1016:
1350:
781:
945:
744:
496:
41:
1362:
1283:
1043:
615:
1074:
1411:
1384:
589:
707:
916:
1332:
1302:
876:
834:
1314:
3439:
529:
437:
465:
33:
1062:
566:
673:
1090:, spores often have complex patterns or ornamentation on their exterior surfaces. A specialized terminology has been developed to describe features of such patterns. Some markings represent apertures, places where the tough outer coat of the spore can be penetrated when germination occurs. Spores can be categorized based on the position and number of these markings and apertures.
1148:
1208:
such as ferns, wind distribution of very light spores provides great capacity for dispersal. Also, spores are less subject to animal predation than seeds because they contain almost no food reserve; however they are more subject to fungal and bacterial predation. Their chief advantage is that, of all
1270:
have been useful. The spores found in microfossils, also known as cryptospores, are well preserved due to the fixed material they are in as well as how abundant and widespread they were during their respective time periods. These microfossils are especially helpful when studying the early periods of
1160:
In fungi, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores of many fungal species are actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as travelling through the air over long distances. Many
285:
is that spores are unicellular, the first cell of a gametophyte, while seeds contain within them a developing embryo (the multicellular sporophyte of the next generation), produced by the fusion of the male gamete of the pollen tube with the female gamete formed by the megagametophyte within the
983:
1149:
341:
produce spores of two different sizes: the larger spore (megaspore) in effect functioning as a "female" spore and the smaller (microspore) functioning as a "male". Such plants typically give rise to the two kind of spores from within separate sporangia, either a
1150:
1271:
earth as macrofossils such as plants are not common nor well preserved. Both cryptospores and modern spores have diverse morphology that indicate possible environmental conditions of earlier periods of Earth and evolutionary relationships of plant species.
1102:, each spore shows three narrow lines radiating from a center pole. This shows that four spores shared a common origin and were initially in contact with each other forming a tetrahedron. A wider aperture in the shape of a groove may be termed a
1152:
381:
cells result from the fusion of two haploid gamete cells. Among sporogenic dikaryotic cells, karyogamy (the fusion of the two haploid nuclei) occurs to produce a diploid cell. Diploid cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores.
1502:
162:
spores release amoeboid infectious germs ("amoebulae") into their hosts for parasitic infection, but also reproduce within the hosts through the pairing of two nuclei within the plasmodium, which develops from the amoebula.
1242:
period. Two hypothesized initial functions of spores relate to whether they appeared before or after land plants. The heavily studied hypothesis is that spores were an adaptation of early land plant species, such as
1251:. These spore walls would have protected potential offspring from novel weather elements. The second more recent hypothesis is that spores were an early predecessor of land plants and formed during errors in the
1188:. Attracting insects, such as flies, to fruiting structures, by virtue of their having lively colours and a putrid odour, for dispersal of fungal spores is yet another strategy, most prominently used by the
1361:
1506:
219:
are produced internally, and the megaspores (formed within the ovules) and the microspores are involved in the formation of more complex structures that form the dispersal units, the
643:
1349:
3269:
1151:
1647:
Myxospores consist of several cells, which are transformed to shell valves, nematocyst-like polar capsules with coiled extrudible polar filaments and amoeboid infective germs.
1667:
1247:, that allowed for plants to easily disperse while adapting to their non-aquatic environment. This is particularly supported by the observation of a thick spore wall in
1015:
2066:
Johansson, Lönnell, Sundberg and
Hylander (2014) Release thresholds for moss spores: the importance of turbulence and sporophyte length. Journal of Ecology, n/a-n/a.
3274:
1369:
1383:
1689:
1282:
1165:, for spore ejection. These mechanisms include, for example, forcible discharge of ascospores enabled by the structure of the ascus and accumulation of
3407:
1853:
1802:
1331:
189:. In some rare cases, diploid spore is also produced in some algae, or fungi. Under favourable conditions, the spore can develop into a new
3325:
1128:
Envelope-enclosed spore tetrads are taken as the earliest evidence of plant life on land, dating from the mid-Ordovician (early
Llanvirn, ~
2084:
1964:
1301:
393:
Below is a table listing the mode of classification, name, identifying characteristic, examples, and images of different spore species.
1313:
390:
Spores can be classified in several ways such as by their spore producing structure, function, origin during life cycle, and mobility.
3141:
1659:
1098:, there is a single narrow line (laesura) on the spore. Indicating the prior contact of two spores that eventually separated. In
3463:
533:
1609:
1480:
1720:
Punt, W.; Hoen, P. P.; Blackmore, S.; Nilsson, S. & Le Thomas, A. (2007). "Glossary of pollen and spore terminology".
286:
ovule. Spores germinate to give rise to haploid gametophytes, while seeds germinate to give rise to diploid sporophytes.
1161:
fungi thereby possess specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms as well as spore-surface structures, such as
1180:), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000
3331:
1135:), a period from which no macrofossils have yet been recovered. Individual trilete spores resembling those of modern
2226:
1184:. Other fungi rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces, exemplified by
350:
that produces microspores. In flowering plants, these sporangia occur within the carpel and anthers, respectively.
2665:
3146:
1798:"The Microfossil Record of Early Land Plants: Advances in Understanding of Early Terrestrialization, 1970–1984"
1123:
1693:
158:
are not part of a sexual cycle, but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions.
2596:
780:
1626:
3315:
2902:
2417:
128:
and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the
3473:
3397:
3151:
1898:
Steemans, P.; Herisse, A. L.; Melvin, J.; Miller, M. A.; Paris, F.; Verniers, J.; Wellman, C. H. (2009).
944:
3131:
209:
495:
3281:
2030:
Pringle A, Patek SN, Fischer M, Stolze J, Money NP (2005). "The captured launch of a ballistospore".
743:
3419:
3264:
2314:
1214:
2077:"False Rose of Jericho – Selaginella lepidophyllaFalse Rose of Jericho – Selaginella lepidophylla"
278:, while a gamete needs to combine with another gamete to form a zygote before developing further.
40:
1459:
Setlow, Peter; Johnson, Eric A. (30 April 2014), Doyle, Michael P.; Buchanan, Robert L. (eds.),
3249:
3173:
1262:
Whether spores arose before or after land plants, their contributions to topics in fields like
24:
2978:
1201:), the vibration of sporophyte has been shown to be an important mechanism for spore release.
3478:
3414:
2076:
1899:
129:
1169:
in the fluids of the ascus that lead to explosive discharge of the ascospores into the air.
3136:
3033:
2988:
2660:
2219:
2166:
1914:
1811:
1729:
282:
125:
121:
2636:
8:
3468:
3306:
2851:
1042:
117:
2170:
1918:
1815:
1733:
1549:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
96:) can be discerned as well. Inset shows the surrounding, black poplars growing on sandy
3244:
3109:
2887:
2579:
2365:
2261:
2130:
1956:
1875:
1848:
1829:
1577:
1544:
1197:
1030:
1002:
2154:
3402:
2251:
2246:
2190:
2182:
2122:
2049:
2012:
2007:
1990:
1960:
1948:
1940:
1880:
1778:
1605:
1582:
1564:
1476:
1219:
1073:
3188:
3094:
3089:
3043:
2936:
2921:
2882:
2807:
2648:
2572:
2469:
2411:
2174:
2041:
2002:
1930:
1922:
1870:
1862:
1819:
1768:
1741:
1737:
1572:
1556:
1468:
1177:
755:
614:
501:
361:
commonly produce spores during sexual and asexual reproduction. Spores are usually
2983:
588:
3442:
3424:
3286:
3115:
3065:
3053:
3015:
2951:
2778:
2746:
2707:
2680:
2509:
2504:
2395:
2331:
2212:
1460:
695:
469:
155:
16:
Unit of reproduction adapted for dispersal and survival in unfavorable conditions
1139:
plants first appeared in the fossil record at the end of the
Ordovician period.
3336:
3301:
3254:
3236:
3200:
2956:
2783:
2761:
2727:
2702:
2685:
2675:
2670:
2552:
2370:
2355:
2309:
2304:
2045:
1429:
1205:
706:
453:
301:
1472:
915:
3457:
3372:
3120:
3038:
3010:
2973:
2941:
2877:
2846:
2797:
2697:
2499:
2482:
2405:
2385:
2326:
2321:
2269:
2186:
2126:
1944:
1568:
1267:
1087:
996:
845:, and in some cases megaspores, are formed from all four products of meiosis.
731:
725:
648:
576:
522:
370:
240:
198:
2178:
1926:
1209:
forms of progeny, spores require the least energy and materials to produce.
3367:
3357:
3259:
2968:
2477:
2444:
2194:
2053:
2016:
1952:
1884:
1866:
1824:
1797:
1782:
1773:
1756:
1586:
1560:
1424:
1416:
1263:
712:
678:
537:
511:
89:
1935:
204:, which eventually goes on to produce gametes. Two gametes fuse to form a
3183:
3168:
3163:
3099:
2961:
2741:
2712:
2611:
2606:
2454:
2294:
2289:
2274:
1439:
1248:
1244:
1235:
1162:
863:
821:
751:
338:
314:
201:
171:
318:. Plants that are homosporous produce spores of the same size and type.
3212:
3205:
3195:
3178:
2861:
2856:
2792:
2584:
2431:
2390:
2284:
2134:
2110:
1833:
1434:
1339:
1239:
1223:
1189:
909:
880:
875:
842:
833:
811:
737:
689:
658:
599:
550:
489:
458:
430:
425:
419:
378:
374:
322:
216:
186:
179:
149:
81:
69:
464:
436:
330:
65:
19:
This article is about spores in eukaryotes. For bacterial spores, see
3320:
3217:
2946:
2751:
2732:
2643:
2567:
2487:
2439:
2380:
2360:
2299:
2032:
1321:
1185:
1136:
1130:
967:
935:
888:
852:
700:
666:
528:
447:
326:
275:
47:
20:
3362:
3352:
3296:
3291:
3058:
2931:
2907:
2824:
2494:
2279:
1390:
1355:
Fruit mold with spores and distinguishable cellular growth. (2000x)
1166:
1107:
1066:
1036:
929:
898:
636:
631:
541:
517:
190:
145:
101:
73:
53:
1307:
Dehisced fern sporangia. (microscopic view, no spores are visible)
982:
2547:
2542:
2459:
2449:
1634:
1374:
1252:
1181:
1079:
1061:
904:
859:
817:
625:
366:
362:
305:
194:
183:
175:
167:
159:
109:
59:
32:
642:
3000:
2892:
2812:
2766:
2756:
2717:
2655:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2235:
826:
785:
605:
556:
358:
271:
224:
208:, which develops into a new sporophyte. This cycle is known as
205:
141:
289:
148:. They were thought to have appeared as early as the mid-late
3158:
3080:
3048:
3005:
2897:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2817:
2802:
2771:
2692:
2350:
2341:
2155:"A fossil record of land plant origins from charophyte algae"
1991:"Fungal cannons: explosive spore discharge in the Ascomycota"
1757:"A survey of tricolpate (eudicot) phylogenetic relationships"
1256:
1033:
due to external force (such as raindrops or passing animals)
868:
838:
747:
484:
478:
261:
253:
137:
133:
1106:. The number of colpi distinguishes major groups of plants.
565:
270:
In common parlance, the difference between a "spore" and a "
3075:
3070:
2722:
2562:
2537:
2532:
2516:
2375:
1900:"Origin and Radiation of the Earliest Vascular Land Plants"
1897:
1289:
1065:
Fossil trilete spores (blue) and a spore tetrad (green) of
884:
672:
334:
248:
220:
97:
1367:
Spore clusters, formed inside sporangia of the slime mold
2995:
2557:
2204:
2111:"Keys for the Classification of Fossil Spores and Pollen"
2029:
1719:
1795:
734:
of fungi produced to survive in unfavorable conditions
44:
Fresh snow partially covers rough-stalked feather-moss
1218:, dispersal is achieved in part by an unusual type of
2153:
Strother, Paul K.; Foster, Clinton (13 August 2021).
1715:
1713:
1711:
1660:"Diploid Spore - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
1406:
274:" is that a spore will germinate and develop into a
1891:
1755:Judd, Walter S. & Olmstead, Richard G. (2004).
1602:
Bacterial spores: current research and applications
1117:
798:Spores released by the host to infest other hosts
72:are visible before dispersion of their spores: the
1796:Gray, J.; Chaloner, W. G.; Westoll, T. S. (1985).
1467:, Washington, DC, USA: ASM Press, pp. 45–79,
1005:due to internal force (such as built up pressure)
1854:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
1803:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
1708:
887:, only a single product of meiosis will become a
365:and grow into mature haploid individuals through
3455:
2148:
2146:
2144:
1259:, a hypothesized early ancestor of land plants.
682:showing a carpospores and carposporophyte inside
281:The main difference between spores and seeds as
1538:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1172:The forcible discharge of single spores termed
1019:Ballistospore mechanism of dispersal from fungi
2152:
2023:
152:period as an adaptation of early land plants.
2220:
2141:
2104:
2102:
1849:"The microfossil record of early land plants"
1545:"The microfossil record of early land plants"
1458:
1176:involves formation of a small drop of water (
3326:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
1754:
1521:
1846:
1840:
1599:
1542:
385:
290:Classification of spore-producing organisms
2227:
2213:
2099:
1624:
2006:
1934:
1874:
1823:
1772:
1748:
1576:
1543:Wellman, C. H.; Gray, J. (29 June 2000).
958:Immobile, however still produce flagella
891:(macrospore), with the rest degenerating.
3270:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
1988:
1789:
1146:
1072:
1060:
1041:
1014:
981:
943:
914:
874:
832:
779:
742:
705:
671:
641:
613:
587:
564:
527:
494:
463:
435:
39:
31:
1114:spores (i.e. spores with three colpi).
1008:Basidiospores and/or part of the genus
36:Spores produced in a sporic life cycle.
3456:
1970:from the original on 22 September 2017
1319:Spores and elaters from a horsetail. (
2208:
2108:
1982:
1722:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
1670:from the original on 13 December 2023
1555:(1398): 717–731, discussion 731–732.
1046:Puff Balls containing Stratismospores
1029:Forcibly discharged from the fungal
1001:Forcibly discharged from the fungal
532:Typical reproductive structure of a
1604:. Norfolk: Caister academic press.
1343:) from Silurian deposits of Sweden.
1054:
13:
408:Example Spore Containing Organism
14:
3490:
3275:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
2087:from the original on 15 July 2011
3438:
3437:
2008:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00900.x
1409:
1382:
1360:
1348:
1330:
1312:
1300:
1281:
1118:Spore tetrads and trilete spores
919:Ascomycete containing mitospores
795:External (Environmental) spores
618:Microscopic image of teliospores
2069:
2060:
1461:"Spores and Their Significance"
1373:, from pine forests of eastern
948:Microscopic image of a Zoospore
1742:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2006.06.008
1692:. 26 June 2008. Archived from
1682:
1652:
1618:
1593:
1495:
1452:
1204:In the case of spore-shedding
1156:Spores being ejected by fungi.
1124:Evolutionary history of plants
663:Produced by carposophorophyte
346:that produces megaspores or a
321:Heterosporous plants, such as
166:In plants, spores are usually
104:, with the detail area marked.
1:
3464:Fungal morphology and anatomy
1600:Abel-Santos, Ernesto (2012).
1445:
377:among rusts are dikaryotic).
308:. Vascular plants are either
251:, sowing", related to σπόρος
230:
3316:History of plant systematics
2903:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1238:dating back to the mid-late
1142:
862:, and give rise to a female
784:A parasitic pink fungi on a
262:
254:
7:
1847:Wellman CH, Gray J (2000).
1625:Ivan Fiala (10 July 2008).
1402:
405:Identifying Characteristic
310:homosporous (or isosporous)
80:) is still attached to the
10:
3495:
3132:Alternation of generations
2234:
2046:10.3852/mycologia.97.4.866
1761:American Journal of Botany
1690:"Biology of Microsporidia"
1503:"Tree of Life Web Project"
1295:. (microscopic view, 400x)
1274:
1234:Spores have been found in
1195:In Common Smoothcap moss (
1121:
986:Autospores of a strain of
903:Produced asexually though
858:Produced sexually through
820:, and give rise to a male
816:Produced sexually through
416:Spore Producing Structure
415:
210:alternation of generations
18:
3433:
3381:
3345:
3282:Cultivated plant taxonomy
3245:Biological classification
3235:
3108:
3024:
2920:
2870:
2595:
2525:
2468:
2430:
2404:
2340:
2260:
2242:
1995:FEMS Microbiology Letters
1473:10.1128/9781555818463.ch3
1229:
1025:
995:
966:
954:
928:
925:
897:
807:
805:Origin During Life Cycle
804:
778:
767:
724:
721:
688:
657:
649:Phytophthora agathidicida
624:
598:
575:
549:
510:
477:
446:
418:
401:
296:
259:, "sowing", and σπείρειν
3142:Evolutionary development
1631:Tree of Life Web Project
1389:Internal surface of the
1215:Selaginella lepidophylla
774:Germinate within a host
386:Classification of spores
353:
124:that may be adapted for
64:. The last stage of the
2793:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
2179:10.1126/science.abj2927
2115:Journal of Paleontology
2081:Plant- and Flower guide
1927:10.1126/science.1169659
1133: million years ago
768:Parasitic Fungal Spore
399:Mode of Classification
48:Brachythecium rutabulum
3408:by author abbreviation
3332:Plant taxonomy systems
3250:Botanical nomenclature
1867:10.1098/rstb.2000.0612
1825:10.1098/rstb.1985.0077
1774:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1627
1561:10.1098/rstb.2000.0612
1157:
1083:
1070:
1047:
1020:
990:
988:Jenufa aeroterrestrica
949:
920:
892:
846:
789:
762:
716:
683:
652:
619:
593:
581:Produced by uredinium
570:
544:
505:
472:
441:
197:division, producing a
105:
37:
25:Spore (disambiguation)
23:. For other uses, see
3415:Botanical expeditions
2109:Norem, W. L. (1958).
1664:www.sciencedirect.com
1337:Fossil plant spores (
1155:
1077:Tricolpate pollen of
1076:
1064:
1045:
1018:
985:
972:Immobile spores that
947:
940:Some algae and fungi
918:
879:In contrast, in many
878:
836:
783:
750:, chlamydospores and
746:
709:
675:
645:
617:
591:
568:
531:
498:
467:
439:
43:
35:
3147:Evolutionary history
3137:Double fertilization
2989:Cellular respiration
1370:Reticularia olivacea
1293:Bartramia ithyphylla
676:Light microscopy of
174:and are produced by
122:asexual reproduction
68:is shown, where the
60:Populus x canadensis
56:hybrid black poplar
2366:Non-vascular plants
2171:2021Sci...373..792S
1919:2009Sci...324..353S
1816:1985RSPTB.309..167G
1734:2007RPaPa.143....1P
1637:on 16 February 2015
1325:, microscopic view)
440:Sporangium of Fungi
369:division of cells (
88:). The tops of the
3474:Plant reproduction
2871:Surface structures
2666:Flower development
1509:on 5 February 2018
1393:of the slime mold
1198:Atrichum undulatum
1158:
1094:show no lines. In
1084:
1071:
1048:
1021:
991:
950:
921:
893:
883:and heterosporous
847:
790:
763:
717:
684:
653:
620:
594:
571:
545:
506:
473:
442:
304:spores are always
106:
38:
3451:
3450:
3090:Herbaceous plants
2916:
2915:
2165:(6556): 792–796.
2083:. February 2009.
1989:Trail F. (2007).
1861:(1398): 717–732.
1810:(1138): 167–195.
1611:978-1-908230-00-3
1482:978-1-68367-058-2
1465:Food Microbiology
1212:In the spikemoss
1153:
1052:
1051:
976:produce flagella
239:derives from the
100:on the bank of a
3486:
3441:
3440:
3420:Individual trees
3095:Secondary growth
3066:Succulent plants
3054:Prostrate shrubs
2937:Apical dominance
2922:Plant physiology
2883:Epicuticular wax
2428:
2427:
2421:
2412:Plant morphology
2229:
2222:
2215:
2206:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2150:
2139:
2138:
2106:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2010:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1969:
1938:
1904:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1878:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1827:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1776:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1717:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1642:
1633:. Archived from
1622:
1616:
1615:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1580:
1540:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1505:. Archived from
1499:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1456:
1419:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1386:
1364:
1352:
1334:
1316:
1304:
1285:
1154:
1134:
1055:External anatomy
1026:Stratismospores
771:Internal Spores
696:tetrasphorophyte
610:Rusts and Smuts
584:Rusts and Smuts
569:Aecia on foliage
561:Rusts and Smuts
536:, including the
502:Didymella Rabiei
396:
395:
265:
257:
156:Bacterial spores
3494:
3493:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3484:
3483:
3454:
3453:
3452:
3447:
3429:
3398:Botanical terms
3391:
3377:
3341:
3287:Citrus taxonomy
3265:Author citation
3231:
3125:
3104:
3026:
3020:
3016:Turgor pressure
2924:
2912:
2866:
2681:Floral symmetry
2599:
2591:
2521:
2510:Vascular bundle
2505:Vascular tissue
2464:
2424:
2415:
2414:
2400:
2371:Vascular plants
2336:
2332:Plant pathology
2256:
2238:
2233:
2203:
2202:
2151:
2142:
2107:
2100:
2090:
2088:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2028:
2024:
1987:
1983:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1902:
1896:
1892:
1845:
1841:
1794:
1790:
1767:(10): 1627–44.
1753:
1749:
1718:
1709:
1699:
1697:
1696:on 26 June 2008
1688:
1687:
1683:
1673:
1671:
1658:
1657:
1653:
1640:
1638:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1598:
1594:
1541:
1522:
1512:
1510:
1501:
1500:
1496:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1457:
1453:
1448:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1398:
1395:Tubifera dudkae
1387:
1378:
1365:
1356:
1353:
1344:
1335:
1326:
1317:
1308:
1305:
1296:
1286:
1277:
1232:
1206:vascular plants
1147:
1145:
1129:
1126:
1120:
1096:monolete spores
1057:
934:Mobile through
871:in seed plants
829:in seed plants
710:Tetraspores of
388:
356:
348:microsporangium
299:
292:
283:dispersal units
233:
52:, growing on a
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3492:
3482:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3445:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3428:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3411:
3410:
3400:
3394:
3392:
3390:
3389:
3388:Related topics
3386:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3342:
3340:
3339:
3337:Taxonomic rank
3334:
3329:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3289:
3279:
3278:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3255:Botanical name
3247:
3241:
3239:
3237:Plant taxonomy
3233:
3232:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3213:Megasporangium
3210:
3209:
3208:
3201:Microsporangia
3193:
3192:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3123:
3118:
3112:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3086:
3085:
3084:
3083:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3056:
3046:
3041:
3039:Cushion plants
3030:
3028:
3022:
3021:
3019:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2986:
2976:
2974:Plant hormones
2971:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2957:Photosynthesis
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2928:
2926:
2918:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2795:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2690:
2689:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2676:Floral formula
2673:
2671:Floral diagram
2668:
2663:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2624:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2601:
2600:(incl. Flower)
2593:
2592:
2590:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2560:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2502:
2500:Storage organs
2497:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2480:
2474:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2436:
2434:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2386:Spermatophytes
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2356:Archaeplastida
2353:
2347:
2345:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2310:Phytogeography
2307:
2305:Phytochemistry
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2266:
2264:
2262:Subdisciplines
2258:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2232:
2231:
2224:
2217:
2209:
2201:
2200:
2140:
2121:(4): 666–676.
2098:
2068:
2059:
2022:
1981:
1936:1854/LU-697223
1890:
1839:
1788:
1747:
1707:
1681:
1651:
1617:
1610:
1592:
1520:
1494:
1481:
1450:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1430:Auxiliary cell
1427:
1421:
1420:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1388:
1381:
1379:
1366:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1347:
1345:
1336:
1329:
1327:
1318:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1299:
1297:
1288:Spores of the
1287:
1280:
1276:
1273:
1231:
1228:
1174:ballistospores
1144:
1141:
1122:Main article:
1119:
1116:
1100:trilete spores
1056:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1039:
1034:
1027:
1023:
1022:
1012:
1006:
999:
997:Ballistospores
993:
992:
979:
977:
970:
964:
963:
961:
959:
956:
952:
951:
941:
938:
932:
927:
923:
922:
912:
907:
901:
895:
894:
872:
866:
856:
855:(macrospores)
849:
848:
830:
824:
814:
809:
806:
802:
801:
799:
796:
792:
791:
777:
775:
772:
769:
765:
764:
740:
735:
732:resting spores
728:
723:
719:
718:
703:
698:
692:
686:
685:
669:
664:
661:
655:
654:
639:
634:
628:
622:
621:
611:
608:
602:
596:
595:
585:
582:
579:
577:Urediniospores
573:
572:
562:
559:
553:
547:
546:
525:
523:Basidiomycetes
520:
514:
508:
507:
499:Ascospores of
492:
487:
481:
475:
474:
468:Zygospores on
461:
456:
454:zygosporangium
450:
444:
443:
433:
428:
422:
420:Sporangiospore
417:
413:
412:
409:
406:
403:
400:
387:
384:
371:Urediniospores
355:
352:
344:megasporangium
302:Vascular plant
298:
295:
291:
288:
232:
229:
215:The spores of
120:(in fungi) or
66:moss lifecycle
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3491:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3444:
3436:
3435:
3432:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3387:
3384:
3383:
3380:
3374:
3373:Phytochemical
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3348:
3344:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3283:
3280:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3226:
3223:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3211:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3197:
3194:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3107:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3029:
3023:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3011:Transpiration
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2798:Inflorescence
2796:
2794:
2791:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2691:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2629:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2483:Ground tissue
2481:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2426:
2419:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:Plant anatomy
2403:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2339:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2327:Plant ecology
2325:
2323:
2322:Plant anatomy
2320:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2270:Archaeobotany
2268:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2241:
2237:
2230:
2225:
2223:
2218:
2216:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2149:
2147:
2145:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2103:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2072:
2063:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2040:(4): 866–71.
2039:
2035:
2034:
2026:
2018:
2014:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1913:(5925): 353.
1912:
1908:
1901:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1843:
1835:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1804:
1799:
1792:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1751:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1655:
1648:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1613:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1508:
1504:
1498:
1484:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1455:
1451:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1407:
1396:
1392:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1363:
1358:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1341:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1315:
1310:
1303:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1284:
1279:
1278:
1272:
1269:
1268:phylogenetics
1265:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1216:
1210:
1207:
1202:
1200:
1199:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1178:Buller's drop
1175:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1140:
1138:
1132:
1125:
1115:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1088:magnification
1082:
1081:
1075:
1068:
1067:Late Silurian
1063:
1059:
1044:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1017:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1004:
1003:fruiting body
1000:
998:
994:
989:
984:
980:
978:
975:
971:
969:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:Aplanospores
953:
946:
942:
939:
937:
933:
931:
924:
917:
913:
911:
908:
906:
902:
900:
896:
890:
886:
882:
877:
873:
870:
867:
865:
861:
857:
854:
851:
850:
844:
840:
835:
831:
828:
825:
823:
819:
815:
813:
810:
803:
800:
797:
794:
793:
787:
782:
776:
773:
770:
766:
760:
758:
753:
749:
745:
741:
739:
736:
733:
730:Thick-walled
729:
727:
726:Chalmydospore
720:
715:
714:
708:
704:
702:
699:
697:
693:
691:
687:
681:
680:
674:
670:
668:
665:
662:
660:
656:
651:
650:
644:
640:
638:
635:
633:
629:
627:
623:
616:
612:
609:
607:
603:
601:
597:
592:Uredinospores
590:
586:
583:
580:
578:
574:
567:
563:
560:
558:
554:
552:
548:
543:
539:
535:
534:basidiomycete
530:
526:
524:
521:
519:
515:
513:
512:Basidiospores
509:
504:
503:
497:
493:
491:
488:
486:
482:
480:
476:
471:
466:
462:
460:
457:
455:
451:
449:
445:
438:
434:
432:
429:
427:
423:
421:
414:
410:
407:
404:
398:
397:
394:
391:
383:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
351:
349:
345:
340:
337:of the order
336:
332:
328:
324:
319:
317:
316:
315:heterosporous
311:
307:
303:
294:
287:
284:
279:
277:
273:
268:
266:
264:
258:
256:
250:
246:
242:
241:ancient Greek
238:
228:
226:
222:
218:
213:
211:
207:
203:
200:
199:multicellular
196:
192:
188:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
164:
161:
157:
153:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
116:is a unit of
115:
111:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
61:
55:
51:
49:
42:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3479:Reproduction
3368:Horticulture
3358:Floriculture
3260:Correct name
3224:
3110:Reproduction
3100:Woody plants
3025:Plant growth
2984:Gas Exchange
2969:Phytomelanin
2847:Plant embryo
2597:Reproductive
2445:Phragmoplast
2162:
2158:
2118:
2114:
2089:. Retrieved
2080:
2071:
2062:
2037:
2031:
2025:
1998:
1994:
1984:
1972:. Retrieved
1910:
1906:
1893:
1858:
1852:
1842:
1807:
1801:
1791:
1764:
1760:
1750:
1725:
1721:
1698:. Retrieved
1694:the original
1684:
1672:. Retrieved
1663:
1654:
1646:
1639:. Retrieved
1635:the original
1630:
1620:
1601:
1595:
1552:
1548:
1511:. Retrieved
1507:the original
1497:
1486:, retrieved
1464:
1454:
1425:Aeroplankton
1417:Fungi portal
1397:with spores.
1394:
1368:
1338:
1320:
1292:
1264:paleontology
1261:
1249:cryptospores
1245:embryophytes
1236:microfossils
1233:
1213:
1211:
1203:
1196:
1194:
1173:
1171:
1163:hydrophobins
1159:
1127:
1111:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1092:Alete spores
1091:
1085:
1078:
1058:
1031:fruting body
1009:
987:
973:
756:
752:blastospores
748:Pseudohyphae
713:Polysiphonia
711:
694:Produced by
679:Polysiphonia
677:
647:
646:Oospores of
630:Produced by
604:Produced by
555:Produced by
538:basidiospore
516:Produced by
500:
483:Produced by
452:Produced by
424:Produced by
392:
389:
357:
347:
343:
320:
313:
309:
300:
293:
280:
269:
267:, "to sow".
260:
252:
244:
236:
234:
214:
165:
154:
113:
107:
93:
90:gametophytes
85:
77:
57:
45:
29:
3184:Pollen tube
3179:Pollinators
3169:Pollination
3164:Germination
2979:Respiration
2962:Chlorophyll
2808:Pedicellate
2742:Gametophyte
2661:Aestivation
2612:Antheridium
2607:Archegonium
2455:Plasmodesma
2432:Plant cells
2295:Paleobotany
2290:Ethnobotany
2275:Astrobotany
2001:(1): 12–8.
1728:(1): 1–81.
1674:13 December
1488:13 December
1440:Cryptospore
1137:cryptogamic
1086:Under high
910:Ascomycetes
881:seed plants
864:gametophyte
843:microspores
822:gametophyte
812:Microspores
808:Meiospores
690:Tetraspores
659:Carpospores
600:Teliospores
490:Ascomycetes
459:Zygomycetes
431:Zygomycetes
375:Teliospores
339:Salviniales
327:spikemosses
323:seed plants
247:, meaning "
243:word σπορά
217:seed plants
202:gametophyte
172:unicellular
130:life cycles
70:sporophytes
3469:Germ cells
3458:Categories
3206:Microspore
3196:Sporangium
3174:Artificial
2862:Sporophyte
2857:Sporophyll
2852:Receptacle
2747:Gynandrium
2617:Androecium
2526:Vegetative
2396:Angiosperm
2391:Gymnosperm
2285:Dendrology
2091:1 February
1974:1 November
1641:14 January
1513:5 February
1446:References
1435:Bioaerosol
1340:Scylaspora
1266:and plant
1240:Ordovician
1224:tumbleweed
1190:stinkhorns
1112:tricolpate
968:Autospores
899:Mitospores
853:Megaspores
551:Aecispores
479:Ascospores
448:Zygospores
426:sporangium
379:Dikaryotic
331:quillworts
231:Definition
187:sporophyte
180:sporangium
150:Ordovician
3403:Botanists
3321:Herbarium
3218:Megaspore
3116:Evolution
3059:Subshrubs
3027:and habit
2952:Nutrition
2947:Cellulose
2942:Bulk flow
2925:Materials
2888:Epidermis
2752:Gynoecium
2733:Endosperm
2728:Dispersal
2644:Staminode
2580:Sessility
2568:Cataphyll
2488:Mesophyll
2440:Cell wall
2381:Lycophyte
2361:Bryophyte
2315:Geobotany
2300:Phycology
2187:0036-8075
2127:0022-3360
2033:Mycologia
1961:206518080
1945:0036-8075
1627:"Myxozoa"
1569:0962-8436
1322:Equisetum
1186:puffballs
1167:osmolytes
1143:Dispersal
1037:Puffballs
930:Zoospores
926:Mobility
889:megaspore
738:Asomycota
722:Function
701:Red Algae
667:Red Algae
637:Oomycetes
276:sporeling
235:The term
126:dispersal
21:endospore
3443:Category
3363:Forestry
3353:Agronomy
3346:Practice
3297:Cultivar
3292:Cultigen
3152:timeline
3044:Rosettes
2932:Aleurone
2908:Trichome
2825:Perianth
2637:Filament
2495:Meristem
2418:glossary
2280:Bryology
2195:34385396
2085:Archived
2054:16457355
2017:17784861
1965:Archived
1953:19372423
1885:10905606
1783:21652313
1700:24 March
1668:Archived
1587:10905606
1403:See also
1391:peridium
1220:diaspore
1108:Eudicots
936:flagella
632:oogonium
626:Oospores
542:basidium
518:basidium
470:Rhizopus
263:speirein
227:grains.
191:organism
160:Myxozoan
146:protozoa
132:of many
74:calyptra
3121:Ecology
2878:Cuticle
2708:Capsule
2698:Anatomy
2649:Tapetum
2573:Petiole
2548:Rhizome
2543:Rhizoid
2470:Tissues
2460:Vacuole
2450:Plastid
2252:Outline
2247:History
2167:Bibcode
2159:Science
2135:1300785
1915:Bibcode
1907:Science
1876:1692785
1834:2396358
1812:Bibcode
1730:Bibcode
1578:1692785
1375:Ukraine
1275:Gallery
1253:meiosis
1080:Ricinus
1010:Pilobus
905:mitosis
860:meiosis
818:meiosis
757:Candida
367:mitotic
363:haploid
306:haploid
195:mitotic
184:diploid
178:in the
176:meiosis
168:haploid
110:biology
82:capsule
54:thinned
3425:Plants
3328:(IAPT)
3081:Lianas
3049:Shrubs
3001:Starch
2893:Nectar
2813:Raceme
2779:Stigma
2767:Locule
2757:Carpel
2718:Pyrena
2656:Flower
2632:Anther
2627:Stamen
2622:Pollen
2344:groups
2236:Botany
2193:
2185:
2133:
2125:
2052:
2015:
1959:
1951:
1943:
1883:
1873:
1832:
1781:
1608:
1585:
1575:
1567:
1479:
1230:Origin
1104:colpus
1069:origin
974:do not
839:plants
827:Pollen
786:Lichen
606:teilum
557:aecium
411:Image
333:, and
297:Plants
272:gamete
255:sporos
225:pollen
206:zygote
193:using
134:plants
118:sexual
3385:Lists
3302:Group
3225:Spore
3159:Flora
3076:Vines
3071:Trees
3034:Habit
3006:Sugar
2898:Stoma
2840:Sepal
2835:Petal
2830:Tepal
2818:Umbel
2803:Bract
2784:Style
2772:Ovule
2762:Ovary
2703:Berry
2693:Fruit
2686:Whorl
2553:Shoot
2351:Algae
2342:Plant
2131:JSTOR
1968:(PDF)
1957:S2CID
1903:(PDF)
1830:JSTOR
1257:algae
1110:have
885:ferns
869:Ovule
759:yeast
485:ascus
402:Name
359:Fungi
354:Fungi
335:ferns
245:spora
237:spore
221:seeds
182:of a
142:fungi
138:algae
114:spore
3307:Grex
3189:Self
2723:Seed
2585:Stem
2563:Leaf
2538:Root
2533:Bulb
2517:Wood
2478:Cork
2376:Fern
2191:PMID
2183:ISSN
2123:ISSN
2093:2010
2050:PMID
2013:PMID
1976:2017
1949:PMID
1941:ISSN
1881:PMID
1779:PMID
1702:2024
1676:2023
1643:2014
1606:ISBN
1583:PMID
1565:ISSN
1515:2018
1490:2023
1477:ISBN
1290:moss
1222:, a
788:tree
540:and
373:and
249:seed
223:and
170:and
144:and
112:, a
102:kolk
98:loam
2996:Sap
2713:Nut
2558:Bud
2175:doi
2163:373
2042:doi
2003:doi
1999:276
1931:hdl
1923:doi
1911:324
1871:PMC
1863:doi
1859:355
1820:doi
1808:309
1769:doi
1738:doi
1726:143
1573:PMC
1557:doi
1553:355
1469:doi
1255:of
1131:470
837:In
754:of
312:or
108:In
3460::
2189:.
2181:.
2173:.
2161:.
2157:.
2143:^
2129:.
2119:32
2117:.
2113:.
2101:^
2079:.
2048:.
2038:97
2036:.
2011:.
1997:.
1993:.
1963:.
1955:.
1947:.
1939:.
1929:.
1921:.
1909:.
1905:.
1879:.
1869:.
1857:.
1851:.
1828:.
1818:.
1806:.
1800:.
1777:.
1765:91
1763:.
1759:.
1736:.
1724:.
1710:^
1666:.
1662:.
1645:.
1629:.
1581:.
1571:.
1563:.
1551:.
1547:.
1523:^
1475:,
1463:,
1226:.
1192:.
841:,
329:,
325:,
212:.
140:,
136:,
2420:)
2416:(
2228:e
2221:t
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2177::
2169::
2137:.
2095:.
2056:.
2044::
2019:.
2005::
1978:.
1933::
1925::
1917::
1887:.
1865::
1836:.
1822::
1814::
1785:.
1771::
1744:.
1740::
1732::
1704:.
1678:.
1614:.
1589:.
1559::
1517:.
1471::
1377:.
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94:2
92:(
86:3
84:(
78:1
76:(
62:)
58:(
50:)
46:(
27:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
