803:, dissimilarities existed between the merchant class of the two systems as well. In feudal Europe, the merchant class saw a marked development in towns located away from the influence of the manors and their attached villages. The European towns could grow outside of the feudal system instead of being integrated into it since the landed aristocrats were settled in manors. Thus, the towns and their people were independent of the influence of the feudal lords and were usually solely under the political authority of the monarchs of the European kingdoms. In China, these conditions were non-existent and the king and his officials depended greatly on the regional lords for all governance, within towns and without, except in the royal demesne. Thus no independent political power existed to encourage the growth of the merchant class in an independent manner, although exceptions existed and some private individuals could become very wealthy. Chinese towns and villages were part of a fully integrated political system and the merchants remained under the political control of the aristocracy instead of setting up an independent trading or mercantile economy.
839:
575:
752:, China officially progressed into feudal (or fengjian) society. With Guo's work however, fengjian no longer referred to the classical system of 'demarcation and establishment' but was equated with the western historical stage of feudalism. Certain historians have identified the "near-pseudohistorical" nature of Guo's assessment and argue that Guo's use of fengjian was an intentional misusage in order to remove decentralist and separatist ideologies.
374:
464:(宗法, Clan Law), which applied to all social classes, governed the primogeniture of rank and succession of other siblings. The eldest son of the consort would inherit the title and retained the same rank within the system. Other sons from the consort, concubines, and mistresses would be given titles one rank lower than their father. As time went by, all of these terms lost their original meanings, yet
827:, the term "feudalism" is not at all an apt descriptor for the Western Zhou political structure, due to differences in the relationship between the monarch and regional lords, differences in governance of regional states, contrasts in military organization, and the absence of an ordered system of ranks.
278:
system for appointing local officials. There are many differences between the two systems, but one is particularly worth mentioning: the prefectural system gave more power to the central government, since it consolidated power at the political center or the top of the empire's political hierarchy.
638:
While all fields were aristocrat-owned, the private fields were managed exclusively by individual families and the produce was entirely the farmers'. It was only produce from the communal fields, worked on by all eight families, that went to the aristocrats, and which, in turn, could go to the king
775:
society, the landlord system was instead to be found. In Europe, the feudal lordships were hereditary and irrevocable and were passed on from generation to generation, whereas the Zhou lordships were not always hereditary, required reappointment by the king, and could be revoked. The medieval serf
770:
society, the delegation of authority was based on kinship and there was a single direction of obligation, whereas in the
European model, the lord and vassal had clearly specified mutual obligations and duties. Medieval European feudalism realized the classic case of the 'noble lord' while, in the
208:
was autonomous and had its own tax and legal systems along with its own unique currency and even writing style. The nobles were required to pay regular homage to the king and to provide him with soldiers in a time of war. This structure played an important part in the political structure of the
806:
Regardless of the similarities of an overwhelmingly agrarian society being dominated by the feudal lords in both societies, the application of the term 'feudal' to the society of the
Western Zhou has been a subject of considerable debate due to the differences between the two systems. The Zhou
783:
Moreover, in Europe, feudalism was also considered to be a hierarchical economic system in which the lords were at the top of the structure, followed by the vassals, and then the peasants who were legally bound to the land and were responsible for all production. In Zhou rule, the
734:
in the 1930s. Guo Moruo's views dominated the official interpretation of historical records, according to which the political system during the late Zhou dynasty saw the gradual transformation of society from slave society into feudal society. It is argued that during the
747:
around the 5th century BCE, Chinese society gradually saw the centralisation of authority, the emergence of total war, and the departing from slavery as society's primary mode of production. Guo therefore argues that with the unification of China under the first emperor
743:, Guo argues that models of society progress under the impact of technological advancements. For example, with the discovery of bronze and the emergence of bronze tools, society progressed from primitive communism into slave society. Similarly, with the introduction of
814:
Therefore, according to some historians, the term "feudalism" is not an exact fit for the
Western Zhou political structure but it can be considered a system somewhat analogous to the one that existed in medieval Europe. According to
213:
which was expanding its territories in the east. In due course this resulted in the increasing power of the noble lords, whose strength eventually exceeded that of the Zhou kings, leading to dwindling central authority. The
129:
system, the king would allocate an area of land to a noble, establishing him as the ruler of that region and allowing his title and fief to be legitimately inherited by his descendants. This created large numbers of
245:
the traditional system of rituals and music had become empty and hence his goal was to return to or bring back the early Zhou dynasty political system. With the establishment of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE, the
170:, their power began to outstrip that of the royal house and subsequently the states developed into their own kingdoms, reducing the Zhou dynasty to little more than a prestigious name. As a result,
283:
was a result of
Confucian scholars promoting the revival of the fengjian system. From the Qin dynasty onward, Chinese literati would find a tension between the Confucian ideal of
631:; this character represents the theoretical appearance of land division: a square area of land was divided into nine identically sized sections; the eight outer sections (私田;
811:
system was termed as being 'protobureaucratic' and bureaucracy existed alongside feudalism, while in Europe, bureaucracy emerged as a counter system to the feudal order.
501:
Beginning in the Han dynasty, the sizes of troops and domains a male noble could command would be determined by his rank of peerage, which from highest to lowest were:
823:, "feudalism in China no longer represents a deviation from the norm based on European feudalism, but is a classic case of feudalism in its own right." According to
540:
an aristocrat with a place name in his title actually governed that place, it was only nominally true afterwards. Any male member of the nobility could be called a
1659:
Bloom, I. (1999). "The evolution of
Confucian tradition in antiquity". In De Bary, William Theodore; Chan, Wing-tsit; Lufrano, Richard John; Adler, Joseph (eds.).
318:, following which the autonomy of the fiefs was curbed and the fiefs were eventually abolished altogether. Subsequent dynasties also partially implemented the
448:(工) who were the artisans and craftsmen of the kingdom and who, like the farmers, produced essential goods needed by themselves and the rest of society, the
218:
started to ignore the orders of the Zhou court and fight with each other for land, wealth and influence, which eventually disintegrated the authority of the
563:
1033:
306:
system. The Han dynasty emperors ultimately chose to parcel out land to their relatives and several other powerful officials, thus combining the
730:. The first to propose the use of this term for Chinese society was the Marxist historian and one of the leading writers of 20th-century China,
635:) were privately cultivated by peasants and the center section (公田; gōngtián) was communally cultivated on behalf of the landowning aristocrat.
452:(农/農) who were the peasant farmers who cultivated the land which provided the essential food for the people and tributes to the king, and the
255:
960:
739:, society had started to develop institutions comparable to the feudalistic system in medieval Europe. Adhering to Marx's theory of
294:, Confucianism became the reigning imperial ideology and scholars and court officials alike again began to look to the Zhou dynasty
1846:
280:
1580:
1866:
1772:
776:
was bound to the land and could not leave or dispose of it, whereas the Zhou peasant was free to leave or, beginning in the
1276:(2008). "Transmitting Antiquity: The Origin and Paradigmization of the "Five Ranks"". In Dieter Kuhn; Helga Stahl (eds.).
241:, looked to this system as a concrete ideal of political organization. In particular, according to Confucius, during the
1856:
1423:
Wang, Q. Edward (2000). "Between
Marxism and Nationalism: Chinese historiography and the Soviet influence, 1949–1963".
969:. Translated by Steven Durrant; Wai-yee Lee; David Schaberg. University of Washington Press. 2016 . pp. 380–381.
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when dynastic fiefs were once again established at various parts of the empire. This remained the same throughout the
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as kinship ties between aristocrats became meaningless. When the system became economically untenable in the
1851:
1206:
315:
608:) was a land distribution method existing in some parts of China between the ninth century BC (late Western
17:
693:
were enthusiastic about its restoration and spoke of it in a perhaps oversimplifying admiration, invoking
1841:
338:
109:). Elite bonds through affinal relations and submission to the overlordship of the king date back to the
1384:
706:
1072:
924:
Murthy, Viren (2006). "Modernity against modernity: Wang Hui's critical history of
Chinese thought".
879:
395:
330:
651:
384:
242:
58:
658:, it was replaced by a system of private land ownership. It was first suspended in the state of
388:
54:
889:
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in that people were not born into the specific classes, such that, for example, a son born to a
852:
740:
202:
131:
1478:"A New Discourse on Fengjian: the Redefinition of Fengjian and the Demonization of Federalism"
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1098:
761:
736:
655:
613:
223:
143:
1760:
1509:
1273:
874:
824:
711:
Marxist historians in China have described medieval
Chinese society as largely feudal. The
1205:(2013). "17.4.1: Governing & Educating: Local & Border Administration: Overview".
8:
1748:
1702:
1529:
1202:
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263:
86:
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1253:
1222:
1212:
1136:
1102:
1091:
1068:
1034:"Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organization of the Zhou Polity"
970:
945:
869:
617:
557:
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1740:
1668:
1547:
1521:
1489:
1432:
1245:
1048:
933:
816:
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591:
435:
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has been termed a "feudal" period by many
Chinese historians, due to the custom of
171:
94:
90:
82:
62:
36:
1494:
1477:
744:
444:(士) the class of "knightly" scholars, mostly from lower aristocratic orders, the
187:
163:
1782:
1744:
1672:
788:
system was solely political and was not responsible for governing the economy.
727:
719:
267:
237:
represented the Zhou dynasty's political system, and various thinkers, such as
1249:
1226:
1052:
937:
1830:
1551:
994:
800:
749:
569:
230:
110:
78:
70:
66:
677:, the system was restored temporarily and renamed to the King's Fields (王田;
1018:
844:
682:
609:
357:
353:
349:
334:
326:
298:
system as an ideal. These scholars advocated incorporating elements of the
275:
219:
215:
210:
175:
167:
149:
114:
74:
1436:
360:, albeit the number of fiefs in the Qing dynasty was drastically reduced.
1817:
1731:
Fu Zhufu (1981). "The economic history of China: Some special problems".
1694:
777:
674:
659:
628:
537:
291:
247:
183:
179:
1533:
1242:
Chinese
Outcasts: Discrimination and Emancipation in Late Imperial China
1060:
904:
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system alongside regular administration in other regions of the empire.
166:
to the king, but as the central authority started to decline during the
1581:"Xian Qin liang Han shangren fenzhan zhi bianqian ji qi zhengce fenxi"
1459:
1457:
998:
894:
663:
574:
271:
50:
620:
1525:
1093:
China-An Interpretive History: From the Beginnings to the Fall of Han
990:
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686:
670:
487:
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system") or prefectural system, with the establishment of thirty-six
238:
195:
118:
1804:
Wu Ta-k'un (1952). "An Interpretation of Chinese Economic History".
1454:
373:
1123:"Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC) – Chinese History: Ancient China Facts"
964:
106:
1578:
226:, where the great lords ended up proclaiming themselves as kings.
716:
694:
640:
102:
98:
1280:. Würzberg: Würzburger Sinologische Schriften. pp. 103–134.
690:
599:
578:
The brown border between the farms resembles the character for
484:
460:
122:
884:
723:
27:
Political ideology during the latter part of the Zhou dynasty
700:
1512:(2003). ""Feudalism" and Western Zhou China: a criticism".
162:; 'many lords'), had a political obligation to pay
669:
As part of the "turning the clock back" reformations by
544:(公子 gōng zǐ), while any son of a king could be called a
456:(商) who were the merchants and traders of the kingdom.
1097:. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp.
650:
system, the well-field system became strained in the
1244:. Sinica Leidensia, vol. 37. Brill. pp. 19–20.
834:
287:
and the reality of the centralized imperial system.
1663:. Vol. 2. New York: Columbia University Press.
1612:
1185:
1183:
1181:
722:interpretation of Chinese history in China, from a
194:otherwise lacks some of the fundamental aspects of
1090:
1017:kinsmen and relatives as a hedge and a screen for
1636:
1088:
666:and the other Chinese states soon followed suit.
1828:
1278:Perceptions of Antiquity in Chinese Civilization
1178:
780:dynasty, to purchase the land in small parcels.
341:, nobles were granted titles but held no fiefs.
49:'demarcation and establishment') was a
1607:
1546:
1319:
1317:
1211:. Harvard University Press. pp. 259–261.
1089:Levenson, Joseph R.; Schurmann, Franz (1969).
1001:) were not in accord with him. That is why he
681:). The practice was more-or-less ended by the
1726:. Albany: State University of New York Press.
1579:Yan Qinghua (严清华); Fang Xiaoyu (方小玉) (2009).
1155:
1129:
1314:
121:their clan relatives and fellow warriors as
93:(or "four categories of the people", namely
1667:
1630:
1463:
1161:
1031:
494:craftsman was able to become a part of the
402:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
44:
1520:(1). Harvard-Yenching Institute: 115–144.
1767:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1493:
1201:
627:), which means 'well' and looks like the
476:(士) became synonyms for court officials.
422:Learn how and when to remove this message
1765:Bureaucracy and the State in Early China
1724:The Construction of Space in Early China
771:middle and latter phases of the Chinese
573:
281:Burning of books and burying of scholars
190:. However, scholars have suggested that
89:consisted of commoners categorized into
1781:
1618:
1449:
1272:
1239:
1189:
993:grieved that the two younger brothers (
314:systems. The turning point came at the
14:
1829:
1693:
1371:
923:
250:unified the country and abolished the
178:(1046–256 BC) to the beginning of the
1718:
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1359:
1335:
707:Chinese historiography § Marxism
1699:Feudalism and Non European Societies
1677:Feudalism and Non European Societies
1475:
1431:(23). Taylor & Francis: 95–111.
1422:
1047:. Cambridge University Press: 1–27.
932:(1). Cambridge Univ Press: 137–165.
821:Feudalism and Non European Societies
715:system is particularly important to
551:
400:adding citations to reliable sources
367:
1488:(1). Taylor & Francis: 81–102.
363:
222:into the chaos and violence of the
24:
1803:
1759:
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1642:
1514:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
1508:
1412:(in Chinese) – via 中央政府门户网站.
1347:
1323:
1290:
1164:"Chinese History - Zhou Dynasty 周"
697:'s frequent praise of the system.
256:system of administrative divisions
25:
1878:
1401:
132:local autonomous dynastic domains
837:
372:
348:system was again revived in the
1847:History of agriculture in China
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858:List of states in Shang Dynasty
701:"Feudalism" and Chinese Marxism
479:The four occupations under the
290:After the establishment of the
1679:. Bristol: Stonebridge Press.
1389:China Scientific Book Services
1195:
1115:
1082:
1032:Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000).
1025:
952:
917:
863:List of states in Zhou Dynasty
755:
604:
483:system differed from those of
440:The four occupations were the
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13:
1:
1495:10.1080/1547402X.2024.2327206
1425:Journal of Contemporary China
1385:"The History of Zhou Dynasty"
1208:Chinese History: A New Manual
910:
316:Rebellion of the Seven States
1867:Ancient Chinese institutions
1661:Sources of Chinese Tradition
1558:. Harvard University Press.
1402:Yu Weiya (于卫亚), ed. (2005).
279:Tradition narrates that the
254:system, consolidating a new
7:
1608:Fairbank & Goldman 1992
926:Modern Intellectual History
830:
612:) to around the end of the
548:(王子 wáng zǐ, i.e. prince).
498:merchant class, and so on.
186:of land similar to that in
85:) and aristocracy, and the
10:
1883:
1787:A Concise History of China
1745:10.1177/009770048100700101
791:Furthermore, according to
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704:
567:
561:
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141:
1857:Economic history of China
1482:Chinese Historical Review
1250:10.1163/9789004487963_005
1137:"History of Zhou Dynasty"
1053:10.1017/S0362502800004259
938:10.1017/S147924430500065X
880:Economic history of China
595:
159:
40:
1789:. First United Kingdom.
1591:Wuhan University Journal
1582:
1409:
1404:
1240:Hansson, Anders (1996).
652:Spring and Autumn period
243:Spring and Autumn period
1862:Social history of China
1631:Byres & Mukhia 1985
1464:Byres & Mukhia 1985
673:during the short-lived
1141:China Education Center
853:Ancient Chinese states
741:historical materialism
616:. Its name comes from
583:
73:-like government. The
1437:10.1080/1067056001120
762:Examples of feudalism
737:Warring States Period
705:Further information:
656:Warring States period
614:Warring States period
577:
562:Further information:
434:Further information:
331:Southern Song dynasty
224:Warring States period
144:Zhou dynasty nobility
1852:Agriculture in China
1556:China: A New History
1078:on 18 November 2017.
875:Agriculture in China
793:China: A New History
685:, but scholars like
646:As part of a larger
396:improve this section
168:Eastern Zhou dynasty
148:The rulers of these
117:when the Zhou kings
115:Western Zhou dynasty
1476:Wong, Wynn (2024).
1466:, pp. 213, 214
1304:"well-field system"
1203:Wilkinson, Endymion
1166:. chinaknowledge.de
1842:Feudalism in China
1818:10.1093/past/1.1.1
1806:Past & Present
1783:Roberts, John A.G.
1720:Lewis, Mark Edward
1703:Frank Cass and Co.
1362:, pp. 129–134
584:
564:Equal field system
1774:978-0-521-88447-1
1583:先秦两汉商人分层之变迁及其政策分析
1162:Ulrich Theobald.
870:Eighteen Kingdoms
720:historiographical
618:Chinese character
588:well-field system
558:Well-field system
552:Well-field system
536:While before the
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424:
113:, but it was the
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1645:, p. 290.
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1593:(in Chinese).
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1073:the original
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75:ruling class
31:
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18:Fief (China)
1812:(1): 1–12.
1739:(1): 3–30.
1372:Dirlik 1985
1326:, p. 9
1293:, p. 7
1041:Early China
1003:enfeoffed (
989:"Formerly,
981:昔周公弔二叔之不鹹，故
778:Eastern Han
756:Comparisons
675:Xin dynasty
538:Han dynasty
412:August 2024
339:Jin dynasty
292:Han dynasty
272:prefectures
258:called the
229:During the
184:enfeoffment
180:Qin dynasty
152:, known as
138:Development
87:lower class
1831:Categories
1701:. London:
1360:Bloom 1999
1336:Lewis 2006
1308:Britannica
1227:1357517458
1170:23 October
1147:23 October
999:Cai Shu Du
911:References
760:See also:
664:Shang Yang
568:See also:
472:(大夫), and
276:rotational
264:commandery
142:See also:
69:system of
53:system in
51:governance
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1643:Li (2008)
1410:中华人民共和国年鉴
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732:Guo Moruo
687:Zhang Zai
671:Wang Mang
488:feudalism
383:does not
325:From the
239:Confucius
196:feudalism
174:from the
119:enfeoffed
107:merchants
81:(king or
65:formed a
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1554:(1992).
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713:fengjian
679:wángtián
648:fēngjiàn
629:# symbol
485:European
481:fēngjiàn
356:and the
346:fengjian
337:and the
320:fengjian
312:fengjian
300:fengjian
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192:fengjian
127:fengjian
103:laborers
99:peasants
61:, whose
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1510:Li Feng
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1324:Fu 1981
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717:Marxist
695:Mencius
641:tribute
592:Chinese
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389:sources
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308:junxian
304:junxian
260:junxian
123:vassals
83:emperor
37:Chinese
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1143:. 2004
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691:Su Xun
633:sītián
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600:pinyin
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546:wangzi
542:gongzi
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466:Zhūhóu
461:Zōngfǎ
274:and a
268:county
164:homage
155:zhūhóu
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1749:S2CID
1587:(PDF)
1530:JSTOR
1099:34–36
1076:(PDF)
1065:S2CID
1057:JSTOR
1037:(PDF)
961:Xi 24
942:S2CID
885:Ejido
724:slave
496:shāng
454:shāng
206:state
201:Each
1791:ISBN
1769:ISBN
1706:ISBN
1681:ISBN
1560:ISBN
1254:ISBN
1223:OCLC
1213:ISBN
1172:2015
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689:and
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586:The
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