 8839:Bacteria 8632:Axostyle 8627:Pyrenoid 8607:Fimbriae 8539:Dikaryon 8504:Mitosome 8433:Skeleton 8418:Frustule 8408:Mucilage 8380:tissular 8304:Colonial 8287:Amoeboid 8282:Monadoid 8210:Sorocarp 8125:Excavate 8092:Rhizaria 8022:Ciliates 8006:Dinocyst 7967:General: 7918:Frustule 7889:General: 7815:Hacrobia 7666:Sporozoa 7661:Ciliates 7650:Heliozoa 7630:Protozoa 7614:Protists 7205:Pennales 7164:Navicula 7146:Frustule 6920:Red tide 6857:plankton 6848:Plankton 6794:External 6746:Ribosome 6502:Acrosome 6487:Endosome 6482:Lysosome 6197:sp. nov. 6195:gen. et 6175:37334237 6166:10117864 6118:35387068 6059:34219289 6010:25999922 5951:34411164 5943:11250034 5908:21265748 5831:38405158 5666:24239731 5477:21429931 5364:23398214 5323:15466257 5252:18673550 5244:20145000 5149:40755371 5113:23020233 5058:23195228 5023:14657097 4923:14671319 4854:16385045 4805:16428388 4707:16978346 4666:21963003 4658:15170400 4574:10850984 4525:19650892 4517:19210619 4474:26 March 4455:31119103 4398:26 March 4379:23184985 4309:Archived 4288:18753783 4243:28489862 4203:PLOS ONE 4184:16936039 4135:17667950 4061:18078471 4020:12909351 3985:15001186 3947:24057949 3939:16953248 3901:14222895 3866:18931786 3831:37928189 3822:10621068 3780:21572986 3583:23 April 3578:15037363 3478:38632342 3469:11087270 3408:37713458 3351:18420936 3307:33886010 3299:15196929 3256:12730325 3188:15627373 3153:30386932 3145:16983194 3110:14527279 2946:10370084 2853:18786541 2769:33525831 2720:25699024 2669:15889148 2605:11584108 2564:17148374 2487:11743094 2438:12624192 2380:See also 2322:chytrids 2320:are the 2302:homology 2104:), some 2001:bodonids 1968:bodonids 1886:Typology 1880:chytrids 1878:(except 1748:ciliates 1606:). 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