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coiffures can be dated through their depictions on coins. The female hairstyles are what is usually used for the dating of mummy portraits, because other than a number of elite boys who had long hair parted on the forehead and bound into a bun in the neck, male hairstyle does not differ by much. This is because Roman male was advised to avoid excessive attention to hairstyles as he may be criticized for unmanliness. Complex ringlets with nested plaits, and curls over the forehead was popular in the late first century, with small oval nested plaits popular in the time of
Antonines. A later popular woman's hairstyle is one inspired by the Roman Empress, Faustina I, with longer strands at the middle of the scalp drawn back into twists or plaits that were then wound into a tutulus at the crown of the head. Central-parted hair-knots at the back of the neck were common later in the same period. Empress Julia Domna popularized fluffy waved hair. Straight hair was common in the same period while later plaits on the crown of the head were rarely present.
1612:
384:
790:
1495:
809:
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1441:
1270:
896:
1405:
825:
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1360:
1423:
478:
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displayed as "salon paintings" within their houses, to be added to their mummy wrapping after their death. Newer research rather suggests that they were only painted after death, an idea perhaps contradicted by the multiple paintings on some specimens and the (suggested) change of specific details on others. The individualism of those depicted was actually created by variations in some specific details, within a largely unvaried general scheme. The habit of depicting the deceased was not a new one, but the painted images gradually replaced the earlier
Egyptian masks, although the latter continued in use for some time, often occurring directly adjacent to portrait mummies, sometimes even in the same graves.
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1540:
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493:
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1387:
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884:, but it is striking that other funerary habits prevailed over portrait mummies at all sites except those in the Faiyum (and there especially Hawara and Achmim) and Antinoopolis. In most sites, different forms of burial coexisted. The choice of grave type may have been determined to a large extent by the financial means and status of the deceased, modified by local customs. Portrait mummies have been found both in rock-cut tombs and in freestanding built grave complexes, but also in shallow pits. It is striking that they are virtually never accompanied by any grave offerings, with the exception of occasional pots or sprays of flowers.
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the public and highly visible portraits of
Ptolemaic dynasts and Roman emperors grafted iconography developed for a ruler's Greek or Roman images onto Egyptian statues in the dress and posture of Egyptian kings and queens. The possible combinations of Greek and Egyptian elements can be elucidated by imposing a (somewhat artificial) distinction between form and content, where 'form' is taken as the system of representation, and 'content' as the symbol, concept, or figure being portrayed.
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630:
1087:), on the subject's clothing. Most of the decorative lines are dark colored. While painted mummy portraits are shown to bear the traditional Roman decorative lines, not a single portrait has been definitely shown to depict the toga. It should, however, be kept in mind that Greek cloaks and togas are draped very similarly on depictions of the 1st and early 2nd centuries. In the late 2nd and 3rd centuries, togas should be distinguishable, but fail to occur.
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the winter of 1910–11 and excavated a further 70 portrait mummies, some of them quite badly preserved. With very few exceptions, Petrie's studies still provide the only examples of mummy portraits so far found as the result of systematic excavation and published properly. Although the published studies are not entirely up to modern standards, they remain the most important source for the find contexts of portrait mummies.
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Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient
Egyptians, than to Greeks or other European populations. This conclusion was seen again in 2009, by Joel D. Irish, where he noted: "Interestingly, Roman period Hawara in Lower Egypt seems not to have been composed of migrants-while there is a possibility that the dynastic occupation of Saqqara may have been."
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the three previous cold desert nights. Fouquet acquired the remaining two of what had originally been fifty portraits. While the exact location of this find is unclear, the likely source is from er-Rubayat. At that location, not long after
Fouquet's visit, the Viennese art trader Theodor Graf found several further images, which he tried to sell as profitably as possible. He engaged the famous
1000:. As part of Roman propaganda, such sculptures, especially those depicting the imperial family, were often displayed throughout the empire. Thus, they had a direct influence on the development of fashion. Nevertheless, the mummy portraits, as well as other finds, suggest that fashions lasted longer in the provinces than in the imperial court, or at least that diverse styles might coexist.
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434:. The wood was cut into thin rectangular panels and made smooth. The finished panels were set into layers of wrapping that enclosed the body and were surrounded by bands of cloth, giving the effect of a window-like opening through which the face of the deceased could be seen. Portraits were sometimes painted directly onto the canvas or rags of the mummy wrapping (
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century. In contrast, mummification appears to have been practised by large parts of the population. The mummy mask, originally an
Egyptian concept, grew more and more Graeco-Roman in style, Egyptian motifs became ever rarer. The adoption of Roman portrait painting into Egyptian burial cult belongs in this general context.
395:
125:, from the late 1st century BC or the early 1st century AD onwards. It is not clear when their production ended, but some research suggests the middle of the 3rd century. They are among the largest groups among the very few survivors of the panel painting tradition of the classical world, which continued into
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materials could be strung. The third shape are elaborate pendants with a horizontal bar from which two or three, occasionally four, vertical rods are suspended, usually each decorated with a white bead or pearl at the bottom. Other common ornaments include gold hairpins, often decorated with pearls, fine
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There is evidence of a religious crisis at the same time. This may not be as closely connected with the rise of
Christianity as previously assumed. (The earlier suggestion of a 4th-century end to the portraits would coincide with the widespread distribution of Christianity in Egypt. Christianity also
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scans reveal a correspondence of age and sex between mummy and image. She concludes that the age distribution reflects the low life expectancy at the time. It was often believed that the wax portraits were completed during the life of the individual and displayed in their home, a custom that belonged
576:
While commonly believed to depict Greek settlers in Egypt, the Faiyum portraits instead reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant
Egyptian culture and that of the elite Greek minority in the city. According to Walker, the early Ptolemaic Greek colonists married local women and adopted Egyptian
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period, with the rest being native
Egyptians. By the Roman period, much of the "Greek" population of Faiyum was made-up of either Hellenized Egyptians or people of mixed Egyptian-Greek origins. Later, in the Roman Period, many veterans of the Roman army, who, initially at least, were not Egyptian but
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Other than representations of their wealth and social status, the subject's clothing suggests their previous roles in their local communities. For instance, men depicted to show their bare upper torso were usually athletes. The most common attire is a cloak worn over a chiton. It is common to have a
945:
For a long time, it was assumed that the latest portraits belong to the end of the 4th century, but recent research has modified this view considerably, suggesting that the last wooden portraits belong to the middle, the last directly painted mummy wrappings to the second half of the 3rd century. It
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Only in the sphere of religion is there evidence for a continuation of
Egyptian traditions. Egyptian temples were erected as late as the 2nd century. In terms of burial habits, Egyptian and Hellenistic elements now mixed. Coffins became increasingly unpopular and went entirely out of use by the 2nd
371:
A majority of images show a formal portrait of a single figure, facing and looking toward the viewer, from an angle that is usually slightly turned from full face. The figures are presented as busts against a monochrome background which in some instances are decorated. The individuals are both male
317:
which yielded 81 portrait mummies in the first year of excavation. At an exhibition in London, these portraits drew large crowds. In the following year, Petrie continued excavations at the same location but now suffered from the competition of a German and an Egyptian art dealer. Petrie returned in
263:
Once again, a long period elapsed before more mummy portraits came to light. In 1887, Daniel Marie Fouquet heard of the discovery of numerous portrait mummies in a cave. He set off to inspect them some days later, but arrived too late, as the finders had used the painted plaques for firewood during
136:
The portraits covered the faces of bodies that were mummified for burial. Extant examples indicate that they were mounted into the bands of cloth that were used to wrap the bodies. Almost all have now been detached from the mummies. They usually depict a single person, showing the head, or head and
866:
The combination of naturalistic Greek portrait of the deceased with Egyptian-form deities, symbols, and frame was primarily phenomenon of funerary art from the chora, or countryside, in Roman Egypt. Combining Egyptian and Greek pictorial forms or motifs was not restricted to funerary art, however:
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in Paris. Because they were mostly recovered through inappropriate and unprofessional means, virtually all are without archaeological context, a fact which consistently lowers the quality of archaeological and culture-historical information they provide. As a result, their overall significance as
950:
In the 3rd century the Roman Empire underwent a severe economic crisis, severely limiting the financial abilities of the upper classes. Although they continued to lavishly spend money on representation, they favoured public appearances, like games and festivals, over the production of portraits.
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In terms of anthropological characteristics, academic Alan K. Bowman stated that based on skull analysis, the Faiyum mummy burials were said to be the same as 'native' Egyptians of the Pharaonic era. The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies was also compared with that of earlier
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There are three basic shapes of ear ornaments: Especially common in the 1st century are circular or drop-shaped pendants. Archaeological finds indicate that these were fully or semi-spherical. Later tastes favoured S-shaped hooks of gold wire, on which up to five beads of different colours and
782:
The images depict the heads or busts of men, women and children. They probably date from c. 30 BC to the 3rd century. To the modern eye, the portraits appear highly individualistic. Therefore, it has been assumed for a long time that they were produced during the lifetime of their subjects and
1067:
Comparing the hairstyles on mummy portraits, it is revealed that the vast majority of them correspond to the fast-changing fashion of hairstyles used by the elite of the rest of the Roman Empire. They, in turn, often followed the fashion of the Roman emperors and their wives, whose images and
621:
The patrons of the portraits apparently belonged to the affluent upper class of military personnel, civil servants and religious dignitaries. Not everyone could afford a mummy portrait; many mummies were found without one. Flinders Petrie states that only one or two percent of the mummies he
465:
The Fayum portraits reveal a wide range of painterly expertise and skill in presenting a lifelike appearance. The naturalism of the portraits is often revealed in knowledge of anatomic structure and in skilled modelling of the form by the use of light and shade, which gives an appearance of
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Considering the limited nature of the current understanding of portrait mummies, it remains distinctly possible that future research will considerably modify the image presented here. For example, some scholars suspect that the centre of production of such finds, and thus the centre of the
652:
are always influenced by Roman fashion. Women and children are often depicted wearing valuable ornaments and fine garments, men often wearing specific and elaborate outfits. Greek inscriptions of names are relatively common, sometimes they include professions. It is not known whether such
626:" is interesting in this regard. It contained four mummies: those of Aline, of two children and of her husband. Unlike his wife and children, the latter was not equipped with a portrait but with a gilt three-dimensional mask. Perhaps plaster masks were preferred if they could be afforded.
653:
inscriptions always reflect reality, or whether they may state ideal conditions or aspirations rather than true conditions. One single inscription is known to definitely indicate the deceased's profession (a shipowner) correctly. The mummy of a woman named Hermione also included the term
966:, i.e. the granting of Roman citizenship to all free subjects changed the social structures of Egypt. For the first time, the individual cities gained a degree of self-administration. At the same time, the provincial upper classes changed in terms of both composition and inter-relations.
1109:
worn by many men, with very few exceptions, only women are depicted with jewellery. This generally accords with the common jewellery types of the Graeco-Roman East. Especially the Antinoopolis portraits depict simple gold link chains and massive gold rings. There are also depictions of
875:
The religious meaning of mummy portraits has not, so far, been fully explained, nor have associated grave rites. There is some indication that it developed from genuine Egyptian funerary rites, adapted by a multi-cultural ruling class. The tradition of mummy portraits occurred from the
622:
excavated were embellished with portraits. The rates for mummy portraits do not survive, but it can be assumed that the material caused higher costs than the labour, since in antiquity, painters were appreciated as craftsmen rather than as artists. The situation from the "
946:
is commonly accepted that production reduced considerably since the beginning of the 3rd century. Several reasons for the decline of the mummy portrait have been suggested; no single reason should probably be isolated, rather, they should be seen as operating together.
978:
strongly support such a view. In view of the near-total loss of Greek and Roman paintings, mummy portraits are today considered to be among the very rare examples of ancient art that can be seen to reflect "Great paintings" and especially Roman portrait painting.
1149:
The gold wreath was apparently rarely, if ever, worn in life, but a number have been found in graves from much earlier periods. Based on the plant wreaths given as prizes in contests, the idea was apparently to celebrate the achievements of the deceased in life.
338:. The French archaeologist Albert Gayet worked at Antinoöpolis and found much relevant material, but his work, like that of many of his contemporaries, does not satisfy modern standards. His documentation is incomplete, many of his finds remain without context.
613:, but this view is no longer widely held given the evidence suggested by the C.A.T. scans of the Faiyum mummies, as well as Roman census returns. In addition, some portraits were painted directly onto the coffin; for example, on a shroud or another part.
641:
Based on literary, archaeological and genetic studies, it appears that those depicted were native Egyptians, who had adopted the dominant Greco-Roman culture. The name of some of those portrayed are known from inscriptions; they are predominantly Greek.
2072:
The rest of Egypt was kept divided into the forty-two districts (called hsaput in Egyptian and nomos in Greek), which had been traditional for over 3,000 years. Here, some seven to ten million native Egyptians lived the same life they had always
276:
pharaohs by analogy with other works of art, mainly coin portraits. None of these associations were particularly well argued or convincing, but they gained him much attention, not least because he gained the support of well-known scholars like
665:, the first residential college for women in Britain), but today, it is assumed that the term indicates her level of education. Some portraits of men show sword-belts or even pommels, suggesting that they were members of the Roman military.
1030:
271:
to publish his finds. He produced presentation folders to advertise his individual finds throughout Europe. Although little was known about their archaeological find contexts, Graf went as far as to ascribe the portraits to known
750:. In funeral processions, these wax masks were worn by professional mourners to emphasize the continuity of an illustrious family line, but originally perhaps to represent a deeper evocation of the presence of the dead.
1212:. A direct link has been suggested, but it should be kept in mind that the mummy portraits represent only a small part of a much wider Graeco-Roman tradition, the whole of which later bore an influence on the art of
591:
A DNA study showed genetic continuity between the Pre-Ptolemaic, Ptolemaic and Roman populations of Egypt, indicating that foreign rule impacted Egypt's population only to a very limited degree at the genetic level.
789:
702:
but otherwise living in an entirely Hellenistic world, incorporating only very few local elements. Conversely, the Egyptians only slowly developed an interest in the Greek-Hellenic culture that dominated the
477:
281:. As a result, mummy portraits became the centre of much attention. By the late 19th century, their very specific aesthetic made them sought-after collection pieces, distributed by the global arts trade.
808:
216:
steadily increased after that period, further finds of mummy portraits did not become known before the early 19th century. The provenance of these first new finds is unclear; they may come from
1049:
824:
895:
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people from disparate cultural and ethnic backgrounds, settled in the area after the completion of their service, and formed social relations and intermarried with local populations.
996:. They are one of the main aids in dating the paintings. The majority of the deceased were depicted with hairstyles then in fashion. They are frequently similar to those depicted in
959:
never banned mummification.) An increasing neglect of Egyptian temples is noticeable during the Roman imperial period, leading to a general drop in interest in all ancient religions.
1201:(i.e., painting on wood or other mobile surfaces) was held in high regard, but very few ancient panel paintings survive. One of the few examples besides the mummy portraits is the
492:
446:
The wooden surface was sometimes primed for painting with a layer of plaster. In some cases the primed layer reveals a preparatory drawing. Two painting techniques were employed:
1575:
1011:
588:, settled in Egypt and married local women, as well as native Egyptians who were the majority, many of whom had adopted Greek or Latin names, then seen as 'status symbols'.
914:
548:(elite military officials) who were settled by the Ptolemaic kings on reclaimed lands. Native Egyptians also came to settle in Faiyum from all over the country, notably the
1755:
1656:
1314:
686:, equipped with a decorated coffin and a mummy mask to cover the head. The Greeks who entered Egypt at that time mostly followed their own habits. There is evidence from
224:. In 1820, the Baron of Minotuli acquired several mummy portraits for a German collector, but they became part of a whole shipload of Egyptian artifacts lost in the
163:
of Faiyum. Due to the hot dry Egyptian climate, the paintings are frequently very well preserved, often retaining their brilliant colours seemingly unfaded by time.
711:. This situation changed substantially with the arrival of the Romans. Within a few generations, all Egyptian elements disappeared from everyday life. Cities like
657:(γραμματική). For a long time, it was assumed that this indicated that she was a teacher by profession (for this reason, Flinders Petrie donated the portrait to
544:, or possibly a total of three to five million for all ethnicities, according to lower estimates. Faiyum's earliest Greek inhabitants were soldier-veterans and
2743:
Other examples: a framed portrait from Hawara, the image of a man flanked by two deities from the same site, or the 6th century BC panels from Pitsa in Greece.
930:
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religious beliefs, and by Roman times, their descendants were viewed as Egyptians by the Roman rulers, despite their own self-perception of being Greek.
3065:
Paula Modersohn-Becker und die ägyptischen Mumienportraits ... Katalogbuch zur Ausstellung in Bremen, Kunstsammlung Böttcherstraße, 14.10.2007–24.2.2008
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are largely Greco-Roman places. There is clear evidence that this resulted from a mixing of different ethnicities in the ruling classes of Roman Egypt.
843:
196:
in 1615, was the first European to discover and describe mummy portraits. He transported some mummies with portraits to Europe, which are now in the
3108:
2283:
Coussement, S. 'Because I am Greek': Polynymy as an Expression of Ethnicity in Ptolemaic Egypt. Studia Hellenistica 55 (Peeters Publishers, 2016).
1208:
Some aspects of the mummy portraits, especially their frontal perspective and their concentration on key facial features, strongly resemble later
454:. The encaustic images are striking because of the contrast between vivid and rich colours, and comparatively large brush-strokes, producing an "
466:
three-dimensionality to most of the figures. The graded flesh tones are enhanced with shadows and highlights indicative of directional lighting.
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Today, mummy portraits are represented in all important archaeological museums of the world. Many have fine examples on display, notably the
1240:, earlier examples of cult images were sculptures or pottery figurines, but from the 3rd century reliefs and then painted images are found.
458:" effect. The tempera paintings have a finer gradation of tones and chalkier colours, giving a more restrained appearance. In some cases,
3236:
87:. The Fayum portraits are the only large body of art from that tradition to have survived. They were formerly, and incorrectly, called
2722:
1205:, also from Egypt (around 200), which, like the mummy portraits, is believed to represent a provincial version of contemporary style.
831:
742:
2220:
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was used to depict jewellery and wreaths. There also are examples of hybrid techniques or of variations from the main techniques.
970:
Thus, a combination of several factors appears to have led to changes of fashion and ritual. No clear causality can be asserted.
2993:
Bilder aus dem Wüstensand. Mumienportraits aus dem Ägyptischen Museum Kairo; eine Ausstellung des Kunsthistorischen Museums Wien
228:. In 1827, Léon de Laborde brought two portraits, supposedly found in Memphis, to Europe, one of which can today be seen at the
1548:
406:
The majority of preserved mummy portraits were painted on boards or panels, made from different imported hardwoods, including
256:, sent several further portraits to Paris and London. Some of them were long considered portraits of the family of the Theban
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2302:
2141:
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1683:
759:
564:, to undertake the labor involved in the land reclamation process, as attested by personal names, local cults and recovered
1269:
2434:
Irish, JD (April 2006). "Who were the ancient Egyptians? Dental affinities among Neolithic through postdynastic peoples".
248:. It is so similar to de Laborde's specimens that it is thought to be from the same source. During the 1820s, the British
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604:
Most of the portraits depict the deceased at a relatively young age, and many show children. According to Susan Walker,
201:
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3000:
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1944:
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1892:
Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated Reference to the Myths, Religions, Pyramids and Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs
1359:
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176:
3186:
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3176:
3171:
1692:
330:", which held three mummy portraits; among the most famous today. Other important sources of such finds are at
1937:
Excavating Egypt: great discoveries from the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, University College, London
1701:
1368:
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129:, Eastern Mediterranean, and Western traditions in the post-classical world, including the local tradition of
117:
mummy cases date back to pharaonic times, the Faiyum mummy portraits were an innovation dating to the time of
2250:
1566:
1539:
1422:
401:
Mummy portrait of a woman from Fayum, Hawara, modern-day Egypt. Encaustic on wood, AD 300–325. British Museum
301:
In parallel, more scientific engagement with the portraits was beginning. In 1887, the British archaeologist
3099:
2274:
Broux, Y. Double Names and Elite Strategy in Roman Egypt. Studia Hellenistica 54 (Peeters Publishers, 2016).
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113:. "Faiyum portraits" is generally used as a stylistic, rather than a geographic, description. While painted
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796:
634:
260:
Pollios Soter, a historical character known from written sources, but this has turned out to be incorrect.
2343:"Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods"
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241:
351:
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540:, but also in a few other cities, where Greek settlers lived alongside some seven to ten million native
512:
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1142:. The stones were normally ground into cylindrical or spherical beads. Some portraits depict elaborate
484:
355:
294:
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581:
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50:
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distinctive funerary tradition they represent, may have been located at Alexandria. New finds from
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306:
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upper chest, viewed frontally. In terms of artistic tradition, the images clearly derive more from
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Dentition helps archaeologists to assess biological and ethnic population traits and relationships
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The plaited hairstyle of this elite woman makes it possible to date this painting to the reign of
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1287:
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118:
2972:. Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie/ Sonderhefte der Antiken Welt. Mainz am Rhein: Von Zabern.
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Egyptians mostly followed ancient traditions. The bodies of members of the upper classes were
568:. It is estimated that as much as 30 percent of the population of Faiyum was Greek during the
3121:
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1801:
1458:
553:
1251:
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Some authors suggest that the idea of such portraits may be related to the custom among the
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on 27 December 2007 – via ETANA (Electronic Tools and Ancient Near Eastern Archives).
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The mummy portraits have immense art-historical importance. Ancient sources indicate that
8:
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766:). The development of mummy portraiture may represent a combination of Egyptian and
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Mummy portrait of a man from Fayum. Encaustic on limewood, AD 80–100. British Museum
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Three-dimensional funerary masks of painted plaster from Faiyum (1st century),
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About 900 mummy portraits are known at present. The majority were found in the
80:
2782:. (trans of Le Icone, Montadori 1981). London: Evans Brothers Ltd. p. 3.
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2806:[This is how two secular artists recreated the Temple in Jerusalem].
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The Fayum mummy images were used to recreate Jewish faces from first-century
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Egypt After the Pharaohs 332 BC-AD 642: From Alexander to the Arab Conquest
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2168:. Metropolitan Museum of Art Publications. New York: Routledge. p. 27.
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Portrait of a boy, identified by inscription as Eutyches (Greek: Ευτύχης),
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110:
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95:
3100:"Unraveling the mysteries of ancient Egypt's spellbinding mummy portraits"
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Schillaci, Michael A.; Irish, Joel D.; Wood, Carolan C. E. (5 June 2009).
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Vol. B, 1-4, Rome 1969–2003 (Corpus of most of the known mummy portraits)
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The Beautiful Burial in Roman Egypt: Art, Identity, and Funerary Religion
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In 1892, the German archaeologist von Kaufmann discovered the so-called "
268:
94:
Mummy portraits have been found across Egypt, but are most common in the
76:
69:
3008:
Augenblicke. Mumienporträts und ägyptische Grabkunst aus römischer Zeit
2366:
2118:
2086:
2486:
2447:
2341:
Schuenemann, Verena; Peltzer, Alexander; Welte, Beatrix (30 May 2017).
1819:
1178:
952:
877:
755:
687:
549:
537:
435:
314:
197:
160:
130:
114:
49:
in winter 1905/06 by French Archaeologist Alfred Gayet and sold to the
690:
and other sites indicating that they practised the Greek tradition of
1123:
1079:
691:
662:
610:
541:
503:
459:
411:
225:
148:. Two groups of portraits can be distinguished by technique: one of
2637:
1916:. Repertorio d'arte dell'Egitto greco-romano Serie B, v. 1-4. Rome.
1135:
835:
415:
245:
244:'s 1828–29 expedition to Egypt, brought a further portrait back to
65:
2808:
2636:
Other scholars, e.g. Barbara Borg, suggest that they start under
2471:"Further analysis of the population history of ancient Egyptians"
1237:
1221:
1167:
1159:
1119:
800:
737:
712:
699:
565:
451:
423:
217:
189:
153:
103:
2970:"Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien
2577:
3151:
3079:
Living Images, Egyptian Funerary Portraits in the Petrie Museum
1934:
1163:
1127:
1106:
1037:
937:
533:
469:
431:
419:
359:
335:
321:
310:
257:
229:
99:
30:
2876:
Ritratti di mummie, Repertorio d'arte dell'Egitto greco-romano
1878:
1139:
1131:
1059:, an orange chiton with black bands and rod-shaped earrings.
881:
747:
683:
427:
363:
well as their specific interpretations remain controversial.
72:
34:
2134:
Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek Kings as Egyptian Pharaohs
1978:
1976:
814:
Fayum portrait of a man, mid-2nd century, Myers Collection,
1939:. Atlanta, Georgia: Michael C. Carlos Museum. p. 101.
1782:
1764:
1737:
1728:
1719:
1674:
1665:
1638:
1602:
1584:
1512:
1503:
1485:
1476:
1467:
1377:
1296:
1278:
1225:
951:
However, other elements of sepulchral representation, like
289:
41:
21:
1973:
770:, since it appears only after Egypt was established as a
407:
2172:
580:
The portraits are said to represent both descendants of
284:
2518:, Nigel Guy, Routledge Taylor and Francis group, p. 601
2340:
1017:
Depiction of a woman with curly hair, wearing a violet
870:
372:
and female and range in age from childhood to old age.
2667:
1228:
of comparable date (3rd century) and style are in the
983:
Mummy portraits as sources on provincial Roman fashion
887:
83:, one of the most highly regarded forms of art in the
2679:
2565:
2553:
2526:
2524:
2087:"Villages, Land and Population in Graeco-Roman Egypt"
2060:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 39.
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1853:
Berman, Lawrence; Freed, Rita E.; and Doxey, Denise.
2193:
Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt: A Social History
3138:
Detailed discussion of mummy portraits (in English)
2919:
Mumienporträts. Chronologie und kultureller Kontext
2643:
2251:"Egyptian art and architecture – Greco-Roman Egypt"
2030:
1911:
3143:Detailed discussion of mummy portraits (in French)
3122:Proportion and personality in the Faiyum Portraits
3077:Jan Picton, Stephen Quirke, Paul C. Roberts (ed):
2655:
2609:
2521:
2468:
1988:
1954:
2136:. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 23.
2091:Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society
1185:with images of Septimius Severus and his family.
694:. This broadly reflects the general situation in
293:Detail of a portrait within its mummy wrappings,
3158:
2213:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2058:The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World
731:
599:
3034:Ancient Faces. Mummy Portraits from Roman Egypt
2934:Ancient Faces, Mummy Portraits from Roman Egypt
2931:
2709:
2697:
2583:
795:Fayum mummy portrait of a man, 1st century AD,
698:Egypt, its rulers proclaiming themselves to be
2774:
2404:. University of California Press. p. 17.
2047:
2045:
1173:
992:Mummy portraits depict a variety of different
3020:
2627:
2542:
2166:Ancient Faces: Mummy Portraits in Roman Egypt
2150:
2019:
668:
2886:. Vol. IV. Wiesbaden. pp. 218–222.
2804:"כך שני אמנים חילונים בנו מחדש את בית המקדש"
1935:B. T. Trope; S. Quirke; P. Lacovara (2005).
1857:. p. 193. Museum of Fine Arts Boston. 2003.
470:Subjects and social context of the paintings
322:Late-19th- and early-20th-century collectors
156:. The former are usually of higher quality.
16:Portraits attached to mummies in Roman Egypt
2042:
673:
366:
3056:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2956:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2896:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2859:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2243:
2205:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2164:Bagnall, R.S. (2000). Susan Walker (ed.).
1926:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
532:Under Hellenic rule, Egypt hosted several
207:
3006:Klaus Parlasca; Hellmut Seemann (Hrsg.):
2475:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2436:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2374:
2336:
2334:
2319:A History of Mathematics: An Introduction
498:A portrait from the late 1st century AD.
3021:Nicola Hoesch (2000). "Mumienporträts".
2882:Henning Wrede (1982). "Mumienporträts".
2628:Nicola Hoesch (2000). "Mumienporträts".
2543:Nicola Hoesch (2000). "Mumienporträts".
2311:
2131:
2084:
2020:Nicola Hoesch (2000). "Mumienporträts".
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1177:
1158:, and, especially at Antinoopolis, gold
849:Fayum portrait of a woman, 2nd century,
830:Fayum portrait of a woman, 4th century,
628:
297:, discovered by Flinders Petrie in 1911.
288:
180:Mummies' discovery by Pietro Della Valle
175:
45:This heavily gilt portrait was found in
40:
20:
2932:Susan Walker; Morris Bierbrier (1997).
2178:
2163:
920:Portrait of a woman named Isidora from
762:cultivated ancestral spirits (see also
722:
3159:
3031:
2869:Mumienporträts und verwandte Denkmäler
2838:
2597:The Art of Death in Graeco-Roman Egypt
2397:
2331:
2190:
1994:
987:
441:
166:
2881:
2649:
2433:
2292:
2051:
2036:
2000:
1933:A further specimen discovered since:
1790:
1077:traditionally Roman decorative line,
285:Archaeological study: Flinders Petrie
3202:Portraits of ancient Greece and Rome
2964:
2685:
2673:
2661:
2615:
2571:
2559:
2530:
1982:
1967:
1146:, with precious stones set in gold.
901:Fayum mummy portrait of a man named
871:Coexistence with other burial habits
746:, images of their ancestors, in the
536:settlements, mostly concentrated in
3102:CNN feature on Getty Museum project
2595:summarised in: Judith A. Corbelli:
1873:Examples still attached are in the
888:End of the mummy portrait tradition
171:
64:are a type of naturalistic painted
13:
1170:, perhaps with magical functions.
777:
527:
375:
202:Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden
79:. They belong to the tradition of
14:
3248:
3237:Antiquities in the Pushkin Museum
3093:
25:Mummy portrait of a young woman,
3148:Gallery of Fayum Mummy Portraits
2842:Roman Portraits and Memphis (IV)
2056:. In Bugh, Glenn Richard (ed.).
1781:
1772:
1763:
1754:
1745:
1736:
1727:
1718:
1709:
1700:
1691:
1682:
1673:
1664:
1655:
1646:
1637:
1628:
1619:
1610:
1601:
1592:
1583:
1574:
1565:
1556:
1547:
1538:
1529:
1520:
1511:
1502:
1493:
1484:
1475:
1466:
1457:
1448:
1439:
1430:
1421:
1412:
1403:
1394:
1385:
1376:
1367:
1358:
1349:
1340:
1331:
1322:
1313:
1304:
1295:
1286:
1277:
1268:
1259:
1250:
1048:
1029:
1021:and cloak and pendant earrings.
1010:
929:
913:
894:
842:
823:
807:
788:
616:
511:
491:
476:
394:
382:
2828:
2796:
2768:
2746:
2737:
2715:
2621:
2589:
2536:
2509:
2462:
2427:
2418:
2391:
2286:
2277:
2268:
2184:
2125:
2078:
1910:Corpus of all known specimens:
936:Fayum portrait of a woman from
450:(wax) painting and animal glue
2995:, Milan/Wien/Ostfildern 1998;
2909:The Mysterious Fayum Portraits
2839:W. M. Flinders Petrie (1911).
2516:Encyclopedia Of Ancient Greece
2255:Encyclopædia Britannica Online
2132:Stanwick, Paul Edmund (2003).
1904:
1884:
1867:
1847:
152:(wax) paintings, the other in
1:
3124:, A.J.N.W Prag, November 2002
3027:. Vol. 8. pp. 464f.
2710:Walker & Bierbrier (1997)
2698:Walker & Bierbrier (1997)
2584:Walker & Bierbrier (1997)
1894:. p. 236 Hermes House. 2002.
1890:Oakes, Lorna; Gahlin, Lucia.
1840:
1220:. A pair of panel "icons" of
1162:. Many portraits also depict
1003:
732:Link with Roman funeral masks
600:Age profile of those depicted
68:on wooden boards attached to
29:, Middle Egypt, 2nd century,
2712:, pp. 123–124, Nr. 119.
2700:, pp. 121–122, Nr. 117.
2052:Adams, Winthrope L. (2006).
1912:Klaus Parlasca (1969–2003).
1055:Depiction of a woman with a
832:Museo archeologico nazionale
635:Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
131:Coptic Christian iconography
121:. The portraits date to the
7:
2634:. Vol. 8. p. 464.
2549:. Vol. 8. p. 465.
2297:. Oxford University Press.
2026:. Vol. 8. p. 464.
1808:
1174:Art-historical significance
1071:
352:National Museum of Scotland
10:
3255:
3032:Susan Walker, ed. (2000).
2599:, Princes Risborough 2006
2321:, p. 184. Addison Wesley,
2054:"The Hellenistic Kingdoms"
1799:for the 2021 Israeli film
1243:
1094:
1090:
669:Culture-historical context
485:Metropolitan Museum of Art
356:Metropolitan Museum of Art
341:
295:Metropolitan Museum of Art
3133:Petrie's report from 1911
2911:. Thames and Hudson, 1995
2103:10.1017/S0068673500005253
924:, 100–110 AD, Getty Villa
760:everyday domestic rituals
582:ancient Greek mercenaries
242:Jean-François Champollion
220:as well, or perhaps from
51:Egyptian Museum of Berlin
3167:1st-century BC paintings
3128:History of Encaustic Art
2845:. London. Archived from
2398:Bowman, Alan K. (1989).
2221:"Fayoum mummy portraits"
2085:Rathbone, D. W. (1990).
940:, 75–100 AD, Getty Villa
861:
855:University of Manchester
768:Roman funerary practices
674:Changes in burial habits
367:Materials and techniques
313:. He discovered a Roman
3192:Ancient Roman paintings
3081:, Walnut Creek CA 2007
2991:Wilfried Seipel (ed.):
2884:Lexikon der Ägyptologie
2317:Victor J. Katz (1998).
964:Constitutio Antoniniana
707:since the conquests of
208:19th-century collectors
3227:Ancient Greek painting
3207:Roman Empire paintings
3111:3 October 2018 at the
2833:(chronological order)
1985:, pp. 13f., 34ff.
1881:and the British Museum
1236:; as with the cult of
1190:
1187:Antikensammlung Berlin
1101:Crown of justification
764:veneration of the dead
638:
298:
181:
54:
38:
3187:4th-century paintings
3182:3rd-century paintings
3177:2nd-century paintings
3172:1st-century paintings
2347:Nature Communications
1855:Arts of Ancient Egypt
1802:Legend of Destruction
1181:
1095:Further information:
748:atrium of their house
678:The burial habits of
632:
609:to the traditions of
584:, who had fought for
518:Man with sword belt,
292:
212:Although interest in
184:The Italian explorer
179:
62:Fayum mummy portraits
44:
24:
1116:semi-precious stones
1105:Apart from the gold
723:Religious continuity
358:in New York and the
98:, particularly from
3212:Early Christian art
2905:Euphrosyne Doxiadis
2367:10.1038/ncomms15694
2359:2017NatCo...815694S
2191:Alston, R. (1995).
988:Provincial fashions
586:Alexander the Great
442:Painting techniques
232:, the other in the
167:History of research
142:artistic traditions
119:Roman rule in Egypt
2676:, pp. 88–101.
2487:10.1002/ajpa.20976
2448:10.1002/ajpa.20261
2293:Riggs, C. (2005).
1914:Ritratti di mummie
1791:In popular culture
1191:
1061:Museum of Scotland
1042:Walters Art Museum
797:Oriental Institute
705:East Mediterranean
639:
500:Walters Art Museum
299:
238:Ippolito Rosellini
186:Pietro Della Valle
182:
123:Imperial Roman era
55:
39:
3087:978-1-59874-251-0
3073:978-3-7774-3735-4
2892:cite encyclopedia
2754:"[image]"
2688:, pp. 51–52.
2586:, pp. 17–20.
2574:, pp. 40–56.
2562:, pp. 53–55.
2411:978-0-520-06665-6
2304:978-0-191-53487-4
2225:Egyptology Online
2181:, pp. 28–29.
2143:978-0-292-77772-9
2067:978-0-521-53570-0
1815:Ancient Roman art
1138:, rarely also of
1057:ringlet hairstyle
976:Marina el-Alamein
851:Manchester Museum
3244:
3067:, München 2007,
3061:
3055:
3047:
3028:
3010:, München 1999,
2973:
2961:
2955:
2947:
2901:
2895:
2887:
2874:Klaus Parlasca:
2871:, Wiesbaden 1966
2867:Klaus Parlasca:
2864:
2858:
2850:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2760:. Archived from
2758:www.aisthesis.de
2750:
2744:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2729:. Archived from
2719:
2713:
2707:
2701:
2695:
2689:
2683:
2677:
2671:
2665:
2659:
2653:
2647:
2641:
2635:
2625:
2619:
2613:
2607:
2593:
2587:
2581:
2575:
2569:
2563:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2540:
2534:
2528:
2519:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2431:
2425:
2422:
2416:
2415:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2378:
2338:
2329:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2290:
2284:
2281:
2275:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2261:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2231:on 8 August 2007
2227:. Archived from
2217:
2211:
2210:
2204:
2196:
2188:
2182:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2161:
2148:
2147:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2097:(216): 103–142.
2082:
2076:
2075:
2049:
2040:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2017:
1998:
1992:
1986:
1980:
1971:
1965:
1952:
1950:
1931:
1925:
1917:
1908:
1902:
1888:
1882:
1871:
1865:
1851:
1785:
1776:
1767:
1758:
1749:
1740:
1731:
1722:
1713:
1704:
1695:
1686:
1677:
1668:
1659:
1650:
1641:
1632:
1623:
1614:
1605:
1596:
1587:
1578:
1569:
1560:
1551:
1542:
1533:
1524:
1515:
1506:
1497:
1488:
1479:
1470:
1461:
1452:
1443:
1434:
1425:
1416:
1407:
1398:
1389:
1380:
1371:
1362:
1353:
1344:
1335:
1326:
1317:
1308:
1299:
1290:
1281:
1272:
1263:
1254:
1052:
1033:
1014:
994:Roman hairstyles
933:
917:
898:
846:
827:
811:
792:
515:
495:
480:
398:
386:
188:, on a visit to
172:Pre-19th century
89:Coptic portraits
3254:
3253:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3222:Hellenistic art
3157:
3156:
3113:Wayback Machine
3106:Mummy portraits
3096:
3091:
3049:
3048:
3044:
2949:
2948:
2944:
2889:
2888:
2852:
2851:
2831:
2826:
2825:
2815:
2813:
2802:
2801:
2797:
2790:
2773:
2769:
2764:on 12 May 2012.
2752:
2751:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2708:
2704:
2696:
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2648:
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2083:
2079:
2068:
2050:
2043:
2035:
2031:
2018:
2001:
1993:
1989:
1981:
1974:
1966:
1955:
1947:
1919:
1918:
1909:
1905:
1889:
1885:
1875:Egyptian Museum
1872:
1868:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1811:
1793:
1786:
1777:
1768:
1759:
1750:
1741:
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1723:
1714:
1705:
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1633:
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1561:
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1273:
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1103:
1093:
1074:
1063:
1053:
1044:
1034:
1025:
1015:
1006:
990:
985:
955:, did continue.
941:
934:
925:
918:
909:
899:
890:
873:
864:
857:
847:
838:
828:
819:
812:
803:
793:
780:
778:Salon paintings
752:Roman festivals
734:
725:
676:
671:
619:
602:
530:
528:People of Fayum
523:
516:
507:
496:
487:
481:
472:
456:Impressionistic
444:
402:
399:
390:
387:
378:
376:Painted surface
369:
344:
324:
303:Flinders Petrie
287:
210:
174:
169:
85:Classical world
58:Mummy portraits
17:
12:
11:
5:
3252:
3251:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
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3194:
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3169:
3155:
3154:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3119:
3103:
3095:
3094:External links
3092:
3090:
3089:
3075:
3062:
3042:
3029:
3024:Der Neue Pauly
3018:
3004:
2989:
2962:
2942:
2929:
2921:, Mainz 1996,
2912:
2902:
2879:
2872:
2865:
2835:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2795:
2788:
2776:Kurt Weitzmann
2767:
2745:
2736:
2733:on 3 May 2015.
2727:www.sikyon.com
2714:
2702:
2690:
2678:
2666:
2654:
2642:
2631:Der Neue Pauly
2620:
2608:
2588:
2576:
2564:
2552:
2546:Der Neue Pauly
2535:
2520:
2508:
2481:(2): 235–243.
2461:
2442:(4): 529–543.
2426:
2417:
2410:
2390:
2330:
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2183:
2179:Bagnall (2000)
2171:
2149:
2142:
2124:
2077:
2066:
2041:
2039:, p. 218.
2029:
2023:Der Neue Pauly
1999:
1987:
1972:
1970:, p. 10f.
1953:
1945:
1903:
1883:
1866:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1835:Malibu Painter
1832:
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1214:late antiquity
1195:panel painting
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1023:British Museum
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779:
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772:Roman province
740:of displaying
738:Roman nobility
733:
730:
724:
721:
675:
672:
670:
667:
659:Girton College
618:
615:
601:
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529:
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348:British Museum
343:
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283:
279:Rudolf Virchow
250:Consul General
240:, a member of
234:British Museum
209:
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173:
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81:panel painting
15:
9:
6:
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3:
2:
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3117:Petrie Museum
3114:
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3084:
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3043:0-415-92744-7
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3019:
3017:
3016:3-7814-0423-4
3013:
3009:
3005:
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3001:88-8118-459-1
2998:
2994:
2990:
2988:
2987:3-8053-2263-1
2984:
2980:
2979:3-8053-2264-X
2976:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2953:
2945:
2943:0-7141-0989-4
2939:
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2927:3-8053-1742-5
2924:
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2789:0-237-45645-1
2785:
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2728:
2724:
2718:
2711:
2706:
2699:
2694:
2687:
2682:
2675:
2670:
2664:, p. 31.
2663:
2658:
2652:, p. 11.
2651:
2646:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2624:
2618:, p. 78.
2617:
2612:
2606:
2605:0-7478-0647-0
2602:
2598:
2592:
2585:
2580:
2573:
2568:
2561:
2556:
2548:
2547:
2539:
2533:, p. 58.
2532:
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2327:0-321-01618-1
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2055:
2048:
2046:
2038:
2033:
2025:
2024:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
1996:
1995:Petrie (1911)
1991:
1984:
1979:
1977:
1969:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1951:
1948:
1946:1-928917-06-2
1942:
1938:
1929:
1923:
1915:
1907:
1901:
1900:1-84477-008-7
1897:
1893:
1887:
1880:
1876:
1870:
1864:
1863:0-87846-661-4
1860:
1856:
1850:
1846:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1825:Coptic Museum
1823:
1821:
1818:
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1219:
1218:Byzantine art
1215:
1211:
1210:icon painting
1206:
1204:
1203:Severan Tondo
1200:
1199:wall painting
1196:
1188:
1184:
1183:Severan Tondo
1180:
1171:
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1097:Roman jewelry
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911:
908:
905:, 50–100 AD,
904:
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664:
660:
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631:
627:
625:
624:Tomb of Aline
617:Social status
614:
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328:Tomb of Aline
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267:
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235:
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227:
223:
219:
215:
214:ancient Egypt
205:
203:
199:
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187:
178:
164:
162:
157:
155:
151:
147:
146:Egyptian ones
143:
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97:
92:
90:
86:
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67:
63:
59:
52:
48:
43:
36:
32:
28:
23:
19:
3078:
3064:
3036:. New York.
3033:
3022:
3007:
2992:
2969:
2966:Barbara Borg
2933:
2918:
2915:Barbara Borg
2908:
2883:
2875:
2868:
2847:the original
2841:
2832:
2829:Bibliography
2814:. Retrieved
2807:
2798:
2779:
2770:
2762:the original
2757:
2748:
2739:
2731:the original
2726:
2717:
2705:
2693:
2681:
2669:
2657:
2650:Riggs (2005)
2645:
2629:
2623:
2611:
2596:
2591:
2579:
2567:
2555:
2544:
2538:
2515:
2511:
2478:
2474:
2464:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2420:
2400:
2393:
2350:
2346:
2318:
2313:
2294:
2288:
2279:
2270:
2258:. Retrieved
2254:
2245:
2233:. Retrieved
2229:the original
2224:
2215:
2192:
2186:
2174:
2165:
2133:
2127:
2094:
2090:
2080:
2071:
2057:
2037:Wrede (1982)
2032:
2021:
1997:, p. 1.
1990:
1936:
1932:
1913:
1906:
1891:
1886:
1869:
1854:
1849:
1830:Pitsa panels
1800:
1794:
1230:Getty Museum
1207:
1197:rather than
1192:
1152:
1148:
1104:
1084:
1078:
1075:
1066:
991:
972:
969:
944:
922:Ankyronpolis
874:
865:
816:Eton College
781:
754:such as the
741:
735:
726:
677:
654:
644:
640:
620:
603:
594:
590:
579:
575:
545:
531:
464:
445:
405:
370:
345:
332:Antinoöpolis
325:
300:
266:Egyptologist
262:
211:
183:
158:
135:
111:Antinoopolis
96:Faiyum Basin
93:
88:
61:
57:
56:
47:Antinoöpolis
27:Antinoöpolis
18:
3232:Roman Egypt
2812:(in Hebrew)
2686:Borg (1998)
2674:Borg (1998)
2662:Borg (1998)
2616:Borg (1998)
2572:Borg (1998)
2560:Borg (1998)
2531:Borg (1998)
2195:. New York.
1983:Borg (1998)
1968:Borg (1998)
907:Getty Villa
903:Herakleides
758:as well as
717:Oxyrhynchus
696:Hellenistic
558:Oxyrhynchus
554:Upper Egypt
438:painting).
307:excavations
269:Georg Ebers
139:Greco-Roman
77:Roman Egypt
70:upper class
3217:Coptic art
3161:Categories
2936:. London.
2816:3 December
2723:"Painting"
2260:16 January
2235:16 January
1841:References
1820:Coptic art
1040:(98–117).
1004:Hairstyles
953:sarcophagi
756:Parentalia
688:Alexandria
655:grammatike
646:Hairstyles
550:Nile Delta
538:Alexandria
436:cartonnage
315:necropolis
254:Henry Salt
252:to Egypt,
198:Albertinum
161:necropolis
133:in Egypt.
115:cartonnage
3197:Greek art
3052:cite book
2952:cite book
2855:cite book
2495:1096-8644
2353:: 15694.
2201:cite book
2111:0068-6735
1922:cite book
1124:carnelian
998:sculpture
709:Alexander
692:cremation
684:mummified
680:Ptolemaic
663:Cambridge
611:Greek art
570:Ptolemaic
542:Egyptians
504:Baltimore
460:gold leaf
448:encaustic
274:Ptolemaic
226:North Sea
150:encaustic
127:Byzantine
104:Hadrianic
3109:Archived
2968:(1998).
2780:The Icon
2778:(1982).
2638:Tiberius
2503:19140183
2456:16331657
2385:28556824
2119:44696684
1809:See also
1168:pendants
1160:hairnets
1144:colliers
1136:amethyst
1112:precious
1083:(plural
1072:Clothing
836:Florence
743:imagines
700:pharaohs
650:clothing
546:cleruchs
416:sycamore
305:started
246:Florence
102:and the
66:portrait
53:in 1907.
3115:in the
2809:Haaretz
2376:5459999
2355:Bibcode
1244:Gallery
1238:Mithras
1222:Serapis
1164:amulets
1156:diadems
1120:emerald
1107:wreaths
1091:Jewelry
801:Chicago
713:Karanis
562:Memphis
452:tempera
424:cypress
342:Museums
218:Saqqara
194:Memphis
190:Saqqara
154:tempera
73:mummies
3152:Flickr
3085:
3071:
3040:
3014:
2999:
2985:
2977:
2940:
2925:
2786:
2603:
2501:
2493:
2454:
2408:
2383:
2373:
2325:
2301:
2140:
2117:
2109:
2064:
1943:
1898:
1861:
1797:Judaea
1234:Malibu
1140:pearls
1128:garnet
1080:clavus
1038:Trajan
1019:chiton
938:Hawara
606:C.A.T.
566:papyri
432:citrus
430:, and
360:Louvre
354:, the
350:, the
336:Akhmim
311:Hawara
258:Archon
230:Louvre
222:Thebes
100:Hawara
31:Louvre
2115:JSTOR
1879:Cairo
1132:agate
1118:like
1085:clavi
882:Nubia
878:Delta
862:Style
534:Greek
420:cedar
144:than
109:city
107:Roman
75:from
35:Paris
3083:ISBN
3069:ISBN
3058:link
3038:ISBN
3012:ISBN
2997:ISBN
2983:ISBN
2975:ISBN
2958:link
2938:ISBN
2923:ISBN
2898:link
2861:link
2818:2022
2784:ISBN
2601:ISBN
2499:PMID
2491:ISSN
2452:PMID
2406:ISBN
2381:PMID
2323:ISBN
2299:ISBN
2262:2007
2237:2007
2207:link
2138:ISBN
2107:ISSN
2073:led.
2062:ISBN
1941:ISBN
1928:link
1896:ISBN
1859:ISBN
1226:Isis
1224:and
1216:and
1166:and
1099:and
962:The
648:and
560:and
412:lime
334:and
3150:at
2483:doi
2479:139
2444:doi
2440:129
2371:PMC
2363:doi
2099:doi
1232:at
1134:or
1114:or
880:to
715:or
428:fig
408:oak
309:at
204:).
60:or
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3050:{{
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2960:)
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2820:.
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2458:.
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2414:.
2387:.
2365::
2357::
2351:8
2307:.
2264:.
2239:.
2209:)
2146:.
2121:.
2101::
1949:.
1930:)
1189:.
818:.
637:.
522:.
506:.
200:(
192:-
37:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
