Fat Man - Knowledge

711: 645: 1474:; electrical and mechanical components for about 50 bombs were stockpiled at Kirtland Army Air Field by August 1946, but only nine plutonium cores were available. Production of the Mod 0 ended in December 1948, by which time there were still only 53 cores available. It was replaced by improved versions known as Mods 1 and 2 which contained a number of minor changes, the most important of which was that they did not charge the X-Unit firing system's capacitors until released from the aircraft. The Mod 0s were withdrawn from service between March and July 1949, and by October they had all been rebuilt as Mods 1 and 2. Some 120 Mark III Fat Man units were added to the stockpile between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the 1304: 796: 1266: 3407: 1490: 5059: 474: 710: 788: 676:

Fat Man shape to eliminate its persistent wobble until an arrangement dubbed a "California Parachute" was approved, a cubical open-rear tail box outer surface with eight radial fins inside of it, four angled at 45 degrees and four perpendicular to the line of fall holding the outer square-fin box to the bomb's rear end. In drop tests in early weeks, the Fat Man missed its target by an average of 1,857 feet (566 m), but this was halved by June as the bombardiers became more proficient with it.

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and recharging took 72 hours. The batteries had to be removed in any case after nine days or they corroded. The plutonium core could not be left in for much longer, because its heat damaged the high explosives. Replacing the core also required the bomb to be completely disassembled and reassembled. This required about 40 to 50 men and took between 56 and 72 hours, depending on the skill of the bomb assembly team, and the

1292:, the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons (2,400 L) of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live. Colonel 570: 345:. Implosion-type bombs were determined to be significantly more efficient in terms of explosive yield per unit mass of fissile material in the bomb, because compressed fissile materials react more rapidly and therefore more completely. Nonetheless, it was decided that the plutonium gun would receive the bulk of the research effort, since it was the project with the least uncertainty involved. It was assumed that the 5047: 1447: 1101: 1361: 40: 672:, range, speed, flight ceiling, and survivability. Without the availability of the B-29, dropping the bomb would likely have been impossible. However, this still constrained the bomb to a maximum length of 11 feet (3.4 m), width of 5 feet (1.5 m) and weight of 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg). Removing the bomb rails allowed a maximum width of 5.5 feet (1.7 m). 558:-produced isotopes, on which the original measurements had been made, held much lower traces of plutonium-240. Its inclusion in reactor-bred plutonium appeared unavoidable. This meant that the spontaneous fission rate of the reactor plutonium was so high that pre-detonation was highly likely and that the bomb would blow itself apart during the initial formation of 628:. The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300–450 °C (570–840 °F) range. It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with 1556:(hosting): "When are you going to show us the real thing? Surely this laboratory monstrosity is not the only type of atomic bomb we have in stockpile?" Nichols told him that better weapons would soon become available. After the "astonishingly good" results of Operation Sandstone were available, stockpiling of improved weapons began. 1439:. In November 1945, the Army Air Forces asked Los Alamos for 200 Fat Man bombs, but there were only two sets of plutonium cores and high-explosive assemblies at the time. The Army Air Forces wanted improvements to the design to make it easier to manufacture, assemble, handle, transport, and stockpile. The wartime 1481:

A nuclear strike would have been a formidable undertaking in the post-war 1940s due to the limitations of the Mark III Fat Man. The lead-acid batteries which powered the fuzing system remained charged for only 36 hours, after which they needed to be recharged. To do this meant disassembling the bomb,

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Fat Man F31 was assembled on Tinian by Project Alberta personnel, and the physics package was fully assembled and wired. It was placed inside its ellipsoidal aerodynamic bombshell, which was painted mustard yellow, and wheeled out, where it was signed by nearly 60 people, including Purnell, Brigadier

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the previous day. This covered 70% of the area over Kokura, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and repeatedly exposing the aircraft to the heavy defenses of Yahata, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb

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The result was the fission of about 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of the 6.19 kilograms (13.6 lb) of plutonium in the pit, or about 16% of the fissile material present. The detonation released the energy equivalent to the detonation of 21 kilotons of TNT or 88 terajoules. About 30% of the yield came

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was an 8.75-inch-diameter (222 mm) sphere, surrounded by a 0.125-inch-thick (3.2 mm) shell of boron-impregnated plastic. The plastic shell had a 5-inch-diameter (130 mm) cylindrical hole running through it, like the hole in a cored apple, in order to allow insertion of the pit as late

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The early Y-1222 model Fat Man was assembled with some 1,500 bolts. This was superseded by the Y-1291 design in December 1944. This redesign work was substantial, and only the Y-1222 tail design was retained. Later versions included the Y-1560, which had 72 detonators; the Y-1561, which had 32; and

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Drop tests began in March 1944 and resulted in modifications to the Silverplate aircraft due to the weight of the bomb. High-speed photographs revealed that the tail fins folded under the pressure, resulting in an erratic descent. Various combinations of stabilizer boxes and fins were tested on the

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The most significant change involved the use of an anti-jet ring within the plutonium pit, described earlier. In the Trinity Gadget, the possibility of a fine jet of neutrons going between the seams of the pit was avoided by adding some crumpled gold foil around the initiator. Additionally, in the

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Selby, Hugh D.; Hanson, Susan K.; Meininger, Daniel; Oldham, Warren J.; Kinman, William S.; Miller, Jeffrey L.; Reilly, Sean D.; Wende, Allison M.; Berger, Jennifer L.; Inglis, Jeremy; Pollington, Anthony D.; Waidmann, Christopher R.; Meade, Roger A.; Buescher, Kevin L.; Gattiker, James R.; Vander

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found a hole in the clouds. The Fat Man was dropped and exploded at 11:02 local time, following a 43-second free-fall, at an altitude of about 1,650 feet (500 m). There was poor visibility due to cloud cover, and the bomb missed its intended detonation point by almost two miles, so the damage

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into the desired shape. They found it easier to cast hemispheres than spheres. The core consisted of two hemispheres with a ring with a triangular cross-section between them to keep them aligned and prevent jets forming. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel.

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An estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed outright by the bombing at Nagasaki. A total of 60,000–80,000 fatalities resulted, including from long-term health effects, the strongest of which was leukemia with an attributable risk of 46% for bomb victims. Others died later from related blast and

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met on Guam to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with their orders and drop another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by 11 August, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying

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to implode a sphere, which he showed could not only result in a faster assembly of fissile material than was possible with the gun method, but greatly reduce the amount of material required because of the resulting higher density. The idea that, under such pressures, the plutonium metal would be

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Mitsubishi's industrial production in the city was severed by the attack; the dockyard would have produced at 80 percent of its full capacity within three to four months, the steelworks would have required a year to get back to substantial production, the electric works would have resumed some

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is credited with doing the calculations that showed how a solid subcritical sphere of plutonium could be compressed to a critical state, greatly simplifying the task, since earlier efforts had attempted the more-difficult compression of a hollow spherical shell. After Christy's report, the

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the secondary target. The weapon was already armed but with the green electrical safety plugs still engaged. Ashworth changed them to red after ten minutes so that Sweeney could climb to 17,000 feet (5,200 m) in order to get above storm clouds. During the pre-flight inspection of

1160:. The cores were transported to North Field, arriving on 2 August, when F31 was partly disassembled in order to check all its components. F33 was expended near Tinian during a final rehearsal on 8 August. F32 presumably would have been used for a third attack or its rehearsal. 822:

as possible. The missing tamper cylinder containing the pit could be slipped in through a hole in the surrounding 18.5-inch-diameter (470 mm) aluminum pusher. The pit was warm to the touch, emitting 2.4 W/kg-Pu, about 15 W for the 6.19-kilogram (13.6 lb) core.

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and his team. But Neddermeyer's efforts in July and August at imploding tubes to produce cylinders tended to produce objects that resembled rocks. Neddermeyer was the only person who believed that implosion was practical, and only his enthusiasm kept the project alive.

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was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results. At first contamination was believed to be the cause, but it was soon determined that there were multiple

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the Y-1562, which had 132. There were also the Y-1563 and Y-1564, which were practice bombs with no detonators at all. The final wartime Y-1561 design was assembled with just 90 bolts. On 16 July 1945, a Y-1561 model Fat Man, known as the Gadget, was detonated in a

566:." The distance required to accelerate the plutonium to speeds where pre--detonation would be less likely would need a gun barrel too long for any existing or planned bomber. The only way to use plutonium in a workable bomb was therefore implosion. 1344:

production within two months and been back at capacity within six months, and the arms plant would have required 15 months to return to 60 to 70 percent of former capacity. The Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works, which manufactured the

330:, who in turn assembled a special committee consisting of Lawrence, Compton, Oppenheimer, and McMillan to examine the issue. The committee concluded that any problems could be overcome simply by requiring higher purity. 427:

Neddermeyer discarded Serber and Tolman's initial concept of implosion as assembling a series of pieces in favor of one in which a hollow sphere was imploded by an explosive shell. He was assisted in this work by

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was brought in as a consultant and discussed the problem with Neddermeyer in June 1943. Thompson was skeptical that an implosion could be made sufficiently symmetric. Oppenheimer arranged for Neddermeyer and

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and was developed by von Neumann. The success of the bomb relied on absolute precision in all of the plates moving inward at the same time. To overcome the difficulty of synchronizing multiple detonations,

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gun design, and the Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized with almost all of the research focused on the problems of implosion for the Fat Man bomb. The idea of using shaped charges as three-dimensional

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Sweeney then proceeded to the alternative target of Nagasaki. It was obscured by clouds as well, and Ashworth ordered Sweeney to make a radar approach. At the last minute, however, bombardier Captain

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The impracticability of a gun-type bomb using plutonium was agreed at a meeting in Los Alamos on 17 July 1944. All gun-type work in the Manhattan Project was re-directed towards the Little Boy,

419:(Fat Man) on a secret tour of the United States. Air Forces personnel used the code names over the phone to make it sound as though they were modifying a plane for Roosevelt and Churchill. 1340:

burn injuries, and hundreds more from radiation illnesses from exposure to the bomb's initial radiation. Most of the direct deaths and injuries were among munitions or industrial workers.

520:, but they decided that an expert on explosives would be required. Kistiakowsky's name was immediately suggested, and Kistiakowsky was brought into the project as a consultant in October. 4898: 371:, a former student of Oppenheimer's who worked on the Manhattan Project. He chose them based on their design shapes; the Thin Man was a very long device, and the name came from the 2403:

It was the Battle of Kiska that would lead Time magazine to create the acronym, JANFU (joint army-navy foul-up) to complement the earlier SNAFU (situation normal, all fouled-up).

2829:. The History of Air Force Participation in the Atomic Energy Program, 1943–1953. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Air Force, Air University Historical Liaison Office. Archived from 4960: 1405:

and was placed without its tail fin assembly in a steel caisson made from a submarine's conning tower; it was detonated 90 feet (27 m) beneath the landing craft

2524: 5109: 3435: 3095: 319:, who acknowledged that their scientists at Berkeley and Chicago, respectively, knew about the problem, but they could offer no ready solution. Conant informed 2432:

It even had a code: JANCFU for "joint army navy combined foul up" which was a cousin of "SNAFU," military vernacular for "situation normal, all f***ed up."

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compressed came from Teller, whose knowledge of how dense metals behaved under heavy pressure was influenced by his pre-war theoretical studies of the

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uranium gun-type design came later and was named only to contrast with the Thin Man. Los Alamos's Thin Man and Fat Man code names were adopted by the

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in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper. It left

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The only aircraft capable of carrying the bomb were Silverplate B-29s, and the only group equipped with them was the 509th Bombardment Group at

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B-29 that dropped the original device – black liquid asphalt sealant was sprayed over the original bomb casing's seams, simulated on the mockup.

482: 1841: 4913: 2821: 1200:, and Parsons. The acronym "JANCFU" was stenciled on the bomb's nose, standing for "Joint Army-Navy-Civilian Fuckup", a play on the acronym " 1140:

on 28 July. Three Fat Man high-explosive pre-assemblies (designated F31, F32, and F33) were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B-29s:

652:(Fat Man test unit) being raised from the pit into the bomb bay of a B-29 for bombing practice during the weeks before the attack on Nagasaki 979:-plastic shell intended to prevent pre-detonation of the bomb by stray neutrons. The shock-wave reaches the center of the bomb, where the... 3037: 2444: 692:" test. It gave a yield of about 25 kilotonnes (100 TJ). Some minor changes were made to the design as a result of the Trinity test. 5099: 4478: 4340: 3428: 704:

The bomb was 128.375 inches (3.2607 m) long and 60.25 inches (153.0 cm) in diameter. It weighed 10,265 pounds (4,656 kg).

1571:, who provided them with secret information concerning the Manhattan Project and Fat Man. It was detonated on 29 August 1949 as part of 1042:). A fission chain reaction then begins. The tendency of the fissioning pit to blow itself apart prematurely is reduced by the inward 5094: 4805: 3387:, 2003 (first printed in 1996, self-published), considered a definitive text about Fat Man; illustrations from which are used in the 1435:, which was much longer but not as wide as the Fat Man. The only American bombers that could carry the Fat Man were the B-29 and the 499:

to Los Alamos in September to take a fresh look at implosion. After reviewing Neddermeyer's studies, and discussing the matter with

450: 3421: 960:"pusher" transfers the imploding shock-wave from the low-density explosive to the high-density uranium, minimizing undesirable 4229: 3749: 3286: 3224: 3197: 3163: 3137: 3076: 3023: 2988: 2966: 2858: 1192:

conditions on that day due to a storm and asked if the bomb could be made ready by 9 August. Parsons agreed to try to do so.

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Oppenheimer reviewed his options in early 1943 and gave priority to the gun-type weapon, but he created the E-5 Group at the

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visited Sandia and Los Alamos to be shown the "special requirements" of atomic weapons. Gruenther asked Brigadier General

1483: 197:, and its detonation marked the third nuclear explosion in history. The first one was built by scientists and engineers at 2699: 2521: 644: 3803: 446: 3776: 3797: 3781: 2387: 4358: 3791: 3310: 3256: 3102: 2936: 324: 1245: 854:

in each of the 32 tapered high-explosive columns (positioned around the explosive material at the face centers of a

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The first plutonium core was transported with its polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator in the custody of

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recalled that "There were some changes of importance... The fundamental thing was, of course, very much the same."

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to collect the bombs and then to an overseas base from which a strike could be mounted. In March 1948, during the

660:. The only Allied aircraft considered capable of carrying the Fat Man without major modification were the British 4333: 2983:. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, California: Chukelea Publications. 2851:

The Silverplate Bombers: A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B-29s Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs

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was monitoring Japanese communications, and he reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands.

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Trinity Gadget, the pit was electroplated with silver, whereas with the later Fat Man bombs, nickel was used.

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The Mark III Mod 0 Fat Man was ordered into production in mid-1946. High explosives were manufactured by the

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Nuke-Rebuke: Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons (The Contemporary anthology series)

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The explosion symmetrically compressed the plutonium to twice its normal density before the "Urchin" added

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The size of the bomb was constrained by the available aircraft, which were investigated for suitability by

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The name Fat Man refers to the early design of the bomb because it had a wide, round shape. Fat Man was an

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The Los Alamos Laboratory and the Army Air Forces had already commenced work on improving the design. The

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on 9 August 1945. It was the second of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in warfare, the first being

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design in which two sub-critical masses would be brought together by firing a "bullet" into a "target".

272:, in July, at which various engineers and physicists discussed nuclear bomb design issues. They chose a 5037: 5026: 4326: 4281: 3766: 3359: 1467: 775:

Cross section of the Fat Man "physics package". See description and colors in this section for details.

563: 3372: 3348: 5063: 5051: 4908: 4903: 4276: 2571:"United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (Pacific War) The Effects of the Atomic Bombs" 1153: 665: 210: 2522:

Columbia university center for nuclear studies: Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Long Term Health Effects

668:. At the time, the B-29 represented the epitome of bomber technology with significant advantages in 4990: 4523: 4382: 4271: 4266: 3541: 2250: 1833: 657: 20: 3632: 2830: 4985: 4882: 4437: 4256: 3479: 3010: 2764: 1489: 1178: 1121: 818: 681: 625: 364: 273: 238: 4764: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4397: 4297: 4261: 1459: 1349: 929:, 30% TNT). The 32 waves then merge into a single spherical implosive shock-wave which hits the 833: 689: 669: 532: 458: 408: 234: 2445:"Bockscar … The Forgotten Plane That Dropped The Atomic Bomb « A Little Touch of History" 2215: 1559:

The Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon was based closely on Fat Man's design thanks to spies

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Fat Man on its transport carriage, with liquid asphalt sealant applied over the casing's seams

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Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945

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in 1946, and some 120 were produced between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the

2741: 2001: 4739: 4563: 4533: 4473: 3300: 3126: 3065: 3060: 3006: 2803: 2023: 1987: 1229: 1174: 1167: 412: 386: 265: 1789: 1454:, 49-kilotons; utilized a newly designed 'levitated-pit' to increase yield efficiency. 1039: 998:"Urchin" is crushed, pushing the two metals together and thereby releasing a burst of 524: 4954: 4943: 4850: 4709: 4704: 4654: 4503: 4498: 4488: 4349: 3401: 3316: 3306: 3282: 3262: 3252: 3246: 3230: 3220: 3203: 3193: 3186: 3169: 3159: 3133: 3082: 3072: 3029: 3019: 2994: 2984: 2962: 2942: 2932: 2908: 2889: 2881: 2864: 2854: 2362: 2027: 2015: 1549: 1432: 1220: 1215: 1197: 1148: 1063: 632:, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon a 437: 416: 320: 277: 4754: 2925: 2795: 1861: 1859: 1740: 1738: 1701: 1699: 516:. The prospect of more-efficient nuclear weapons impressed Oppenheimer, Teller, and 4975: 4774: 4759: 4724: 4699: 4553: 4508: 4025: 4000: 3995: 3970: 3944: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3878: 3693: 3551: 3364: 3152: 3056: 2954: 2902: 2749: 2745: 2186: 2005: 1568: 1545: 1502: 1401:; it missed its aim point by 710 yards (650 m). The second bomb was nicknamed 1332: 1117: 1070:

are produced, the tamper itself undergoes fission, accounting for up to 30% of the

815: 578: 496: 372: 338: 308: 2010: 1975: 4980: 4820: 4784: 4714: 4649: 4639: 4614: 4513: 4493: 4468: 3688: 3546: 3274: 3147: 2907:. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 2528: 2503: 1856: 1777: 1735: 1696: 1553: 1526: 1345: 1316: 1113: 898: 851: 830: 693: 527:

and his P-5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor-produced plutonium from the

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test, and the military teams were not yet qualified to assemble atomic weapons.

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Kokura was obscured by clouds and drifting smoke from fires started by a major

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The implosion project remained a backup until April 1944, when experiments by

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3. Plate with batteries (to detonate charge surrounding nuclear components)

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back into the pit, accelerating the chain reaction. If and when sufficient

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This article is about the World War II nuclear weapon. For other uses, see

3410:– Biographical film about the life and times of physicist Raemer Schreiber 2946: 2570: 4825: 4779: 4744: 4719: 4664: 4568: 4558: 4442: 3683: 1560: 1522: 1494: 1325: 1312: 1181: 859: 404: 296: 3394: 3217:

Project Alberta: The Preparation of Atomic Bombs For Use in World War II

964:. The shock-wave then compresses the inner components, passing through a 874: 569: 550:. This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate and radioactivity than 4928: 4872: 4609: 4599: 4528: 3473: 3335: 2885: 1509:" (above), which closely resembled Fat Man, even in its external shape. 1406: 1269: 961: 685: 517: 462: 396: 342: 242: 194: 4970: 4836: 4604: 4407: 3101:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. p. 16. LA-8819. Archived from 1976:"A New Yield Assessment for the Trinity Nuclear Test, 75 Years Later" 991: 902: 771: 604: 555: 536: 288: 202: 182: 145: 4318: 3248:

Peace & War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science

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Baker, Richard D.; Hecker, Siegfried S.; Harbur, Delbert R. (1983).

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Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki § Bombing of Nagasaki

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was 3.62 inches (92 mm) in diameter and contained an "Urchin"

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Small-scale slow-motion cut-away of shaped-charge implosion device.

487: 407:. A cover story was devised that Silverplate was about modifying a 214: 2765:"Section 8.1.1 The Design of Gadget, Fat Man, and "Joe 1" (RDS-1)" 2388:"World War II: the battle for Kiska (pt 2). - Free Online Library" 1801: 1258: 1250: 5000: 3385:

Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man

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War's End: An Eyewitness Account of America's Last Atomic Mission

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Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man

1462:, which had been established by the Manhattan Project as part of 1412:. The two weapons yielded about 23 kilotonnes (96 TJ) each. 1059: 1035: 999: 544: 346: 2664: 1446: 1254:

Detonation of the Mark III 'Fat Man' and ensuing mushroom cloud.

367:" and "Fat Man", respectively. These code names were created by 4386: 2085: 2083: 1280: 1100: 1019: 799:

Preserved Tinian "bomb pit#2", where Fat Man was loaded aboard

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Fat Man's "physics package" nuclear device about to be encased

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to investigate implosion as a hedge against the threat of pre-

3980: 3096:"The yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear explosions" 2559:. The Spirit That Moves Us Press. 1 May 1984. pp. 22–29. 2534: 1572: 1506: 1390: 1236:

from Project Alberta as the weaponeer in charge of the bomb.

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7. Plate with instruments (radars, baroswitches, and timers)

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Memoirs: A Twentieth-Century Journey in Science and Politics

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Essay and interview with John Coster-Mullen, the author of

2796:"Plutonium: A Wartime Nightmare but a Metallurgist's Dream" 2613: 2331: 2230: 2166: 2154: 2122: 2107: 2095: 2068: 2046: 1922: 1125: 719: 1972: 1648: 1132:'s 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on 26 July and arrived at 39: 4235: 4212: 4161: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4120: 4110: 4105: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4060: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4010: 4005: 3755: 3734: 3729: 3662: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3617: 3607: 3273: 2681: 2679: 2652: 2601: 2589: 2509: 2497: 2464: 2462: 2277: 2204: 2139: 1871: 1711: 1372:

After the war, two Y-1561 Fat Man bombs were used in the

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in their involvement in the Manhattan Project, codenamed

3018:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 2481: 2479: 2477: 2307: 2297: 2295: 1944: 1942: 1898: 858:, a geometry popularly known from the pattern of common 363:

The gun-type and implosion-type designs were codenamed "

1624: 1443:

was continued, and drop tests resumed in January 1946.

543:

showed that it contained impurities in the form of the

307:

had "concluded that plutonium might not be a practical

2927:

Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

2853:. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. 2676: 2459: 737:

5. Hinge fixing the two ellipsoidal parts of the bomb

503:, von Neumann suggested the use of high explosives in 5035: 2640: 2628: 2474: 2417:"The harrowing story of the Nagasaki bombing mission" 2319: 2292: 1954: 1939: 1910: 1886: 1470:. Mechanical components were made or procured by the 1163:

On 7 August, the day after the bombing of Hiroshima,

311:

for weapons because of impurities". Conant consulted

3277:; Antonucci, James A.; Antonucci, Marion K. (1997). 1672: 1612: 1336:

was somewhat less extensive than that in Hiroshima.

612:

solid-plutonium core weapon was referred to as the "

385:. The Fat Man was round and fat and was named after 2265: 1974:Wiel, Scott A.; Marcy, Peter W. (11 October 2021). 3396:The Half-Life of Genius Physicist Raemer Schreiber 3185: 3151: 3125: 3064: 2924: 1660: 814:that was 0.8 inches (20 mm) in diameter. The 268:held conferences in Chicago in June 1942, and in 3443: 3355:Video footage of the bombing of Nagasaki (silent) 2959:Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire 2793: 1819: 1062:"tamper" (inertial confinement). The tamper also 5071: 3305:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Publishing. 3005: 1807: 1307:Effects of the Fat Man's detonation on Nagasaki 349:gun-type bomb could be easily adapted from it. 5110:World War II aerial bombs of the United States 1246:Weather events during wars § World War II 483:National Museum of the United States Air Force 284:, but the proposal attracted little interest. 4334: 3429: 3219:. Los Alamos, New Mexico: Exceptional Books. 2875: 2622: 2583: 2337: 2236: 2172: 2160: 2133: 2116: 2101: 2089: 2074: 2052: 1933: 1840:. Restricted Data: The Nuclear Secrecy Blog. 1771: 415:(Thin Man) and United Kingdom Prime Minister 3241: 3128:Robert Oppenheimer: A Life Inside the Center 2573:. U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey. p. 24. 1654: 1478:. The Mark III Fat Man was retired in 1950. 636:, which stabilized the δ phase and could be 237:less than a month earlier on 16 July at the 191:detonated over the Japanese city of Nagasaki 16:U.S. atomic bomb type used at Nagasaki, 1945 2447:. Awesometalks.wordpress.com. 7 August 2008 2352: 2248: 2213: 2178: 1279:lifted off at 03:47 on 9 August 1945, with 1104:Mushroom cloud after Fat Man exploded over 449:'s Explosives Research Laboratory near the 5090:Cold War aerial bombs of the United States 4341: 4327: 3436: 3422: 3405: 2901:Craven, Wesley; Cate, James, eds. (1953). 2900: 2540: 873:The detonation wave (arrows) is initially 5115:Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1945 5105:World War II weapons of the United States 5080:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 2880:. Waukesha, Wisconsin: J. Coster-Mullen. 2009: 1991: 1466:, and a new plant was established at the 1431:bombers had bomb bays sized to carry the 749:tail assembly (0.20-inch aluminum sheet) 3158:. New York: William Morrow and Company. 3071:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2848: 2762: 2723: 2468: 2286: 2184: 1904: 1488: 1445: 1359: 1302: 1264: 1257: 1249: 1214:after the plane's command pilot Captain 1099: 794: 786: 778: 770: 643: 568: 472: 3349:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb 3251:. New York: Columbia University Press. 3146: 3059:; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; 2700:"Spies Who Spilled Atomic Bomb Secrets" 2685: 2670: 2510:Sweeney, Antonucci & Antonucci 1997 2498:Sweeney, Antonucci & Antonucci 1997 2414: 2187:"Section 8.0 The First Nuclear Weapons" 1831: 1630: 1618: 1380:in the Pacific. The first was known as 1355: 739:6. Physics package (see details below) 5072: 3295: 3180: 2981:Volume V: US Nuclear Weapons Histories 2975: 2919: 2698:Holmes, Marian Smith (19 April 2009). 2697: 2658: 2646: 2634: 2607: 2595: 2551: 2549: 2485: 2325: 2249:Wellerstein, Alex (23 December 2013). 2214:Wellerstein, Alex (10 November 2014). 2148: 1960: 1948: 1916: 1892: 1880: 1717: 1678: 1296:and Sweeney therefore elected to have 1084: 4348: 4322: 3417: 3093: 3043:from the original on 27 February 2012 2953: 2823:Vol. I, Project Silverplate 1943–1946 2819: 2348: 2346: 2313: 2271: 1666: 1324:was getting close; Second Lieutenant 245:. Two more were detonated during the 3388: 3214: 3120: 2301: 1484:Armed Forces Special Weapons Project 1081:from fission of the uranium tamper. 735:a firing set placed near the charge 239:Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range 44:Replica of the original Fat Man bomb 3804:Tactical Atomic Demolition Munition 3371:Samuels, David (23 January 2009) . 2904:The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki 2546: 2353:Wellerstein, Alex (7 August 2015). 1486:had only three teams in June 1948. 447:National Defense Research Committee 257:. The Fat Man was retired in 1950. 13: 5100:Nuclear bombs of the United States 4806:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 3798:Special Atomic Demolition Munition 3192:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 2343: 1521:. They would first have to fly to 1493:Espionage information procured by 1272:of Fat Man Atomic bomb in Nagasaki 260: 14: 5126: 3792:Medium Atomic Demolition Munition 3342: 2730:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2421:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2415:Gaulkin, Thomas (5 August 2022). 1844:from the original on 7 April 2014 1529:, all the assembly teams were in 1152:from the 509th Composite Group's 941:inner charges' faster explosive ( 5095:History of the Manhattan Project 5057: 5045: 5022: 5021: 3375:. A Reporter at Large (column). 3132:. New York; Toronto: Doubleday. 1505:led to the first Soviet device " 1208:of the B-29 Superfortress named 754: 709: 38: 2763:Sublette, Carey (3 July 2007). 2756: 2717: 2691: 2563: 2515: 2437: 2408: 2380: 2242: 2185:Sublette, Carey (3 July 2007). 2058: 1966: 1825: 1820:Baker, Hecker & Harbur 1983 1395:and it was dropped by the B-29 1388:'s character in the 1946 movie 1158:216th Army Air Forces Base Unit 601:exploding-bridgewire detonators 295:, the director of the British " 3094:Malik, John (September 1985). 2750:10.1080/00963402.1993.11456340 1352:, was destroyed in the blast. 1224:with his crew on the mission. 1204:". It was then wheeled to the 848:exploding-bridgewire detonator 718:1. One of four AN 219 contact 422: 97: 1: 3445:United States nuclear devices 3188:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 3009:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 2849:Campbell, Richard H. (2005). 2786: 2726:"Soviet Scientists Speak Out" 2011:10.1080/00295450.2021.1932176 1239: 1232:and his crew, with Commander 1095: 465:suburb), where they spoke to 401:United States Army Air Forces 291:bomb was questioned in 1942. 282:implosion-type nuclear weapon 227:implosion-type nuclear weapon 116:10,300 pounds (4,670 kg) 4966:Oppenheimer security hearing 4156:Reliable Replacement Warhead 3245:; Crease, Robert P. (1998). 2876:Coster-Mullen, John (2012). 1315:raid by 224 B-29s on nearby 716:Fat Man external schematic. 603:to replace the less precise 7: 3329: 1808:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1573:Operation "First Lightning" 1417:North American B-45 Tornado 812:modulated neutron initiator 766: 699: 10: 5131: 2961:. New York: Random House. 1468:Iowa Army Ammunition Plant 1283:as the primary target and 1243: 1128:transport aircraft of the 1088: 761:Fat Man internal schematic 389:'s character in Hammett's 356: 18: 5019: 4909:Bismuth phosphate process 4904:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 4891: 4860: 4793: 4582: 4451: 4365: 4356: 4290: 4249: 4222: 4185: 4174: 3953: 3937: 3826: 3817: 3765: 3702: 3671: 3560: 3464: 3451: 2673:, pp. 260, 264, 265. 1154:393d Bombardment Squadron 666:Boeing B-29 Superfortress 352: 211:Boeing B-29 Superfortress 209:and was dropped from the 159: 151: 141: 136: 128: 120: 112: 107: 96: 88: 78: 73: 66:Place of origin 65: 49: 37: 30: 3215:Russ, Harlow W. (1990). 3012:The New World, 1939–1946 2807:(Winter/Spring): 142–151 2724:Holloway, David (1993). 2512:, pp. 179, 213–215. 1798:, pp. 293, 307–308. 1655:Serber & Crease 1998 1578: 850:simultaneously starts a 359:Little Boy § Naming 21:Fat Man (disambiguation) 4986:S-1 Executive Committee 4934:Einstein–Szilard letter 2251:"Kilotons per kilogram" 2216:"The Fat Man's Uranium" 1156:, and another from the 1122:Kirtland Army Air Field 634:plutonium–gallium alloy 626:allotropes of plutonium 229:with a solid plutonium 124:128 inches (3.3 m) 4428:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 3367:in QuickTime VR format 3061:Westfall, Catherine L. 2541:Craven & Cate 1953 2392:www.thefreelibrary.com 2355:"What About Nagasaki?" 1548:and Brigadier General 1540:In June 1948, General 1510: 1460:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 1455: 1369: 1350:attack on Pearl Harbor 1308: 1300:continue the mission. 1273: 1262: 1255: 1109: 803: 792: 784: 776: 743:8. Barotube collector 670:maximum takeoff weight 653: 574: 492: 459:Bruceton, Pennsylvania 132:60 inches (1.5 m) 5006:X-10 Graphite Reactor 4961:Nobel Prize laureates 4831:509th Composite Group 1515:Walker Air Force Base 1492: 1449: 1429:Boeing B-47 Stratojet 1363: 1306: 1268: 1261: 1253: 1234:Frederick L. Ashworth 1130:509th Composite Group 1103: 856:truncated icosahedron 798: 790: 782: 774: 647: 572: 529:X-10 Graphite Reactor 476: 411:for use by President 357:Further information: 335:Los Alamos Laboratory 287:The feasibility of a 199:Los Alamos Laboratory 83:Los Alamos Laboratory 4914:British contribution 4816:Operation Peppermint 4811:Operation Crossroads 4670:Maria Goeppert Mayer 3281:. Quill Publishing. 2931:. New York: Harper. 2527:23 July 2015 at the 2041:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1866:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1796:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1784:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1760:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1745:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1730:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1706:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1691:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1643:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1607:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1592:Hoddeson et al. 1993 1374:Operation Crossroads 1356:Post-war development 747:California Parachute 684:at a remote site in 658:Norman Foster Ramsey 495:Oppenheimer brought 477:Replica mockup of a 328:Leslie R. Groves Jr. 309:fissionable material 303:on 14 November that 270:Berkeley, California 247:Operation Crossroads 235:Trinity nuclear test 205:manufactured at the 4675:George Kistiakowsky 4630:Charles Critchfield 3154:The Road to Trinity 3148:Nichols, Kenneth D. 3108:on 27 February 2008 3007:Hewlett, Richard G. 2836:on 22 February 2014 2820:Bowen, Lee (1959). 2769:Nuclear Weapons FAQ 2742:1993BuAtS..49d..18H 2661:, pp. 147–149. 2610:, pp. 142–145. 2598:, pp. 137–142. 2543:, pp. 723–725. 2500:, pp. 204–205. 2316:, pp. 283–284. 2191:Nuclear Weapons FAQ 2151:, pp. 122–123. 2002:2021NucTe.207S.321S 1883:, pp. 119–120. 1868:, pp. 380–383. 1832:Wellerstein, Alex. 1822:, pp. 144–145. 1810:, pp. 244–245. 1786:, pp. 270–271. 1747:, pp. 240–244. 1720:, pp. 174–176. 1708:, pp. 130–133. 1535:Operation Sandstone 1519:Roswell, New Mexico 1476:Mark 4 nuclear bomb 1472:Rock Island Arsenal 1228:was flown by Major 1085:Bombing of Nagasaki 1002:into the compressed 956:The medium-density 607:detonation system. 467:George Kistiakowsky 436:, and John Streib. 434:Charles Critchfield 301:James Bryant Conant 255:Mark 4 nuclear bomb 152:Filling weight 5064:History of science 5052:Nuclear technology 4740:Henry DeWolf Smyth 4519:Robert Oppenheimer 4474:Priscilla Duffield 2804:Los Alamos Science 2623:Coster-Mullen 2012 2584:Coster-Mullen 2012 2531:, updated 7/3/2014 2338:Coster-Mullen 2012 2237:Coster-Mullen 2012 2173:Coster-Mullen 2012 2161:Coster-Mullen 2012 2134:Coster-Mullen 2012 2117:Coster-Mullen 2012 2102:Coster-Mullen 2012 2090:Coster-Mullen 2012 2075:Coster-Mullen 2012 2053:Coster-Mullen 2012 1980:Nuclear Technology 1934:Coster-Mullen 2012 1772:Coster-Mullen 2012 1511: 1456: 1370: 1322:anti-aircraft fire 1309: 1274: 1263: 1256: 1230:Charles W. Sweeney 1175:William S. Parsons 1168:William R. Purnell 1110: 921:slower explosive ( 889:faster explosive ( 804: 793: 785: 777: 654: 575: 493: 413:Franklin Roosevelt 392:The Maltese Falcon 387:Sydney Greenstreet 266:Robert Oppenheimer 189:the United States 74:Production history 5033: 5032: 4955:Los Alamos Primer 4944:Interim Committee 4899:African Americans 4851:The Great Artiste 4710:Isidor Isaac Rabi 4705:Norman Ramsey Jr. 4504:Franklin Matthias 4443:Heavy water sites 4350:Manhattan Project 4316: 4315: 4245: 4244: 4170: 4169: 3813: 3812: 3767:Atomic demolition 3288:978-0-380-78874-3 3226:978-0-944482-01-8 3199:978-0-684-81378-3 3165:978-0-688-06910-0 3139:978-0-385-50407-2 3078:978-0-521-44132-2 3057:Hoddeson, Lillian 3025:978-0-520-07186-5 2990:978-0-9791915-0-3 2968:978-0-679-41424-7 2955:Frank, Richard B. 2860:978-0-7864-2139-8 2586:, pp. 84–85. 2304:, pp. 64–65. 2289:, pp. 38–40. 2253:. Restricted Data 2218:. Restricted Data 1986:(sup1): 321–325. 1693:, pp. 86–90. 1633:, pp. 64–65. 1594:, pp. 42–44. 1550:Anthony McAuliffe 1376:nuclear tests at 1346:Type 91 torpedoes 1221:The Great Artiste 1216:Frederick C. Bock 1198:Thomas F. Farrell 1064:reflects neutrons 1024:delta-phase alloy 664:and the American 597:Lawrence Johnston 481:displayed in the 438:L. T. E. Thompson 417:Winston Churchill 325:Brigadier General 321:Manhattan Project 278:Richard C. Tolman 249:nuclear tests at 218:piloted by Major 177:" (also known as 171: 170: 5122: 5062: 5061: 5060: 5050: 5049: 5048: 5041: 5025: 5024: 4976:Quebec Agreement 4760:John von Neumann 4700:George B. Pegram 4509:Dorothy McKibbin 4343: 4336: 4329: 4320: 4319: 4183: 4182: 3824: 3823: 3462: 3461: 3438: 3431: 3424: 3415: 3414: 3409: 3382: 3356: 3324: 3292: 3275:Sweeney, Charles 3270: 3238: 3211: 3191: 3177: 3157: 3143: 3131: 3117: 3115: 3113: 3107: 3100: 3090: 3070: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3042: 3017: 3002: 2972: 2950: 2930: 2916: 2897: 2872: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2835: 2828: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2800: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2721: 2715: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2695: 2689: 2683: 2674: 2668: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2620: 2611: 2605: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2574: 2567: 2561: 2560: 2553: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2519: 2513: 2507: 2501: 2495: 2489: 2483: 2472: 2466: 2457: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2429: 2427: 2412: 2406: 2405: 2400: 2398: 2384: 2378: 2377: 2375: 2373: 2350: 2341: 2335: 2329: 2323: 2317: 2311: 2305: 2299: 2290: 2284: 2275: 2269: 2263: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2246: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2227: 2225: 2223: 2211: 2202: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2164: 2158: 2152: 2146: 2137: 2131: 2120: 2114: 2105: 2099: 2093: 2087: 2078: 2072: 2066: 2062: 2056: 2050: 2044: 2038: 2032: 2031: 2013: 1995: 1970: 1964: 1958: 1952: 1946: 1937: 1931: 1920: 1914: 1908: 1907:, pp. 8–10. 1902: 1896: 1890: 1884: 1878: 1869: 1863: 1854: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1834:"You don't know 1829: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1793: 1787: 1781: 1775: 1769: 1763: 1757: 1748: 1742: 1733: 1727: 1721: 1715: 1709: 1703: 1694: 1688: 1682: 1676: 1670: 1664: 1658: 1652: 1646: 1640: 1634: 1628: 1622: 1616: 1610: 1604: 1595: 1589: 1569:David Greenglass 1546:Alfred Gruenther 1544:, Major General 1503:David Greenglass 1348:released in the 1333:Kermit K. Beahan 1118:Raemer Schreiber 1108:on 9 August 1945 1075: 1055: 1047: 1011: 1003: 987: 980: 973: 965: 953: 946: 938: 930: 918: 910: 886: 878: 870: 863: 843: 816:depleted uranium 758: 713: 688:, known as the " 619:The task of the 584:explosive lenses 579:enriched uranium 497:John von Neumann 383:series of movies 375:detective novel 373:Dashiell Hammett 339:Seth Neddermeyer 299:" project, told 185:for the type of 160:Blast yield 99: 42: 33: 28: 27: 5130: 5129: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5121: 5120: 5119: 5070: 5069: 5068: 5058: 5056: 5046: 5044: 5036: 5034: 5029: 5015: 4981:RaLa Experiment 4887: 4856: 4821:Project Alberta 4789: 4785:Chien-Shiung Wu 4715:James Rainwater 4650:Richard Feynman 4640:John R. Dunning 4615:Norris Bradbury 4578: 4564:Stafford Warren 4534:William Purnell 4514:Kenneth Nichols 4494:Ernest Lawrence 4469:James B. Conant 4447: 4361: 4352: 4347: 4317: 4312: 4286: 4241: 4218: 4177: 4166: 3949: 3933: 3809: 3768: 3761: 3698: 3667: 3556: 3456: 3454: 3447: 3442: 3389:Physics Package 3370: 3354: 3345: 3332: 3327: 3313: 3289: 3259: 3227: 3200: 3182:Rhodes, Richard 3166: 3140: 3111: 3109: 3105: 3098: 3079: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3026: 3015: 2991: 2969: 2939: 2861: 2839: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2810: 2808: 2798: 2789: 2784: 2783: 2773: 2771: 2761: 2757: 2722: 2718: 2708: 2706: 2696: 2692: 2684: 2677: 2669: 2665: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2621: 2614: 2606: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2582: 2578: 2569: 2568: 2564: 2555: 2554: 2547: 2539: 2535: 2529:Wayback Machine 2520: 2516: 2508: 2504: 2496: 2492: 2484: 2475: 2467: 2460: 2450: 2448: 2443: 2442: 2438: 2425: 2423: 2413: 2409: 2396: 2394: 2386: 2385: 2381: 2371: 2369: 2351: 2344: 2336: 2332: 2324: 2320: 2312: 2308: 2300: 2293: 2285: 2278: 2270: 2266: 2256: 2254: 2247: 2243: 2235: 2231: 2221: 2219: 2212: 2205: 2195: 2193: 2183: 2179: 2171: 2167: 2159: 2155: 2147: 2140: 2132: 2123: 2115: 2108: 2100: 2096: 2088: 2081: 2073: 2069: 2063: 2059: 2051: 2047: 2039: 2035: 1971: 1967: 1959: 1955: 1947: 1940: 1932: 1923: 1915: 1911: 1903: 1899: 1891: 1887: 1879: 1872: 1864: 1857: 1847: 1845: 1830: 1826: 1818: 1814: 1806: 1802: 1794: 1790: 1782: 1778: 1770: 1766: 1758: 1751: 1743: 1736: 1728: 1724: 1716: 1712: 1704: 1697: 1689: 1685: 1677: 1673: 1665: 1661: 1653: 1649: 1641: 1637: 1629: 1625: 1617: 1613: 1605: 1598: 1590: 1586: 1581: 1554:Kenneth Nichols 1527:Berlin Blockade 1403:Helen of Bikini 1358: 1248: 1242: 1114:Project Alberta 1098: 1093: 1087: 1076: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1013: 1009: 1005: 989: 985: 981: 975: 971: 967: 955: 951: 947: 940: 936: 932: 920: 916: 912: 888: 884: 880: 872: 868: 864: 852:detonation wave 845: 841: 769: 762: 759: 750: 744: 742: 740: 738: 736: 730: 728: 722: 717: 714: 702: 694:Philip Morrison 630:alpha particles 525:Emilio G. Segrè 455:Bureau of Mines 425: 361: 355: 313:Ernest Lawrence 263: 261:Early decisions 220:Charles Sweeney 137: 45: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5128: 5118: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5067: 5066: 5054: 5031: 5030: 5020: 5017: 5016: 5014: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4924:Chicago Pile-1 4921: 4919:Calutron Girls 4916: 4911: 4906: 4901: 4895: 4893: 4892:Related topics 4889: 4888: 4886: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4857: 4855: 4854: 4847: 4840: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4797: 4795: 4791: 4790: 4788: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4755:Stanisław Ulam 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4690:Edwin McMillan 4687: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4635:Harry Daghlian 4632: 4627: 4625:John Cockcroft 4622: 4620:James Chadwick 4617: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4586: 4584: 4580: 4579: 4577: 4576: 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3077: 3053: 3024: 3003: 2989: 2973: 2967: 2951: 2937: 2921:Groves, Leslie 2917: 2898: 2873: 2859: 2846: 2817: 2790: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2781: 2755: 2716: 2690: 2688:, p. 264. 2675: 2663: 2651: 2649:, p. 150. 2639: 2637:, p. 143. 2627: 2612: 2600: 2588: 2576: 2562: 2545: 2533: 2514: 2502: 2490: 2488:, p. 740. 2473: 2458: 2436: 2407: 2379: 2359:The New Yorker 2342: 2330: 2328:, p. 342. 2318: 2306: 2291: 2276: 2264: 2241: 2229: 2203: 2177: 2165: 2153: 2138: 2121: 2106: 2094: 2092:, p. 186. 2079: 2067: 2057: 2045: 2043:, p. 377. 2033: 1965: 1963:, p. 127. 1953: 1951:, p. 121. 1938: 1921: 1919:, p. 131. 1909: 1897: 1895:, p. 254. 1885: 1870: 1855: 1824: 1812: 1800: 1788: 1776: 1774:, p. 110. 1764: 1762:, p. 163. 1749: 1734: 1732:, p. 228. 1722: 1710: 1695: 1683: 1681:, p. 481. 1671: 1659: 1657:, p. 104. 1647: 1635: 1623: 1611: 1596: 1583: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1368:, 23-kilotons. 1357: 1354: 1320:run, Japanese 1241: 1238: 1149:Laggin' Dragon 1143:Luke the Spook 1097: 1094: 1089:Main article: 1086: 1083: 1078: 1077: 1072:weapon's yield 1052: 1050: 1038:(96%–1%–3% by 1008: 1006: 984: 982: 970: 968: 950: 948: 935: 933: 927:barium nitrate 915: 913: 883: 881: 867: 865: 840: 834:chain reaction 829:to initiate a 768: 765: 764: 763: 760: 753: 751: 727:radar antenna 715: 708: 701: 698: 682:test explosion 662:Avro Lancaster 614:Christy Gadget 609:Robert Christy 562:, creating a " 505:shaped charges 443:Edwin McMillan 424: 421: 354: 351: 317:Arthur Compton 305:James Chadwick 262: 259: 187:nuclear weapon 169: 168: 161: 157: 156: 153: 149: 148: 143: 139: 138: 134: 133: 130: 126: 125: 122: 118: 117: 114: 110: 109: 108:Specifications 105: 104: 101: 94: 93: 90: 86: 85: 80: 76: 75: 71: 70: 67: 63: 62: 51: 47: 46: 43: 35: 34: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5127: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5077: 5075: 5065: 5055: 5053: 5043: 5042: 5039: 5028: 5018: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4956: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4939:Franck Report 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4896: 4894: 4890: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4859: 4853: 4852: 4848: 4846: 4845: 4841: 4839: 4838: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4801:Alsos Mission 4799: 4798: 4796: 4792: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4775:Robert Wilson 4773: 4771: 4770:Eugene Wigner 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4750:Edward Teller 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4725:Glenn Seaborg 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4695:Mark Oliphant 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4685:Willard Libby 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4595:Robert Bacher 4593: 4591: 4588: 4587: 4585: 4581: 4575: 4574:Roscoe Wilson 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4489:John Lansdale 4487: 4485: 4484:Leslie Groves 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4459:Vannevar Bush 4457: 4456: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4388: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4370: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4344: 4339: 4337: 4332: 4330: 4325: 4324: 4321: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4295: 4293: 4289: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4248: 4237: 4234: 4231: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4190: 4188: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4173: 4163: 4160: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3958: 3956: 3952: 3946: 3943: 3942: 3940: 3936: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3831: 3829: 3827:Gravity bombs 3825: 3822: 3820: 3819:Thermonuclear 3816: 3805: 3802: 3799: 3796: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3764: 3757: 3754: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3705: 3701: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3566: 3565: 3563: 3559: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3523: 3520: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3510: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3500: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3487: 3484: 3481: 3478: 3475: 3472: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3466:Gravity bombs 3463: 3460: 3458: 3450: 3446: 3439: 3434: 3432: 3427: 3425: 3420: 3419: 3416: 3408: 3403: 3399: 3397: 3393: 3390: 3386: 3380: 3379: 3374: 3369: 3366: 3365:Fat Man Model 3363: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3346: 3337: 3334: 3333: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3312:9780738205328 3308: 3304: 3303: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3258:9780231105460 3254: 3250: 3249: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3222: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3195: 3190: 3189: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3156: 3155: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3135: 3130: 3129: 3123: 3119: 3104: 3097: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3074: 3069: 3068: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3021: 3014: 3013: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2977:Hansen, Chuck 2974: 2970: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2938:0-306-70738-1 2934: 2929: 2928: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2905: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2856: 2852: 2847: 2832: 2825: 2824: 2818: 2806: 2805: 2797: 2792: 2791: 2770: 2766: 2759: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2720: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2687: 2682: 2680: 2672: 2667: 2660: 2655: 2648: 2643: 2636: 2631: 2625:, p. 87. 2624: 2619: 2617: 2609: 2604: 2597: 2592: 2585: 2580: 2572: 2566: 2558: 2552: 2550: 2542: 2537: 2530: 2526: 2523: 2518: 2511: 2506: 2499: 2494: 2487: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2471:, p. 32. 2470: 2469:Campbell 2005 2465: 2463: 2446: 2440: 2433: 2422: 2418: 2411: 2404: 2393: 2389: 2383: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2349: 2347: 2340:, p. 67. 2339: 2334: 2327: 2322: 2315: 2310: 2303: 2298: 2296: 2288: 2287:Campbell 2005 2283: 2281: 2274:, p. 25. 2273: 2268: 2252: 2245: 2239:, p. 46. 2238: 2233: 2217: 2210: 2208: 2192: 2188: 2181: 2175:, p. 57. 2174: 2169: 2163:, p. 48. 2162: 2157: 2150: 2145: 2143: 2136:, p. 41. 2135: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2119:, p. 45. 2118: 2113: 2111: 2104:, p. 49. 2103: 2098: 2091: 2086: 2084: 2077:, p. 47. 2076: 2071: 2061: 2055:, p. 53. 2054: 2049: 2042: 2037: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1994: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1969: 1962: 1957: 1950: 1945: 1943: 1936:, p. 52. 1935: 1930: 1928: 1926: 1918: 1913: 1906: 1905:Campbell 2005 1901: 1894: 1889: 1882: 1877: 1875: 1867: 1862: 1860: 1843: 1839: 1837: 1828: 1821: 1816: 1809: 1804: 1797: 1792: 1785: 1780: 1773: 1768: 1761: 1756: 1754: 1746: 1741: 1739: 1731: 1726: 1719: 1714: 1707: 1702: 1700: 1692: 1687: 1680: 1675: 1669:, p. 96. 1668: 1663: 1656: 1651: 1645:, p. 87. 1644: 1639: 1632: 1627: 1621:, p. 64. 1620: 1615: 1609:, p. 55. 1608: 1603: 1601: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1576: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1565:Theodore Hall 1562: 1557: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1499:Theodore Hall 1496: 1491: 1487: 1485: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1464:Project Camel 1461: 1453: 1448: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1421:Convair XB-46 1418: 1413: 1411: 1410: 1404: 1400: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1387: 1386:Rita Hayworth 1383: 1379: 1375: 1367: 1362: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1341: 1337: 1334: 1329: 1327: 1323: 1318: 1314: 1305: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1271: 1267: 1260: 1252: 1247: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1222: 1217: 1213: 1212: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1186:Major General 1183: 1180: 1176: 1173: 1169: 1166: 1161: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1150: 1145: 1144: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1107: 1102: 1092: 1082: 1073: 1069: 1068:fast neutrons 1065: 1061: 1051: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1007: 1001: 997: 993: 983: 978: 969: 963: 959: 949: 944: 943:Composition B 934: 928: 924: 914: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 891:Composition B 882: 876: 866: 861: 857: 853: 849: 839: 838: 837: 835: 832: 828: 827:free neutrons 823: 820: 817: 813: 809: 808:plutonium pit 802: 797: 789: 781: 773: 757: 752: 748: 734: 726: 721: 712: 707: 706: 705: 697: 695: 691: 687: 683: 677: 673: 671: 667: 663: 659: 651: 646: 642: 639: 635: 631: 627: 622: 621:metallurgists 617: 615: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 589: 588:James L. Tuck 585: 580: 571: 567: 565: 561: 560:critical mass 557: 553: 552:plutonium-239 549: 548:plutonium-240 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 521: 519: 515: 511: 506: 502: 501:Edward Teller 498: 490: 489: 485:, beside the 484: 480: 475: 471: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 445:to visit the 444: 439: 435: 431: 420: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 393: 388: 384: 380: 379: 374: 370: 369:Robert Serber 366: 360: 350: 348: 344: 340: 336: 331: 329: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 293:Wallace Akers 290: 285: 283: 280:suggested an 279: 275: 271: 267: 258: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 223: 221: 217: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 147: 144: 140: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 106: 102: 95: 91: 87: 84: 81: 77: 72: 69:United States 68: 64: 61: 58: 55: 52: 48: 41: 36: 29: 26: 22: 5011:Y-12 Project 4996:Smyth Report 4991:S-50 Project 4953: 4949:K-25 Project 4878:Pumpkin bomb 4867: 4849: 4842: 4835: 4765:John Wheeler 4735:Louis Slotin 4730:Emilio Segrè 4680:George Koval 4660:James Franck 4645:Enrico Fermi 4590:Luis Alvarez 4549:Paul Tibbets 4524:Deak Parsons 4291:Experimental 3485: 3395: 3384: 3376: 3301: 3278: 3247: 3216: 3187: 3153: 3127: 3110:. 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