1338:
1484:
985:
1369:
1222:
468:
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2115: : "The kind of model that Morley and other specialists in Greco-Roman marketing have been developing sees the local market-town as primarily serving local peasantry. Here they unload their small surplus and purchase minor amounts of farm equipment and luxuries for their barns and homes; some of their needs are already met through travelling pedlars and non-urban periodic fairs held at long intervals. Major producers – the great estates – would be attractive enough foci for merchants to consider travelling directly to purchase commercially-focussed harvests 'at the farm gate', and some landowners were wealthy enough to handle their own distribution to urban markets in the country of production and even to other countries. These latter processes are documented both in the ancient sources and archaeological case-studies."
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culture of communal support developed and helped to unify the early modern world. Given that these cosmopolitan merchants were embedded within their societies and participated in the highest level of exchange, they transferred a more outward-looking mindset and system of values to their commercial-exchange transactions, and also helped to disseminate a more global awareness to broader society and therefore acted as agents of change for local society. Successful, open-minded cosmopolitan merchants began to acquire a more esteemed social position within the political elites. They were often sought as advisors for high-level political agents. The
English
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511:. The Romans defined merchants or traders in a very narrow sense. Merchants were those who bought and sold goods, while landowners who sold their own produce were not classed as merchants. Being a landowner was a "respectable" occupation. On the other hand, the Romans did not consider the activities of merchants "respectable". In the ancient cities of the Middle East, where the bazaar was the city's focal point and heartbeat, merchants who worked in bazaar enjoyed high social status and formed part of local elites. In Medieval Western Europe, the Christian church, which closely associated merchants' activities with the sin of
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first appeared on the route from Italy to the Levant, but by the end of the thirteenth century merchant colonies could be found from Paris, London, Bruges, Seville, Barcelona and
Montpellier. Over time these partnerships became more commonplace and led to the development of large trading companies. These developments also triggered innovations such as double-entry book-keeping, commercial accountancy, international banking including access to lines of credit, marine insurance and commercial courier services. These developments are sometimes known as the
1508:
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who were shopkeepers) and that of the so-called ‘resellers’ (hucksters selling a wide range of foodstuffs), and by other sellers who were not enrolled in any guild. Cheesemongers’ shops were situated at the town hall and were very lucrative. Resellers and direct sellers increased the number of sellers, thus increasing competition, to the benefit of consumers. Direct sellers, who brought produce from the surrounding countryside, sold their wares through the central market place and priced their goods at considerably lower rates than cheesemongers.
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362:. Open-air, public markets, where merchants and traders congregated, functioned in ancient Babylonia and Assyria, China, Egypt, Greece, India, Persia, Phoenicia and Rome. These markets typically occupied a place in the town's centre. Surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied premises in alley ways that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, but also prepared goods for sale on market days. In
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804:-trade activities. A significant reason for Armenians' massive involvement in international trade was their geographic location – the Armenian lands stand at the crossroads between Asia and Europe. Another reason was their religion, as they were a Christian nation isolated between Muslim Iran and Muslim Turkey. European Christians preferred to carry out trade with Christians in the region.
2154:, South Yorkshire, Pen and Sword Books, 2014, p. 135: "The pure-white marble that was quarried in southern Arabia had a fine crystalline texture and Roman merchnts took aboard this heavy material as ballast to stabilise their ships. On their return to the empire, this valuable marble was sold to stoneworkers and carved into elegant unguent jars that resembled radiant alabaster."
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2167:, South Yorkshire, Pen and Sword Books, 2014, p. 222: "A further Roman criticism of eastern trade was that it created a consumer market for expensive foreign goods that were wastefully extravagant and ultimately unnecessary. During the Julio-Claudian era aristocratic families competed for political status and prestige through the ostentatious display of wealth."
844:, travelling salesmen and catalogues in the eighteenth century. Wedgewood also carried out serious investigations into the fixed and variable costs of production and recognised that increased production would lead to lower unit-costs. He also inferred that selling at lower prices would lead to higher demand and recognised the value of achieving
435:, becoming a major trading power by the 9th century BCE. Phoenician merchant traders imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit and nuts. Their trading necessitated a network of colonies along the Mediterranean coast, stretching from modern-day Crete through to Tangiers (in present-day
691:
wool and wollen cloth 20–40 miles. However, in the years following the opening up of Asia and the discovery of the New World, goods were imported from very long distances: calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South-East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from the New World.
690:
controlled most of the trade in the Baltic Sea. A detailed study of
European trade between the thirteenth and fifteenth century demonstrates that the European age of discovery acted as a major driver of change. In 1600, goods travelled relatively short distances: grain 5–10 miles; cattle 40–70 miles;
412:. The nature of direct selling centred around transactional exchange, where the goods were on open display, allowing buyers to evaluate quality directly through visual inspection. Relationships between merchant and consumer were minimal often playing into public concerns about the quality of produce.
1908:
Perhaps the only substantiated type of retail marketing practice that evolved from
Neolithic times to the present was the itinerant tradesman (also known as peddler, packman or chapman). These forerunners of travelling salesmen roamed from village to village bartering stone axes in exchange for salt
1781:
Alberti, M. E., "Trade and
Weighing Systems in the Southern Aegean from the Early Bronze Age to the Iron Age: How Changing Circuits Influenced Global Measures," in Molloy, B. (ed.), Of Odysseys and Oddities: Scales and Modes of Interaction Between Prehistoric Aegean Societies and their Neighbours, ,
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painted a series of portraits of
Hanseatic merchants working out of London's Steelyard in the 1530s. These included including Georg Giese of Danzig; Hillebrant Wedigh of Cologne; Dirk Tybis of Duisburg; Hans of Antwerp, Hermann Wedigh, Johann Schwarzwald, Cyriacus Kale, Derich Born and Derick Berck.
527:
bearing his personal brand and inscribed with quality claims. One of the inscriptions on the mosaic amphora reads "G(ari) F(los) SCO/ SCAURI/ EX OFFI/NA SCAU/RI" which translates as "The flower of garum, made of the mackerel, a product of
Scaurus, from the shop of Scaurus". Scaurus' fish sauce had a
592:
Medieval
England and Europe witnessed a rapid expansion in trade and the rise of a wealthy and powerful merchant class. Blintiff has investigated the early Medieval networks of market towns and suggests that by the 12th century there was an upsurge in the number of market towns and the emergence of
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operated as a prominent trade nation during the 17th century. They stood out in international trade due to their vast network – mostly built by
Armenian migrants spread across Eurasia. Armenians had established prominent trade-relations with all big export players such as India, China, Persia, the
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or form of entertainment. 16th century
Spanish and 17th century English nobles had been enticed into participating in trade by the profitability of colonial expeditions. In the 17th century, members of the nobility in many European countries like France or Spain still disliked engaging in merchant
663:
Luca Clerici has made a detailed study of Vicenza's food market during the sixteenth century. He found that there were many different types of merchants operating out of the markets. For example, in the dairy trade, cheese and butter was sold by the members of two craft guilds (i.e., cheesemongers
656:
During the thirteenth century, European businesses became more permanent and were able to maintain sedentary merchants and a system of agents. Merchants specialised in financing, organisation and transport while agents were domiciled overseas and acted on behalf of a principal. These arrangements
547:
The nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and in archaeological case-studies. Both Greek and Roman merchants engaged in long-distance trade. A Chinese text records that a Roman merchant named Lun reached southern China in 226 CE. Archaeologists have recovered
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Eighteenth-century American merchants, who had been operating as importers and exporters, began to specialise in either wholesale or retail roles. They tended not to specialise in particular types of merchandise, often trading as general merchants, selling a diverse range of product types. These
819:
were becoming evident. Many merchants held showcases of goods in their private homes for the benefit of wealthier clients. Samuel Pepys, for example, writing in 1660, describes being invited to the home of a retailer to view a wooden jack. McKendrick, Brewer and Plumb found extensive evidence of
807:
Eighteenth-century merchants who traded in foreign markets developed a network of relationships which crossed national boundaries, religious affiliations, family ties, and gender. The historian, Vannneste, has argued that a new "cosmopolitan merchant mentality" based on trust, reciprocity and a
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society, merchants typically did not have high social status, though they may have enjoyed great wealth. Umbricius Scauras, for example, was a manufacturer and trader of garum in Pompeii, circa 35 C.E. His villa, situated in one of the wealthier districts of Pompeii, was very large and ornately
543:
In the Roman world, local merchants served the needs of the wealthier landowners. While the local peasantry, who were generally poor, relied on open-air market places to buy and sell produce and wares, major producers such as the great estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call
735:
is generally understood to refer to period that started with the rise of consumer culture in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe. As standards of living improved in the 17th century, consumers from a broad range of social backgrounds began to purchase goods that were in excess of basic
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referred to long-distance, professional merchants traders who obtained rare goods and luxury items desired by the nobility. This trading system supported various levels of pochteca – from very high status merchants through to minor traders who acted as a type of peddler to fill in gaps in the
1388:
Although merchant halls were known in antiquity, they fell into disuse and were not reinvented until Europe's Medieval period. During the 12th century, powerful guilds which controlled the way that trade was conducted were established and were often incorporated into the charters granted to
297:
A wholesale merchant operates in the chain between the producer and retail merchant, typically dealing in large quantities of goods. In other words, a wholesaler does not sell directly to end-users. Some wholesale merchants only organize the movement of goods rather than move the goods
443:. The Phoenicians not only traded in tangible goods, but were also instrumental in transporting the trappings of culture. The Phoenicians' extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed a
918:, developed a fascination with merchants from the mid-16th century. The wealthier merchants also had the means to commission artworks with the result that individual merchants and their families became important subject matter for artists. For instance,
593:
merchant circuits as traders bulked up surpluses from smaller regional, different day markets and resold them at the larger centralised market towns. Peddlers or itinerant merchants filled any gaps in the distribution system. From the 11th century, the
104:
has occasionally been used to refer to a businessperson or someone undertaking activities (commercial or industrial) for the purpose of generating profit, cash flow, sales, and revenue using a combination of human, financial, intellectual and physical
1337:
1393:. By the 13th and 14th centuries, merchant guilds had acquired sufficient resources to erect guild halls in many major market towns. Many buildings have retained the names derived from their former use as the home or place of business of merchants:
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which was much easier to learn than the pictographic systems used in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Phoenician traders and merchants were largely responsible for spreading their alphabet around the region. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in
396:
or food markets, originated, as its name suggests, as a cattle market. Trajan's Forum was a vast expanse, comprising multiple buildings with shops on four levels. The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shop-front.
1762:
Rahul Oka & Chapurukha M. Kusimba, "The Archaeology of Trading Systems, Part 1: Towards a New Trade Synthesis," The Archaeology of Trading Systems, Part 1: Towards a New Trade Synthesis," Journal of Archaeological Research, Vol. 16, pp
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was formed in the 12th century. These guilds controlled the way that trade was to be conducted and codified rules governing the conditions of trade. Rules established by merchant guilds were often incorporated into the charters granted to
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stimulated interest in the far East in the 13th century. Medieval merchants began to trade in exotic goods imported from distant shores including spices, wine, food, furs, fine cloth (notably silk), glass, jewellery and many other
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directly at their farm-gates. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved exporting. Markets were also important centres of social life, and merchants helped to spread news and gossip.
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1660–1731), a London merchant, published information on trade and economic resources of England, Scotland and India. Defoe was a prolific pamphleteer. His many publications include titles devoted to trade, including:
722:
In much of Renaissance Europe and even after, merchant trade remained seen as a lowly profession and it was often subject to legal discrimination or restrictions, although in a few areas its status began to improve.
1040:
1483:
44:
produced by other people, especially one who trades with foreign countries. Merchants have been known for as long as humans have engaged in trade and commerce. Merchants and merchant networks operated in ancient
568:
and spices from the Near East and India, fine silk from China and fine white marble destined for the Roman wholesale market from Arabia. For Roman consumers, the purchase of goods from the East was a symbol of
926:
In 2022, Dutch photographer Loes Heerink spend hours on bridges in Hanoi to take pictures of Vietnamese street Merchants. She published a book called Merchants in Motion: the art of Vietnamese Street Vendors.
2775:
We see the permutation and extension of the traditional economic elements in highly planned economy. The anti-commerce policy reached to such an extreme that merchants were dismissed as the capitalist heresy.
800:
Ottoman Empire, England, Venice, the Levant, etc. Soon they captured Eastern and Western Europe, Russia, the Levant, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, and the Far East trade routes, carrying out mostly
613:
began to form during the Medieval period. A fraternity formed by the merchants of Tiel in Gelderland (in present-day Netherlands) in 1020 is believed to be the first example of a merchant guild. The term,
1791:
Bintliff, J., "Going to Market in Antiquity," In Stuttgarter Kolloquium zur Historischen Geographie des Altertums, Eckart Olshausen and Holger Sonnabend (eds), Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 2002, pp 209–250
487:. The inscription which reads "G(ari) F(los) SCO(mbri) SCAURI EX OFFI(CI)NA SCAURI" has been translated as "The flower of garum, made of the mackerel, a product of Scaurus, from the shop of Scaurus"
891:
dominated trade in oil in the US and in the Russian Empire), while still others made fortunes from exploiting new inventions – selling space on and commodities carried by railways and steamships.
1318:
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through permanent or semi-permanent retail premises such as stall-holders at market places or shop-keepers selling from their own premises or through door-to-door direct sales via merchants or
745:
activities, but such attitudes changed in the 18th century with governmental encouragement of nobles to invest in trade, and the lifting of old bans on nobles engaging in economic activities.
171:('to trade, to traffic or to deal in'). The term refers to any type of reseller, but can also be used with a specific qualifier to suggest a person who deals in a given characteristic such as
1056:
93:
opened up new trading routes and gave European consumers access to a much broader range of goods. By the 18th century, a new type of manufacturer-merchant had started to emerge and modern
848:
in production. By cutting costs and lowering prices, Wedgewood was able to generate higher overall profits. Similarly, one of Wedgewood's contemporaries, Matthew Boulton, pioneered early
2857:
Gelderblom, O. and Grafe, E., "The Persistence and Decline of Merchant Guilds: Re-thinking the Comparative Study of Commercial Institutions in Pre-modern Europe," , Yale University, 2008
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1290:
1020:
1995:
Oka, R. and Kusimba, C.M., "The Archaeology of Trading Systems, Part 1: Towards a New Trade Synthesis," The Archaeology of Trading Systems, Part 1: Towards a New Trade Synthesis,"
1306:
923:
Paintings of groups of merchants, notably officers of the merchant guilds, also became subject matter for artists and documented the rise of important mercantile organisations.
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301:
A retail merchant or retailer sells merchandise to end-users or consumers (including businesses), usually in small quantities. A shop-keeper is an example of a retail merchant.
1000:
1174:
1205:
864:, for the sake of the publicity and kudos generated. Both Wedgewood and Boulton staged expansive showcases of their wares in their private residences or in rented halls.
1519:
1190:
2043:
1800:
Shaw, E.H., “Ancient and Medieval Marketing," Chapter 2 in: Jones, D. G. B. and Tadajewski, M., The Routledge Companion to Marketing History, Routledge, 2016, pp 23–24
1072:
507:, Greece and Roman cultures, owing to the presumed distastefulness of profiting from "mere" trade rather than from labor or the labor of others as in agriculture and
2489:
Berg, M. and Clifford, H., Manchester University Press, 1999; Berg, M., "New Commodities, Luxuries and Their Consumers in Nineteenth-Century England," Chapter 3 in
2241:
Clerici, L., "Le prix du bien commun. Taxation des prix et approvisionnement urbain (Vicence, XVIe-XVIIe siècle)" in I prezzi delle cose nell’età preindustriale /
2379:
Strangers to Themselves: The Byzantine Outsider: Papers from the Thirty-Second Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton, March 1998
682:
From 1300 through to the 1800s a large number of European chartered and merchant companies were established to exploit international trading opportunities. The
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In the nineteenth century, merchants and merchant houses played a role in opening up China and the Pacific to Anglo-American trade interests. Note for example
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reputation for very high quality across the Mediterranean; its fame travelled as far away as modern southern France. Other notable Roman merchants included
1088:
1471:
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Jones, C. and Spang, R., "Sans Culottes, Sans Café, Sans Tabac: Shifting Realms of Luxury and Necessity in Eighteenth-Century France," Chapter 2 in
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In Mesoamerica, a tiered system of traders developed independently. The local markets, where people purchased their daily needs were known as
1257:
1495:
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distribution system. The Spanish conquerors commented on the impressive nature of the local and regional markets in the 15th century. The
2897:
Burset, Christian R. "Merchant courts, arbitration, and the politics of commercial litigation in the eighteenth-century British Empire."
637:" came to dominate trade around the Baltic Sea. By the 13th and 14th centuries, merchant guilds had sufficient resources to have erected
2823:
Holman, T.S., "Holbein's Portraits of the Steelyard Merchants: An Investigation," Metropolitan Museum Journal, vol. 14, 1980, pp 139–158
1813:
Stuttgarter Kolloquium zur Historischen Geographie des Altertums, 7, 1999: zu Wasser und zu Land : Verkehrswege in der antiken Welt
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760:, large commercial organisations came to provide a market for more sophisticated information about trading conditions in foreign lands.
467:
1971:
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of the merchant class varied across cultures; ranging from high status (the members even eventually achieving titles such as that of
633:. In the early 12th century, a confederation of merchant guilds, formed out the German cities of Lübeck and Hamburg, known as "The
100:
The status of the merchant has varied during different periods of history and among different societies. In modern times, the term
2935:
Marsden, Magnus, and Vera Skvirskaja. "Merchant identities, trading nodes, and globalization: Introduction to the Special Issue."
1543:
2914:
Enciso, Agustín González. "The merchant and the common good: social paradigms and the state’s influence in Western history." in
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merchants were concentrated in the larger cities. They often provided high levels of credit financing for retail transactions.
3009:
1821:
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decorated in a show of substantial personal wealth. Mosaic patterns in the floor of his atrium were decorated with images of
2051:
1751:
The Future of Marketing's Past: Proceedings of the 12th Annual Conference on Historical Analysis and Research in Marketing,
872:
423:
The Phoenicians became well known amongst contemporaries as "traders in purple" – a reference to their monopoly over the
902:. However, merchants, increasingly labelled with euphemisms such as "industrialists", "businessmen", "entrepreneurs" or
2954:
2436:
2411:
2386:
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2333:
2139:
The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy and the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia and Han China,
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261:
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1920:
Stabel, P., "Guilds in Late Medieval Flanders: myths and realities of guild life in an export-oriented environment,"
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was among the earliest European merchants to travel to the Orient, helping to open it up to trade in the 13th century
280:
233:
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Spirituality, Gender, and the Self in Renaissance Italy: Angela Merici and the Company of St. Ursula (1474–1540)
240:
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Demirdjian, Z. S., "Rise and Fall of Marketing in Mesopotamia: A Conundrum in the Cradle of Civilization," In
218:
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2568:
125:
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The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India
2152:
The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India
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and referred to body of merchants operating out of St. Omer, France in the 11th century. Similarly, London's
3001:
2074:
2650:
Tadajewski, M. and Jones, D.G.B., "Historical research in marketing theory and practice: a review essay",
1212:
247:
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Drake, D., "Dinnerware & Cost Accounting? The Story of Josiah Wedgwood: Potter and Cost Accountant,"
1362:
Four officers of the Amsterdam Coopers and wine-rackers Guild by Gerbrand Jansz van den Eeckhout, c. 1660
2300:
Conflict in the Early Americas: An Encyclopedia of the Spanish Empire's Aztec, Incan and Mayan Conquests
3052:
2283:
Salomón, F., "Pochteca and mindalá: a comparison of long-distance traders in Ecuador and Mesoamerica,"
1837:
1418:
1165:
2995:
2966:
Outhwaite, R. B. "Merchants and Gentry in North-East England, 1650–1830: The Carrs and the Ellisons."
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eighteenth-century English entrepreneurs and merchants using "modern" marketing techniques, including
28:
1772:
Bar-Yosef, O., "The Upper Paleolithic Revolution," Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 31, pp 363–393
1375:
229:
214:
112:
20:
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Williams, E. N. "Our Merchants Are Princes": The English Middle Classes In The Eighteenth Century"
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1047:
1031:
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785:(1731); all pamphlets that became highly popular with contemporary merchants and business houses.
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Casson, M. and Lee, J., "The Origin and Development of Markets: A Business History Perspective,"
880:
821:
529:
484:
354:
Merchants have existed as long as humans have conducted business, trade or commerce. A merchant
207:
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Roman objects dating from the period 27 BCE to 37 CE from excavation sites as far afield as the
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techniques and product differentiation at his Soho Manufactory in the 1760s. He also practiced
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1753:
Leighton Neilson (ed.), CA, Longman, Association for Analysis and Research in Marketing, 2005
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stimulated demand for luxury goods, and the act of shopping came to be seen as a pleasurable
716:
649:
504:
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sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as
1616:
1267:
1011:
853:
801:
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However, the term 'merchant' is often used in a variety of specialised contexts such as in
8:
1972:"Discovery of Egyptian Inscriptions Indicates an Earlier Date for Origin of the Alphabet"
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1232:
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Portrait of the cloth merchant, Abraham del Court and his wife Maria de Keerssegieter by
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857:
796:
106:
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2404:
Commemorating the Polish Renaissance Child: Funeral Monuments and their European Context
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Barnish, S.J.B. (1989) "The Transformation of Classical Cities and the Pirenne Debate",
752:
Merchants engaged in international trade began to develop a more outward-looking mindset
597:
helped to open up new trade routes in the Near East, while the adventurer and merchant,
3090:
2736:
Savitt, R., "Looking Back to See Ahead: Writing the History of American Retailing", in
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2026:
1621:
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By the eighteenth century, a new type of manufacturer-merchant was emerging and modern
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94:
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The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth Century England,
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The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth Century England,
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The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth Century England,
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2432:
2407:
2382:
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2180:, Eckart Olshausen and Holger Sonnabend (eds), Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 2002, p. 224
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Eckart Olshausen and Holger Sonnabend (eds), Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 2002, p. 229,
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Regional Routes, Regional Roots? Cross-Border. Patterns of Human Mobility in Eurasia
85:, a rapid expansion in trade and commerce led to the rise of a wealthy and powerful
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Ashraf, A., "Bazaar-Mosque Alliance: The Social Basis of Revolts and Revolutions,"
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of the 20th century, planners replaced merchants in organising the distribution of
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The Familial State. Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modern Europe
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860:" – that is supplying the nobility, often at prices below cost – and of obtaining
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was the largest in all the Americas and said to be superior to those in Europe.
606:. Market towns began to spread across the landscape during the medieval period.
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332:
86:
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62:
515:, criticised the merchant class, strongly influencing attitudes towards them.
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Vol. 88, No. 4 (October 1984), DOI: 10.2307/504744, pp. 557–566, Stable URL:
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ports. The Romans sold purple and yellow dyes, brass and iron; they acquired
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58:
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Persaud, Alexander. "Indian Merchant Migration within the British Empire."
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Global Trade and Commercial Networks: Eighteenth-Century Diamond Merchants,
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Wall painting from Pompeii depicting every day activities at a market-place
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Merchants: The Community That Shaped England's Trade and Empire, 1550-1650
2892:
The Wheels of Commerce: Civilization and Capitalism, 15th to 18th Century
2272:
The Wheels of Commerce: Civilization and Capitalism, 15th to 18th Century
1591:
1446:
1390:
1027:
841:
825:
757:
737:
686:, chartered in 1407, controlled most of the fine cloth imports while the
630:
553:
519:
379:
3033:
2753:
Merchants and Society in Modern China: From Guild to Chamber of Commerce
2030:
1856:
The Forum Boarium was the cattle-market or Smithfield of ancient Rome .
1596:
840:
methods. Wedgewood was known to have used marketing techniques such as
598:
585:
475:
328:
221: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2096:
581:
183:, which refers to someone who peddles idealistic visionary scenarios.
1606:
1409:
1347:
1181:
861:
638:
346:
74:
46:
41:
16:
Businessperson who trades in commodities that were produced by others
2712:
The Marketing Era: From Professional Practice to Global Provisioning
2429:
Europe's Uncertain Path 1814-1914: State Formation and Civil Society
914:
Elizabeth Honig has argued that artists, especially the painters of
196:
1651:
1576:
1430:
888:
702:
696:
594:
461:
440:
401:
2916:
The Challenges of Capitalism for Virtue Ethics and the Common Good
419:
Phoenician merchants traded across the entire Mediterranean region
3059:
2930:
The Merchant Republics—Amsterdam, Antwerp, and Hamburg, 1648–1790
2109:
Stuttgarter Kolloquium zur Historischen Geographie des Altertums,
1646:
1571:
915:
741:
675:
557:
524:
508:
457:
436:
409:
50:
2178:
Stuttgarter Kolloquium zur Historischen Geographie des Altertums
142:
3047:
1656:
1525:
Knochenhaueramtshaus, Butcher's guild hall, Hildesheim, Germany
708:
561:
453:
2947:
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
2911:(Rowman & Littlefield, 1982). Influential scholarly survey
1312:
Merchant Sytov by anonymous (Rybinsk museum), mid-19th century
1196:
Portrait of Amsterdam merchant, Cornelis Nuyts (1574-1661) by
2232:
Vol 85, Spring, 2011, doi:10.1017/S0007680511000018, pp 22–26
1601:
809:
712:
610:
565:
512:
500:
480:
428:
367:
129:
Costumes of merchants from Brabant and Antwerp, engraving by
2961:
The Merchant of Prato: Daily Life in a Medieval Italian City
2493:
Berg, M. and Clifford, H., Manchester University Press, 1999
1148:
Portrait of Nicolaes van der Borght, merchant of Antwerp by
955:
The Arnolfini Portrait, believed to be of Italian merchant,
2923:
The state of the art in small business and entrepreneurship
2578:. Hokkaido Slavic-Eurasian Research Center. pp. 23–29.
2569:"The Activity of Armenian Merchants in International Trade"
2491:
Consumers and Luxury: Consumer Culture in Europe, 1650–1850
2487:
Consumers and Luxury: Consumer Culture in Europe, 1650–1850
2191:"Merchant guild | Medieval, Craftsmen, Guilds | Britannica"
883:
theoretically controlled much of North America, names like
2557:
Baltimore, Maryland, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.
2087:
Curtis, R.I., "A Personalized Floor Mosaic from Pompeii",
293:
Broadly, merchants can be classified into two categories:
2544:
Malden, MA., Blackwell, 2005, 2015, pp 147–49 and 158-59
2023:
International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society,
116:
A scale or balance is often used to symbolise a merchant
109:
with a view to fueling economic development and growth.
2261:, Online Library Edition, 2013. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
1889:. Routledge Companions. London: Routledge. p. 24.
879:. Other merchants profited from natural resources (the
836:(1728–1809), are often portrayed as pioneers of modern
1374:
Reception of Jan Karel de Cordes at the guild hall by
1046:
Portrait of a member of the Wedigh merchant family by
2949:" (Bantam Classics, Annotated Edition, 4 March 2003)
2738:
Retailing: The Evolution and Development of Retailing
179:, which refers to a group of musical performers; and
1549:
The Hanseatic League Building, Antwerp, 16th century
431:
shell. The Phoenicians plied their ships across the
2870:
University of North Carolina Press, 1991, pp 50–100
2458:. SAGE Publications (published 2011). p. xxx.
2274:, Berkeley CA, University of California Press, 1992
2219:
University of North Carolina Press, 1991, pp 50–100
1211:Portrait of Joshua van Belle, merchant in Spain by
990:Mathias Mulich (1470-1528), Merchant in Lübeck, by
779:
The Trade to India Critically and Calmly Considered
576:
32:
Merchants from Holland and the Middle East trading.
2799:Painting & the Market in Early Modern Antwerp,
2756:. China Perspectives. Routledge (published 2017).
2323:
1809:
1737:Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2013.
175:, which refer to someone who enjoys fast driving;
148:
2626:Perceptions of Retailing in Early Modern England,
2296:
2176:Bintliff, J., "Going to Market in Antiquity", In
2107:Bintliff, J., "Going to Market in Antiquity," In
1947:Cartwright, M., "Trade in the Phoenician World",
1885:. In Jones, D.G. Brian; Tadajewski, Mark (eds.).
978:, merchant, Florentine bust, 14th or 15th century
906:, continue their activities in the 21st century.
3072:
2997:The Merchant Class of Medieval London, 1300–1500
2285:Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society,
1846:. Oxford: James Parker & Company. p. 42
1714:"merchant | Etymology of merchant by etymonline"
1132:Cornelis van der Geest, merchant of Antwerp, by
153:, which itself originated from the Vulgar Latin
2740:, A. M. Findlay, Leigh Sparks (eds), pp 138–39.
2542:The Life of Daniel Defoe: A Critical Biography,
2502:
2426:
2975:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History.
2877:
2628:Aldershot, Hampshire, Ashgate, 2007, pp 155–59
2507:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–96.
2376:
2113:https://books.google.com/books?id=IAMK1952av4C
2025:Vol. 1, No. 4, 1988, pp. 538–567, Stable URL:
1231:, senior merchant of Batavia, with family, by
726:
2723:McKendrick, N., Brewer, J. and Plumb . J.H.,
2637:McKendrick, N., Brewer, J. and Plumb . J.H.,
2611:McKendrick, N., Brewer, J. and Plumb . J.H.,
2401:
2243:The Prices of Things in Pre-Industrial Times,
1810:Olshausen, Eckart; Sonnabend, Holger (2002).
648:Mediterranean port with Turkish merchants by
2812:Commerce and Print in the Early Reformation,
2356:. University of Toronto Press. p. 332.
2354:A Short History of the Renaissance in Europe
1887:The Routledge Companion to Marketing History
1180:Frederick Rihel, a merchant on horseback by
2749:
2566:
2452:Southerton, Dale, ed. (15 September 2011).
2124:Millar, F., "The World of the Golden Ass",
2012:Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2016, Ch 1
166:
160:
154:
2451:
2141:South Yorkshire, Pen and Sword Books, 2016
1489:The Blacksmiths' Guild Hall, Venice, Italy
1062:The Hanseatic merchant, Cyriacus Kale, by
2868:Wage Labor and Guilds in Medieval Europe,
2297:Rebecca M. Seaman, ed. (27 August 2013).
2217:Wage Labor and Guilds in Medieval Europe,
1513:Brodhaus, Bakers' Guild, Einbeck, Germany
736:necessities. An emergent middle class or
684:Company of Merchant Adventurers of London
341:
281:Learn how and when to remove this message
3022:(Aug 196) 2, Vol. 12 Issue 8, pp548–557.
2787:Graph of proportionate terminology usage
2663:
2654:Vol. 30, No. 11-12, 2014 , pp 1239–1291.
787:
747:
666:
643:
580:
474:
466:
414:
390:. The Forum Boarium, one of a series of
345:
124:
111:
27:
3073:
2990:
1836:
1325:Governors of the Wine Merchant's Guild
2431:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 82.
1501:Shoemakers' Guild Hall, Venice, Italy
186:
147:, which is derived from Anglo-Norman
2909:The entrepreneur: An economic theory
2801:Yale University Press, 1998, pp 6–10
2664:Flanders, Judith (10 January 2009).
2595:London, Pickering and Chatto, 2011,
2348:
1880:
1537:The Butcher's Hall, Antwerp, Belgium
939:A Jewish merchant and his family by
219:adding citations to reliable sources
190:
165:, formed from present participle of
1997:Journal of Archaeological Research,
1883:"2: Ancient and medieval marketing"
1816:(in German). Franz Steiner Verlag.
13:
1383:
856:and understood the importance of "
14:
3102:
3026:
2701:Volume I, 1 May–July 2005, pp 1–3
2245:, Firenze University Press, 2017.
1344:The Syndics of the Drapers' Guild
828:pricing. English industrialists,
3058:
3046:
3032:
2918:(Edward Elgar Publishing, 2016).
2887:(Cornell University Press, 2005)
2750:Tang Lixing (14 December 2017).
2652:Journal of Marketing Management,
2531:Tredition Classics, , Chapter 10
2505:The European Nobility, 1400-1800
2455:Encyclopedia of Consumer Culture
2089:American Journal of Archaeology,
1542:
1530:
1518:
1506:
1494:
1482:
1477:Drapers' Hall, Coventry, England
1470:
1454:
1438:
1417:
1398:
1367:
1355:
1336:
1317:
1305:
1289:
1274:
1256:
1240:
1220:
1204:
1189:
1173:
1157:
1141:
1125:
1103:
1087:
1071:
1055:
1039:
1019:
999:
983:
968:
948:
932:
672:A merchant making up the account
577:Merchants in the medieval period
195:
2860:
2851:
2826:
2817:
2804:
2791:
2780:
2743:
2730:
2717:
2704:
2691:
2657:
2644:
2631:
2618:
2605:
2585:
2560:
2547:
2534:
2521:
2496:
2479:
2445:
2420:
2395:
2381:. Routledge. pp. 129–130.
2370:
2342:
2317:
2290:
2277:
2264:
2248:
2235:
2222:
2209:
2183:
2170:
2157:
2144:
2131:
2118:
2101:
2081:
2066:
2036:
2015:
2002:
1989:
1964:
1955:
1940:
1927:
1914:
1874:
1861:
1830:
1803:
206:needs additional citations for
141:comes from the Middle English,
2984:(Yale University Press, 2021)
1794:
1785:
1775:
1766:
1756:
1743:
1731:
1706:
1680:
783:A Plan of the English Commerce
1:
3037:The dictionary definition of
2894:(U of California Press, 1992)
2714:, Routledge, 2004, p. 126-127
2270:Braudel, F. and Reynold, S.,
1909:or other goods (Dixon, 1975).
1871:Elsevier, Oxford, 2006, p. 28
1782:Oxford, Oxbow, (E-Book), 2016
1668:
1284:, English wine merchant, 1863
957:Giovanni de Nicolao Arnolfini
775:Trade of Scotland with France
765:
483:container, from the house of
378:. Rome's forums included the
3002:University of Michigan Press
2567:Bakhchinyan, Artsvi (2017).
2075:Journal of Roman Archaeology
1922:Journal of Medieval History,
1840:(1876). "The Other Forums".
641:in many major market towns.
485:Umbricius Scaurus of Pompeii
366:markets operated within the
120:
7:
2878:Sources and further reading
2624:Cox, N.C. and Dannehl, K.,
2402:Jeannie Labno (2016). "3".
2324:Querciolo Mazzonis (2007).
1937:Library of Alexandria, 1889
1554:
1445:Medieval merchant's house,
1266:, German merchant, 1801 by
792:A Merchant in Early America
727:Merchants in the modern era
10:
3107:
2921:Julien, Pierre-André, ed.
2287:Vol. 1–2, 1978, pp 231–246
2128:, Vol. 71, 1981, pp. 63–67
1949:World History Encyclopedia
1094:Portrait of a Merchant by
873:Jardine Matheson & Co.
350:Phoenician trade route map
326:
322:
40:is a person who trades in
18:
2968:English Historical Review
2666:"Opinion | They Broke It"
2328:. CUA Press. p. 79.
2303:. Abc-Clio. p. 375.
2044:"Decameron Web – Society"
1924:vol. 30, 2004, pp 187–212
1376:Balthasar van den Bossche
1213:Bartolomé Esteban Murillo
1078:A Hanseatic merchant, by
909:
21:Merchant (disambiguation)
3086:Distribution (marketing)
2970:115.462 (2000): 729–729.
2939:29.sup1 (2018): S1-S13.
2937:History and Anthropology
2581:abstract of book chapter
2503:Jonathan Dewald (1996).
2427:R. S. Alexander (2012).
2230:Business History Review,
2126:Journal of Roman Studies
1961:Daniels (1996) p. 94–95.
1688:"Definition of MERCHANT"
1166:Bartelmeus van der Helst
1080:Hans Holbein the Younger
1064:Hans Holbein the Younger
1048:Hans Holbein the Younger
1032:Hans Holbein the Younger
992:Jacob Claesz van Utrecht
920:Hans Holbein the younger
2555:Daniel Defoe: His Life,
2377:Dion C. Smythe (2016).
2259:Encyclopædia Britannica
1692:www.merriam-webster.com
1296:The Carpet Merchant by
822:product differentiation
771:Trade of Britain Stated
530:Marcus Julius Alexander
503:) to low status, as in
149:
143:
97:were becoming evident.
3063:Quotations related to
2901:34.3 (2016): 615–647.
2899:Law and History Review
2255:"Merchant Adventurers"
1881:Shaw, Eric H. (2016).
1869:Shopping Environments,
1465:, Southampton, England
824:, sales promotion and
793:
753:
679:
659:commercial revolution.
653:
589:
488:
472:
420:
351:
342:Merchants in antiquity
167:
161:
155:
134:
117:
81:. During the European
33:
2834:"Merchants in Motion"
2010:The Romans and Trade,
1935:History of Phoenicia,
875:and the merchants of
791:
756:As Britain continued
751:
670:
650:Adriaen van der Kabel
647:
584:
478:
470:
418:
370:(open space), and in
349:
329:Retail § history
128:
115:
31:
3081:Business occupations
3055:at Wikimedia Commons
2932:(Cambridge UP, 2015)
2553:Backscheider, P.R.,
1617:History of marketing
1406:The Merchant's House
1268:Jean-Laurent Mosnier
1012:Hans Maler zu Schwaz
881:Hudson's Bay Company
854:planned obsolescence
812:belong to this era.
536:(fl. c. 95 BCE) and
360:pre-modern societies
337:History of marketing
215:improve this article
19:For other uses, see
2963:(Penguin UK, 2017).
2699:HQ Financial Views,
1976:archive.nytimes.com
1622:Licensed victualler
1562:Barker (occupation)
1030:, the merchant, by
858:celebrity marketing
618:was first used for
564:, expensive liquid
439:) and northward to
427:extracted from the
2925:(Routledge, 2018).
2814:Brill, 2007, p.110
2670:The New York Times
2195:www.britannica.com
1838:Parker, John Henry
1718:www.etymonline.com
976:Lorenzo de' Medici
959:with his wife, by
900:goods and services
817:business practices
794:
758:colonial expansion
754:
680:
676:Katsushika Hokusai
654:
590:
540:(1st century CE).
489:
473:
421:
352:
187:Types of merchants
137:The English term,
135:
118:
95:business practices
34:
3051:Media related to
3011:978-0-472-06072-6
2992:Thrupp, Sylvia L.
2928:Lindemann, Mary.
2350:King, Margaret L.
2078:, Vol. 2, p. 390.
1843:The Forum Romanum
1823:978-3-515-08053-8
1249:Abraham van Strij
1233:Jacob Janz Coeman
1096:Corneille de Lyon
896:planned economies
464:in North Africa.
358:operated in many
316:merchant services
291:
290:
283:
265:
3098:
3062:
3050:
3036:
3015:
2980:Smith, Edmond.
2871:
2864:
2858:
2855:
2849:
2848:
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2830:
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2815:
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2795:
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2734:
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2721:
2715:
2708:
2702:
2695:
2689:
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2686:
2684:
2661:
2655:
2648:
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2635:
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2622:
2616:
2609:
2603:
2589:
2583:
2579:
2573:
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2558:
2551:
2545:
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2532:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2500:
2494:
2483:
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2449:
2443:
2442:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2399:
2393:
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2367:
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2340:
2339:
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2315:
2314:
2294:
2288:
2281:
2275:
2268:
2262:
2252:
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2239:
2233:
2226:
2220:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2187:
2181:
2174:
2168:
2163:McLaughlin, R.,
2161:
2155:
2150:McLaughlin, R.,
2148:
2142:
2137:McLaughlin, R.,
2135:
2129:
2122:
2116:
2105:
2099:
2085:
2079:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2050:. Archived from
2040:
2034:
2019:
2013:
2006:
2000:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1968:
1962:
1959:
1953:
1944:
1938:
1931:
1925:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1905:
1903:
1878:
1872:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1851:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1792:
1789:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1764:
1760:
1754:
1747:
1741:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1684:
1637:Merchant account
1546:
1534:
1522:
1510:
1498:
1486:
1474:
1458:
1442:
1421:
1402:
1371:
1359:
1340:
1321:
1309:
1298:Jean-Léon Gérôme
1293:
1278:
1260:
1247:The Merchant by
1244:
1224:
1208:
1193:
1177:
1161:
1145:
1134:Anthony van Dyck
1129:
1107:
1091:
1075:
1059:
1043:
1023:
1003:
987:
972:
952:
936:
832:(1730–1795) and
830:Josiah Wedgewood
767:
688:Hanseatic League
635:Hanseatic League
620:gilda mercatoria
456:(in present-day
286:
279:
275:
272:
266:
264:
223:
199:
191:
170:
164:
158:
152:
146:
131:Abraham de Bruyn
91:Age of Discovery
3106:
3105:
3101:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3071:
3070:
3029:
3012:
2880:
2875:
2874:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2842:
2840:
2832:
2831:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2809:
2805:
2796:
2792:
2785:
2781:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2748:
2744:
2735:
2731:
2722:
2718:
2709:
2705:
2696:
2692:
2682:
2680:
2662:
2658:
2649:
2645:
2636:
2632:
2623:
2619:
2610:
2606:
2590:
2586:
2571:
2565:
2561:
2552:
2548:
2539:
2535:
2526:
2522:
2515:
2501:
2497:
2484:
2480:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2450:
2446:
2439:
2425:
2421:
2414:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2375:
2371:
2364:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2295:
2291:
2282:
2278:
2269:
2265:
2253:
2249:
2240:
2236:
2227:
2223:
2214:
2210:
2200:
2198:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2175:
2171:
2162:
2158:
2149:
2145:
2136:
2132:
2123:
2119:
2106:
2102:
2086:
2082:
2071:
2067:
2057:
2055:
2054:on 1 March 2013
2042:
2041:
2037:
2020:
2016:
2007:
2003:
1999:Vol. 16, p. 359
1994:
1990:
1980:
1978:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1945:
1941:
1933:Rawlinson, G.,
1932:
1928:
1919:
1915:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1879:
1875:
1866:
1862:
1849:
1847:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1808:
1804:
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1761:
1757:
1748:
1744:
1736:
1732:
1722:
1720:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1697:
1695:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1671:
1666:
1642:Merchant marine
1557:
1550:
1547:
1538:
1535:
1526:
1523:
1514:
1511:
1502:
1499:
1490:
1487:
1478:
1475:
1466:
1463:Merchant's Hall
1459:
1450:
1443:
1434:
1422:
1413:
1403:
1386:
1384:In architecture
1379:
1372:
1363:
1360:
1351:
1341:
1332:
1322:
1313:
1310:
1301:
1294:
1285:
1279:
1270:
1261:
1252:
1245:
1236:
1225:
1216:
1209:
1200:
1194:
1185:
1178:
1169:
1162:
1153:
1146:
1137:
1130:
1121:
1108:
1099:
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2884:
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2838:Loes Heerink
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2767:. Retrieved
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2052:the original
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2009:
2004:
1996:
1991:
1979:. Retrieved
1975:
1966:
1957:
1948:
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1934:
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1900:. Retrieved
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1721:. Retrieved
1717:
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1696:. Retrieved
1691:
1682:
1632:Mercantilism
1587:Entrepreneur
1582:Costermonger
1462:
1424:
1405:
1391:market towns
1387:
1324:
1264:Caspar Voght
1229:Pieter Cnoll
1227:Portrait of
1198:Jürgen Ovens
1118:Anthonis Mor
1110:
1028:George Gisze
1026:Portrait of
1008:Anton Fugger
1006:Portrait of
961:Jan van Eyck
925:
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893:
870:
866:
814:
806:
795:
782:
778:
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762:Daniel Defoe
755:
732:
730:
721:
715:) market of
701:
695:
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681:
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662:
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631:market towns
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604:luxury goods
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393:fora venalia
392:
372:ancient Rome
353:
314:
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213:Please help
208:verification
205:
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176:
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138:
136:
101:
99:
37:
35:
25:
2843:18 February
2527:Minto, W.,
1592:Free market
1447:Southampton
904:"oligarchs"
885:Rockefeller
842:direct mail
826:loss-leader
781:(1720) and
738:bourgeoisie
639:guild halls
520:Greco-Roman
298:themselves.
271:August 2021
42:commodities
3075:Categories
2514:052142528X
2058:8 February
1674:References
1669:References
1597:Free trade
1412:, Scotland
1120:, c. 1560.
733:modern era
717:Tlatelolco
599:Marco Polo
586:Marco Polo
425:purple dye
327:See also:
241:newspapers
230:"Merchant"
3091:Merchants
3053:Merchants
2769:16 August
2678:0362-4331
2471:16 August
2048:Brown.edu
1902:3 January
1739:mer‧chant
1607:Guildhall
1449:, England
1410:Kirkcaldy
1350:, c. 1662
1348:Rembrandt
1331:, c. 1680
1215:, c. 1670
1184:, c. 1663
1182:Rembrandt
1168:, c. 1654
1152:, 1625–35
1136:, c. 1620
1098:, c. 1541
1066:, c. 1533
1050:, c. 1532
1014:, c. 1525
994:, c. 1522
963:, c. 1434
943:1465-1469
894:In fully
797:Armenians
609:Merchant
404:involved
168:mercatare
162:mercatans
156:mercatant
150:marchaunt
121:Etymology
75:Phoenicia
47:Babylonia
3065:Merchant
3040:merchant
2994:(1989).
2352:(2016).
2033:, p. 539
2031:20006873
1652:Pochteca
1577:Commerce
1555:See also
1431:Kentucky
1378:, c.1711
1300:, c 1887
1235:, c.1655
1082:, c 1538
1034:, c 1532
777:(1713);
773:(1707);
703:pochteca
697:tianguis
595:Crusades
525:amphorae
462:Carthage
441:Sardinia
410:peddlers
402:exchange
144:marchant
139:merchant
102:merchant
38:merchant
1850:29 June
1763:339–395
1647:Peddler
1572:Chapmen
1251:c. 1800
1150:Van Dyk
916:Antwerp
802:caravan
742:pastime
558:incense
458:Lebanon
437:Morocco
374:in the
323:History
255:scholar
107:capital
51:Assyria
3008:
2977:(2020)
2953:
2941:online
2903:online
2760:
2683:4 July
2676:
2599:
2511:
2462:
2435:
2410:
2385:
2360:
2332:
2307:
2201:4 July
2097:504744
2095:
2029:
1981:4 July
1893:
1820:
1723:4 July
1698:4 July
1657:Retail
1612:Hawker
1461:Tudor
910:In art
810:nabobs
709:Mexica
700:while
652:, 1682
611:guilds
562:balsam
550:Kushan
460:) and
454:Byblos
445:script
382:, the
335:, and
257:
250:
243:
236:
228:
133:, 1577
71:Persia
63:Greece
2572:(PDF)
2093:JSTOR
2027:JSTOR
1602:Guild
1433:, USA
889:Nobel
713:Aztec
625:Hanse
616:guild
566:myrrh
554:Indus
513:usury
505:China
501:Nabob
481:garum
429:murex
376:forum
368:agora
356:class
262:JSTOR
248:books
67:India
59:Egypt
55:China
3006:ISBN
2951:ISBN
2845:2022
2771:2021
2758:ISBN
2685:2024
2674:ISSN
2597:ISBN
2509:ISBN
2473:2021
2460:ISBN
2433:ISBN
2408:ISBN
2383:ISBN
2358:ISBN
2330:ISBN
2305:ISBN
2203:2024
2060:2017
1983:2024
1904:2017
1891:ISBN
1852:2019
1818:ISBN
1725:2024
1700:2024
1111:Sir
887:and
731:The
552:and
491:The
386:and
234:news
79:Rome
77:and
2257:in
1346:by
1327:by
1116:by
1010:by
674:by
518:In
499:or
313:or
217:by
159:or
3077::
3004:.
3000:.
2836:.
2773:.
2672:.
2668:.
2574:.
2193:.
2046:.
1974:.
1906:.
1854:.
1716:.
1690:.
1429:,
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766:c.
573:.
560:,
331:,
319:.
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3014:.
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